some notes for igcse biology

7/25/2019 some notes for IGCSE biology

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#$#%&'

" #$%&' (%)&*

+,-./ 01.+23.+ 34 564+7.-8


2/38

"# $%&'&()*'+,)+(, &-. (/&,,+0+(&)+1- 10

/+2+-3 4'3&-+,5,

"!"#$#%#()*+,&*!%

$#%(*&*"*&-

%+!.&/##)+!012&*!%

&32+#&*!%'1&+*&*!%

4 ()*+,*,-(,( &,5*%6 *% !7 %1&+*#%&( ./*2/ ,+#

!+6,%*2 (18(&,%2#( ,%0 $*%#+,9 *!%(:2!%&,*%*%6 +,. $,+*,9( !+ #%#+6- 7!+ 6+!.&/

,%0 &*((1# +#),*+: ,8(!+8*%6 ,%0 ,((*$*9,&*%6&/#$;

4./0+.*,-(,( +#$!",9 7+!$ !+6,%*($( !7&!3*2

$,+*,9(: &/# .,( )+!012&( !7 $#&,8!9*($1*+#$#%&;

4+.12,+3*,-(,( &/# 2/#$*2,9 +#,2&*!%( &/,&

8+#,50!.% %1&+*#%& $!9#219#( *% 9*"*%6 2#99( &!+#9#,(# #%#+6-;

4 1.(1,*,4,*5,( &/# ,8*9*&- &! 0#& !+ (#%(#2/,%6#( *% &/# #%"*+!%$#%&


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@/# ,%*$,9 5*%60!$ 2!%&,*%( $,%-)/-9,; E!$# !7 &/#$ ,+#B

F#++,(: G+&/+!)!0(: G%%#9*0(:H!991(2(: I#$,&!0#(;

D& *( %!& ,9.,-( #,(- &! +#2!6%*(# ,%,%*$,9; J!+ , "#+- 9!%6 &*$#: )#!)9#&/!16/& &/,&K( (#, ,%#$!%#( .#+#

)9,%&(: 8#2,1(# &/#- %0 &! (&,- *% !%#)9,2# ,%0 &/#*+ %&,29#( 9!!5 +,&/#+ 5*5#)#&,9(; I!. .# 5%!. &/,& &/#- ,+#,%*$,9(;

# 5 Phylum Vertebrates

F#++,( ,+# ,%*$,9( .*&/8,258!%#(; @/#- ,+# 0*"*0#0 *%&! L6+!1)( 2,99#0 29,((#(B

J*(/: G$)/*8*,%(: M#)&*9#(: N*+0( ,%0H,$$,9(;

O#&,*9( !7 #,2/ 6+!1) ,+# 6*"#% *% &/#&,89# 8#9!.; P!1 !%9- %##0 &! 8# ,89# &!0#(2+*8# "*(*89# #3+%,9 7#,&1+#(: 81&!&/#+ 0#&,*9( 2,% 8# /#9)719;


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#6 Phylum Arthropods

@/#+# ,+# $!+# ,+&/+!)!0( &/,% ,%-!&/#+ 6+!1) !7 ,%*$,9(: (! &/#- ,+#0*"*0#0 *%&! 29,((#(B

D%(#2&(: Q+1(&,2#,%(: G+,2/%*0( ,%0H-+*,)!0(;

1.Insects

2.Crustaceans

@/#(# ,+# &/# 2+,8(: 9!8(+( ,%0 .!!09*2#;

@/#- 8+#,&/ &/+!16/ 6*99(: (! $!(& !7 &/#$

9*"# *% .#& )9,2#( ,%0 $,%- ,+# ,>1,&*2;

3.Arachnids


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4.Myriapods

5.

# 7 Other groups of

invertebrates1.Phylum Annelids

2.Phylum Nematodes

3.Phylum Molluscs


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#8: Plant Kingdom

R9,%&( ,+# $19&*2#9919,+ !+6,%*($(: .*&/ 2#99

.,99 $,0# !7 2#9919!(#; @/#- *%2910# ($,99!+6,%*($( (12/ ,( $!((#(: 7#+%( ,%0

79!.#+*%6 )9,%&(;

G& 9#,(& (!$# ),+&( !7 , )9,%& ,+# 6+##%:

&/,%5( &! )*6$#%& 2/9!+!)/-99; Q/9!+!)/-99,8(!+8( #%#+6- 7+!$ (1%9*6/& 7!+ )9,%& &!

$,5# 6912!(#: 1(*%6 QST ,%0 CTS 7+!$

#%"*+!%$#%&; @/*( *( 2,99#0 )/!&!(-%&/#(*(;

@/#- ,+# 0*"*0#0 *%&! T 6+!1)(: 0#)#%0*%6

!% %1$8#+ !7 (##0 9#,"#(


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#10: Bacteria Kingdom

N,2+*, 2#99( ,+# "#+- 0*77#+#%& 7+!$ &/#2#99( !7 ,99 !&/#+ !+6,%*($(B &/#- 0! %!&/,"# , %129#1(;

E!$# 8,2+*, 2,% 2,++- !1&)/!&!(-%&/#(*(; @/# !90#(& 7!((*9( 8#9!%6 &!

&/*( 5*%60!$: (! .# &/*%5 &/,& &/#- .#+# &/#7*+(& 5*%0( !7 !+6,%*($( &! #"!9"#;

#11: Fungi Kingdom

J!+ , "#+- 9!%6 &*$#: 71%6* .#+# 29,((*7*#0,( )9,%&(; C!.#"#+: &/#- ,+# "#+- 0*77#+#%&

7+!$ )9,%&( ,%0 8#9!%6 &! &/#*+ !.%

5*%60!$; J1%6* 0! %!& /,"# 2/9!+!)/-99 ,%0

0! %!& )/!&!(-%&/#(*(#;

@/#- 7##0 (,)+!)/-&*2,99-: !+ ),+,(*&*2,99-:

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%,5#0 #-# ./#+# &/#- ,+# 5%!.% ,($1(/+!!$(; D& *( 7+!$ &/#(# &/,& ()!+#( ,+#

)+!012#0;

;9.-+5


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#14 Cell structure

H!(& 9*"*%6 &/*%6( ,+# $,0# !7 2#99(; Q#99

(/,)# ",+*#( ,22!+0*%6 &! *&( 71%2&*!%; R9,%&,%0 ,%*$,9 2#99( 0*77#+ *% (*?#: (/,)# ,%0

(&+12&1+# ?,@,3*.6 0.@@1 ,( +.12,+3*-+5 *+30*

A.3*)+.1


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B> ")10@. 0.@@1

A.3*)+.1 #--* 93,+ 0.@@ F2@3(*1G

A.3*)+.1


10/38

#16 Tissues, Organs and organ

Systems

Q#99( ,+# !+6,%*?#0 &! 7!+$ &*((1#:!+6,%(: ,%0 !+6,% (-($(; D% , /#,9&/-

!+6,%*($: ,99 &/# (-($( .!+5 &!6#&/#+;

$J&?KLMKN&O ?&MM$

A specialized cell is designed to do

a particular job.

Nerve cells have long fibres to

carry massages.

Muscle cells can contract and

relax.

White blood cells attack bacteria.

Platelets help clotting.

;K$$P&$

A,+6# %1$8#+( !7 ()#2*,9*?#0 2#99(

$,5# 1) &*((1#;

H1(29#(: 89!!0 ,%0 %#+"#( ,+# ,99

&*((1#(;

N9!!0 &*((1# 2!%&,*%( +#0 2#99( 7!+

2,++-*%6 !3-6#%: ./* 2#99( 7!+

0#(&+!-*%6 /,+$719 8,2+*,: ,%0

)9,#&( &! 2,1(# 29!&&*%6 *% 21&(

!F,+*!1( &*((1#( &!6#&/#+ $,5# 1)

,% !+6,%;

Z Y,2/ !+6,% /,( *&( !.% ()#2*7*2[!8;

Z @/# /#,+&: &/# (&!$,2/ ,%0 &/#

8+,*% ,+# ,99 !+6,%(;

Z @/# /#,+& /,( &! )1$) 89!!0

,+!1%0 &/# 8!0-; D& *( $,0# 1) !7

$1(29# &*((1#: 89!!0 "#((#9( ,%0

%#+"#(;

Z G++*#( ,%0 "#*%( ,+# 1(1,99-&/!16/& !7 ,( !+6,% ,( &/#- 2!%(*(&

!7 (#"#+,9 &*((1# 9,-#+(;

Z F,+*!1( !+6,%( &!6#&/#+ $,5#1) ,% !+6,% (-($; Y;6; &/#

2*+219,&!+- (-($ 2,++*#( 89!!0

&! ,99 ),+&( !7 &/# 8!0-; D& *( $,0#1) !7 /#,+&: ,++*#(: "#*%(:

2,)*99,+*#( ,%0 89!!0;

Q#%L'K$"

F,+*!1( !+6,% (-($( &!6#&/#+ $,5# 1) ,%

!+6,%*($; G% /1$,% !+6,%*($ /,(B

M#()*+,&!+- (-($

O*6#(&*"# (-($

Q*+219,&!+- (-($

I#+"!1( (-($

Y%0!2+*%# (-($


11/38

#17 Diffusion

O*771(*!% *( &/# %#& $!"#$#%& !7 $!9#219#(

7+!$ , +#6*!% !7*&( /*6/#+ 2!%2#%&+,&*!% &!

, +#6*!% !7 *&( 9!.#+ 2!%2#%&+,&*!%;

H!9#219#( $!"# 0!.% , 2!%2#%&+,&*!%6+,0*#%&: ,( , +#(19& !7 &/#*+ +,%0!$$!"#$#%&;

J!+ 9*"*%6 2#99(: &/# )+*%2*)9# !7 &/#$!"#$#%& 0!.% , 2!%2#%&+,&*!% 6+,0*#%& *(&/# (,$#: 81& &/#+# *( !%# )+!89#$B

@/# 2#99 *( (1++!1%0#0 8- , 2#99 $#$8+,%#:./*2/ 2,% +#(&+*2& &/# 7+## $!"#$#%& !7 &/#

$!9#219#( \ @/*( *( , (#9#2&*"# )#+$#,89#

$#$8+,%#B &/# 2!$)!(*&*!% !7 &/#

$#$8+,%#


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,2+!(( , $#$8+,%#; S($!(*( *(B

&/# $!"#$#%& !7 CTS ,2+!(( , (#9#2&*"#9-

)#+$#,89# $#$8+,%#

0!.% , .,+

)!%&*,9 6+,0*#%&;

K( *9. 2,0*)+. D.@-8

Z @/# 2!%2#%&+,&*!% !7 (16,+ $!9#219#( *(

/*6/#+ !%

&/# 2!%2#%&+, (!91&*!%


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Theory:

The process of photosynthesis

`+##% )9,%&( &,5# *% QST &/+!16/

&/#*+ 9#,"#( 1#%& (&!+,6#;

#41 Effect of Light intensity on

the rate of Photosynthesis

R9,%&( %##0 9*6/& #%#+6- &! $,5# &/#

2/#$*2,9 #%#+6- %##0#0 &! 2+#,

2,+8!/-0+,(; D%2+#,(*%6 &/# 9*6/& *%%(*&-.*99 8!!(& &/# ()##0 !7 )/!&!(-%&/#(*(;

C!.#"#+: ,& /*6/ 9*6/& *%%(*&*#( &/#

+,

8#2!$#( 2!%(&,%&;

#42 Effect of Temperature on

the Rate of Photosynthesis

V/#% &/# $)#+,&1+# +*(#( &/# +, !7)/!&!(-%&/#(*( +*(#( ,9(!; @/#+# *( ,%!)&*$1$ $)#+,&1+# ,& ./*2/ &/# +, !7

)/!&!(-%&/#(*( *( $,3*$1$; N#-!%0 &/*($)#+,&1+#: &/# +#,2&*!% >1*259- 2!$#( &!

, /,9&;


14/38

#43 Effect of CO2 on the Rate

of Photosynthesis

V/#% &/# 2!%2#%&+,&*!% !7 QST *( 9!. &/#

+, !7 )/!&!(-%&/#(*( *( ,9(! 9!.;


15/38

3. TEMPERATURE

@/# 2/#$*2,9 +#,2&*!%( !7 )/!&(-%&/#(*(2,% !%9- &,5# )9,2# "#+- (9!.9- ,& 9!.

$)#+,&1+#: (! , )9,%& 2,%

)/!&!(-%&/#(*(# 7,(+ !% , .,+$ 0,- &/,%

!% , 2!90 !%#;

#45 Optimum conditions for

photosynthesis in Green house

?QB .(+,09:.(*

QST 2!%2#%&+,&*!% 2,% 8# 2!%&+!99#0; QST*( !7% , 9*$*&*%6 7,2&!+ 7!+ )/!&!(-%&/#(*(:

8#2,1(# *&( %,&1+,9 2!%2#%&+,&*!% *% &/# ,*+

*( (! "#+- 9!.


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1. Cuticle

$,0# !7 .,3 e .,+)+!!7*%6 &/#

9#,7

(#2+# 8- 2#99( !7 &/# 1))#+

#)*0#+$*(

2.Upper epidermis

&/*% ,%0 &+,%(),+#%& e ,99!.( 9*6/& &!),(( &/+!16/

%! 2/9!+!)9,(&( ,+# )+#(#%&

,2& ,( , 8,++*#+ &! 0*(#,(#

!+6,%*($(

3. Palisade mesophyll

$,*% +#6*!% 7!+ )/!&!(-%&/#(*(

2#99( ,+# 2!91$%,+ 1* 9!%6= ,%0

),25#0 .*&/ 2/9!+!)9,(&( &! &+,)9*6/& #%#+6-

+#2#*"# QST 8- 0*771(*!% 7+!$ ,*+

(),2#( *% &/# ()!%6- $#(!)/-99

4. Spongy mesophyll

2#99( ,+# $!+# ()/#+*2,9 ,%0 9!!(#9-

),25#0

2!%&,*% 2/9!+!)9,(&(: 81& %!& ,(

$,%- ,( *% ),9*(,0# 2#99(

,*+ (),2#( 8#&.##% 2#99( ,99!.6,(#!1( #32/,%6# e 2!T &! &/#

2#99(: !T 7+!$ &/# 2#99( 01+*%6

)/!&!(-%&/#(*(

5. Vascular bundle

&/*( *( , 9#,7 "#*%: $,0# 1) !7 3-9#$

,%0 )/9!#$

3-9#$ "#((#9( 8+*%6 .,+ ,%0

$*%#+,9( &! &/# 9#,7 )/9!#$ "#((#9( &+,%()!+& (16,+( ,%0

,$*%! ,2*0( ,.,-


17/38

#47 Plant's mineral

requirements and fertilisers

R9,%&( ,+# *% %##0 7!+ $*%#+,9 *!%( &! 2!%&+!92/#$*2,9 ,2&*"*&*#(: 6+!.: ,%0 )+!012#

$,+*,9(; @/# $!(& *$)!+&,%& $*%#+,9( ,+#H,6%#(*1$ *!%( ,%0 I*&+,(;

A. Nitrates

)9,%&( ,8(!+8 %*&+, *!%( 7+!$ &/#

(!*9: &/+!16/ &/#*+ +!!& /,*+(

%*&+, *!%( 2!$8*%# .*&/ 6912!(# ZZZZZf ,$*%! ,2*0(

,$*%! ,2*0( 8!%0 &!6#&/#+ ZZZZZf

)+!*%

0#7*2*#%2- 2,1(#( )!!+ 6+!.&/:

#()#2*,99- !7 9#,"#(; @/# ($

8#2!$#( .#,5: 9!.#+ 9#,"#(

8#2!$# -#99!. ,%0 0*#: ./*9# 1))#+

9#,"#( &1+% ),9# 6+##%

B. Magnesium

)9,%&( ,8(!+8 $,6%#(*1$ *!%( 7+!$

&/# (!*9 (!91&*!%

1(#0 7!+ &/# $,%17,2&1+# !7

2/9!+!)/-99 #,2/ 2/9!+!)/-99 2!%&,*%( !%#

$,6%#(*1$ ,&!$

0#7*2*#%2- $,5#( 9#,"#( &1+% -#99!.7+!$ &/# 8!&&!$ !7 &/# ($

1).,+0( ,%0 #"#%&1,99- (&!)(

)/!&!(-%&/#(*(

Nitrogen fertilisers

E!$#&*$#( &/# (!*9 *( 9,25*%6 !7 &/# $*%#+,9*!%( %##0#0: &/*( )+!89#$ 2,% 8# (!9"#0 8-

,00*%6 7#+&*9*(#+( &! &/# (!*9; J#+&*9*(#+( ,+#2/#$*2,9 2!$)!1%0( +*2/ *% &/# $*%#+,9

*!%( %##0#0 8- &/# )9,%&(; @/#- /#9) &/#

)9,%&( 6+!. 7,(+: *%2+#,(# *% (*?# ,%08#2!$# 6+##%#+: &/#- (*$)9- $,5# &/#$

/#,9&/*#+ ,%0 *%2+#,(# &/# 2+!) -*#90;

D%%(*"# 7,+$*%6


18/38

9#61$*%!1( )9,%&( (12/ ,( )#,(: 8#,%(

,%0 29!"#+ #"#+- T !+ c -#,+(B &/#(#

)9,%&( 0#"#9!) +!!& %!019#( 2!%&,*%*%6

%*&+!6#%Z7*3*%6 8,2+*,: ,%0 &/# +!!&(

,+# )9!16/#0 *%&! &/# (!*9: 8!!(&*%6

%*&+, 9#"#9(

,00*%6 ,+&*7*2*,9 7#+&*9*(#+( (12/ ,(,$$!%*1$ %*&+,

Danger of overuse

G))9- &!! $12/ %*&+!6#% 7#+&*9*(#+ ZZZZf .,+

*( 0+,.% !1& !7 )9,%& +!!&(

)9,%& .*9&g0*#; Y1&+!)/*2,&*!%B I*&+,( 2,%

8# 9#,2/#0 !1& !7 &/# (!*9 ,%0 #%+ ,

%#,+8- +*"#+ )!991&*%6 *&: 2+#,&*%6 , 9,-#+ !7

6+##% ,96,# !% &/# (1+7,2# !7 *& 2,1(*%6 9,25!7 9*6/& *% &/# +*"#+ &/1( )+#"#%&*%6 &/# ,>1,

)9,%&( )/!&!(-%&/#(*(*%6 ZZZZf 0#,&/ !7,96,# ZZZZf 0#2!$)!(#+( 1,&*2 ,%*$,9( 7+!$ 9,25 !7 ST h

&)*+-29,03*,-(

R/!&!(-%&/#(*( &,5#( )9,2# *% &/#

2#99( !7 &/# $#(!)/-99 9,-#+:#()#2*,99- &/# ),9*(,0# $#(!)/-99;

A#,"#( ,+# &/*% ,%0 /,"# ,

9,+6#

(1+7,2# ,+#,: &! ()##0 1) &/# (1))9-

!7 2,+8!% 0*!3*0# &! &/# ),9*(,0#2#99( ,%0 &! $,3*$*(# &/# ,$!1%& !7

(1%9*6/& &/,& /*&( &/# 9#,7 ,%0 2,% 8#

,8(!+8#0 8- 2/9!+!)/-99; E&!$,&,,%0 ,*+ (),2#( ,99!. 2,+8!% 0*!3*0#&! 0*771(# >1*259- 7+!$ &/# ,*+ &! &/#

2/9!+!)9,(&(; i-9#$ "#((#9( 8+*%6

.,+: ,%0 )/9!#$ &18#( &,5# ,.,-

&/# )+!012&( !7 )/!&!(-%&/#(*(;

E!$# !7 &/# 6912!(# &/,& *( $,0# *(

1(#0 *% +#()*+,&*!%: &! )+!"*0##%#+6- &! &/# )9,%& 2#99(; E!$# *(

(&!+#0 ,( (&,+2/; E!$# *( 1(#0 &!$,5# 2#9919!(# 7!+ 2#99 .,99(; E!$#

*( &+,%()!+ ,+!1%0 &/# )9,%& *% &/#7!+$ !7 (12+!(#: *% &/# )/9!#$&18#(; E!$# *( 2!$8*%#0 .*&/ %*&+,

!+ ,$$!%*1$ *!%( &! $,5# )+!*%(;

E!$# *( 1(#0 &! $,5# !&/#+

(18(&,%2#( (12/ ,( 7,&(; V*&/ &/#,00*&*!% !7 $,6%#(*1$ *!%(:

2/9!+!)/-99 2,% 8# $,0#;

V/#% (&*%6 , 9#,7 7!+ (&,+2/: *&

$1(& 7*+(& 8# 8!*9#0 &! 8+#,5 0!.%2#99 $#$8+,%#( ,%0 ,99!. *!0*%#

(!91&*!% &! $,5# 2!%&,2& .*&/ ,%-(&,+2/ *%(*0# &/# 2#99(; C!& ,92!/!9

.*99 +#$!"# 2/9!+!)/-99 7+!$ &/# 9#,7:

$,5*%6 *& #,(*#+ &! (## ,%- 2!9!1+

2/,%6#(;

R9,%&( %##0 9*6/& ,%0 2,+8!% 0*!3*0#

7!+ )/!&!(-%&/#(*(;

THEORY:


19/38

#49 Diet

@/# 7!!0 ,% ,%*$,9 #,& #"#+-0,- *( 2,99#0

0*#&; H!(& ,%*$,9( %##0 ] &-)#( !7 %1&+*#%&(*% &/#*+ 0*#&B 2,+8!/-0+,(: )+!*%(: 7,&( j.,+: 7*8+#: "*&,$*%(: $*%#+,9(;

@/# ,$!1%& !7 #%#+6- %##0#0 *( )+!"*0#0

$,*%9- 8- !1+ 2,+8!/-0+, ,%0 7,& *%&,5#;P!1+ 0*#&,+- +#>1*+#$#%&( 0#)#%0 !% -!1+,6#: (#3 ,%0 ,2&*"*&-;

T L7.


20/38

?-+-(3+5 9.3+* 6,1.31.

@!! $12/ (,&1+,g,%*$,9 7,& *% &/#0*#& +#(19&( *% /*6/ 2/!9#(+!9 9#"#9(;

Q/!9#(+!9 2,% (&*25 &! &/# .,99( !7

,++*#(: 6+,01,99- 89!25*%6 &/#$;

D7 2!+!%,+- ,++*#( 8#2!$# 89!25#0:&/# +#(19&( 2,% 8# ,%6*%, ,%0

2!+!%,+- /#,+& 0*(#,(#;

Starvation

@!! 9*&&9# 7!!0 2,% +#(19& *%

(&,+",&*!%;

Y3&+#$# (9*$$*%6 0*#&(: (12/ ,(&/!(# &/,& ,"!*0 2,+8!/-0+, 7!!0(:2,% +#(19& *% &/# 0*(#,(# ,%!+#3*,

%#+"!(,;

?9,@69--6 2+-*.,(T.(.+75:3@()*+,*,-( FU8319,3V-+G

V+!%6 )+!)!+&*!% !7 %1&+*#%&( #;6; &!! $12/

2,+8!/-0+,(


21/38

#51 Problems of world food

supplies and the causes of

famine

@/#+# *( %!& ,9.,-( #%!16/ 7!!0 ,",*9,89#*% , 2!1%&+- &! 7##0 &/# )#!)9# 9*"*%6 &/#+#;

G (#"#+# 7!!0 (/!+&,6# 2,% 9#,0 &! 7,$*%#;

D& /,( 8##% 2,9219, &/,& $!+# &/,%

#%!16/ 7!!0 *( )+!012#0 !% Y,+&/ &!)+!"*0# #"#+- (*%69# )#+(!% .*&/ $!+# &/,%#%!16/ 7!+ &/#*+ %##0(; P#& $,%- )#!)9# 0!

%!& 6!& #%!16/ 7!!0; Y,2/ -#,+: $,%-)#!)9# 0*# 8#2,1(# &/#- /,"# ,%

*%,0#>1, 0*#&;

@/# 71%0,$#%&,9 )+!89#$ *( &/,& 7!!0 *(0*(&+*81 1%#>1,99- !% !1+ )9,%#&B ./*9#

(!$# ),+&( !7 &/# .!+90 )+!012# $!+# &/,%#%!16/ 7!!0 7!+ &/# )#!)9# &/,& 9*"# &/#+#: *%

!&/#+ ),+& !7 &/# .!+90 %!& #%!16/ 7!!0 *(

)+!012#0;

G9&/!16/ 9,+6# ,$!1%&( !7 7!!0 ,+#

&+,%()!+ 7+!$ !%# ,+#, &!,%!&/#+: &/*( *( (&*99 %!& (177*2*#%& &!

(1))9- #%!16/ 7!!0 &! #"#+-8!0-;

D7 7!!0 )+*2#( +*(# &!! /*6/: $,%-)#!)9# $,- %!& 8# ,89# &! ,77!+0 &!

81- *&;

A3:,(.2,% !221+ 7!+ $,%- 0*77#+#%&

+#,(!%(B

Q9*$, 2/,%6# ,%0 %,&1+,9

0*(,(+ (12/ ,( 0+!16/& ,%079!!0*%6 &/,& )+#"#%& 2+!)(

7+!$ 6+!.*%6;

D%2+#,(*%6 )!)19,&*!%B

)!)19,&*!% $,- 6+!. (! 9,+6#&/,& &/# 9,%0 !% ./*2/ &/#-9*"# 2,% %! 9!%6#+ )+!"*0#

#%!16/ 7!!0 7!+ &/#$;

a%#>1,9 0*(&+*81&*!% !7 7!!0;

#52 Human alimentary canal

@/# ,9*$#%&,+- 2,%,9 *( , 9!%6 &18# ./*2/(&,+( ,& &/# $!1&/: +1%( &/+!16/ &/#

(&!$,2/ ,%0 *%(&*%#( ,%0 7*%*(/#( ,& &/#,%1(; D& *( ),+& !7 &/# 0*6#(&*"# (-($; @/#0*6#(&*"# (-($ ,9(! *%2910#( &/#

,22#((!+- !+6,%(


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J!!0 *( 8+!5#% 0!.% .*&/ &/# /#9) !7

0*6#(&*"# [1*2#(: ./*2/ 2!%&,*% ()#2*,92/#$*2,9( 2,99#0 #%?-$#(;

A)(0*,-(1 -S *9. +.7,-(1 -S *9. 6,7.1*,4.

151*.:


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#53 Human teeth and dental

decay

@/#+# ,+# 7!1+ &-)#( !7 #&/ *% /1$,%

1#; N,2+*, !% &/# )9,>1#

7##0 !% (16,+(: )+!012*%6 ,2*0; @/*( ,2*0

0*((!9"#( #%,$#9: 7!+$*%6 , /!9#;

Z O#%&*%# 1%0#+%#,&/ &/# #%,$#9 *( (!7+ e

*& 0*((!9"#( $!+# +,)*09-;

Z D7 &/# /!9# +#,2/#( &/# )19) 2,"*&-:8,2+*,9 *%7#2&*!% 2,% 6#& &! &/# %#+"#; @/*(

+#(19&( *% &!!&/,2/# ,%0 )!((*89-: ,%

,8(2#((


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0*#& 1# &+,))#0

8#&.##% &/#$;

a(# 791!+*0# &!!&/),(

0+*%5 791!+*0, .,+= e

791!+*0# /,+0#%( &!!&/

#%,$#9;

F*(*& , 0#%&*(& +#619,+9- &!

$,5# (1+# ,%0 &!!&/ 0#2,- *(+#,2 #,+9- ,%0 ,%-

(&188!+% )9,>1#


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#55 Mechanical and chemical

digestion

J!!0 &/,& .# *%6#(& *( $,*%9- $,0# 1) !79,+6#: *%(!9189# $!9#219#( &/,& 2,% %!& 8#

,8(!+8#0 &/+!16/ &/# 61& .,99; D& %##0( &!

8# 2/,%6#0*%&! ($,99: (!9189# $!9#219#(;

".093(,03@ 0*6#(&*!% *( &/# )/-(*2,9

)+!2#(( !7 )+#),+*%6 &/# 7!!0 7!+ 2/#$*2,9

0*6#(&*!%;

D& *%"!9"#( 2/#.*%6


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B> ?9.:,03@ 6,7.1*,-(

D%"!9"#( 8+#,5*%6 0!.% 9,+6#: *%(!9189#

$!9#219#( *%&! ($,99: (!9189# !%#(;

Y%?-$#( ()##0 1) &/# )+!2#((; @/#- .!+5

#77*2*#%&9- ,& 8!0- $)#+,&1+#


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J!!0 $!9#219#( ,+# ,8(!+8#0 $,*%9- 8-

0*771(*!% !+ 8- ,2&*"# &+,%()!+&; Y)*&/#9*,92#99( 2!%&,*% $*&!2/!%0+*, &! )+!"*0# #%#+6-

7!+ ,8(!+)&*!% ,6,*%(& &/# 2!%2#%&+,&*!%6+,0*#%&;

Role of the hepatic portal vein

@/# /#),&*2 )!+&,9 "#*% &+,%()!+&( ,8(!+8#07!!0 7+!$ &/# ($,99 *%(&*%# &! &/# 9*"#+;

G7+ , $#,9: &/# 89!!0 *% &/*( "#*% 2!%&,*%(

"#+- /*6/ 2!%2#%&+,&*!%( !7 6912!(# ,%0,$*%! ,2*0(: ,( .#99 ,( "*&,$*%( ,%0$*%#+,9(; @/# 9*"#+ +#012#( 9#"#9( 8,25( &!

%!+$,9;

#57 Assimilation and role of

the liver

G((*$*9,&*!% *( &/# $!"#$#%& !7 0*6#(

7!!0 $!9#219#( *%&!&/# 2#99( !7 &/# 8!0-

./#+# &/#- ,+# 1(#0: 8#2!$*%6 ),+& !7 &/#2#99(;

Role of liver in the metabolism of glucose

and amino acids

Y32#(( 6912!(# *% &/# 89!!0,++*"*%6 ,& &/# 9*"#+ *(

2!%"#+*%&! 69-2!6#%


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Role of liver in the breaking down of

alcohol and other toxins

N+#,5*%6 0!.% ,%- &!3*%( ,8(!+8#0 7+!$

&/# ,9*$#%&,+- 2,%,9: *%2910*%6 0+16( (12/,( ,92!/!9; Q#99( *% &/# 9*"#+ ,+# ,89# &!

2!%"#+& $,%- &!3*%( &! /,+$9#(((18(&,%2#( &/,& 2,% 8# &+,%()!+ *% &/#

89!!0 ,%0 #32+# 7+!$ &/# 8!0-;

Role of fat as an energy storage substance

" J,&&- ,2*0( ,%0 69-2#+!9 ),((

*%&! &/# 9-$)/,&*2 (-($ ,%0

&/#% &/# 89!!0(&+#,$; S%2# *%

&/# 89!!0 %1&+*#%&( ,+# 2,++*#0 &!,99 2#99( !7 &/# 8!0-; E!$# ,+#!3*0*(#0 &! )+!012# #%#+6- ,%0

!&/#+( ,+# 1(#0 &! +#),*+ &/# 2#99:81*90 %#. 2#99(;

" J,& *( , 6!!0 (&!+,6# 2!$)!1%0e *& +#9#,(#( &.*2# ,( $12/#%#+6- ,( 2,+8!/-0+,( ./#%

+#()*+#0: ,%0 ,2& ,( *%(19,&*!% *%

&/# (5*%; E!$# %#+"# 2#99( 7!+$, $-#9*% (/#,&/ 7+!$ 7,&: &!

)+#"#%& #9#2&+*2,9 *$)19(#( 7+!$9#,5*%6 !1&;

#59 Transport in plants -

functions of xylem and phloem

R9,%&( /,"# &+,%()!+& (-($( &! $!"#7!!0: .,+ ,%0 $*%#+,9( ,+!1%0; @/#(#

(-($( 1(# 2!%&*%1!1( &18#( 2,99#0 3-9#$,%0 )/9!#$B

Z i-9#$ "#((#9( 2,++- .,+ ,%0 $*%#+,9(

7+!$ &/# +!!&( &! &/# 9#,"#(;

Z R/9!#$ &18#( 2,++- (16,+ l !&/#+ !+6,%*2

%1&+*#%&( $,0# 8- )9,%& 7+!$ &/# 9#,"#( &!&/# +#(& !7 &/# )9,%&;

Structure of the phloem tissue

@/*( *( , 9!%6 &18# &/,& +1%( ,9!%6(*0# &/#

3-9#$ &*((1#; @/#- ,+# $,0# !7 9!%6 %,++!.

&18#( .*&/ )#+7!+, (*#"# )9,( ,9!%6 &/#

&/*% 9#%6&/;

@/# 71%2&*!% !7 &/# )/9!#$ &*((1# *(&!

&+,%()!+& 7!!0 %1&+*#%&( (12/

,( 6912!(#

,%0 ,$*%! ,2*0( 7+!$ &/# 9#,"#( ,%0 &! ,99!&/#+ 2#99( !7 &/# )9,%&: &/*( *( 2,99#0

&+,%(9!2,&*!%;

a%9*5# &/# 3-9#$: &/# )/9!#$ &*((1# *( $,0#

!7 2!91$%( !7 9*"*%6 2#99(: (./*2/ 2!%&,*%( ,

2-&!)9,($ 81& %! %129#1(: ,%0 *&( ,2&*"*&*#(,+# 2!%&+!99#0 8- , 2!$),%*!% 2#99 %#3& &! *&./*2/ /,( , %129#1(: 81& 2!$),%*!% 2#99(


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/,"# %! 71%2&*!% *% &+,%(9!2,&*!%.

Structure of the xylem tissue

i-9#$ "#((#9( 2!%(*(& !7 0#,0 2#99(; @/#-/,"# , &/*25: (&+#%6&/#%#0 2#9919!(# 2#99

.,99 .*&/ , /!99!. 91$#%; @/# #%0 .,99( !7&/# 2#99( /,"# 0*(,))#,+#0: (! , 9!%6: !)#%

&18# *( 7!+$#0; @/# .,99( !7 &/# 3-9#$

"#((#9 2!%&,*%( /!9#( 2,99#0 )*&( ./*2/.,+ #%+( &/+!16/;

@/# 3-9#$ "#((#9 *( ()#2*,9*(#0&! &+,%()!+&

.,+ ,%0 0*((!9"#0 $*%#+,9( 7+!$ &/# +!!&1) &! ,99 &/# !&/#+ ),+&( !7 &/# )9,%&: ,%0,9(! &! /#9)( (1))!+&*%6 &/# ($ ,%0

(&+#%6&/#%*%6 *&;

#60 Distribution of Xylem and

Phloem in roots, stems and

leaves

" D% &/# +!!&( 3-9#$ ,%0 )/9!#$

,+# *% &/# 2#%&+# &!

.*&/(&,%0(&+#&2/*%6 7!+2#(;

" In the stems, they are

arranged in bundles near the

edge to resist compression

and bending.

@/#- ,+# 6+!1)#0 &!6#&/#+ *%&! "#*%( ,%0",(219,+ 81%09#( ,( &/#- ),(( &/+!16/

9#,"#(;

#61 Root hairs and water

uptake by plants


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R9,%&( &,5# *% .,+ 7+!$ &/# (!*9: &/+!16/

&/#*+ +!!& /,*+(B

G& &/# "#+- &*) *( , +!!& 2,);@/*( *( , 9,-#+ !7 2#99( ./*2/

)+!&( &/# +!!& ,( *& 6+!.(

&/+!16/ &/# (!*9;

@/# +#(& !7 &/# +!!& *(

2!"#+#0 8- , 9,-#+ !7 2#99(

2,99#0 &/# #)*0#+$*(;

@/# +!!& /,*+( ,+# , 9*&&9# .,-1) 7+!$ &/# +!!& &*); Y,2/+!!& /,*+ *( , 9!%6 #)*0#+$,92#99; M!!& /,*+( 0! %!& 9*"# 7!+

"#+- 9!%6; G( &/# +!!& 6+!.(:

&/#- ,+# +#)9,2#0 8- %#.!%#(;

Functions of root hair cells

D%2+#,(# &/# #3+%,9 (1+7,2#

,+#, !7 &/# +!!&7!+

,8(!+)&*!% !7 .,+ ,%0$*%#+,9 *!%(


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D% &/# 9#,"#(: .,+ $!9#219#( 9#,"# &/#

3-9#$ "#((#9( ,%0 $!"# 7+!$ 2#99 &! 2#99;@/#- $!"# &/+!16/ &/# ()!%6- $#(!)/-99

9,-#+8- !($!(*( ,9!%6 , 2!%2#%&+,&*!%

6+,0*#%&; V,+&/#% #",)!+,( *%&!

(),2#( 8#/*%0 &/# (&!$,&, ,%0 0*771(#(

&/+!16/ &/# (&!$,&, *%&! &/# (1++!1%0*%6,*+;

@+,%()*+,&*!% *( &/# #",)!+,&*!% !7 .,+ ,&

&/# (1+7,2#( !7&/# $#(!)/-99 2#99(:

7!99!.#0 8- 9!(( !7 .,+ ",)!1+ 7+!$ )9,%&

9#,"#(: &/+!16/ &/# (&!$,&,;

V,+ *% &/# 9#,7 2#99( 7!+$( , &/*% 9,-#+ !%

&/#*+ (1+7,2#; @/# .,+ #",)!+,( *%&! &/#,*+ (),2#( *% &/# ()!%6- $#(!)/-99; @/*(

2+#,(

, /*6/ 2!%2#%&+,&*!% !7 .,+

$!9#219#(; @/#- 0*771(# !1& !7 &/# 9#,7 *%&!&/# (1++!1%0*%6 ,*+: &/+!16/ &/# (&!$,&,: 8-

0*771(*!%;

Mechanism of water movement through a

plant

V,+ $!9#219#( ,+# ,&&+,2 &! #,2/ !&/#+


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1) )/9!#$ (,).

E! ,%- *%(#2& 7##0*%6 !% &/# )9,%&: #"#% *7 *&

.,( /*00#% 1%0#+ &/# 9#,7

./#+# &/# ()+,- 2!190 %!& +#,2/ *&: .*99#"#%&1,99- #%0 1) 7##0*%6 !% )#(&*2*0#; @/#(,$# *( &+1# 7!+ 71%6*X %! $,&+ ./#+# &/#-

,+# 6+!.*%6 !% &/# )9,%&: &/# )#(&*2*0# .*99#"#%&1,99- +#,2/ &/#$; S%2# ,% *%(#2& /,(

*%6#( #%!16/ )#(&*2*0# *& .*99 0*#:

$#,%./*9# &/# /,+$9#(( *%(#2&( +#$,*%(,7#;

@/# 0*(,0",%&,6#( !7 (-($*2 )#(&*2*0#(

,+# &/,& &/#- $,- ,221$19, *% &/# 7!!02/,*%;

#67 Transport of materials

from sources to sinks atdifferent seasons


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Conclusion:

R/9!#$ 2,% &+,%(7#+ (12+!(# *% #*&/#+0*+#2&*!% Z 1) !+ 0!.% &/# )9,%&; @/*( *(%_&&+1# 7!+ &/# &+,%()!+& !7 .,+ *% &/# 3-9#$

"#((#9(; @/,& 2,% !%9- 6! 1).,+0(:8#2,1(# &+,%()*+,&*!% ,9.,-( /,))#%( ,&&/# 9#,7 (1+7,2#: ,%0 *& *( &/*( &/,& )+!"*0#(&/# _)199_ &! 0+,. .,+ 1) &/# )9,%&;

;9.-+5

#69 Transport in humans - the

circulatory system

@/# $,*% &+,%()!+& (-($ !7 /1$,% *(&/#

2*+219,&!+- (-($: , (-($ !7 &18#(


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!%# 2*+21*& 9*%5( &/# /#,+& ,%0 91%6(


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Muscular contraction

@/# /#,+& *( $,0# !7 , ()#2*,9 &-)# !7

$1(29# 2,99#0 2,+0*,2 $1(29# ./*2/

2!%&+,2&( ,%0 +#9,3#( +#619,+9-: &/+!16/!1&

9*7#;

@/# /#,+&K( $1(29# *( 2!%(&,%&9- ,2&*"#:

(! *& %##0( *&( !.% 89!!0 (1))9-:

&/+!16/ &/# 2!+!%,+- ,++-: &! )+!"*0# *&.*&/ !3-6#% ,%0 6912!(#;

Working of the valves

F,9"#( *% &/# /#,+& )+#"#%& 89!!0 7+!$ 8#*%6

)1(/#0 8,25.,+0( 1) *%&! &/# ,&+*, ./#%

&/# /#,+& W8#,&(K;


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some notes for igcse biology

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