solar final file

UTILIZATION OF NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCE IN DRIVES LAB FOR INDOOR LIGHTINING

1.NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

Energy generated by using wind, tides, solar, geothermal heat, and biomass including farm

and animal waste as well as human excreta is known as non -conventional energy. All these

sources are renewable or inexhaustible and do not cause environmental pollution. More over

they do not require heavy expenditure.

1.1. WIND ENERGY:

Wind power is harnessed by setting up a windmill which is used for pumping water, grinding

grain and generating electricity. The gross wind power potential of India is estimated to be

about 20,000 MW, wind power projects of 970 MW capacities were installed till March.

1998. Areas with constantly high speed preferably above 20 km per hour are well-suited for

harnessing wind energy.

1.2 TIDAL ENERGY:

Sea water keeps on rising and falling alternatively twice a day under the influence of

gravitational pull of moon and sun. This phenomenon is known as tides. It is estimated that

India possesses 8000-9000 MW of tidal energy potential. The Gulf of Kuchchh is best suited

for tidal energy.

1.3 SOLAR ENERGY:

Sun is the source of all energy on the earth. It is most abundant, inexhaustible and universal

source of energy. AH other sources of energy draw their strength from the sun. India is

blessed with plenty of solar energy because most parts of the country receive bright sunshine

throughout the year except a brief monsoon period. India has developed technology to use

solar energy for cooking, water heating, water dissimilation, space heating, crop drying etc.


1.4 GEO-THERMAL ENERGY:

Geo-thermal energy is the heat of the earth's interior. This energy is manifested in the hot

springs. India is not very rich in this source,

1.5 ENERGY FROM BIOMASS:

Biomass refers to all plant material and animal excreta when considered as an energy source.

Some important kinds of biomass are inferior wood, urban waste, bagasse, farm animal and

human waste.


2.IMPORTANCE OF NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY:

1. The non-conventional sources of energy are abundant in nature. According to energy

experts the non-conventional energy potential of India is estimated at about 95,000 MW.

2. These are renewable resources. The non-conventional sources of energy can be renewed

with minimum effort and money.

3. Non-conventional sources of energy are pollution-free and eco-friendly

4. Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since

ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include

solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity, solar architecture and artificial

photosynthesis, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most

urgent energy problems the world now faces.

5. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar

depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar

techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the

energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials

with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that

naturally circulate air.


3.SOLAR ENERGY

In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable,

inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will

increase countries’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and

mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs

of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These

advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment

should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely

shared".

About half the incoming solar energy reaches the Earth's surface.The Earth receives 174

petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper

atmosphere.Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by

clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly

spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet.

Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises their

temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing

atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the

temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface,

completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection,

producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. Sunlight

absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14

°C.By photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy, which

produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived.


3.1 YEARLY SOLAR FLUXES & HUMAN ENERGY CONSUMPTION

Solar 3,850,000 EJ[8]

Wind 2,250 EJ[9]

Biomass potential 100–300 EJ[10]

Primary energy use (2009) 510 EJ[11]

Electricity (2009) 62.5 EJ[12]

3.2 SOLAR ENERGY BASIC PRINCIPLE

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity. Sunlight can be converted directly

into electricity using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly with concentrated solar power (CSP),

which normally focuses the sun's energy to boil water which is then used to provide power.

Other technologies also exist, such as Stirling engine dishes which use a Stirling cycle engine

to power a generator. Photovoltaics were initially used to power small and medium-sized

applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to off-grid homes powered by

a photovoltaic array.

Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient

times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include solar

heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity, solar architecture and artificial

photosynthesis, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most

urgent energy problems the world now faces.Solar technologies are broadly characterized as

either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute

solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal

collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the

Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and

designing spaces that naturally circulate air.


3.3 HOW IS SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTED?

Solar energy can be used to heat a fluid such as water in solar collector panels. Simple types

use flat collector panels mounted on a south-facing roof or wall, each with transparent cover

to admit sunlight. Water circulates through channels or pipes inside each panel. The inside is

usually painted black, because black surfaces readily absorb heat. The water is heated, and

then the hot water is pumped to a heat exchanger that extracts the heat for use within the

house.

Solar energy can also be used to generate electricity in photovoltaic (PV) cells. A PV cell

may power your calculator. Photovoltaic cells are made of semiconductors, similar to those

used to make computer chips.

Until recently these cells were very costly to produce. However, they are still only about 10-

15 per cent efficient.

Energy Derivations from Solar Energy:

Solar energy can be converted to thermal (or heat) energy and used to:

Heat water – for use in homes, buildings, or swimming pools.

Heat spaces – inside greenhouses, homes, and other buildings.

Solar energy can be converted to electricity in two ways:

Photovoltaic (PV devices) or “solar cells” -This change sunlight directly into

electricity. PV systems are often used in remote locations that are not connected to the

electric grid. They are also used to power watches, calculators, and lighted road

signs.

Solar Power Plants - In this sunlight is converted to electricity indirectly. It is first

converted to mechanic energy and later to electric energy. When the heat from solar

thermal collectors is used to heat a fluid which produces steam that is used to power

generator. Out of the 15 known solar electric generating units operating in the United

States at the end of 2006, 10 of these are in California, and 5 in Arizona.


4. SOLAR CELL.

Figure 1 SOLAR CELL .

Figure 2 MONOCRYSTALLINE SOLAR CHARGER.

Figure 3 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Solar_cell.png

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Solar_cell.png

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joos-santacruz.jpg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Klassieren.jpg


4.1 MONOCRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELL

Photovoltaic is the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level. Some

materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb

photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured, an electric

current results that can be used as electricity.

The photoelectric effect was first noted by a French physicist, Edmund Bequerel, in 1839,

who found that certain materials would produce small amounts of electric current when

exposed to light. In 1905, Albert Einstein described the nature of light and the photoelectric

effect on which photovoltaic technology is based, for which he later won a Nobel Prize in

physics. The first photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954. It was billed as

a solar battery and was mostly just a curiosity as it was too expensive to gain widespread use.

In the 1960s, the space industry began to make the first serious use of the technology to

provide power aboard spacecraft. Through the space programs, the technology advanced, its

reliability was established, and the cost began to decline. During the energy crisis in the

1970s, photovoltaic technology gained recognition as a source of power for non-space

applications.

4.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR CELL

Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy. These photons contain various

amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When

photons strike a photovoltaic cell, they may be reflected, pass right through, or be absorbed.

Only the absorbed photons provide energy to generate electricity. When enough sunlight

(energy) is absorbed by the material (a semiconductor), electrons are dislodged from the

material's atoms. Special treatment of the material surface during manufacturing makes the

front surface of the cell more receptive to free electrons, so the electrons naturally migrate to

the surface.

When the electrons leave their position, holes are formed. When many electrons, each

carrying a negative charge, travel toward the front surface of the cell, the resulting imbalance

of charge between the cell's front and back surfaces creates a voltage potential like the


negative and positive terminals of a battery. When the two surfaces are connected through an

external load, electricity flows.

Figure 4 WORKING OF SOLAR CELL

4.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL.

The performance of a photovoltaic array is dependent upon sunlight. Climate conditions

(e.g., clouds, fog) have a significant effect on the amount of solar energy received by a

photovoltaic array and, in turn, its performance. Most current technology photovoltaic

modules are about 10 percent efficient in converting sunlight. Further research is being

conducted to raise this efficiency to 20 percent.

The photovoltaic cell was discovered in 1954 by Bell Telephone researchers examining the

sensitivity of a properly prepared silicon wafer to sunlight. Beginning in the late 1950s,

photovoltaic cells were used to power U.S. space satellites (learn more about the history of

photovoltaic cells). The success of PV in space generated commercial applications for this

technology. The simplest photovoltaic systems power many of the small calculators and

wrist watches used everyday. More complicated systems provide electricity to pump water,

power communications equipment, and even provide electricity to our homes.


The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek φῶς (phōs) meaning "light", and from "Volt",

the unit of electro-motive force, the volt, which in turn comes from the last name of

the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta, inventor of the battery (electrochemical cell). The term

"photo-voltaic" has been in use in English since 1849.[1]

Photovoltaics is the field of technology and research related to the practical application of

photovoltaic cells in producing electricity from light, though it is often used specifically to

refer to the generation of electricity from sunlight. Cells can be described

as photovoltaic even when the light source is not necessarily sunlight (lamplight, artificial

light, etc.). In such cases the cell is sometimes used as a photodetector (for example infrared

detectors), detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation

The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:

1. The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons.

2. The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.

3. The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

In contrast, a solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight, for the purpose of

either direct heating or indirect electrical power generation. "Photoelectrolytic cell"

(photoelectrochemical cell), on the other hand, refers either a type of photovoltaic cell (like

that developed by A.E. Becquerel and modern dye-sensitized solar cells) or a device that

splits water directly into hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination.

4.4 BUILDING BLOCK OF A SOLAR PANEL.

Assemblies of photovoltaic cells are used to make solar modules which generate electrical

power from sunlight. Multiple cells in an integrated group, all oriented in one plane,

constitute a solar photovoltaic panel or "solar photovoltaic module," as distinguished from a

"solar thermal module" or "solar hot water panel." The electrical energy generated from solar

modules, referred to as solar power, is an example of solar energy. A group of connected

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlight

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_module

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dye-sensitized_solar_cells

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.E._Becquerel

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectrochemical_cell

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_thermal_collector

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excitons

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_hole

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_detector

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_detector

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodetector

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell#cite_note-1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemical_cell

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Volta

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_people

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language


solar modules (such as prior to installation on a pole-mounted tracker system) is called an

"array."

5.APPLICATIONS.

Figure 5

Polycrystalline photovoltaic cells laminated to backing material in a module

Solar cells are often electrically connected and encapsulated as a module. Photovoltaic

modules often have a sheet of glass on the front (sun up) side, allowing light to pass while

protecting the semiconductor wafers from abrasion and impact due to wind-driven

debris, rain, hail, etc. Solar cells are also usually connected in series in modules, creating an

additive voltage. Connecting cells in parallel will yield a higher current; however, very

significant problems exist with parallel connections. For example, shadow effects can shut

down the weaker (less illuminated) parallel string (a number of series connected cells)

causing substantial power loss and even damaging the weaker string because of the

excessive reverse bias applied to the shadowed cells by their illuminated partners. Strings of

series cells are usually handled independently and not connected in parallel, special

paralleling circuits are the exceptions. Although modules can be interconnected to create

an array with the desired peak DC voltage and loading current capacity, using independent

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_bias

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_and_parallel_circuits

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hail

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polycristalline-silicon-wafer_20060626_568.jpg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Solar_panel.png


MPPTs (maximum power point trackers) provides a better solution. In the absence of

paralleling circuits, shunt diodes can be used to reduce the power loss due to shadowing in

arrays with series/parallel connected cells.

To make practical use of the solar-generated energy, the electricity is most often fed into the

electricity grid using inverters (grid-connected photovoltaic systems); in stand-alone systems,

batteries are used to store the energy that is not needed immediately. Solar panels can be used

to power or recharge portable devices.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_system

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_power_point_tracking


6.EFFICIENCY OF SOLAR CELL.

Solar panels on the International Space Station absorb light from both sides. These Bifacial

cells are more efficient and operate at lower temperature than single sided equivalents.

The efficiency of a solar cell may be broken down into reflectance efficiency, thermodynamic

efficiency, charge carrier separation efficiency and conductive efficiency. The overall

efficiency is the product of each of these individual efficiencies.

A solar cell usually has a voltage dependent efficiency curve, temperature coefficients, and

shadow angles.

Due to the difficulty in measuring these parameters directly, other parameters are measured

instead: thermodynamic efficiency, quantum efficiency,integrated quantum efficiency,

VOC ratio, and fill factor. Reflectance losses are a portion of the quantum efficiency under

"external quantum efficiency". Recombination losses make up a portion of the quantum

efficiency, VOC ratio, and fill factor. Resistive losses are predominantly categorized under fill

factor, but also make up minor portions of the quantum efficiency, VOC ratio.

The fill factor is defined as the ratio of the actual maximum obtainable power to the product

of the open circuit voltage and short circuit current. This is a key parameter in evaluating the

performance of solar cells. Typical commercial solar cells have a fill factor > 0.70. Grade B

cells have a fill factor usually between 0.4 to 0.7. Cells with a high fill factor have a

low equivalent series resistance and a high equivalent shunt resistance, so less of the current

produced by the cell is dissipated in internal losses.

Single p–n junction crystalline silicon devices are now approaching the theoretical limiting

power efficiency of 33.7%, noted as the Shockley–Queisser limit in 1961. In the extreme,

with an infinite number of layers, the corresponding limit is 86% using concentrated sunlight.[1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell#cite_note-Vos80-15

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shockley%E2%80%93Queisser_limit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunt_(electrical)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_resistance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(physics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_efficiency

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_efficiency_of_a_solar_cell

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station


7.COST OF SOLAR CELL.

The cost of a solar cell is given per unit of peak electrical power. Solar-specific feed-in

tariffs vary worldwide, and even state by state within various countries. Such feed-in

tariffs can be highly effective in encouraging the development of solar power projects.

High-efficiency solar cells are of interest to decrease the cost of solar energy. Many of the

costs of a solar power plant are proportional to the panel area or land area of the plant. A

higher efficiency cell may reduce the required areas and so reduce the total plant cost, even if

the cells themselves are more costly. Efficiencies of bare cells, to be useful in evaluating

solar power plant economics, must be evaluated under realistic conditions. The basic

parameters that need to be evaluated are the short circuit current, open circuit voltage.

The chart above illustrates the best laboratory efficiencies obtained for various materials and

technologies, generally this is done on very small, i.e., one square cm, cells. Commercial

efficiencies are significantly lower.

Grid parity, the point at which photovoltaic electricity is equal to or cheaper than grid power,

can be reached using low cost solar cells. Proponents of solar hope to achieve grid parity first

in areas with abundant sun and high costs for electricity such as

in California and Japan. Some argue that grid parity has been reached in Hawaii and other

islands that otherwise use diesel fuel to produce electricity. George W. Bush had set 2015 as

the date for grid parity in the USA. Speaking at a conference in 2007, General Electric's

Chief Engineer predicted grid parity without subsidies in sunny parts of the United States by

around 2015.

The price of solar panels fell steadily for 40 years, until 2004 when high subsidies in

Germany drastically increased demand there and greatly increased the price of purified

silicon (which is used in computer chips as well as solar panels). The recession of 2008 and

the onset of Chinese manufacturing caused prices to resume their decline with vehemence. In

the four years after January 2008 prices for solar modules in Germany dropped from €3 to €1

per peak watt. During that same times production capacity surged with an annual growth of

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%E2%80%932012_global_recession

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bush

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuel

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mains_electricity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_parity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feed-in_tariffs





more than 50%. China increased market share from 8% in 2008 to over 55% in the last

quarter of 2010. Recently, in December 2012 the price of Chinese solar panels had dropped

to $0.60/Wp (crystalline modules).

Swanson's law, an observation similar to Moore's Law that states that solar cell prices fall

20% for every doubling of industry capacity, has gained recent (as of 2012) media attention,

having been featured in an article in the British weekly newspaper ‘The Economist ’ .

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economist

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore's_Law

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swanson's_law


8. LIFESPAN

Most commercially available solar panels are capable of producing electricity for at least

twenty years.The typical warranty given by panel manufacturers is over 90% of rated output

for the first 10 years, and over 80% for the second 10 years.Panels are expected to function

for a period of 30 to 35 years. In the capital city of India, Delhi, citizens can face hours

without electricity, but they are the lucky ones. In some parts of India it can be days. The

basic weakness of the electric supply industry is non-viability of tariff. In 2001-02, the cost of

supply was Rs.3.50 a unit while the realization was only Rs.2.40. Free or highly subsidized

supply for agriculture and subsidies to domestic consumers have resulted in uneconomic

charges for industrial consumers. This policy has driven many industries to depend more and

more on self-generation. A second weakness of the Indian situation is under investment in

transmission and distribution relative to generation. This is due to the lack of proper return in

the investment of the power stations. This leads to the increase in price/unit and making the

cost unreasonable for the common man.

The use of solar energy for the production of electricity reduces the price/unit as low as 50

paise. The only problem in this procedure is the high installation charges.

So, if our engineers work in such a way so as to reduce that cost and in further developments

of the equipment, we can definitely meet the power demand in the future and this will be an

ENERGY SOLUTION.


8.1 LIMITATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY:

Earth receives vast solar energy, which is available for free of cost. Solar energy is available

in most parts of the world but there are some limitations of solar energy.

Low energy density 0.1 to 1 KW/m2.

Large area is required to collect the solar energy.

Direction of rays changes continuously.

Energy is not uniform during cloudy weather and not available during the nights.

Energy storage is essential.

High initial cost.

Low efficiency.

8.2 ADVANTAGES:

This system of energy conversion is noise less and cheap.

Maintenance cost is low.

They have long life.

Pollution free.

Highly reliable.


9. SOLAR PANEL CONSTRUCTION

Figure 2 Polycrystalline PV cells connected in a solar panel.

Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through

the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-basedcrystalline silicon cells

or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. The structural (load carrying)

member of a module can either be the top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be

protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar panels are rigid, but semi-

flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. These early solar panels were first used

in space in 1958.

Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in

parallel to provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires that take the current off

the panels may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition metals. The

cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system. Externally,

popular terrestrial usage photovoltaic panels use MC3 (older) or MC4 connectors to facilitate

easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MC4_connector

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MC3_connector

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_metals

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_circuits

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_circuits

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_circuits

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_and_live_loads

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin_film_solar_cell

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalline_silicon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Photovoltaic_panel_at_the_National_Solar_Energy_Center_in_Israel.jpg


Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial panel shading, to

maximize the output of panel sections still illuminated. The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline

silicon cells may have adequate reverse voltage characteristics to prevent damaging panel

section reverse current. Reverse currents could lead to overheating of shaded cells. Solar cells

become less efficient at higher temperatures and installers try to provide good ventilation

behind solar panels.

Some recent solar panel designs include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or

mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit

area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.

9.1 CRYSTALLINE SILICON MODULES:

Most solar modules are currently produced from silicon photovoltaic cells. These are

typically categorized as monocrystalline or polycrystallinemodules.

9.2 THIN-FILM MODULES:

Third generation solar cells are advanced thin-film cells. They produce high-efficiency

conversion at low cost.

9.3 RIGID THIN-FILM MODULES:

In rigid thin film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the same production

line.

The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the electrical connections are

created in situ, a so-called "monolithic integration". The substrate or superstrate is laminated

with an encapsulant to a front or back sheet, usually another sheet of glass.

The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe, or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si tandem,

or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight conversion rate of 6-12%.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_silicon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micromorphous_silicon



http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sheet

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstrate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate_(materials_science)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycrystal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_crystal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_arsenide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens_(optics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentrator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-n_junction

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode


9.4 FLEXIBLE THIN-FILM MODULES:

Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by depositing

the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible substrate.

If the substrate is an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film) then monolithic integration

can be used.

If it is a conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be used.

The cells are assembled into modules by laminating them to a transparent

colourless fluoropolymer on the front side (typically ETFE or FEP) and a polymer suitable

for bonding to the final substrate on the other side. The only commercially available (in MW

quantities) flexible module uses amorphous silicon triple junction (from Unisolar).

So-called inverted metamorphic (IMM) multijunction solar cells made on compound-

semiconductor technology are just becoming commercialized in July 2008. The University of

Michigan's solar car that won the North American Solar Challenge in July 2008 used IMM

thin-film flexible solar cells.

The requirements for residential and commercial are different in that the residential needs are

simple and can be packaged so that as solar cell technology progresses, the other base line

equipment such as the battery, inverter and voltage sensing transfer switch still need to be

compacted and unitized for residential use. Commercial use, depending on the size of the

service will be limited in the photovoltaic cell arena, and more complex parabolic reflectors

and solar concentrators are becoming the dominant technology.

The global flexible and thin-film photovoltaic (PV) market, despite caution in the overall PV

industry, is expected to experience a CAGR of over 35% to 2019, surpassing 32 GW

according to a major new study by IntertechPira.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_annual_growth_rate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_concentrator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Solar_Challenge

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_car

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Michigan

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Michigan

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_semiconductor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_semiconductor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multijunction_solar_cell

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inverted_metamorphic&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unisolar&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multijunction_photovoltaic_cell


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorinated_ethylene_propylene

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETFE

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoropolymer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminating

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyimide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyester

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_(electrical)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_substrate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoactive_layer


9.5 MODULE EMBEDDED ELECTRONICS

Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This enables

performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for each module individually, and the

measurement of performance data for monitoring and fault detection at module level. Some

of these solutions make use of power optimizers, a DC-to-DC converter technology

developed to maximize the power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems. As of about 2010,

such electronics can also compensate for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling across a

section of a panel causes the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the panel to

fall to zero, but not having the output of the entire panel fall to zero.

9.6 MODULE PERFORMANCE AND AGING

Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions (STC): irradiance of

1,000 W/m², solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature at 25°C.

Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W), open circuit

voltage (VOC), short circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes), maximum power

voltage (VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power, Wp, and module efficiency (%).

Nominal voltage refers to the voltage of the battery that the module is best suited to charge;

this is a leftover term from the days when solar panels were only used to charge batteries. The

actual voltage output of the panel changes as lighting, temperature and load conditions

change, so there is never one specific voltage at which the panel operates. Nominal voltage

allows users, at a glance, to make sure the panel is compatible with a given system.

Open circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage that the panel can produce when not

connected to an electrical circuit or system. VOC can be measured with a meter directly on an

illuminated panel's terminals or on its disconnected cable.[6]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_panel#cite_note-6

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maximum_power_current&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maximum_power_voltage&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maximum_power_voltage&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_circuit_current

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_circuit_voltage

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_circuit_voltage

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airmass

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W/m2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irradiance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_optimizer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_power_point_tracking


The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output according under standard test conditions

(not the maximum possible output). Typical panels, which could measure approximately 1x2

meters or 2x4 feet, will be rated from as low as 75 Watts to as high as 350 Watts, depending

on their efficiency. At the time of testing, the test panels are binned according to their test

results, and a typical manufacturer might rate their panels in 5 Watt increments, and either

rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%.

Solar panels must withstand rain, hail, and cycles of heat and cold for many years.

Many crystalline silicon module manufacturers offer a warranty that guarantees electrical

production for 10 years at 90% of rated power output and 25 years at 80%. The output power

of many panels slowly degrades at about 0.5%/year.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warranty

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalline_silicon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hail


10. RECYCLING

Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 95% of certain semiconductor

materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.[13] Some

private companies and non-profit organizations are currently engaged in take-back and

recycling operations for end-of-life modules

Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used in the modules:

Silicon based modules: aluminium frames and junction boxes are dismantled

manually at the beginning of the process. The module is then crushed in a mill and the

different fractions are separated - glass, plastics and metals.] It is possible to recover more

than 80% of the incoming weight.This process can be performed by flat glass recyclers

since morphology and composition of a PV module is similar to those flat glasses used in

the building and automotive industry. The recovered glass for example is readily

accepted by the glass foam and glass insulation industry.

Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies such as the

use of chemical baths in order to separate the different semiconductor

materials. For cadmium telluridepanels, the recycling process begins by crushing the

module and subsequently separating the different fractions. This recycling process is

designed to recover up to 90% of the glass and 95% of the semiconductor materials

contained..Some commercial-scale recycling facilities have been created in recent years

by private companies.

Since 2010, there is an annual European conference bringing together manufacturers,

recyclers and researchers to look at the future of PV module recycling.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_panel#cite_note-13


11. PRODUCTION

Figure 3 The "solar tree", a symbol of Gleisdorf,Austria

In 2010, 15.9 GW of solar PV system installations were completed, with solar PV pricing

survey and market research company PVinsights reporting growth of 117.8% in solar PV

installation on a year-on-year basis. With over 100% year-on-year growth in PV system

installation, PV module makers dramatically increased their shipments of solar panels in

2010. They actively expanded their capacity and turned themselves into

gigawatt GW players. According to PVinsights, five of the top ten PV module companies in

2010 are GW players. Suntech, First Solar, Sharp, Yingli and Trina Solar are GW producers

now, and most of them doubled their shipments in 2010.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GigaWatt

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GigaWatt

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gleisdorf

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gleisdorf.Solarbaum.jpg


11.1 TOP TEN PRODUCERS

The top ten solar panel producers (by MW shipments) in 2011 were:

1. Suntech

2. First Solar

3. Sharp Solar

4. Yingli

5. Trina Solar

6. Canadian Solar

7. Hanwha Solarone

8. SunPower

9. Renewable Energy Corporation

10.Solarworld

11.2 MOUNTING SYSTEMS TRACKERS

Solar trackers increase the amount of energy produced per panel at a cost of mechanical

complexity and need for maintenance. They sense the direction of the Sun and tilt the panels

as needed for maximum exposure to the light.

11.3 FIXED RACKS

Fixed racks hold panels stationary as the sun moves across the sky. The fixed rack sets the

angle at which the panel is held. Tilt angles equivalent to an installation's latitude are

common. Most of these fixed racks are set on poles above ground.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_tracker

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Corporation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SunPower

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanwha_Solarone

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Solar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trina_Solar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yingli

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharp_Solar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Solar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suntech


11.4 GROUND MOUNTED

Ground mounted solar power systems consist of solar panels held in place by racks or frames

that are attached to ground based mounting supports.

Ground based mounting supports include:

Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in

concrete.

Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings

Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the

solar panel system in position and do not require ground penetration. This type of

mounting system is well suited for sites where excavation is not possible such as capped

landfills and simplifies decommissioning or relocation of solar panel systems.

11.5 ROOF MOUNTING

Roof-mounted solar power systems consist of solar panels held in place by racks or frames

attached to roof-based mounting supports.

Roof-based mounting supports include:

Pole mounts, which are attached directly to the roof structure and may use additional

rails for attaching the panel racking or frames.

Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the

panel system in position and do not require through penetration. This mounting method

allows for decommissioning or relocation of solar panel systems with no adverse effect

on the roof structure.

All wiring connecting adjacent solar panels to the energy harvesting equipment must

be installed according to local electrical codes and should be run in a conduit appropriate

for the climate conditions

Technicians installing photovoltaic panels on a roof-mounted rack




A roof-mounted solar panel system installed on a sloped roof using pole mounts and rails.

16. LAND USE IN SOLAR ENERGY IN COMPARISON TO OTHER ENERGY SOURCES

Solar vs. Wind

Wind turbines can take a lot of space and be noisy, so they’re better suited for rural

rather than urban locations.

Wind energy works best in windy places, not surprisingly. Solar power is versatile–

Germany is currently the largest market for solar panels, even though it’s not known

as a particularly sunny place. In other words: it’s more important to live in a windy

place if you want to use wind turbines than it is to live in a sunny place if you want to

use solar panels.

Wind turbines require maintenance, and solar is virtually maintenance-free.

Wind power can be less expensive to produce initially. On the other hand, the federal

tax credit, state and local incentives, and SRECs are making solar power more

affordable. 1BOG is also helping by negotiating group discounts for communities. In

some places, you can recoup your investment in solar panels really quickly.

Solar vs. Hydropower


Hydropower is typically done in large-scale dams rather than for homeowners

(although someone with a rushing stream or river on their property might be able to

use small scale “micro-hydro”); solar can be used almost anywhere.

Large dams are extremely expensive to build.

Flooding large areas of land destroys habitat and can force human relocation; solar

panels can be installed on existing unused space like rooftops.

Building large dams can cause geological damage leading to earthquakes.

Dams can unfairly alter water supply between communities and countries.

Building dams alters the natural water table level and can negatively affect wildlife

such as salmon.

Solar vs. Biomass

Biomass (wood or plants) is usually used for fuels rather than electricity production,

though it can be used either way. Right now, most homeowners in the U.S. don’t have

the option to purchase electricity made from biomass, though it’s available in a very

small number of areas.

Crops like sugar cane and other sources for biomass require land that could otherwise

be used for growing food. Algae helps avoid this problem somewhat because it can

grow in water. Solar doesn’t necessarily need to use land space, since it can go on

existing roofs.

Burning biomass creates CO2 emissions, though less than fossil fuels like coal. Solar

energy doesn’t create emissions as it produces power.


Solar panels have efficiencies as high as 19%, meaning that much of the sun’s energy

is converted into electricity. The efficiency of biomass is much, much lower – perhaps

less than 1%.

GRAPH 1. Mean values of land area required to set up a typical power

plant for different energy sources


GRAPH 2. Mean values of direct land transformation associated with

coal, nuclear, hydro and solar energy sources


REQUIREMENT OF LAND IN INDIA FOR FUTURE ELCTRICITY DEMAND

The percentage distribution of India’s land area by landuse type according to the Ministry of

Agriculture, New Delhi, is given in Table 4. As India is a densely populated country, the

agricultural land and forest cover are necessary for food production and maintaining the

ecological balance. Hence, it would be judicious to consider only the waste lands for

installing the solar electricity generation

systems.The total area occupied by waste lands and the ‘land not available for cultivation’ in

India is around 951,860 sq. km, i.e. 31.1% of the total land area. As suggested by Sukhatme1,

it would be wise for a densely populated country like India to target at a simple lifestyle

pattern with an annual per capita electricity consumption of around 2000 kWh, i.e. 3400 TWh

per annum for the country as a whole by 2070. Assuming that the installation of a solar power

plant, both photovoltaic (PV) and thermal technologies, requires around 2 ha of land area and

redoing the calculations by keeping all other

assumptions the same as that by Sukhatme1, we determine that 38,813 sq. km of land would

be required to meet the projected annual demand of 3400 TWh. That is1.3% of the total land

area or 4.1% of the total uncultivable land area, excluding forests and net area sown,

isenough to meet the projected demand by solar energy alone.


Figure 6. A concentrator PV power plant installed by Concentrix

Solar. This shows that the technology can support multiple land usage. Moreover, there is a

possibility in the near future that one can lease only the land required for the tracking tower

instead of acquiring a large amountof land from farmers (Figure 6).The present study shows

that solar power plants require

less land in comparison to hydro power plants, and arecomparable to other energy sources

including nuclear andcoal when life-cycle land transformations are considered.

In addition, an attempt has been made to show how solarsource differs from other energy

sources in the way ituses the land. Because of its unique type of land usage, ithas been argued


that land availability may not be a limitingconstraint for the solar source Moreover, it

shouldalso be noted that viability of solar power vis-à-vis otherforms of power depends on

the trade-offs between manyfactors, such as capital cost, cost of generation, carbonfootprint,

land area, potential risk involved in the technology,environmental friendliness and many

others, butnot just on one measure.

The U.S. supports clean energy and energy efficiency deployment in large part through tax

policies. Tax policies have significant drawbacks relative to incentives through direct

spending -- they are less transparent and more susceptible to gaming, and they often require

net income or profits in order to benefit from them, making them less efficient as a policy

tool. However, they have the advantage of being less politically vulnerable than direct

spending in the U.S. budget process.

••States’ commitment to long-term targets along with yearly targets would encourage

developers to invest in RECs. This commitment would, in the long run, also limit boom and

bust cycles.

A list of remedies may help improve the REC system and resolve these design flaws. As our

experience with the Indian system grows, these recommendations are likely to become firmer

and more detailed. That said, there are a number of policy recommendations that are clear,

even in light of India’s limited history with the REC market. These include:

Stricter compliance laws and enforcement measures — Without strict compliance laws and

enforcement actions on obligated entities, long-term, stable markets are unlikely to develop.

SERCs, which are entrusted with the responsibility of enforcing RPO goals, must make sure

all the distribution companies and captive consumers meet the RPO requirements.

Declaration of long-term targets along with yearly targets — The absence of long-term

targets raises questions about how long RECs will be available. Once developers and

investors believe that REC markets are here to stay, they will value RECs as a financial

instrument and will drive investment in renewable energy generation. Long-term targets and

consistent polices may also limit boom and bust cycles.


Incentives for state compliance — Incentives for enforcement agencies and compliant states

could push state agencies to enforce RPO goals. Revenue generated through penalty

collection could be pooled in a national fund used for this purpose (similar to incentives

provided by APDRP where 50% of the operational cash loss reduction achieved by SEBs was

provided in the form of grants to the states which undertook reforms).

Introduction of secondary markets — The creation of secondary markets can make RECs

bankable by creating stable markets. This could ease some of the risks regarding long-term

REC prices for investors and also limit volatility of REC prices.

Stronger incentives for new renewable energy sources — The current framework doesn’t

distinguish between established renewable energy sources and new renewable energy

sources. Differentiated incentives (in addition to those for solar sources) are needed to

encourage new renewable energy sources.

Products Inputs / Watt Price / INR


Special SPV Mono 180W / 190W Rs. 34/W

Special SPV Multi

230W,240W, 245W,

280W,290W Rs. 32/W

SPV Mono 10W Rs. 53/W

SPV Mono 20W - 30W Rs. 43/W

SPV Mono 30W - 300W Rs. 41/W

SPV Multi 10W Rs. 50/W

SPV Multi 20W - 30W Rs. 40/W

SPV Multi 30W - 300W Rs. 38/W

Thin Film Multi SPV 100W Rs. 32/W

TABLE NO1


18. COST EFFECTIVE SOLAR ENERGY AND ADVANCEMENT IN TECHNOLOGIES

Solar energy, the clean and natural source with enormous potential as future energy is

an inexhaustible source for decentralised distribution of energy.

It is observed that the solar energy currently represents less than 1 percent of the

global energy supply.

According to sources, about 5000 trillion kWh per year energy is incident over

country’s land area and most places receive 4-7 kWh per sq mtr per day.

According to MNRE, renewable energy has the potential to be cost effective with

advancement in technologies and economies of scale.

Power generation from renewable is at present generally more expensive than from

conventional sources.

The total installed capacity of renewable energy based power in the country is

26,267MW.

A capacity addition of 30,000MW is proposed from renewable energy during the 12th

plan period.

The plan proposals envisages 29,800MW grid-interactive and 3267MW off grid

power generation capacity addition from various renewable energy sources.

Further 20 million solar lighting systems and 20 million sq solar thermal collector

area is envisaged by 2022.

The total installed capacity as on November end stood at 210,936MW and during the

month all India peak deficit and peak met resulted into 9573 MW deficit:highest 5852

MW deficit was observed in southern region and lowest 106 MW in north eastern

region.


It is advantageous to develop solar technology for maximum exploitation of the

potential,India has.

Today, the technology produces less than one-tenth of 1% of the global energy

demand.on a much larger scale, solar thermal power plants employ various techniques

to concentrate sun’s energy as a heat source.

Solar technologies are very expensive .Scientists have developed a new technology

for producing solar energy comparitively cheaper by 75%.


19. SOLAR POTENTIAL IN INDIA: SCOPE AND CHALLENGES

Installed power capacity in India is 187549.6MW out of which renewable

energy share is 20162.2MW(nearly 11%).India recieves solar energy

equivalent to more than 5.000 trillion units per year.

Further the daily average solar energy incident per unit area varies

between 4-7 units,much in accordance with the location.

Also most parts of the country have about 300 clear sunny days.All

these augur well for solar energy development through well devised

policy-cum-programme initiatives.

In this context the Jawaharlal Nehru National solar mission(JNMSM) was

launched in 2010 and there has been a dramatic change in the way solar

technology is percieved.

Among the broad targets of the mission capacities of

20,000MW ,100,000MW and 200,000MW are targeted for 2022,2030

&2050 respectively.

The period 2022-2050 is expected to generate an investment opportunity

of INR 850,000-1,050,000 million.

Realisation of the targets will make india a global leader in solar energy.


REGION SPECIFIC SOLAR ENERGY VARIABILITY

Avability of solar energy is influenced by geographic and climatic factors apart from

daily , monthly and annual variations.

Since the massive investments are involved, it is very important for the government

and the private players to perform solar technology performance analyses.

The project developers need to study local conditions with a clockwork precision.

Investigation of regional variability of solar energy in our vast country with sparse

radiation data from merely 45 stations is futile.Hence the study was carried out with

high spatial resolution NASA meteorological dataset that is available for a period of

22 years.

Radiation data was available for over 350 locations in India and monthly maps

depicting solar energy availability were created to analyse the regional variability

above 5.25kWh/m2/day of global horizontal solar radiation is considered excellent

while that from 4-5.25kWh/m2/day is considered good.

It was found that the gangetic plains, the plateau region, the western dry region,

Gujarat plains and hill regions, west coast plains, and ghat regions receive annual

global insolation above 5kWh/m2/day.

These zones include states of Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,Maharashtra,

Madhya pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil nadu, Haryana, Punjab, Kerala, Bihar, Uttar

pradesh.

The eastern parts of Himachal pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim which are also solar

hotspots.


SOLAR ENERGY :THE HOPE FOR TODAY AND TOMMOROW

Solar hotspots in India uphold the prospects as major hubs of clean power generation

to meet the ever increasing electricity demands coupled with the diminishing stock of

fossil fuels.

This necessiates the region specific availability and variability analysis.

SPV: The SPV is a semiconductor based technology , which converts sunlight direct

into electricity.A SPV –based system without battery backup on-site may actually be

able to provide just about 67.5% of the maximum power output, on a clear sunny

day.The EUROPEAN photovoltaic industry Association(EPIA) and Greenpeace

predict that by 2050, solar power will meet about 21% of global electricity needs.Also

the per peak watt price of solar modules in India is less than INR 100 and is further on

a decline.

CSP: While SPV modules are capable of using global solar radiation , direct solar

radiation above 5kWh/m2/day is congenial for CSP applications.Sun rays are

concentrated to focus on a point or a line where the boiler unit is placed.Depending on

the design of the plants the temperature may vary from 300-1500degree. Heat

collected in a CSP plant can be stored in various forms for later use and yhis makes it

distinct benefit from SPV technology.Also it is relatively simpler and cost effective

as compared to conventional battery storage that is used with SPV.


19.1 ENERGY SCENARIO IN INDIA

India ranks sixth in the world in total energy consumption .Due to rapid

economic development and increasing population in India, energy

demand has grown at an average of 3.6% per annum over the past few

years.

Sustained 8% GDP growth of India requires an annual increase of

commercial energy supply from 3.7% to 6.1%.

India has increased power capacity from 1,362MW to over 1,62366MW since

independence.

India is 11th largest economy in the workld ,in terms of purchasing power.

At present the total installed capacity of small hydropower projects is 1423MW.

India is among the five leading nations in wind power generation.The installed

capacity is 1507MW.

Out of which , 95% of installed wind power capacity is in the private sector.

In rural areas over 3.2 million biogas plants and 33 million improved stoves have

been installed .

Solar lanterns, home- and street lighting systems , stand alone power plants, and

pumping systems are being promoted.

Photovoltaic systems based on solar energy have been put to a variety of uses in rural

electrification, railway signalling, microwave repeaters power to border outposts and

TV transmission and reception.

India has electrified more than 50,000 villages but still more than 80,000 villages are

yet to be electrified.


20 RENEWABLE ENERGY:

Renewable energy is energy which is generated from natural sources i.e., sun, wind, rain,

tides, and can be generated again and again as when required.These are also known as non-

conventional sources of energy.These are available in plenty and by far most the cleanest

sources of energy available on this planet.

20.1 ADVANTAGES

This kind of energy is available locally in the abundant quantity.

They stand out as a viable source of clean and limitless energy.

They have less carbon emissions, therefore they are considered as green and

environment friendly.

Their use can to a large extent reduce chemical, radioactive, and thermal pollution.

Renewable sources helps in stimulating the economy and creating job opportunities.

Most systems have a life span of 30 to 40 years.

Most systems carry a full warranty for 20 to 30 years or more.

The technological advancements in solar energy systems have made them extremely

cost effective.


OIL PRICE

20.2 DISADVANTAGES

It is comparatively costlier to set up a plant as the initial costs are quite

steep.

Solar energy can be used during the day time.

It requires battery for storage for night operation,which increases the

installation cost of project.

Not available throughout the day.

Intensity variation during different time of year.


21 INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE PROJECT

1) REGULATOR-IC 7812,CAPACITOR-100 MICROFARAD

2) LED’S-36,1 SINGLE STRIP,12 VOLT

3) SOLAR PANEL-100 Wpeak,20 VOLT,5 AMP

4) CABLE-30 METRE FOR SOLAR TO LOAD

HEIGHT- 2 METRE HEIGHT TO THE GROUND

LUX METER-TO CHECK THE ILLUMINANCE


21.1 LUX METER

A lux meter is a device for measuring brightness, specifically, the intensity with which the brightness appears to the human eye. This is different than measurements of the actual light energy produced by or reflected from an object or light source.

A lux meter works by using a photo cell to capture light. The meter then converts this light to an electrical current, and measuring this current allows the device to calculate the lux value of the light it captured.

The lux (symbol: lx) is the SI unit of illuminance and luminous emittance, measuring luminous flux per unit area. It is equal to one lumen per square metre.

In photometry, this is used as a measure of the intensity, as perceived by the human eye, of light that hits or passes through a surface. One lux is equal to one lumen per square metre:

1 lx = 1 lm/m2

LUX METER


21.2 MULTIMETER

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter would include basic features such as the ability to measure voltage, current, and resistance. Analog multimeters use a microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different measurements that can be made. Digital multimeters (DMM, DVOM) display the measured value in numerals, and may also display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity being measured. Digital multimeters have all but replaced analog moving coil multimeters in most situations. Analog multimeters are still manufactured but by few manufacturers.

A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work, or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.

Multimeters are available in a wide range of features and prices. Cheap multimeters can cost less than US$10, while the top of the line multimeters can cost more than US$5,000.


21.3 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source.

LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting.

When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor.

A LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2 pattern.


LED STRIP

It contains 36 LED’s.

Each LED is of 3.5 watt.

Cost of one LED is Rs-110 only.

solar final file

Documents