soils in the humid tropics and monsoon region of indonesia
DESCRIPTION
Soil scientists and biologists.TRANSCRIPT
Soils in theHumid Tropics and
Monsoon Regionof Indonesia
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BOOKS IN SOILS, PLANTS, AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Editorial Board
Agricultural Engineering Robert M. Peart, University of Florida, Gainesville
Crops Mohammad Pessarakli, University of Arizona, Tucson
Environment Kenneth G. Cassman, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
Irrigation and Hydrology Donald R. Nielsen, University of California, Davis
Microbiology Jan Dirk van Elsas, Research Institute for Plant Protection, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Plants L. David Kuykendall, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MarylandKenneth B. Marcum, Arizona State University, Tempe
Soils Jean-Marc Bollag, Pennsylvania State University, University ParkTsuyoshi Miyazaki, University of Tokyo, Japan
Soil Biochemistry, edited by A. D. McLaren and G. H. Peterson
Soil Biochemistry, edited by A. D. McLaren and J. Skujins
Soil Biochemistry, edited by E. A. Paul and A. D. McLaren
Soil Biochemistry, edited by E. A. Paul and A. D. McLaren
Soil Biochemistry, edited by E. A. Paul and J. N. Ladd
Soil Biochemistry, edited by Jean-Marc Bollag and G. Stotzky
Soil Biochemistry, edited by G. Stotzky and Jean-Marc Bollag
Soil Biochemistry, edited by Jean-Marc Bollag and G. Stotzky
Soil Biochemistry, edited by G. Stotzky and Jean-Marc Bollag
Organic Chemicals in the Soil Environment, edited by C. A. I. Goring and J. W. Hamaker
Humic Substances in the Environment, M. Schnitzer and S. U. Khan
Microbial Life in the Soil: An Introduction, T. Hattori
Principles of Soil Chemistry, Kim H. Tan
Soil Analysis: Instrumental Techniques and Related Procedures, edited by Keith A. Smith
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Soil Reclamation Processes: Microbiological Analyses and Applications,edited by Robert L. Tate III and Donald A. Klein
Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation Technology, edited by Gerald H. Elkan
Soil–Water Interactions: Mechanisms and Applications, Shingo Iwata and Toshio Tabuchi with Benno P. Warkentin
Soil Analysis: Modern Instrumental Techniques, Second Edition, edited by Keith A. Smith
Soil Analysis: Physical Methods, edited by Keith A. Smith and Chris E. Mullins
Growth and Mineral Nutrition of Field Crops, N. K. Fageria, V. C. Baligar, and Charles Allan Jones
Semiarid Lands and Deserts: Soil Resource and Reclamation, edited by J. Skujins
Plant Roots: The Hidden Half, edited by Yoav Waisel, Amram Eshel, and Uzi Kafkafi
Plant Biochemical Regulators, edited by Harold W. Gausman
Maximizing Crop Yields, N. K. Fageria
Transgenic Plants: Fundamentals and Applications, edited by Andrew Hiatt
Soil Microbial Ecology: Applications in Agricultural and EnvironmentalManagement, edited by F. Blaine Metting, Jr.
Principles of Soil Chemistry: Second Edition, Kim H. Tan
Water Flow in Soils, edited by Tsuyoshi Miyazaki
Handbook of Plant and Crop Stress, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli
Genetic Improvement of Field Crops, edited by Gustavo A. Slafer
Agricultural Field Experiments: Design and Analysis, Roger G. Petersen
Environmental Soil Science, Kim H. Tan
Mechanisms of Plant Growth and Improved Productivity: ModernApproaches, edited by Amarjit S. Basra
Selenium in the Environment, edited by W. T. Frankenberger, Jr.and Sally Benson
Plant–Environment Interactions, edited by Robert E. Wilkinson
Handbook of Plant and Crop Physiology, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli
Handbook of Phytoalexin Metabolism and Action, edited by M. Danieland R. P. Purkayastha
Soil–Water Interactions: Mechanisms and Applications, Second Edition,Revised and Expanded, Shingo Iwata, Toshio Tabuchi, and Benno P. Warkentin
Stored-Grain Ecosystems, edited by Digvir S. Jayas, Noel D. G. White, and William E. Muir
Agrochemicals from Natural Products, edited by C. R. A. Godfrey
Seed Development and Germination, edited by Jaime Kigel and Gad Galili
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Nitrogen Fertilization in the Environment, edited by Peter Edward Bacon
Phytohormones in Soils: Microbial Production and Function, William T. Frankenberger, Jr., and Muhammad Arshad
Handbook of Weed Management Systems, edited by Albert E. Smith
Soil Sampling, Preparation, and Analysis, Kim H. Tan
Soil Erosion, Conservation, and Rehabilitation, edited by Menachem Agassi
Plant Roots: The Hidden Half, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,edited by Yoav Waisel, Amram Eshel, and Uzi Kafkafi
Photoassimilate Distribution in Plants and Crops: Source–SinkRelationships, edited by Eli Zamski and Arthur A. Schaffer
Mass Spectrometry of Soils, edited by Thomas W. Boutton and Shinichi Yamasaki
Handbook of Photosynthesis, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli
Chemical and Isotopic Groundwater Hydrology: The Applied Approach,Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Emanuel Mazor
Fauna in Soil Ecosystems: Recycling Processes, Nutrient Fluxes,and Agricultural Production, edited by Gero Benckiser
Soil and Plant Analysis in Sustainable Agriculture and Environment,edited by Teresa Hood and J. Benton Jones, Jr.
Seeds Handbook: Biology, Production, Processing, and Storage, B. B. Desai, P. M. Kotecha, and D. K. Salunkhe
Modern Soil Microbiology, edited by J. D. van Elsas, J. T. Trevors, and E. M. H. Wellington
Growth and Mineral Nutrition of Field Crops: Second Edition, N. K. Fageria, V. C. Baligar, and Charles Allan Jones
Fungal Pathogenesis in Plants and Crops: Molecular Biology and HostDefense Mechanisms, P. Vidhyasekaran
Plant Pathogen Detection and Disease Diagnosis, P. Narayanasamy
Agricultural Systems Modeling and Simulation, edited by Robert M. Peart and R. Bruce Curry
Agricultural Biotechnology, edited by Arie Altman
Plant–Microbe Interactions and Biological Control, edited by Greg J. Boland and L. David Kuykendall
Handbook of Soil Conditioners: Substances That Enhance the PhysicalProperties of Soil, edited by Arthur Wallace and Richard E. Terry
Environmental Chemistry of Selenium, edited by William T. Frankenberger, Jr., and Richard A. Engberg
Principles of Soil Chemistry: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, Kim H. Tan
Sulfur in the Environment, edited by Douglas G. Maynard
Soil–Machine Interactions: A Finite Element Perspective, edited by Jie Shen and Radhey Lal Kushwaha
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Mycotoxins in Agriculture and Food Safety, edited by Kaushal K. Sinha and Deepak Bhatnagar
Plant Amino Acids: Biochemistry and Biotechnology, edited by Bijay K. Singh
Handbook of Functional Plant Ecology, edited by Francisco I. Pugnaire and Fernando Valladares
Handbook of Plant and Crop Stress: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli
Plant Responses to Environmental Stresses: From Phytohormones to Genome Reorganization, edited by H. R. Lerner
Handbook of Pest Management, edited by John R. Ruberson
Environmental Soil Science: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,Kim H. Tan
Microbial Endophytes, edited by Charles W. Bacon and James F. White, Jr.
Plant–Environment Interactions: Second Edition, edited by Robert E. Wilkinson
Microbial Pest Control, Sushil K. Khetan
Soil and Environmental Analysis: Physical Methods, Second Edition,Revised and Expanded, edited by Keith A. Smith and Chris E. Mullins
The Rhizosphere: Biochemistry and Organic Substances at theSoil–Plant Interface, Roberto Pinton, Zeno Varanini, and Paolo Nannipieri
Woody Plants and Woody Plant Management: Ecology, Safety,and Environmental Impact, Rodney W. Bovey
Metals in the Environment, M. N. V. Prasad
Plant Pathogen Detection and Disease Diagnosis: Second Edition,Revised and Expanded, P. Narayanasamy
Handbook of Plant and Crop Physiology: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli
Environmental Chemistry of Arsenic, edited by William T. Frankenberger, Jr.
Enzymes in the Environment: Activity, Ecology, and Applications, edited by Richard G. Burns and Richard P. Dick
Plant Roots: The Hidden Half,Third Edition, Revised and Expanded,edited by Yoav Waisel, Amram Eshel, and Uzi Kafkafi
Handbook of Plant Growth: pH as the Master Variable, edited byZdenko Rengel
Biological Control of Major Crop Plant Diseases edited by Samuel S. Gnanamanickam
Pesticides in Agriculture and the Environment, edited by Willis B. Wheeler
Mathematical Models of Crop Growth and Yield, , Allen R. Overman and Richard Scholtz
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Plant Biotechnology and Transgenic Plants, edited by Kirsi-Marja Oksman Caldentey and Wolfgang Barz
Handbook of Postharvest Technology: Cereals, Fruits, Vegetables,Tea,and Spices, edited by Amalendu Chakraverty, Arun S. Mujumdar,G. S. Vijaya Raghavan, and Hosahalli S. Ramaswamy
Handbook of Soil Acidity, edited by Zdenko Rengel
Humic Matter in Soil and the Environment: Principles and Controversies,edited by Kim H. Tan
Molecular Host Plant Resistance to Pests, edited by S. Sadasivam and B. Thayumanayan
Soil and Environmental Analysis: Modern Instrumental Techniques,Third Edition, edited by Keith A. Smith and Malcolm S. Cresser
Chemical and Isotopic Groundwater Hydrology,Third Edition, edited byEmanuel Mazor
Agricultural Systems Management: Optimizing Efficiency and Performance, edited by Robert M. Peart and W. David Shoup
Physiology and Biotechnology Integration for Plant Breeding, edited by Henry T. Nguyen and Abraham Blum
Global Water Dynamics: Shallow and Deep Groundwater: PetroleumHydrology: Hydrothermal Fluids, and Landscaping, , edited byEmanuel Mazor
Principles of Soil Physics, edited by Rattan Lal
Seeds Handbook: Biology, Production, Processing, and Storage,Second Edition, Babasaheb B. Desai
Field Sampling: Principles and Practices in Environmental Analysis,edited by Alfred R. Conklin
Sustainable Agriculture and the International Rice-Wheat System, edited by Rattan Lal, Peter R. Hobbs, Norman Uphoff, and David O. Hansen
Plant Toxicology, Fourth Edition, edited by Bertold Hock and Erich F. Elstner
Drought and Water Crises: Science,Technology, and ManagementIssues, edited by Donald A. Wilhite
Soil Sampling, Preparation, and Analysis, Second Edition, Kim H. Tan
Climate Change and Global Food Security, edited by Rattan Lal,Norman Uphoff, B. A. Stewart, and David O. Hansen
Handbook of Photosynthesis, Second Edition, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli
Environmental Soil-Landscape Modeling: Geographic InformationTechnologies and Pedometrics, edited by Sabine Grunwald
Water Flow In Soils, Second Edition, Tsuyoshi Miyazaki
Biological Approaches to Sustainable Soil Systems, edited by Norman Uphoff, Andrew S. Ball, Erick Fernandes, Hans Herren,Olivier Husson, Mark Laing, Cheryl Palm, Jules Pretty, Pedro Sanchez, Nteranya Sanginga, and Janice Thies
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Plant–Environment Interactions,Third Edition, edited by Bingru HuangBiodiversity In Agricultural Production Systems, edited by
Gero Benckiser and Sylvia SchnellOrganic Production and Use of Alternative Crops, Franc Bavec
and Martina BavecHandbook of Plant Nutrition, edited by Allen V. Barker
and David J. PilbeamModern Soil Microbiology, Second Edition, edited by Jan Dirk van Elsas,
Janet K. Jansson, and Jack T. TrevorsFunctional Plant Ecology, Second Edition, edited by
Francisco I. Pugnaire and Fernando ValladaresFungal Pathogenesis in Plants and Crops: Molecular Biology and Host
Defense Mechanisms Second Edition, P. VidhyasekaranHandbook of Turfgrass Management and Physiology, edited by
Mohammad PessarakliSoils in the Humid Tropics and Monsoon Region of Indonesia,
Kim H. Tan
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Soils in theHumid Tropics and
Monsoon Regionof Indonesia
Kim H. TanUniversity of Georgia
Athens, Georgia
CRC Press is an imprint of theTaylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Boca Raton London New York
69071.indb 9 4/25/08 10:40:18 AM
CRC PressTaylor & Francis Group6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300Boca Raton, FL 33487‑2742
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Tan, Kim H. (Kim Howard), 1926‑Soils in the humid tropics and monsoon region of Indonesia / Kim H. Tan.
p. cm. ‑‑ (Books in soils, plants, and the environment ; 123)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978‑1‑4200‑6907‑5 (alk. paper)1. Soils‑‑Indonesia. 2. Soils‑‑Tropics. I. Title. II. Series.
S599.6.I5T36 2008631.4’9598‑‑dc22 2007050715
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site athttp://www.taylorandfrancis.com
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Contents
Preface.............................................................................. xv
Acknowledgments....................................................... xxv
Chapter.1. The.development.of.soil.science.in.Indonesia.....................................................1
1.1 Thepre-WorldWarIIperiod.............................21.2 Thepost-WorldWarIIperiod............................6
1.2.1 Theestablishmentofhighereducation.................................................8
1.2.2 TheKentuckyContractTeam(KCT)andMidwesternUniversitiesConsortiumforInternationalActivities(MUCIA)projects................11
1.2.3 Pedology................................................131.2.4 Soilsurvey.............................................141.2.5 Soilfertilityandplantnutrition.........151.2.6 Thedawnofnewexperiment
stations...................................................171.2.7 Nationalconferencesandscientific
societies..................................................191.2.8 Landuseandsoilconservation..........20
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xii Contents
Chapter.2. Geomorphology.of.Indonesia..................27
2.1 GeographicalsettingofIndonesia..................272.2 Geomorphologyofmajorislands....................30
2.2.1 GeomorphologicalfeaturesofJava....312.2.2 Geomorphologicalfeaturesof
Sumatra..................................................352.2.3 Geomorphologicalfeaturesof
Kalimantan............................................382.2.4 Geomorphologicalfeaturesof
Sulawesi.................................................412.2.5 Geomorphologicalfeaturesof
Maluku..................................................442.2.5.1 Ambon...................................452.2.5.2 Ceram.....................................46
2.2.6 GeomorphologicalfeaturesofNusaTenggara......................................46
2.2.7 GeomorphologicalfeaturesofPapua(WestIrian)................................47
Chapter.3. Climate.of.Indonesia.................................51
3.1 Climate...............................................................513.1.1 Theconceptsofequatorialand
tropicalclimates....................................523.1.1.1 Equatorialclimate.................523.1.1.2 Tropicalclimate.....................54
3.1.2 Theconceptofmonsoonclimates......553.1.2.1 Conceptofmonsoons...........553.1.2.2 Westandeastmonsoons
inIndonesia...........................593.2 Climaticdivisionsbasedonlengthofdry
andwetseasons.................................................61
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Contents xiii
3.2.1 TheclimaticsystemofMohr..............623.2.2 ClimaticsystemofSchmidtand
Ferguson................................................653.3 Altitudinalvariationsinclimate.....................67
3.3.1 Variationsinrainfallpatternswithaltitude...................................................68
3.3.2 Variationsintemperatureswithaltitude...................................................68
3.3.3 Zonaldivisionsintolowland,upland,mountain,andhigh-mountainlands.....................................67
3.4 Significanceoftropicalandmonsoonclimatesinpedogenesis....................................723.4.1 Balanceeffectsbetween
precipitationandevaporationindifferentclimatictypes........................73
3.4.2 Altitudinalvariationsinsoilgenesisandsoilfertility......................74
Chapter.4. Vegetation.of.Indonesia........................... 77
4.1 Climaxvegetation.............................................774.1.1 Thetropicalrainforest........................774.1.2 Thetropicalmonsoonforest...............784.1.3 ThetropicalSavannahforest..............79
4.2 Vegetationprovinces.........................................794.2.1 WestIndonesianvegetation
province.................................................804.2.2 EastIndonesianvegetation
province.................................................804.2.3 SouthIndonesianvegetation
province.................................................814.3 Altitudinalvegetationzones............................84
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xiv Contents
4.3.1 Thecoastalflora....................................844.3.2 Therainforestandthemountain
rainforest..............................................884.3.3 Thecloud-beltforest.............................894.3.4 Thesubalpinevegetation.....................90
Chapter.5. Soil.formation,.classification,.and.land.use.....................................................93
5.1 Soil-formationfactors........................................935.2 Soil-formingprocesses.....................................94
5.2.1 Previousconceptofsoil-formingprocesses................................................96
5.2.2 Today’sversionsofsoil-formingprocesses..............................................1025.2.2.1 Desilicification.....................1025.2.2.2 Silicification.........................1035.2.2.3 Translocationofclays.........1045.2.2.4 Translocationof
aluminumandiron............1065.2.2.5 Redoxreactions...................108
5.2.3 Influenceofclimaticvariationsonsoil-formingprocesses....................... 1105.2.3.1 Mineralizationversus
humification........................ 1105.2.4 Influenceofparentmaterialson
soilformation......................................1155.2.5 Precipitation/evaporationratioand
weatheringintensity.......................... 1175.3 Thesystemofsoilclassificationin
Indonesia..........................................................1215.4 LanduseinIndonesia....................................125
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Contents xv
Chapter.6. Soils.in.the.lowlands.of.Indonesia...... 129
6.1 Introduction.....................................................1296.2 Oxisols..............................................................130
6.2.1 Parentmaterials..................................1326.2.2 Climate.................................................1386.2.3 Soilmorphology.................................1426.2.4 Soilclassification................................1486.2.5 Physicochemicalcharacteristics........153
6.2.5.1 Particlesizedistribution....1536.2.5.2 Chemicalcharacteristics....1546.2.5.3 Chargecharacteristics........1576.2.5.4 Claymineralogy.................159
6.2.6 Landuseandevaluation................... 1616.2.6.1 Evaluationofanalytical
properties............................. 1616.2.6.2 Significanceofbasicsoil
properties.............................1646.2.6.3 Agriculturaloperations.....165
6.3 Ultisols..............................................................1776.3.1 Parentmaterials..................................1796.3.2 Climate.................................................1816.3.3 Soilmorphology.................................1826.3.4 Soilclassification................................1866.3.5 Physicochemicalcharacteristics........190
6.3.5.1 Particlesizedistribution....1906.3.5.2 Chemicalcharacteristics....1926.3.5.3 Chargecharacteristics........1936.3.5.4 Claymineralogy.................194
6.3.6 Landuseandevaluation...................1976.3.6.1 Evaluationofanalytical
properties.............................197
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xvi Contents
6.3.6.2 Significanceofbasicsoilproperties.............................199
6.3.6.3 Agriculturaloperations.....2006.4 Lowlandalfisols..............................................209
6.4.1 Parentmaterials..................................2106.4.2 Climate.................................................2126.4.3 Soilmorphology.................................2136.4.4 Soilclassification................................2156.4.5 Physicochemicalcharacteristics........218
6.4.5.1 Particlesizedistribution....2186.4.5.2 Chemicalcharacteristics....2186.4.5.3 Claymineralogy.................220
6.4.6 Landuseandevaluation...................2216.4.6.1 Evaluationofanalytical
properties.............................2216.4.6.2 Significanceofbasicsoil
properties.............................2216.4.6.3 Agriculturaloperations.....222
6.5 Vertisols............................................................2276.5.1 Parentmaterials..................................2286.5.2 Climate.................................................2306.5.3 Soilmorphology.................................2326.5.4 Soilclassification................................2356.5.5 Physicochemicalcharacteristics........237
6.5.5.1 Particlesizedistribution....2376.5.5.2 Chemicalcharacteristics....2386.5.5.3 Claymineralogy.................239
6.5.6 Landuseandevaluation...................2426.5.6.1 Evaluationofanalytical
properties.............................2426.5.6.2 Significanceofbasicsoil
properties.............................242
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Contents xvii
6.5.6.3 Agriculturaloperations.....2446.6 Histosols...........................................................253
6.6.1 Parentmaterials..................................2586.6.1.1 Decompositionoflitter
andgenesisofpeat.............2616.6.2 Climate.................................................2626.6.3 Soilmorphology.................................2646.6.4 Soilclassification................................2676.6.5 Physicochemicalcharacteristics........270
6.6.5.1 Acidityofpeat.....................2706.6.5.2 Nutrientstatusofpeat.......2736.6.5.3 Aluminumcontentsin
peat.......................................2756.6.5.4 CarboncontentsandCorg
sequestrationbypeat..........2756.6.5.5 Physicalproperties.............277
6.6.6 Landuseandevaluation...................2826.6.6.1 Evaluationofanalytical
properties.............................2826.6.6.2 Significanceofbasic
properties.............................2836.6.6.3 Agriculturaloperations.....286
Chapter.7. Soils.in.the.uplands.of.Indonesia.........293
7.1 Introduction.....................................................2937.2 Podzoliclatosols..............................................2947.3. Inceptisols........................................................296
7.3.1 Parentmaterials..................................2997.3.2 Climate.................................................3027.3.3 Soilmorphology.................................3047.3.4 Soilclassification................................3067.3.5 Physicochemicalcharacteristics........309
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xviii Contents
7.3.5.1 Particlesizedistribution....3097.3.5.2 Chemicalcharacteristics.... 3117.3.5.3 Claymineralogy.................312
7.3.6 Landuseandevaluation...................3137.3.6.1 Evaluationofanalytical
properties.............................3137.3.6.2 Significanceofbasicsoil
properties.............................3157.3.6.3 Agriculturaloperations..... 316
Chapter.8. Soils.in.the.mountains.of.Indonesia... 333
8.1 Introduction.....................................................3338.2 Highlandalfisols.............................................337
8.2.1 Parentmaterials..................................3388.2.2 Climate.................................................3408.2.3 Soilmorphology.................................3418.2.4 Soilclassification............................... 3448.2.5 Physicochemicalcharacteristics........347
8.2.5.1 Particlesizedistribution....3478.2.5.2 Chemicalcharacteristics....3478.2.5.3 Claymineralogy.................349
8.2.6 Landuseandevaluation...................3528.2.6.1 Evaluationofanalytical
properties.............................3528.2.6.2 Significanceofbasicsoil
properties.............................3528.2.6.3 Agriculturaloperations.....353
8.3 Brownpodzolicsoils......................................3678.3.1 Parentmaterials..................................3698.3.2 Climate.................................................3708.3.3 Soilmorphology.................................3728.3.4 Soilclassification................................ 374
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Contents xix
8.3.5 Physicochemicalcharacteristics........3758.3.5.1 Particlesizedistribution....3758.3.5.2 Chemicalcharacteristics....3768.3.5.3 Claymineralogy.................377
8.3.6 Landuseandevaluation...................3798.4 Spodosols.........................................................380
8.4.1 Parentmaterials..................................3838.4.2 Climate.................................................3858.4.3 Soilmorphology.................................3878.4.4 Soilclassification................................3908.4.5 Physicochemicalcharacteristics........392
8.4.5.1 Particlesizedistribution....3928.4.5.2 Chemicalcharacteristics....3928.4.5.3 Claymineralogy.................394
8.4.6 Landuseandevaluation...................3968.4.6.1 Soilpropertiesand
agriculturaloperations.......3968.4.6.2 Treefarming........................397
Chapter.9. Andosols.of.Indonesia............................399
9.1 Introduction.....................................................3999.2 Parentmaterials...............................................4029.3 Climate.............................................................4059.4 Soilmorphology..............................................4079.5 Soilclassification.............................................4119.6 Physicochemicalcharacteristics....................417
9.6.1 Physicalproperties.............................4179.6.1.1 Particlesizedistribution....4179.6.1.2 Soilreaction.........................4209.6.1.3 Bulkdensityand
porosity................................420
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xx Contents
9.6.2 Chemicalcharacteristics....................4219.6.2.1 Humuscontentand
composition.........................4219.6.2.2 Nitrogencontent.................424
9.6.3 Claymineralogy.................................4249.6.4 Chargecharacteristics........................428
9.7 Landuseandevaluation................................4329.7.1 Evaluationofanalytical
properties............................................4329.7.2 Significanceofbasicsoil
properties............................................4329.7.3 Agriculturaloperations.....................433
9.7.3.1 Estatecrops..........................434
References.and.Additional.Readings.......................447
Index...............................................................................475
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PrefaceInthisbook,soilsformedunderatropicalclimate,andinparticularinIndonesia,areillustratedanddescribed.SomeU.S. scientistsbelieved that therewereno suchtropicalsoils,andthatthetermtropicalsoilwas justamyth. These soils were allegedly not different fromtheir taxonomic counterparts, if any, in the UnitedStates,whichinthisauthor’sopinionisfarfromtrue.For example, oxisols are soils confined only to tropi-calareas. Inthetropical,humidregionsof Indonesia,thesesoilsmaylooksimilartosomeofthesoilsinthesouthern region of the United States. They may havesomefeaturesincommon(forexample,highclaycon-tent, high water-holding capacity, and not too muchdifferenceintheredcolors).However,theyare,infact,verydifferentinmanyotheraspects,andtheybehavedifferently—biologically, physically, and chemically.For example, Indonesian oxisols originate from inter-mediatetobasicvolcanicashofquaternaryeruptions.Thesoilsexhibitpropertiesreflectingmoretheeffectofshort-rangeorder,semicrystallineoramorphousmin-erals than those of crystalline clays. The time periodfor soil genesis (from ash to soils), compounded by ahumid,tropicalcondition,wasapparentlytooshortfor
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xxii Preface
the proper formation of crystalline clays. Though theclaycontentmayamountto80to90%,thesoilspossessaverystableandstrongstructure,allowingthemtobecultivatedduringheavyrains.Thesefeaturesarecom-pletelydifferentfromU.S.soilsinthesouthernregion.TheclosestcomparisonisperhapswiththeDavidsonsoil.However,thissoilexhibitspropertiesshowingthedominantroleofcrystallineclays,thoughshort-range-ordermineralsmayhaveaffectedthemsomewhat.Thesoilsarealsooftenstickyandplasticwhenwetandveryhardwhendry.According to theU.S.SoilTaxonomy,these soils are ultisol, formed in material weatheredfromdiorite,micaschists,orbasalticrocks.Noneoftheoxisols(EutrorthoxorHaplorthox)inPuertoRicoortheVirginIslandsappeartobesimilartothetropicalsoilsinIndonesia.Theoxisols inPuertoRicoareallegedlymarginal lands, suffering from drought even duringshortdryperiods,whereasthoseinIndonesiaareexcel-lentagricultural lands,aswillbediscussed inChap-ter6.TheparentmaterialsoftheoxisolsinPuertoRicohavealsobeenreportedastertiarylimestone,whichinIndonesiawouldhaveformedterrarossaorredMedi-terraneansoilsandalfisols.PerhapsoxisolsinHawaiimaycomparemorefavorablyinsomeaspects,buttheU.S. Soil Taxonomy states that they are not extensiveandcanbesimilaronlytooxisolsfrombasicrocksthatarefoundinSouthAmericaandAfrica.
Theauthoralsowishestoshowthatatropicalclimateisnotnecessarilyhotandhumid,butmayvaryfromhotandhumidtocoolandarcticcoldwithelevation,whengoing up from the lowlands to the top of the moun-tains.Thesedifferencesinclimate,whichbringabout
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altitudinalvariationsinvegetation,haveapronouncedeffect on soil formation. The changes in geomorphol-ogy, and especially those in climate and vegetation,withelevationsabovesealevelareparticularlynoticedtohaveproducedaltitudinalvariations insoil forma-tion,yieldingzonesofdifferentsoils.
Inaddition,thisbookaddressesthefollowingissue.DuringDutchcolonialtime,Dutchscientistscollectedan abundant amount of research materials, most ofwhich were written in Dutch and published in localpapers.Theyarenowburiedinamazeoflibraryrefer-encesinIndonesiaandareverydifficulttofind.Thoughmostofthematerialsmaybeconsideredold,theyareveryvaluableandstillrelevantintoday’sscientificstan-dards.Thisinformationwillbelostforevertomost,ifnotall,ofthenewgenerationofIndonesianandinter-nationalscientistswhodonotreadtheDutchlanguage.Becauseofthis,theauthorhasretrievedmostoftheoldinformationandismakingitaccessibleinthisbookinasomewhatrevisedversion,withamoremodernflavoraddedtotheoldconcepts.
The genesis, properties, classification, and land useofthesoilsaremajortopicsofdiscussioninthisbook.Thebasicmaterialsoriginatedfromtheauthor’sexperi-enceasanativeofIndonesiaandfromhisresearchasprofessorandheadoftheDepartmentofSoilScience,BogorUniversityofAgriculture(betterknowntodayasIPBforInstitutPertanianBogor),Indonesia,from1957to1967.Afteracceptingapositionin1968asprofessorofSoilScienceandAgronomyattheUniversityofGeor-gia,Athens,theauthor’sactivitiesinsoilresearchandastheAgronomyClubsoiljudgingcoachformorethan
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10yearsprovidedhimwithexcellentopportunitiesforstudying and making valuable comparisons betweenU.S.andIndonesiansoils.Additionalinformationwascollected during teaching and research assignments(1995topresent)asvisitingprofessoratseveralresearchinstitutesanduniversitiesinIndonesia,includingBogorResearchInstituteforEstateCrops;SoilResearchInsti-tute, Bogor; University of Andalas, Padang; and theUniversityofNorthSumatra,Medan.
The nine chapters in this book can perhaps bedividedintotwoparts.ThefirstpartincludesChapters1 through5,covering thedevelopmentofsoil scienceinIndonesia,thegeographyandgeomorphologyofthearchipelago, climate, vegetation, mineralization, andhumification processes as factors of soil formation inIndonesia.ThesecondpartincludesChapters6through9,andexaminesthemajorsoilsinIndonesiaandtheirgenesis, properties, taxonomy, land use, and evalua-tion. The latter also addresses the cultivation of localfarm,estate,andindustrialcrops,whichdifferintypesandvarietiesfromthelowlandtohighlandregions.Forexample,rubberandoilpalm,restrictedtogrowinginthelowlands,arereplacedbyteaandcoffeeinthehigh-lands.Thevegetablecropsofthemountainsaremoretemperateregioncrops,whereasbananasofthetypesofferedinU.S.supermarkets,growingbestinthelow-lands,tendtoalsobereplacedbyamountainvarietyinthehighlandsofIndonesia.Alltheseandmorewillbediscussedintherespectivesectionsofthebook.
The soils are discussed according to the followingarrangement: (1) soils of the lowlands (for example,oxisols,ultisols,lowlandalfisols,orredMediterranean
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soilsandvertisols)andhistosols(tropicalpeatsoils);(2)soilsoftheupland(forexample,podzoliclatosolsandinceptisolsorbrownforestsoils);(3)soilsofthemoun-tains (such as highland or mountain alfisols, brownpodzolicsoils,andspodosols);and(4)andosols(soilsinthemountainsaswellasinthelowlands).
ThoughthenamesofsoilordersinthepresentU.S.Soil Taxonomy are used in the titles, many do notadequatelyrepresenttheIndonesiansoilsinquestion.Hence, the names of soils from the World ReferenceBase forSoilResources (WRB),FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO-UN),Austra-lianandCanadiansoilclassificationsystems,andtheolder(1948)U.S.SoilTaxonomyarealsostated,whichintheauthor’sopinionoftenrepresentmorecloselytheparticularsoilsinIndonesia.
TheChaptersChapter1coversthedevelopmentofsoilscienceinIndo-nesia,fromthepre-WorldWarIIperiodwithadomi-natingDutchinfluence,tothepost-WorldWarIIperiod,where theAmericansystemwasgaining importance,especiallythroughcooperativeeducationalprojectswiththe University of Kentucky, Lexington, and the Mid-western Universities Consortium, respectively, underthe sponsorship of the U.S. Agency for InternationalDevelopment(USAID).MostoftheolderbutimportantworkbyDutchscientistsinpedology,soilsurvey,soilfertility,plantnutrition,landuse,andconservationareincluded. The establishment of higher education and
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thedawnofnewexperimentstationsareexaminedinviewofadvancingsoilscienceinIndonesia.
Chapter2examinesgeography,geomorphology,andotherfactorsofimportanceasparentmaterialsforsoilformation in Indonesia. The significance of dividingthe archipelago into the Sunda and Sahul shelves inbetweentheWallaceaisexplained,andmajorgeomor-phologicalfeaturesareprovidedfortheislandsofJava,Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Moluccas, the lesserSundaislands,andPapua(formerlyWestIrian).
Chapter3discussestheclimateinIndonesia.Thecon-ceptsofequatorial,tropical,andmonsoonclimatesaredefined,andlocaluseisexaminedforconsideringthewestmonsoonandeastmonsoonastherainyanddryseasons, respectively. The relevance between Mohr’sclimaticsystemandthatofSchmidtandFergusonarecompared.Thesignificanceofamonsoonandtropicalclimateisaddressed,andtheiraltitudinaldivisionsintolowland,upland,andmountain-landzonesaredeter-minedandevaluatedasfactorsinsoilformation.
Chapter4describesthevegetationinIndonesia.Theconceptofclimaxvegetationisdefined,andthetypespresentinIndonesiaarediscussed(forexample,tropi-cal rain forests, monsoon, and savannah forests). Thedivision of the archipelago by Van Steenis into threevegetationprovinces isaddressed.Altitudinalvegeta-tionzonesareidentifiedduetochangingclimatewithelevationabovesealevel(forexample,coastalflora,rainforests, mountain rain forests, cloud-belt forests, andsubalpine vegetation). Limits for cloud belts and tim-berlinearegiven.
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Chapter 5 explains soil formation and classificationinIndonesia.Thesoilformationfactorsandprocessesarediscussedandthe influenceofclimaticvariationsanddifferentparentmaterialsareaddressed.Theroleof precipitation/evapotranspiration ratios in weather-ingintensityispresented.Thesystemofsoilclassifica-tioninIndonesiaisdescribed.
Chapter6examinessoilsinthelowlands,theparentmaterials,climate,morphology,analyticalfeatures,clas-sification,landuse,andevaluation.Thesesoilsincludeoxisols,ultisols,lowlandalfisols,vertisols,andhistosols:
Oxisolsaretheformerlatosolswithexcellentphysi-cal properties regardless of their extremely highclaycontent.Theyhavebeenformedmainlyinthehumidtropicsfromandesiticvolcanictuff.Ultisols,formerlycalledred-yellowpodzolicsoils,are soils with lower-based status and are moreacidicinreactionsthantheoxisols.Theyhavebeenformedfrommoreacidicparentmaterials(suchasdaciticandliparitictuffs)andarerichinquartz.Lowlandalfisolsarethesoilsformedbylaterizationinthelimestoneareas.ThenamealfisolwaschosenastheclosestplacementintheU.S.SoilTaxonomyonlyanddoesnotexactlydescribethesoilsprop-erly.Thesesoilsaremorerelatedtotheredoxisolsandultisolsandareknownasred-yellowMediter-raneanorterrarossasoils.Vertisolsareoftenfoundasa toposequenceor, incloseassociationwiththelowlandalfisols,atloca-tions with more impeded drainage conditions.
•
•
•
•
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SugarcaneisoneofthemajorcropsgrownonthevertisolsofIndonesia.Histosolsaremainlypeatsoils,calledtropicalpeatbyFAOsoilscientists.Theywerenotexpectedtoexistin thewarmhumidtropics,but in1895,Koordersreported the presence of extensive peat areas inSumatra.Thesesoilshavenowbeenfoundexten-sivelyinthecoastalregionsofSumatra,Kaliman-tan,andPapua.
Chapter7featuresthemajorsoilsintheuplandsofIndonesia (for example, podzolic latosols and brownforestsoils).ThelatterisidentifiedintheU.S.SoilTax-onomyasinceptisols.Thisnameisalsoselectedinthisbook,becauseitistheonlyorder’snameintheU.S.SoilTaxonomy that canbeused.The soils, in fact,donotreally represent young soils as the name implies. ThebrownforestsoilsorinceptisolsofIndonesiaarefertilesoils,andduetotheirformationinthecooleruplands,bothtropicalandtemperateregioncropscanbegrownonthesesoils.Theyarealsothesoilsonwhichclovesarecultivated,oneofthemajorspicesthat,initsearlyhis-tory,madeIndonesiarenownedastheSpiceIslands.
Chapter8discussesthemajorsoilsinthemountainsof Indonesia (forexample,highlandormountainalfi-sols, brown podzolic soils, and podzols [spodosols],respectively).Thenamehighlandalfisols isusedinthischaptertodifferentiatethemfromthelowlandalfisolsdiscussedinChapter6.Thesehighlandalfisolsoccurinzones,wherecoolandhumidconditionsprevail.Thesoils appear more like the gray wooded or the gray-brown podzolic soils of the Canadian and old U.S.
•
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systems,ortheluvisolsoftheFAO-UNsystem.Thesesoilssupportavarietyoftemperateregioncrops,includ-ingwheatandgrapes.Lowlandtypesofbananastendtobereplacedbymountainbananas.Thecoolclimatealso encourages development of dairy farming. Thebrownpodzolicsoilsarelocatedinbetweenthehigh-landalfisolsandthespodosols.Theyareconsideredbysomeaspodzolsintheinitialstages.ThespodosolsaresoilsgenerallypresentonlyinthemountainsofIndo-nesia, where the climate and vegetation are favorablefor podzolization processes. They are called podzolsintheoldU.S.classificationandtheFAO-UNsystems,and this name is still used today in Europe. PodzolshavealsobeendiscoveredbytheDutchinthelowlandsofBangka,buttheseareconsideredasexceptionsandtheir occurrence is apparently limited to very smallareas.
Chapter9offersanoverviewoftheandosols,whichcanbe foundboth in themountainsaswellas in theuplandsandlowlandsofIndonesia.Thesearetheandi-solsinthenewU.S.SoilTaxonomy.InIndonesia,theyare frequently confused for brown forest soils. Ando-solsareperhapsthemostfertilesoilsoftheIndonesianarchipelago.Avarietyofcropsaregrownonandosols,and the best tea and coffee plantations are found onandosols.
Kim.Howard.TanThe.University.of.Georgia
Athens,.Georgia
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AcknowledgmentsTheauthorwouldliketoacknowledgeandthankmanypeople and institutions for their assistance, reviews,comments,andcontributions.ThanksaredueintheserespectstoH.F.Massey,formerAssociateDeanforInter-nationalPrograms,UniversityofKentucky,Lexington.He was a visiting professor at IPB, Bogor, Indonesia,servinginthe1960salsoasactingchiefoftheUniver-sityofKentuckyContractTeamatIPB.ThanksarealsoextendedtoRoySigafusoftheUniversityofKentuckyContractTeamandvisitingprofessoratIPB,Bogor,inthe 1960s, for reading the early drafts of this manu-script. Grateful appreciation is extended to Irsal Las,DirectoroftheIndonesianCenterforAgriculturalLandResourcesResearchandDevelopment,andFahmuddinAgus, former Director of the Soil Research Institute,Bogor,Indonesia,fortheircooperationandcourtesyinprovidingthelatestversionoftheSoilMapofIndone-sia.ThanksarealsoduetoDidiekH.Goenadi,Direc-tor of the Institute of Biotechnology for Estate Crops,Bogor,Indonesia;DianFiantis,Pedologist,Ir.DatukR.Imbang,SoilTaxonomist Ir.Burhanuddin,SU, formerAssociate Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, University ofAndalas,Padang;andtoAbuDardak,formerDirector,
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GraduateSchool,UniversityofNorthSumatra,Medan,Indonesia,fortheirvaluablecontributionsandforcol-lectingseveralofthedata.TheassistanceofO.Iskan-dar,formerchairmanoftheDepartmentofSoilScience,InstitutPertanianBogor,andthatoftheForestrySer-vice,BadanPlanologiKehutananIndonesia,areherebyalsogratefullyacknowledged for cropyielddataandthe use of a vegetation map, respectively. Finally, mygrateful thanksare extended to JanuarDarmawanofP.T.CengkehZanzibar forprovidingsomeof thepic-tures, toH.Hartawan,servingasaprofessionalpho-tographer,andlastbutnotleasttomywifeYelliandmysonBudi,fortheirunderstanding,encouragement,andassistanceinwritingthisbook.
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�
chapterone
ThedevelopmentofsoilscienceinIndonesiaFor hundreds of years people have looked upon theearthasthesourceoftheirfoodandfibersupplyandasthebearerofmineralsandmetalsusefulfortheirwell-being.Butnotuntil thenineteenthcenturyhavesoilsbeenstudiedonascientificbasis.ThisisalsotrueforIndonesia,wheresoilsciencecanbeconsideredmuchyoungerthaninmanyothercountries.Initsdevelop-ment, two periods can be distinguished in Indone-sia—thepre-WorldWarIIperiodwiththedominatingDutchinfluenceandthepost-WorldWarIIperiod,dur-ing which the Food and Agriculture Organization oftheUnitedNations(FAO-UN)andU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)systemsweregainingimportance,formingthebasisforthedevelopmentofthepresentsoilsciencewithastrongimprintofahomegrownIndone-sianidentity.
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� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
�.� Thepre-WorldWarIIperiodSoilscienceduringthisperiodstartedtodevelopdur-ingthegloryoftheDutchcolonialtimefromapproxi-matelythenineteenththroughthetwentiethcenturies.The establishment of the Dutch empire dated backtoearly in1602,whenafteradecisivebattlewith thePortuguese, the VOC, Vereenigde Oost Indische Com-pagnie (for United East India Company), was createdby the Dutch in Bantam, Java. The VOC, in fact, wasa trading post with its main interest only in gainingthemonopolyof the lucrativespicebusiness—pepperfromSumatra,andcloves,nutmeg,andmacefromtheMoluccas.Itwassupposedtobeatradeandcollectioncenterforspices,anditslocationnearamajorsearoute,theSundaStrait,hasproventobeofextremeadvantageforextendingDutchdominationoverthearchipelago.In1918theDutchappointedJanPieterszoonCoengov-ernor general, who, after defeating the British, set upheadquartersinthesmallportthenknownasJacatra,butrenamedBataviabyCoenin1918.Sincethenuntilthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,theDutchgainedpowerintheIndonesianarchipelago,whichwasnamedtheNetherlandsEastIndies.Regardlessofwhatmanypeoplethoughtaboutcolonialism,theefficiencyoftheDutchrule,ascomparedtoanyotherEuropeancolo-nialpowers,wasunsurpassed.
ThepresenceandavailabilityofspicesintheMoluc-cas, and the great potential of Java and Sumatra fordevelopmentoftea,rubber,andcoffeeplantationshavebeen part of the reasons for the relatively long dura-tionofaDutchempireinSoutheastAsia.Perhapsonly
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Chapterone: SoilScienceinIndonesia �
theBritishcolony,theformerBritishIndia,boresomeresemblance. Hence, the Netherlands East Indies canberegardedas thebest-managedterritoryamongthemanyWesterncoloniesinAsia,Africa,andotherpartsoftheworld.
ItwaslateinthenineteenthcenturywhentheDutchcolonial timestartedtopeak,culminatingduringtheyears1920to1942,thatinterestinagriculturalsciencesandespeciallysoilsciencegotastart.ThesoilsinIndo-nesiawerestudiedprimarilybyDutchscientists,famil-iar with agricultural conditions in temperate regionzones.Soon,itbecameapparentthattheseexperiences,andinparticularthoseimportedfromtheNetherlands,werenotappropriateforapplicationsinsituationssuchasthatinIndonesia,ifandwhennotmodifiedappro-priately.Theneedforbetterscientificsoilinvestigationswasstimulatedbythenecessitytofurnishmoredata,primarily for the thriving Dutch agricultural enter-prisesorplantations.Severalexperimentstationswereestablishedfortheinvestigationofmajorestatecrops,whereoverseasexperiencescouldbethoroughlytestedand modified, and local systems could be developed.Theseexperimentstationswereusuallylocatedincloseproximitytotheplantationswheretheparticularestatecropsweregrown.Forinstance,aResearchInstituteforEstateCropswasestablishedinMedan,Sumatra,withaDeliTobaccoExperimentStation,servingthelucrativetobacco plantations located in Deli on the foot of theSibayakMountain.In1916aRubberExperimentStationwascreated,formerlyknownunderthenameAVROS,forAlgemeneVereenigingvoorRubberOnderzoekterOost-kust van Sumatra, serving the vast rubber plantations
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� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
on the east coast of Sumatra. Other experiment sta-tionswerecreatedontheislandofJava.Forexample,aCenterforResearchofEstateCrops,calledCPV(forCentrale Proefstations Vereeniging), was established in1890 in Bogor, close to the best tea plantations in themountainrangeofWestJava.ASugarCaneResearchStationinPasuruan,andaCoffeeResearchStationinJemberwereestablishedinEastJava,wheremostofthesugarcaneandcoffeeplantationswerelocated,becauseoffavorableclimaticconditionsforgrowingsugarcaneandcoffeecrops.
The attention was focused first on soil fertility andcrop production (Ackermann, 1899/1900; Van Bijlert,1903;Fromberg,1858/1859;TrompdeHaas,1897),butgradually more attention was given to the study ofmorphology and classification of soils of the variousplantations(Arrhenius,1928;BokmadeBoer,1907;Boo-berg,1928;Brink,1932;KobusandSchult,1903).Withtheestablishmentin1905oftheSoilResearchInstitute(nowcalledPusatPenelitiandanPengembanganTanahdanAgroklimatorCenterofResearchandDevelopmentofSoils and Agroclimate) at Bogor, Java, Indonesia, soilresearch went in a new direction under E.C.J. Mohras the institute’s first director, placing less empha-sison thecultivationaspectsofestatecrops.TheSoilResearch Institute was influential for the increasedattentioninpedogeneticresearch.Mohr’sagrogeologi-calconceptinsoilsciencewaspublishedinaseriesofarticles from 1909 to 1916, which were modified dur-ing the years 1922 to 1945 (Mohr, 1922, 1944; see alsoMohrandVanBaren,1960).MohreventuallybecameregardedbytheDutchsoilscientistsasthefounderof
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Chapterone: SoilScienceinIndonesia �
pre-WorldWarIIsoilscienceinIndonesia,inthesenseofJustusVonLiebigforpromotingMineralNutritionofPlantsandDokuchaievinthedevelopmentofPedology.Sincethen,manynewideaswerepresented,andbegin-ningin1930,ledbyWhite(1930),anumberofnewandyoungersoilscientistsfocusedtheirattentiononstudy-ingpedologyandpracticingsoilsurveyascarriedoutin the United States. As expected, Mohr and cowork-ers afforded strong opposition and voiced criticismsagainst the American System (Shaw, 1933/1934; White,1930).Nevertheless,soilresearchinpedologyandsoilsurvey continued with greater activity than before,and even the Soil Research Institute at Bogor startedin1930asoilsurveyofJava(White,1931).Thiswasfol-lowedbytheGeologicalInstitutecarryingoutsurveyworkinSouthSumatra(Idenburg,1937;Szemian,1953).In North Sumatra, soil survey was conducted by theDeliExperimentStationoftheDeliTobaccoCompany,withitsheadquarterslocatedinMedan,Sumatra,Indo-nesia. All of these efforts have produced a variety ofdetailedsoilmaps(Druif,1939a,b;Oostingh,1927,1928),whichwererelatedsomewhattoagronomic,pedologi-cal,andgeologicalprinciples.Forthispre-WorldWarIIperiod,theresultsaboveweredeemedasrevolutionaryachievementsinsoilworkinIndonesia,aspointedoutbyEdelman(1947)inhisexcellentreviewofsoilscienceinIndonesia.
Asindicatedearlier,alloftheaboveeffortsinpromot-ingsoilscienceinIndonesiawereperformedprimarilytosatisfytheneedforgrowingestatecropsatthelargeDutchplantations.Theneed forresearch in theculti-vationoffoodcrops(forexample,rice)wassatisfiedat
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that time by the establishment of a General Agricul-turalResearchStationatCimanggu,Bogor.Andmorerecently, a Rice Research Station was established inSukamandi,WestJava.Thefocuswasoncropproduc-tionandricebreedingexperiments.Nomajoreffortsinsoilresearchwereconductedbythisresearchinstitute.
Theneedforhighereducationinthisprewarperiodwasmetbytheestablishmentin1928ofaschoolofVet-erinarySciencesattheuniversitylevel,whichtheDutchcalled Faculteit der Diergeneeskunde (Faculty of Veteri-naryMedicine),followed2yearslaterbythecreationofaFacultyofAgriculturalSciences,modeledsomewhatfrom the Agricultural University at Wageningen, theNetherlands.Intheearlydays,bothfacultieswerenotdoing well in Batavia (now called Jakarta), until theyweremovedtothepresentlocationatBogor,whichwillbediscussedinSection1.2.1.
�.� Thepost-WorldWarIIperiodWorldWarIIdisruptedthedevelopmentofsoilscienceinIndonesia.TheJapanesearmyoccupiedthecountryuntilAugust15,1945,whenJapansurrendered,whichbecameofficialSeptember2,1945.DuringtheJapaneseoccupation, no scientific and research activities wereallowed,buttheseactivitiesresumedslowlyagainafter1945.Theperiodthatfollowedwasaperiodwithmanychanges,somedrasticandabrupt,butmanyalsooccur-ringverygradually.TwodaysaftertheJapanesesurren-der,Sukarno,thenpresidentofIndonesia,proclaimedthecountry’sindependence,startingapostwarstruggleagainstthereturningDutchregime,untilonDecember
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Chapterone: SoilScienceinIndonesia �
27,1949,internationalpressureforcedtheDutchtosignanagreementfortransferofsovereigntyofthearchipel-ago,exceptWestNewGuinea,nowcalledWestPapua.Indonesia was to become part of a political Dutch–Indonesiansystem,modeledsomewhataftertheBritishCommonwealthtokeepIndiaandPakistanundertheBritishCrown.However,itcreatedaverytumultuousperiod with lots of disputes (for example, Indonesia’sfinancial indebtednessandDutchreluctancetotrans-ferpoweroverWestNewGuinea). In1956, IndonesiadissolvedunilaterallytheunionwiththeNetherlandsanddrasticmeasureswereintroducedforconfiscating,nationalizing,orliquidatingallDutchassets.ThiswaspartlydueperhapstoSukarno’sconceptofultranation-alism,borderingonradicalism.BeforeWorldWarII,theDutchsentencedhimintoexiletoBengkulu,Sumatra,forhisactivityinatoo-earlyindependencemovement.The latterwaspresumablya reason forhisdislikeorhatredoftheDutchregime,asoftenshowninhisrhet-oric,andafactorinthedecisiontotakethedrasticstepsabove,forcingalltheDutchpeopleoutofIndonesia.Itisagainstthisbackdropofeventsthatthedevelopmentof soil science in Indonesia unfolded in the first halfof thepost-WorldWarIIperiod,aswillbeaddressedbelow.
Inthebeginning,soilsurveywascontinuedbysev-eralDutchscientistsusing theprinciplesofagrogeol-ogy, whereas others moved to investigate soils moreon pedogenetic principles with a certain bias on theUSDA system. For a while, all activities on soil map-ping, survey, and other routine soils work seemed tobecenteredattheSoilResearchInstitute,whereDames
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� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
(1955)publishedabookonthesoilsineastandcentralJava,consideredacompilationoftheinstitute’sactivi-tiesduringtheperiod1942to1954.Attemptswerelatermade by Dudal and Supraptohardjo (1957) to changethe old soil classification by adopting the Food andAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO-UN)system.SuchachangewasconsideredtoprovidetheSoilResearchInstitutewithabetterandmoreuni-formsoilclassificationsystem(DudalandJahja,1957).Ontheotherhand,scientificinvestigationsonsoilgen-esis, soil chemistry, theagronomic importanceof soilproperties,andcropproductionwereapparentlylefttothe discretion of two major universities—the Univer-sityofIndonesialocatedatJakartaandtheGajahMadaUniversityatYogyakarta.
�.�.� Theestablishmentofhighereducation
Tomeettheneedofhighereducationinagriculture,theFaculty of Agriculture and Faculty of Veterinary Sci-ence,establishedduringthepre-WorldWarIIperiod,were reopened and moved to Bogor in 1946, as partsoftheUniversityofIndonesia.ThenameFacultieswasused, conforming to Dutch and other European sys-temsforuniversities’divisionsofhighereducation,andaredifferentfromtheU.S.termoffaculty,referringtoprofessorsandmembersoftheUniversity.Thetwofac-ultieswereconsolidatedunderthenameofInstituteofHigherEducationinAgriculturalSciences(BalaiPergu-ruanTinggiPertanian).ItwasattheFacultyofAgricultureatBogorwheremostofthesoilresearchwascontinuedatthestartofthispost-WorldWarIIperiodunderthe
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Chapterone: SoilScienceinIndonesia �
leadership of Dutch professors. However, due to thegrowing unfavorable political conditions during thereignofSukarno,thefirstpresidentofIndonesia,manyweregraduallyforcedtoreturntotheNetherlands.
In1963, theFacultiesofAgricultureandVeterinaryScienceatBogorsecededfromtheUniversityofIndo-nesiatobecometheBogorInstituteofAgriculturalSci-ences, known today in Indonesia as Institut PertanianBogor(IPB).ThiswasfollowedbytheestablishmentofanumberofotheruniversitiesinthevariousregionsofIndonesia that included a Faculty of Agriculture andSoilScienceas importantdivisions in theirstructuralmakeup. Itwas in linewith thenewIndonesiangov-ernmentpolicytohaveauniversity,teachingalsoagri-culture,ineachoftheprovinces.Listedbelowaresomeof themajoruniversities in thisrespectwithastrongFaculty of Agriculture and soil science department,representing the major islands in Indonesia (for loca-tionsseeFigure1.1):
Sumatra:. University of North Sumatra, Medan;AndalasUniversity,Padang,WestSumatra
Java:. IPB, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, WestJava;GajahMadaUniversity,Yogyakarta,CentralJava
Kalimantan:. Lambungmangkurat University,Banjarbaru
Sulawesi:. UniversityofHassanudin,MakassarMoluccas:. UniversityofPattimura,Ambon
For some time, the IPB served as a flagship univer-sityfortheeducationandtrainingofpersonneloftheotheruniversities.
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�0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
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Chapterone: SoilScienceinIndonesia ��
�.�.� TheKentuckyContractTeam(KCT)andMidwesternUniversitiesConsortiumforInternationalActivities(MUCIA)projects
In theefforts to replace theDutchexperts,whowereforcedtorepatriatetotheNetherlands,andtodevelopanewsystemforadvancingresearchandteachinginhighereducation, theFacultyofAgricultureatBogorwas chosen as the site for a cooperative educationalproject with the University of Kentucky, Lexington,sponsoredbytheU.S.AgencyforInternationalDevel-opment (USAID)underanAID/W-699contract (Rice,1968).Thefaculty’saffiliation,aspartoftheUniversityof Indonesia, with its close proximity to the CentralGovernmentatJakarta,wasconsideredperhapsoneofthereasonsfortheselection.AteamofU.S.scientists,withOlafS.Asomodtasthefirstgroupleader,wassentin1958by theUniversityofKentucky,whichbecameactively involved in research and higher education atthefacultyinBogor,lastinguntil1966.
Thegroup,knownastheKentuckyContractTeam(KCT),was influential forsendingmanyyoungscientists forfurthereducation inresearchandteachingatvariousuniversitiesintheUnitedStates.ThishasproducedagreatnumberofIndonesianexperts,enoughtorapidlyfillthevacuumcreatedbythelossofDutchprofessors,enabling science and research to go forward. Duringthisperiod,a fundamental change tookplace in1963whenthetwoFacultiesofAgricultureandVeterinaryScienceweretransformedintotheIPB.Thismovewasinstigated by the Dean of the Faculty of Agriculture,TojibHadiwidjaja,assistedbyfouryoungmembersof
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�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
hisstaff,BachtiarRifai,Hutasoit,KamptoUtomo,andtheauthorofthisbook.Hence,allfivecanbeconsideredasthefoundingmembersofIPB.Atthattime,fournewfacultieswerecreatedandaddedtothenewlyformedIPB:FacultiesofAnimalHusbandry,Fisheries,andFor-estry,andayearlater(1964),aFacultyofAgriculturalTechnologyandMechanization.
ThecooperativeworkwithU.S.universitieswascon-tinuedwiththeMidwesternUniversitiesConsortiumfor InternationalActivities (MUCIA) in1970 to1975,whichwasextendedforanother5-yearperiodduring1975 to1980.Thiswas followed in1980 to1985byasimilar educational and research project sponsoredbytheUniversityofWisconsinatMadison.BoththeMUCIA and University of Wisconsin projects wereUSAID-sponsoredprojects.TheIPBhadtheseUSAID-sponsoredprojectsfrom1958untilabout1990,exceptforthe4-yearperiodfrom1966to1970.Thislong-termsupportand thegreat sizeof the initialprojectwiththeUniversityofKentuckyhadmuchtodowithIPB’sgreatdevelopmenttoitspresentsizeandstatus.Manyof the American-trained people were appointed tonational positions, committees, and task forces, inaddition to teaching positions at the universities inIndonesia.
TofurtherdiscussthedevelopmentofsoilscienceinIndonesia,itisperhapsbettertoaddresstheissuesinamoresystematicandchronologicalway,accordingtothedifferentfields—pedology,soilsurvey,soilfertility,andplantnutrition.
69071.indb 12 4/25/08 10:41:17 AM
Chapterone: SoilScienceinIndonesia ��
�.�.� Pedology
At the Faculty of Agriculture, Bogor, the concept ofagrogeologyinsoilsciencewasrevisedatfirstaccord-ingtopedologicalprinciples,andthesoilclassificationsystemadaptedtotheonemorewidelyusedovertheworld,suchasthezonalsystemasproposedbyThorpand Smith (1949). The first major contribution in thisperiodwasa textbookonsoilswrittenbyWisaksono(1953),whichwassoonfollowedbyapublicationbyVanSchuylenborgh and Van Rummelen (1955), who pre-sentedresultsofaninvestigationshowingthepresenceof brown podzolic, gray-brown podzolic, and brownforestsoilsintheformerlyill-defined“mountainsoils.”Thiswas followedbyVanSchuylenborgh (1958),whodiscoveredthedistributionofsoilstochangewithele-vationsabovesealevel.Theauthorsuggestedthepres-ence of the following zones from the tropical humidlowlandstothecoolmountainregions:
0 to300mabove sea level, azoneof laterization,forminglatosols.300to600mabovesealevel,azoneoflaterization+podzolizationwithred-yellowpodzolicsoilsdomi-natingtheregion.600 to 1000 m above sea level, a zone of podzol-ization forming acid brown forest soils and gray-brownpodzolicsoils.
ThisconceptwasimprovedbyTan(1958)andTanandVanSchuylenborgh(1959),whoclaimedthatundertheinfluenceofamonsoonclimate,thezonaldistributionof
•
•
•
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�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
soilswithaltitudewouldshifttolowerorhighereleva-tionsdependingonchangingclimatesanddifferencesinparentmaterials.Duringthefollowingyears,seriesofarticlesandbookswerepublishedonthegenesisandclassificationofsoilsinIndonesia(DudalandSuprapto-hardjo,1961;Suhadi,1961;Supraptohardjo,1961a,1961b;Tan,1960,1963,1965,1966;TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1961a,1961b;WisaksonoandTan,1964,1966).
�.�.� Soilsurvey
Asstated in theaforementionedsections,mostof thesoil survey work was centered at the Soil ResearchInstituteatBogor,wheretheoldDutchsystemwasatfirstreplacedbytheFAO-UNsoilclassificationconcept(DudalandJahja,1957;DudalandSupraptohardjo,1957),with a strong bias to that of Thorp and Smith (1949).Foradditionalinformation,referenceismadetoDames(1955)andtothereportoftheIndonesianStandingCom-mitteeonSoilandLandClassification(1963),presentedattheTenthPacificScienceConferenceinHawaii.Sev-eralotherimportanteffortstomentionwereattemptsinproducingseveralregionalsoilmapsaslistedbelowandthesoilmapoftheIndonesianArchipelago(Cen-terforResearchofSoilsandAgroclimate,2000;Dames,1955;SoilResearchInstituteReport,July1964):
1. AreconnaissancesoilmapofEast-CentralJavaatascaleof1:250,000.
2. AnexploratorysoilmapofJavaandMaduraatascaleof1:1,000,000.
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Chapterone: SoilScienceinIndonesia ��
3. An exploratory soil map of South Sumatra at ascaleof1:1,000,000.
4. AgeneralizedsoilmapofIndonesiaatascaleof1:2,500,000.
5. AnexploratorysoilmapofIndonesiaatascaleof1:1,000,000.
An example of the 2000 version of the exploratorysoil map of Indonesia is shown in Figure1.2. It wasprovided courtesy of the Indonesian Center for Agri-culturalLandResourcesResearchandDevelopmentatBogor.Themappingunitshavebeenselectedtoaccom-modatethenewsystemoftheU.S.SoilTaxonomy.
�.�.� Soilfertilityandplantnutrition
Thoughnotallwereproperlydocumented,thegreaterroleoftheFacultyofAgriculturewasalsoobviousinadvancing the science in this field. The faculty pro-duced its first dissertation in 1956, reporting resultsof investigations on the “Dieback Disease” of clovetrees(TojibHadiwidjaja,1956),whichwasfollowedinthenextyearbyanotherdissertationonthe“MineralNutritionofLowlandRiceinIndonesia”(Go,1957).VanSchuylenborghandSarjadi(1958)thenpublishedtheirresultsonfieldexperimentswithsugarcane,inwhichnitrogen–phosphorus–potassium (NPK) ratios wereusedforabalancedfertilizerschemeingrowingsugarcane.TheuseofNPKratioswasalsoappliedinfertil-izerapplicationsonlowlandrice,whichwerereportedtohaveresultedinsignificantyieldincreases(GoandVanSchuylenborgh,1959),whereasproductivitylevels
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�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
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69071.indb 16 4/25/08 10:41:21 AM
Chapterone: SoilScienceinIndonesia ��
of paddy soils were reported earlier by Hauser andSadikin(1957a,1957b).WiththehelpofNPKratios,TanandHutagalung (1960)alsoattempted to increase theyield of Irish potatoes to twofold. These crops weregrownonlyinthemountainsofIndonesia.Thesugar-caneexperimentstationinEastJavareportedtheeffectof urea in the cultivation of sugarcane (Han, 1961),whereasMassey,Kang,andSurjatna(1963)presentedashortreviewonwhathasbeenachievedinimprovingtheproduction of cornasa staple foodcrop. In1964,TanandMassey triedwithsuccessusingpedologicalprinciplestosolvesiteeffectsonthegrowthandpro-ductivecapacityofPinusmerkusii,anindigenouspinespeciesofthepineforestinSumatra.
�.�.� Thedawnofnewexperimentstations
In the meantime, most Dutch plantations were pur-chased (nationalized) by the Indonesian government.Forthemanagementofthenewlyformedgovernmentestates,anewinstitutewasestablished,calledPPNforPusatPerkebunanNegara(orCenterofGovernmentPlan-tations).TheliquidationoftheDutchestateswasalsosignalingtheclosingofmostoftheestatecropresearchstations.Ofthefewremainingexperimentstations,themostimportantwastheCPV,whichafterseveralnamechanges from Pusat Penelitian Perkebunan Bogor (1990to 1993), meaning Bogor Research Station Center forEstateCrops,toPusatPenelitianBioteknologiBogorfrom1993to2002,becamewhatwenowknowastheBalaiPenelitianBioteknologiPerkebunan(ResearchInstituteofBiotechnology for Estate Crops). The main emphasis
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�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
is now on research in biotechnology of estate crops,advancing, among other things, the use of microor-ganismsinrecyclingwastefromestatecropsandfind-ingnewmethodsforusingthesewastesasalternativeenergy sources. Results of the institute’s research ondevelopmentofbiodieselfromoilpalmwasteandbio-ethanolfromsugarcaneresidueandtrashhaverecentlyattractednationalattention.
The conventional and routine experiments on soilfertilityandcultivationofestatecropswereapparentlyleft as the responsibility of a newly established insti-tute,calledPusatPenelitiandanPengembanganPerkebunan(CenterofResearchandDevelopmentofEstateCrops).
Before its complete departure, the Dutch govern-mentstillhadtheopportunitytodevelopanewrubberresearchinstitutein1948underthenameINIRO(Insti-tutNederlandsIndieschRubberOnderzoek),whichin2002wasreorganizedbytheIndonesiangovernmentintoarubbertechnologyresearchstationatTanjungMorawa,NorthSumatra.TheoldrubberresearchstationAVROSwas renamed RISPA (for Research Institute of Suma-traPlantersAssociation)by theDutch in1957,and in1989itwastransformedbyIndonesiaintoanIndone-sian Oil Palm Research Center, called Pusat PenelitianKelapaSawit.Bothofthenewinstitutesarenowunderthe coordination of the Indonesian Research InstituteforEstateCrops.
To take care of research in farming systems, majorfood and horticultural crops, animal production, andfreshwater, coastal, and marine fisheries, an Agencyfor Agricultural Research and Development (AARD)wasestablishedin1974bytheIndonesianMinistryof
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Chapterone: SoilScienceinIndonesia ��
Agriculture. Under its first director, Gunawan Satari,resultsofagricultural research in Indonesia, coveringtheperiodof1981to1986,werepublishedbytheagencyinbookform:FiveYearsofAgriculturalResearch.ItsCon-tributiontoAgriculturalDevelopmentinIndonesia.
In2006,anewcenterwascreated,calledtheCenterforAgricultural Land Resources and Development (BalaiBesarPenelitiandanPengembanganSumberdayaLahanPer-tanian).Itisresponsibleforcoordinatingandoverseeingtheactivitiesoffourresearchstations:theSoilResearchInstitute, the Peat Soil Research Institute, the Agrocli-mateResearchInstitute,andtheAgriculturalEnviron-mentResearchInstitute.
�.�.� Nationalconferencesandscientificsocieties
Inthispost-WorldWarIIera,severalsoilconferenceswere also held, summarizing progress obtained dur-ing the previous consecutive periods. Only some ofthe major conferences, which had an impact on thedevelopment of scientific societies and advancementofsoilscience,arementionedhere.Attheinitiativeofthe Association of Scientists in Agricultural and For-estrySciences(IkatanSarjanaPertaniandanKehutanan),aconferencewasheldatCiawi(nearBogor)inJune1959,where past soil conservation activities in Indonesiawereexamined,andstrategiesforfutureactivitieswereplanned.Thiswasfollowedattheendof1961byafirstNationalSoil ScienceConferenceatBogor, sponsoredby the Soil Research Institute. At this time, attemptsweremadebythegeneralassemblyoftheconference
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�0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
toestablishaSoilScienceSocietyofIndonesia.AttheAsianSoilConference,Jakarta,Indonesia,inJuly1972,anextensivebibliographywaspublishedbytheCentralLibrary for Biology and Agriculture at Bogor, locallyknownas theBibliothecaBogoriensis, inwhichmostofthe published reports and scientific publications onsoilsandagricultureinIndonesiawerelistedfrom1940to1972.TheSoilResearchInstituteatBogorcelebrateditscentennialinJune2005byorganizingseminarsonpastandfutureactivitiesonsoilsurvey,conservation,andlanduseandmanagementinIndonesia.
�.�.� Landuseandsoilconservation
Compared to theotherfieldsofsoil science, scientificactivitiesinsoilconservationhaveapparentlyattractedrelatively little attention. The importance of soil con-servationwasnotconsideredseriouslybymostofthepeople, perhaps because of the unfortunate notion ofthepresenceofinexhaustiblelandreserves.Thatsuchthinking may have disastrous consequences on thecountrygoeswithoutsaying.Theirregularwatersupplyofmostoftheriversandtheannualheavyfloodsareafewexamples.Lessseriousperhapsistheeffectofreck-lesslandcultivationbydeforestationandburning.Forinstance,theslash-and-burn(orladang)systemwithoutallowingtimefortheforesttoreturncreatedextensiveareasofwastelandinvadedbyCochongrassorknownby the common name alang-alang (Imperata cylindrica).Thevery irregularwatersupplyofmostof the riversandtheannualheavyfloodingofthecountrysidewerealwaystakenforgrantedorignored.Inthepast,onlya
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Chapterone: SoilScienceinIndonesia ��
limitednumberofreportswerepublishedaddressingthesubject.Schophuis(1961a,1961b)introducedalandmanagementsystemandtriedtoapplyaerophotogram-metry in land use and water management. MasmanBekti (1959a,b) discussed conservation practices andmanagement of soil water, whereas Supangat (1961)examinedtheroleofvegetationonsoilerosion.SitepuDieken (1961)addressedanimalhusbandryor raisingcattle and soil erosion. Additional literature from theearlydaysincludeworksbyPramudibjo(1959)andTed-jojuwono(1959).Morerecently,aregreeningandrefores-tationprogramwasintroduced,fundedbytheNationalWatershedDevelopmentProgramofIndonesia(Agus,2001).Introducedin1976forthepurposeofconservingnaturalresources, itwas laterextendedaspartof thegovernment’s5-year(1992to1997)developmentplaninrehabilitationofcriticalforestlandsand2.6millionhaofprivatelyownedfarmlands.Regreening,asdefinedbyAgus (2001), issoilconservationappliedoncriticallandsownedbylocalfarmers,whereasreforestationisreplantingofstate-ownedlandswithtrees.Criticallandis considered land usually covered by Cochon grass(Imperatacylindrica)andisseriouslyaffectedbyerosion(Huszar,1998).Theareapronouncedtobeverycriticallandamountsallegedlyto12.3millionha(Agus,2001).
Toeaseannualflooding,someeffortsbythegovern-menthavebeennoticedin1965byprovidingtheJati-luhur multipurpose dam project at Purwakarta, Java,andthecreationofaLandUseBureau.The JatiluhurdamwasbuiltacrosstheTjitarumRiver,oneofthebig-gest rivers in Java, which created an artificial lake ofapproximately 83 km2. The purpose was not only to
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�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
control annual flooding, but also to produce hydro-electricpowerandasteadysupplyofirrigationwatertothe240,000-hapaddyricefieldsofthecoastalplainandsurroundingareanorthofPurwakarta.TheLandUseBureauwas,inasense,areactivationoftheDutchSoilConservationService.ThisisfollowedtodaybytheSiakRiverprojectinWestSumatraforsimilarpurposes.It is, in fact, a cooperative project between the WestSumatraandRiauprovincestodamtheSiakRiverthatflowsintotheStraitofMalacca.Perhapsasimilarproj-ectcanbeinitiatedacrosstheCiliwungRivertocurbtheannualfloodingofmetropolitanJakarta,wherethefloodsseemtobecomeworseeachyear.
Initsefforttoproduceenoughfoodforthegrowingpopulation,theroutetoachievingthisgoalinIndonesiahasnotchangedfromthepasttothepresent.Itisstillbased on clearing the forest and bringing new landsintocultivation.True,therehavebeenmanychangesincultivationpracticesinmanyareas,asforexamplebet-teruseoffertilizers,efficientapplicationsofpesticidestocontrolpestsanddiseases,andtheuseofhigh-yield-ing varieties of crops (AARD, 1986). However, thesechanges, thoughsignificant,apparentlymaynothavebeensufficienttostoptheclearingoftheforestsandthecultivationofnewlands.Thisiscomplicatedbycontinu-ingthetransmigrationprogram,atfirstintroducedbytheDutchregimeprimarilytoreducethestresscreatedbytheheavypopulationdensityinJavaandtoprovidecheaplaborfortheDutchplantationsinSumatraandKalimantan.Undertherenewedgovernmenttransmi-grationeffortsin1976,manyofthepeopleinJavahavebeen moved to sparsely populated areas of Sumatra,
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Chapterone: SoilScienceinIndonesia ��
Kalimantan, Papua, and the other islands to increasefoodproduction.Thesettlerswereprovidedwith2to5haofland,ontheaverageoften2.5ha,whichhastobedevelopedintwostages.Inthefirststage,thesettlersreceivedgovernmentsupportintheformofpackagesofmaterialforgrowingfoodcropsandfoodtosustainthem for at least a year. The second stage was inde-pendence. The settlers in Sumatra received a clearedspotforgrowingfoodcrops,oftenuplandrice,andanadditional1to1.5haplantedwithrubberorothertreecropsonagrantbasis.ThesettlersinKalimantanwerealsoprovidedwithaclearedpieceoflandforgrowingfoodcrops,andanotherhectareforhybridcoconuttobecultivatedonacost-recoverybasis.Thistransmigra-tionprogramhasbeenblamedforacceleratingdefor-estation in Indonesiaandforcausingviolentconflictsbetweensomeofthesettlersandtheindigenouspopu-lation.AftertheAsianfinancialcrisisinAugust2000,large-scale transmigration was ended. Many of thenewsettlementshavefailed,becausethesettlerswereoftencity folks, lackingany farmingskills,especiallythosenecessaryforcultivatingnewlands.Someofthenewsettlementswere,however,notedtobesuccessful,especiallywherefoodcropsarecombinedwithgrow-ingrubber,asystemcalledrubberagroforestry.Anotherexampleoftransmigrationsuccessisnotedbythecur-rentauthorinthesettlementsontheslopeoftheOphirMountain in West Sumatra on the fertile andosols,wherethetransmigrantshavebeensuccessfulingrow-ingfruittrees,especiallyorangesforthemarketsinthebigtownsofPadangandMedan.
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�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Withtherapidadvancementinscienceandtechniqueatthepresenttime,effortstoincreasefoodproductioninIndonesiacan,infact,alsobeachievedbyintensifyingtheproductionoflandalreadyundercultivation(Brady,1990;Tan,2000).ThisissupportedbyreportsofVandenEelaart(2004)andAndriesse(1988)whoindicatedthatintensification of paddy-rice cultivation, yielding twoharvestsannuallywouldproduceenoughricetomakeIndonesiaself-sufficientinthismajorfoodcrop,withoutdestroyingtheforest.Increasingnewlandareasforcul-tivationalways involvesdeforestation,andbecauseofincreasedpopulationpressure,deforestationisclearlynoticed today to be slowly moving up the mountainslopes.This increases thehazardsofsoildegradationanderosionandisalsoverydamagingtothehydrol-ogyoftheecosystemandIndonesia’spreciouswildlifeandbiodiversity.Theburningoftheforestduring1997to1998,especiallyinrelationtoclearingthecoastalpeatforest,createddisastrouswildfires,affectingalsoneigh-boringcountries.Ashandthicksmoke,allegedlycar-cinogenic,blanketedBrunei,Singapore,Malaysia,andaffected landsevenas farasThailand, causingmuchconcernanddistressamongthepeopleof therespec-tive countries. In Indonesia, the international airportPolonia,Medan,wasforcedtoclose.Anotherexamplewas theheavyfloods in2003, causingagain theclos-ingofPoloniaAirportatMedan,andparalyzingatthesametimepartofmetropolitanJakarta,theIndonesiancapital.Hardhitwas thearea surrounding thepresi-dentialpalaceatJakarta,andthedisastrousfloodswererepeated in 2007 with increasing ferocity. The heavydownpours,bringinghugeamountsofwater,couldnot
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Chapterone: SoilScienceinIndonesia ��
besustainedbytheland,sufferingfromdeforestationontheslopesoftheGedeh-PangrangoandSalakvolca-noesinWestJava,andonthebareslopesoftheSibayakMountaininNorthSumatra.Unfortunately,thesprawl-ingurbanizationhasapparentlycomplicatedeffortsatreforestation and sound watershed management. InthemountainregionsofWestJavaandNorthSumatra,localmerchantshaveencouragedclear-cuttingtheveg-etative cover on roadsides and beyond for setting upproducestands,restaurants,andhotels.AffluentpeoplefromJakartaandMedanaremakingthesituationworsebydestroyingmoreoftheforestonmountainsidesforbuildingbungalows,villas,andothersummerretreats.Additionalevidenceforthedestructionofthehydrol-ogyof theecosystemincludesreportsofdangerouslyloweringthewaterlevelsinmanylakes.LakelevelsinLakeSingkarak,Lake(Danau)Atas,andLake(Danau)Bawah in theBukitBarisanMountainRangeofWestSumatranearthetownofBukitTinggiwerereportedlydecreasedbyapproximately50cmto10m,andareasformerlyinundatedarenowdrylandsattheshoresofLakeAtasandLakeBawah(Tan,2005).
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69071.indb 26 4/25/08 10:41:23 AM
��
chaptertwo
GeomorphologyofIndonesia
�.� GeographicalsettingofIndonesiaIndonesiaisanarchipelagoandconsistsofmorewaterthanlandarea.Only42%island,whichissharedbyagroupof3000islands,situatedinthehumidtropicsandmonsoonregionsbetween6°northand11°southlati-tudesandbetween95°and141°eastlongitudes.Thetotallandareaofapproximately1,904,343km2ismorethan90%locatedonthefivelargestmainislands(Table2.1).Theremainderisdistributedoverthesmallerislands,manyuninhabited,ranginginsizefromseveralsquarekilometerstomereisolatedrocksorcoralreefs.
The archipelago is affected by two continentalmasses:AsiainthenorthernhemisphereandAustra-lia in the southern hemisphere. Dutchgeologists andseveralotherscientistsbelievethatfrictionbetweenthetectonicplatesofthesetwocontinentshascreatedthesefoldedarcsofislandsinIndonesia,withactivemoun-tainbuilding,volcanism,andperiodicseismicupheav-als (Fisher, 1966; van Bemmelen, 1949). Another alsowidelyaccepted theoryconsiders the islandsasparts
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�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
ofthearcofvolcanoesandfaultlines,belongingtothePacificRingofFire,circlingaroundthePacificbasin.
This chain of islands forms a discontinuous landbridgebetween the twocontinentsstatedabove,AsiainthenorthwestandAustraliainthesoutheast,criss-crossed by three major natural sea routes, the Sundaand Makassar Straits, for passage through the SouthChinaSeatoChina,andtheMalaccaStrait, themainthoroughfaretoIndiaandtheIndianOcean.Hence,theislandsofIndonesia,lyingonthefringesofoneofthesemajorsearoutesandlocatedclosesttotheAsianconti-nent,havebeenaffectedthemostbyforeigninfluenceandhavebenefitedimmenselyfromforeigntrade.ThiswasalsoonereasonwhytheDutchbuilttheVOC(Ver-eenigde Oost Indische Compagnie [for United East IndiaCompany]) in Banten, their first port of entry, conve-nientlylocatednexttotheSundaStrait,aftertheardu-ous journey through the Indian Ocean. On the otherhand,theislandsintheeasternpartofIndonesia(e.g.,
Table.2.1. LandDistributionofIndonesiaArea of Arable Land
Area (km2) ×1000 ha Per capita
Totalland 1,904,343JavaandMadura 132,174 8374 0.138Sumatra 473,606Kalimantan 593,460Sulawesi 189,035WestPapua 421,951
Sources:BiroPusatStatistikJakarta(1963)andFisher,C.A.(1966).(Withpermission.)
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Chaptertwo: GeomorphologyofIndonesia ��
Moluccas and Papua) were more isolated and lessaffectedbyforeigninfluenceorcommerce.
From geological, biological, and ethnological pointsofview,thearchipelagocanbedistinguishedintothreedivisions:theSundaShelfareainthewestandtheSahulShelfarea in theeast,withanarea inbetweencalledWallacea,afterthenameofafamousnaturalscientistAlfred Russell Wallace (Lighart, Hövig, and Rinkes,1926; van Bemmelen, 1949). The Sunda Shelf, cover-ingtheislandsofKalimantan,Java,andSumatra,andthe smaller islands Riau, Banka, Belitung, and Sing-kep,belongstotheinfluencesphereoftheAsiancon-tinent.On theotherhand, theSahulShelf, consistingofPapua,Aru,andsurroundingislandsoftheArafuraSea,isinfluencedbyAustralia.TheregionofWallaceaisconsideredatransitionalzone,wheretheSundaShelfand Sahul Shelf meet or intermingle (Fisher, 1966). ItincludestheislandsofSulawesi,Bali,Lombok,Flores,Sumbawa,andTimor.ThisareaisseparatedinthewestfromtheSundaShelfbytheWallaceline,whichrunsthroughtheBaliStraitandMacassarStraitnorthtotheSulu Sea, east of the Philippines. The line separatingtheWallaceafromtheSahulShelfintheeastiscalledtheWeberline.ThisimaginarydivisionlinerunsfromtheTimorSeanorthwardthroughtheBandaSea(westofBuru)andtheMoluccasSea(westofHalmahera).
TheSundaShelfissurroundedbytheCircumSundaMountainsystem,whichcutsacross the trend lineofthe Australian Mountain system. The Circum SundaMountainsystemconsistsoftwomainparts:Itsnorth-ern part, which also covers the Philippines, belongstotheislandchainalongthewesternPacific,whereas
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�0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
the southernportion formsapartof thegreatSundaMountain system. The latter extends from the south-ern Moluccas to the Brahmaputra valley in Pakistan(Fisher,1966;vanBemmelen,1949).Locatedinthebluetropicalseas,thedarkgreenforestedmountainsmakethe islandsof Indonesiaamong themostbeautiful intheworld.
�.� GeomorphologyofmajorislandsThegeomorphologyofIndonesiashowsthepresenceofareaswithstrikingcontrasts.TheSundaMountainvol-canismcreatesconsiderable relief.Witha total lengthofabout7000km,itstartsintheeastfromtheBandaislandsandstretcheswestwardalongNusaTenggara,Lombok,Bali,Java,andSumatraacrosstheAndamansand the Nicobars toward Burma. Here it meets theHimalayanrange.TheCircumAustraliansystemformsanotherreliefunitintheeast,whichextendsalongthecentralaxisofPapuatoNewZealand.
Inadditiontotheextensivemountainsystems,broadplainsalsooccuralongtheeastcoastofSumatra,onthenortherncoastlineofJava,andinKalimantan.Thelow-landofSumatra,locatedbetween0and100melevationabovesea level, isestimatedtocover60%of the totalareaofSumatra(Mohr,1944).
Geologically,thearchipelagoisrelativelyyoung(vanBemmelen,1949).Three-fourthsof the landsurface isestimated to be covered by sediments and volcanicdeposits.Tertiaryandquaternaryformationsaremoreabundantthanpretertiarymaterials.Inordertobeableto provide a better picture, it is perhaps necessary to
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Chaptertwo: GeomorphologyofIndonesia ��
treatthissubjectislandbyisland.However,becausealotofworkhasbeenpublished,itwouldbealmostimpos-sibletocoverall thematerials inthefollowingpages.Moreover,thepurposeistoprovidesomebackgroundinformationonthegeologicmaterialsofimportanceasparentmaterialswhenreadingthechaptersaboutsoilsandsoilformation.ForthoseinterestedinmoredetailsaboutthegeologyofIndonesia,referenceismadetothecomprehensiveworkbyvanBemmelen(1949),Brouwer(1922, 1925), Rutten (1927, 1946), and Umbgrove (1938,1949).Inadditiontothediscussionsbasedontheirorig-inalinvestigations,theauthorsstatedabovehavealsocompiledalmostalltheworkthathasbeenpublishedbyotherauthors.Acomplete list isprovided in theirbooksforretrievalortracingbackthenumerouspub-licationsbyothergeologists.AlsoworthyofreadingisthegeologicaloutlineofIndonesiabySigit(1962).
AmongtheislandsinIndonesia,Javaisprobablythebestknown.Forthisreason,themajorgeologicalfea-tures,characteristicfortheislandofJava,willbecon-sideredfirstinthesectionsbelow.Asecondwell-knownisland is Sumatra, followed by Kalimantan, Sulawesi,Maluku,NusaTenggara,andPapua.
�.�.� GeomorphologicalfeaturesofJava
Javaisapproximately1000kmlongand200kminwidthatthewidestspotsinthewesternandeasternpartsoftheisland,butitisonly120kmwideatthecentralpart.It isthesmallestofthethreemainwesternislandsoftheSundaShelf.Paralleltoitslongitudinalaxis,afer-tile alluvial plain stretches west to east, covering the
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�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
northerncoasttoSemarang(Figure2.1).EastofSema-rangisfoundthehillylandsofRembang,composedofaseriesofwest–easttrendingridges,alternatingwithalluvial plains. The hills are separated to the northfromtheJavaSeabyanarrowsandybeachwithdunes.Theflat-toppedridgesnearTubanarelimestonereefs.FromhereinlandtowardthecenterofJava,thecountrychangesintoahillyregionoftertiarymarlsandlime-stone.Thisarea isborderedto thesouthbyaquater-nary volcanic chain of mountains with intermontaneplateausandbasins.Thismountainzone,lyingwithinthestructuraldepressionorfaultline,runslengthwisefromeasttowestthroughtheentireisland,continuinginto a series of mountains in Sumatra, known as theBukitBarisanMountainrange.Furthertothesouthofthevolcanicbelt,theislandofJavaiscovered,fromeasttowest,byahighrangeoffoldedtertiarylimestoneandsandstone mountains, averaging 400 m in height. Insomeareasatropicalkarstlandscapehasbeenformedin this folded limestone region, and the land surfacebecomes drier and more barren toward the easternpart.Borderingthisareatothesouth,anarrowcoastalregionexistsofupraisedcoralandriffsof the IndianOcean.
Insummary,thelandscapeofJavaisdominatedbyaseriesofvolcanicdomes,toweringintheskyoveragreentropicalrainforest.Mostofthevolcanoesarestillactive,andseveralaremorethan3000mhigh.Forexample,theMerapi,a2958-m-highvolcano,located30kmfromYog-yakarta,acityof1millionpeople,isreportedatthisverymomentrumblingagain,sendingoutsteadylavaflowsand clouds of black ash. Thousands of farmers were
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Chaptertwo: GeomorphologyofIndonesia ��
JAVA
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�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
reluctantly forced to evacuate their farms and paddyfields,locatedonthefertilemountainslopes.Thesevol-canoesarethechiefsourcesofsoilmaterialinJava,andhave intermittently delivered ejecta, varying in typesfromdacitesandandesitestobasalts.InWestJava,thehighvolcanicpeaksarelocatedclosetogether,formingextensivehighlandsinthePrianganregion(forexample,PuncakhighlandnearBogor,Pengalenganintermontaneplateau,andLembanghighlandnearBandung).Inthepast,theseclustersofvolcanoescreatedanaturalbarrierforpassageandpublictransportation.However,inCen-tralandEastJava,thevolcanoesaremorewidelyspaced,separatedfromeachotherbybroadpassesandvalleys.TheintermittenteruptionshavecoveredtheareainWestJavawithash,lava,andlaharofmostlydacito-andesitic�origin,whereasthoseinCentralandEastJavaaremostlyof andesito-basaltic composition. Such an intermittentrejuvenationofthesoilbytherichvolcanicmaterialhascreatedveryfertilesoils.
Togetherwiththepresenceofabundanceofwaterforirrigationofthesawahs(paddyfields)atthefootslopeofthemountainsandthecoastalplains,thishighsoilfer-tilityhasproducedadequatericeandotherfoodcrops,resulting perhaps in the development of a very densepopulationinJava.Asindicatedearlier,toeasetheprob-lemofoverpopulation,theDutchcolonialgovernment
�Ingeologicalterms,liparites,rhyolites,anddacitesrefertoacidicmaterials thatarehigh insilica (65 to75%)andrelatively lowin alkalis. Basalts are basic materials that are low in silica (40to50%)andrelativelyhighinelements,suchasFe,Ca,Mg,K,andsoforth,whereasandesitesareintermediatematerialswithacompositionsomewhereinbetween.
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Chaptertwo: GeomorphologyofIndonesia ��
previously instituted a migration system, transfer-ringmanyofthemostunqualifiedpeopleforfarmingto the thensparsely inhabited islandsofSumatraandKalimantan. Today this migration policy, continuedbytheIndonesiangovernment,hasapparentlycreatedalotofstressandfriction.ThenewsettlersfromJava,mostly Muslims, have apparently forced their religionontheindigenousinhabitants,whichinmanyinstanceshas erupted in bloody battles and clashes, as recentlyreported in Kalimantan. Equally important is the factthat some of the lands provided to the settlers wereappropriated by the Indonesian government in termsof eminent domain. This was severely contested by theindigenous folks, who claimed ownership of the landby virtue of possession through their ancestors (tanahadat).
�.�.� GeomorphologicalfeaturesofSumatra
Sumatra is almost four times as large as Java and issituatedwestofJava,from6°Nto6°S,inanorthwestto southeast direction. It is 1700 km long, and in thenorthernpartitis100to200kmwide,whereasinthesoutheastthewidthoftheislandisabout350km.Theisland’sbackboneistheBukitBarisanMountainrange,stretchingfromAcehinthenorthtotheLampungsinthesouth,whichpracticallyformsabarrierforpassageor public transport from east to west. The mountainrangedividestheislandintoabroadeasternpartandarelativelynarrowwesternpart.Severalmainregionaldivisionscanperhapsbedistinguishedfromnorthtosouth.TheyaretheAcehregioninthenorth;theTapanuli
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�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
(Batak)plateauinthenortheast;theMenangkabauhigh-landsinthemidwest;theeasterncoastalplainsofRiau,Jambi,andPalembang;theBengkulumountainsinthesouthwest;andtheLampunglowlandsatthesoutherntip(Figure2.2).
Beginningfromtheeastcoast,onecannoticeabroadhillyalluvialplain,crossedbymanybigandsmallriversthat have their origins in the Bukit Barisan hinterlands.Thiszone is separated fromtheStraitofMalaccabyan
Strait ofMalacca
Sabang
Banda Aceh
ACEHMedan
MntSibayak
Lake TobaTAPANULI
Siak River
Kampar RiverMnt Ophir
IndragiriMENANGKABAU
PadangBatang Hari
Mnt KerinciMusi River
Palembang
Bangka
LAMPUNG
Bengkulu
Siberut
INDIAN OCEAN
W — E
Nias
Simeulue
Figure 2.2 GeomorphologyofSumatra.(Scale:1:12,500,000.)(FromvanBemmelen,R.W.[1949];Fisher,C.A.[1966];Sigit,S.I.[1962];andRandMcNally[1995].)
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Chaptertwo: GeomorphologyofIndonesia ��
extensivebeltofswampsandpeat,whichinsomeplacesisabout30kmwide.FromtheAsahanRiver,drainingtheTobaLakeintheBatakhighlands,totheBatangHariRiverinJambiandtheMusiRiverinthesouth,wherePalembangis located, these rivers have not only deposited alluvialmaterialfromthewesternhinterlands,buthavealsocon-tributedtotheformationofvastexpansesoftidalswampsandpeatonthecoastoftheStraitofMalacca.Thethick-nessofthepeatdepositswasestimatedtobemorethan50cmto1minsomeplaces.Thisregionoftidalswampsandpeathasinthepastalwaysbeentreatedaswasteland,use-less for agriculture, unhealthy, and noninhabitable withseemingly many unsurmountable obstacles for passageintotheinterior(Fisher,1966).Withtherapidadvancementofsoilandenvironmentalscience,tidalswampsandpeatarenowrecognizedasimportantpartsoftheecosystem.Theyprovide sanctuariesandare thenestingplaces formanybirdsandanimals.Theyareatthesametimethemajorbreedinggroundsforanassortmentofmarinelife(e.g.,shrimp,crab,andfish).Theareacontainingthepeatdepositsisnotedatpresenttoberichinoilandnaturalgas,andimportantoilfieldshavebeenlocatednearPekanbaruintheRiauprovinceandsouthinPalembangontheMusiRiver.TinisfoundinthealluvialsedimentsoftheislandsofBangka,Belitung,andSingkep,andbauxiteinBintanoftheRiauprovince.Inadditiontotheabove,Sumatraisknownforitscoaldeposits,suchasinUmbilinintheBukitTinggiarea,andinBukitAsamintheBenkulumountains.ThisisincontrastwithJavawhichhasnomineralwealthofsignificance.
Thezoneofalluvialplains,describedabove,changesinland into a gentle, hilly country with tertiary
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formations.Next to this lies theBukitBarisanMoun-tainrange,whichcontainsanumberofhighandstillactivevolcanoes.Someofthevolcanoesaremorethan3000mhigh.TheOphirMountain,nearPadang,is2911mhigh,butthehighestsummitisthepeakofMountKerinci which is 3800 m high. The slope toward theIndianOceanisgenerallysteep.Withtheexceptionsoftwolowlandembaymentsinthenorth,averynarrowcoastalplainoccursbetweenthefootoftheBukitBari-sanmountainsandtheIndianOcean.
TheBukitBarisanmountainsaretheinorganicsourceof all the soil materials in Sumatra (Mohr, 1944; vanBemmelen,1949).Theyarepretertiaryand tertiary informationwithsomequaternaryfromthemostrecenteruptions.Atthebeginningoftheneoceneperiod,vol-canic eruptions delivered acid to intermediate mate-rials.However,at the startof thequaternaryage, theejectaweremoredaciticandandesiticincomposition.Betweenthesetwoperiods,thematerialseruptedweremainly liparitic (rhyolitic) of origin. Near Lake Toba,at thefootof theSibayakMountain, intheregionsofBukitTinggiintheMenangkabauhighlands,andintheBengkuluhighlandstothesouth,themorerecentejectaweredacito-andesiticincomposition.Theyhavegivenrisetothedevelopmentofmorefertilesoilsthanthosederivedfromlipariticvolcanictuffs.
�.�.� GeomorphologicalfeaturesofKalimantan
Borneo,calledKalimantaninIndonesia,isthesecond-largest island in the archipelago. In general, Borneoas a whole is composed of extensive, predominantly
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Chaptertwo: GeomorphologyofIndonesia ��
low-lying alluvial plains, surrounding the interioruplands.Anarrownorthernstrip,madeupofMalay-sian Sarawak, Brunai, and Sabah, is bordered by theSouthChinaSea.
Indonesian Kalimantan is characterized by broadplains, extensive hills, and low mountains. It is stillcovered by a dense tropical rain forest, and the onlypassagetotheinterioristhroughtherivers.ThethreelargestriversarenotablytheKapuasinthewestnearPontianak,theBaritonearBanjarmasininthesoutheast,andtheMahakamnearSamarindaontheeastcoast.
Atfirstglance,itwouldappearthataratherdefinitesystemismissing in thephysiographicpattern.How-ever,aftermorecarefulstudyofthelandmass,acertaintrendbetweentheextentoftheplainsandthemoun-tains can be observed. The main division is formedby the mountain system, running from the KinibaluMountain,inSabah,southwardovertheIranandMül-lerrangetotheSchwanermountainsinthesouthwest(Figure2.3), with a highest summit of only 1800 m.ThisdivisionlineseparatesthebigislandBorneointotwosections:awesternsectionandaneasternsection.TheSunda landmasspenetrates into thewesternsec-tionfromthesouthwestcoastoftheislandlikeahugewedge.Itisborderedintheeastandnortheastbythemountainsystemdiscussedabove.Thistriangulararea,with pretertiary rocks, located between Cape Datuk,CapeSambar,andtheMüllermountains,isconsideredbyvanBemmelen(1949)asthepropercontinentalmassofKalimantan.Foralongperiodoftime,theareahasbeensubjectedtoprocessesformingapeneplain.
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�0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Anorth–southrunningmountainsystemoftheMer-atusmountainsformsanotherdivisionline.However,thisisrestrictedtothesoutheasterncorneroftheisland.This mountain system consists of many geologic for-mations,withcrystallineschistsandperidotitesasthemostimportantminerals.
SOUTH CHINA SEA
W — E
KayanRiver
Tarakan
SABAH
BRUNAI
Mnt Kinibalu
SERAWAK
Pontianak
Cape Datuk
Peat and swamps
Cape Sambar
JAVA SEA
Banjarmasin Pulau Laut
Meratus M
nts
Barito R
iver
BalikpapanSamarinda
Mahakam River
Strait ofMakassar
Upper Kapuas Mnts
Muller MntsKapuasRiver
SchwanerMnts
IranMnts
Figure 2.3 GeomorphologyofKalimantan.(Scale:1:12,000,000.)(FromvanBemmelen,R.W. [1949];Fisher,C.A. [1966];Sigit,S.I.[1962];andRandMcNally[1995].)
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Chaptertwo: GeomorphologyofIndonesia ��
The lowland, locatedbetweentheSchwanerandtheMeratusmountains,asawhole,iscoveredlargelybyter-tiaryandquaternaryformationsoftheBaritoRiverbasin,andisborderedonitssoutheastcoastbybroadareasofswampy landsandpeat.Though thepeatdepositwasestimatedtobelessthickthanthatoftheSumatranpeat,thisareainKalimantanisthoughttoexceedthevastnessofthepeatareainSumatra.ItstretchesalongthesouthcoaststartingfromBanjarmasinintheeasttowardPon-tianakinthewestandextendsintothecoastalareaofSerawak.Again,itshouldbeemphasizedthatthisbeltoftidalswampsandpeatisaveryimportantpartoftheecosystem.ItistheonlyhomeoftheendangeredProbos-cismonkey.LikeinSumatra,thisareaalsoappearstoberichinoilandnaturalgas,withmajoroilfieldslocatednearTarakanonthewesternshoresoftheislandfacingthe seaofCelebes.CoalhasalsobeenminedatTeng-garong,nearSamarindainthesurroundingareaoftheMahakamRiver,whereassomediamondsandgoldwerediscoveredintheBaritobasin.
�.�.� GeomorphologicalfeaturesofSulawesi
Sulawesi,orknowninternationallybythenameofCele-bes,isthethird-largestislandoftheIndonesianarchipel-ago.Theislandisalmostentirelycoveredbymountainsandissurroundedbydeepseabasinsandtroughs.Itispeculiarinform,composedoffourpeninsulas,extend-ing in eastern and southern directions. It looks likethecentralpart isthehighestpart, tyingtogetherthefourpeninsulasinaspider-likeshape(Figure2.4).Suchmorphologyandstrikingreliefwerebelievedtobethe
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�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
resultsofcollisionsandfrictionsbetweenseveralaxes,togetherwithextensivefaultingofthecontinentaltec-tonicplates(Fisher,1966;vanBemmelen,1949).Alarge
Donggala
W — E
Gulf (Teluk) of Tomini
Peleng
SulaTeluk Tolo
Danau Towuti
Teluk BoneButung
BANDASEA
Selayar
Bonthain
Makassar
Majene
FLORES SEA
Danau Poso
TORAJA
LatimojongMnts
MntRantekombolo
MntLompobatang
Gorontalo
ManadoTondanoCELEBES SEA
MINAHASAMoluccaSea
Figure 2.4 GeomorphologyofSulawesi.(Scale:1:6,000,000.)(FromvanBemmelen,R.W.[1949];Fisher,C.A.[1966];Sigit,S.I.[1962];andRandMcNally[1995].)
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Chaptertwo: GeomorphologyofIndonesia ��
numberoflakeshavebeenformedbetweenthemazeofvalleysandridgesinthecentralpartoftheislands(e.g.,LakePoso,LakeTowuti,andLakeMatana).
SulawesiformsalinkbetweentheEast-Asiaticislandchain and the Sunda Mountain system (van Bem-melen,1949).ThecontinuationwiththePhilippinesismaintained by its northern peninsula, the Minahasaregion, and proceeds through the Toraja lands intothe southwest arm, which in its southern part showsaffinitieswiththemountainsofJavaandSumatra.Theeasternarmisconsideredtobecontinuedinthesouth-easternpeninsula,whichconnectstotheBandaareas.
Themostimportantparentmaterialsforsoilforma-tionoftheislandarebasicformations(Mohr,1944).Thenorthernareaofthenortharmiscoveredbyquaternaryvolcanoes.SeveralactivevolcanoeslocatedintheMina-hasaregionhaveintermittentlydeliveredalotofbasicmaterials,givingrisetofertilesoils.Thesemountainsdisappeartowardthewestofthisnorthernpeninsula.Here,olderformationstaketheirplace.Forexample,intheregionofGorontalo,granitesandcrystallineschistsseemtobeofmoreimportance.Thecentralpartoftheisland and the northeastern and southeastern penin-sulas are nonvolcanic. The area is covered mostly byoldformations,suchasplutonicrocks,gneiss,allkindsof schists, graywacke, peridotites, and so forth. Thesouthwestern peninsula can be divided into a north-ernsectionandasouthernsection.Thenorthernsec-tion,includingtheLatimojongmountainsandthelakearea, showssomesimilaritieswith thecentralpartoftheisland.Thesouthernsectioniscomposedofthreeregions.Thewesternmountainsalong thewest coast
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�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
consistofandesitesandbasalts.TheBonemountainsontheeastcoastconsistinthesouthofandesites,whereasto thenorth this formationdisappearsandgoesoverintoaneocenelimestonerange.Thesouthernpointofthepeninsula,whereMakassarislocated,attheshoresoftheStraitofMakassar,isundertheinfluencesphereoftheLompobatangvolcano(namedbyDutchexplor-ersasPiekvanBonthain).Thisvolcano,nowconsideredinactive, atone timedeliveredbasaltic tuffsandcon-glomerates,givingrisetofertilesoils.
Insummary,itcanbestatedthatthegeomorphologyof the island is in striking contrast with that of Java,Sumatra,andKalimantan.Thelargestpartoftheislandis rugged in terrain with strong relief, and extensiveareas of flat coastal plains are conspicuously absent.The most fertile regions with well-established agri-cultural settlements are present in the Minahasa andMakassarregions.Mostoftheagriculturaloperationsintheremainderoftheislandarereportedtobeslash-and-burnorshiftingcultivation.
�.�.� GeomorphologicalfeaturesofMaluku
Maluku,calledMoluccasinEnglish,isagroupofrel-atively small islands, located between Sulawesi andPapua(WestIrian).Intheearlyhistoryoftheseislands,spicesattractedtheattentionofSpanish,Portuguese,andDutchseafarersandmerchants,andhence,theislandsweregiven thenicknameof“Spice Islands.”Thebig-gestislandisHalmahera,withanareaofapproximately8000km2,andthenextbiggestareCeramandBuru.Thebest-knownislandisAmbon,measuringonly800km2
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Chaptertwo: GeomorphologyofIndonesia ��
inarea,whereastheotherislands,Banda,Tidore,andTernate,aresmallerinsize,withTernateestimatedtobeonly65km2.Manymoreislandsarepresentwithinthe territory of Maluku, ranging in area from a fewsquarekilometerstojustamerecoralreefintheBandaorCeramseas(seeFigure1.1andFigure2.4).
Malukuisanareawithactivevolcanismormountainbuilding, though volcanism on the island of Ambonisatpresentconsideredtobedormant.Geologically,itcanbedividedintoanorthernpartandasouthernpartbyaridgerunningfromtheeastarmofSulawesitotheBirdshead(Vogelkop)inPapua.
North Maluku, where Halmahera and Ternate arelocated, consists of two converging ridges, called theSangihe and the Ternate systems. The Sangihe systemformstheconnectionbetweentheEast-AsiaticislandsandSulawesi,whereas theTernate system loopseast-wardtoPapuaandMelanesia.
SouthMaluku,withtheislandsCeram,Ambon,Buru,andBandaneira, consistsof theBandaarcswith theirtwoparallelridgesborderingtheBandaSeaintheeast.Theinnerarcisactivevolcanicarea,whereastheouterarcisfreeofyoungvolcanism.Inthefollowingsection,onlytwoofthemostimportantislandsofMalukuwillbeconsideredmoreclosely,namelyAmbonandCeram.
�.�.�.� AmbonThe city of Ambon, located on the island of Ambon,was next to Batavia in Java, the oldest Dutch settle-mentinthisremotecornerofthearchipelago.Itisthecapital of the Maluku province and also the home oftheUniversityofPattimura.Theislandiscomposedof
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�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
old formations, such as graywacke, sandstone, shale,limestone,schist,andperidotite,whicharecoveredforthegreaterpartbyyounger,probablytertiaryvolcanicmaterial. The older formations are found on the sur-facemostlyinthesouthernpeninsulaofLeitimer.Theyoungermaterialsarespreadmoreextensivelyovertheislandandconsistofmaterialsrangingfromandesitesanddacitestoliparites.Duetotheirpeculiarcharacter-istics,thiswholegroupofparentmaterialswascalledAmbonitesbyvanBemmelen(1949).
�.�.�.� CeramThe island of Ceram is according to Mohr (1949) notmuch different from Ambon. Igneous rocks are alsoconsideredtobenotimportantwithbasaltandgranitecommonlyscarceorabsent.Widespreadare,again,sed-imentaryandmetamorphicrocks,suchasmicaschists,graywackeslates,andsomeTriassicformations.AsisthecaseinAmbon,noactivevolcanismispresenttoday.
�.�.� GeomorphologicalfeaturesofNusaTenggara
Nusa Tenggara, also known as the Lesser SundaIslands,consistsfromeasttowestoftherelativelysmallislands of Timor, Alor, Flores, Sumba, and Sumbawa,withTimorandFloresformingperhapsthetwobiggestislands.TimorisincloseproximitytoAustralia,sepa-ratedonlybytheTimorSea.TheislandsLombokandBali canbeconsidered linking this islandchainwiththeislandJava.
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Chaptertwo: GeomorphologyofIndonesia ��
Geomorphologically, Nusa Tenggara can be distin-guished into two different areas. A volcanic area of1000kmlong,includingBaliandLombok,connectstheinnerBandaarc,runningeast–westthroughtheislandchain,withthemountainsystemsofJavaandSumatra.Asecondarc,locatedmoretothesoutheast,isnonvolca-nicandincludesTimorandsurroundingislands.Coralreefsarepresentmoreabundantly,whereastheclimatebecomestowardtheeastincreasinglydrier,quitediffer-entfromtheequatorialhumidclimateprevalentinJavaand Sumatra. The very long and intense dry seasonshaveresultedinscrub-likevegetationandasavannahorsteppelandscape.
The parent materials for soil formation may rangefromquaternaryintermediate-acidvolcanicmaterialstoneoceneformations.Alongthecoast,mostlyyoungqua-ternaryalluvialcoastalplainsarefound.BaliandLom-bokhavesomesimilaritieswithCentralandEastJava,characterized by fertile volcanic slopes and foothills,borderedbyrelativelybroadplains,thoughthelowlandareasaresomewhatsmallerinsizeinLombok.
�.�.� GeomorphologicalfeaturesofPapua(WestIrian)
The big island bordering the Moluccas to the east isknowninternationallyasNewGuinea.Thewholeislandisconsideredacontinentbyitselfandhasbeensharedhalfby IndonesiaandhalfbyAustralia.ThewesternpartoftheislandwashistoricallyDutchterritory,calledWestNewGuineaatthattime,whereastheeasternpartisnowPapua-NewGuinea,aself-governednationwithin
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the British Commonwealth with close ties with Aus-tralia.AfterthesurrenderofsovereigntyofWestNewGuinea, Indonesia renamed it Irian Jaya or West Irian.ThisnamehasbeenchangedagainintoPapuabyIndo-nesiafollowingthewillofthepeople.
In size, the area of mainland Papua almost equalsthesizeofBorneo.However,theprovinceofPapuaintheIndonesianArchipelagoincludesmanysurround-ing small islands—for example, the islands of Biak(formerlycalledSchoutenIsland),Numfoor,andYapenintheGulfofSareraorGeelvinkBay(todayalsocalledTelukCenderawasih)borderingthePacificOcean.TothesoutharetheKai(orKei),Tanimbar,andAruislandsin the Arafura Sea, separating them from Australia(Figure2.5).MostofmainlandPapuaisstillunknownterritory.
Papuacanbedistinguishedintoawesternpartandaneasternpart.Thewesternpartisapeninsula,calledtheVogelkoporBirdshead,becauseof itspeculiar land-form,reflectingtheheadofabird.Itisconnectedtothemainlandintheeastbyanarrowneck.TheBirdsheadareahasonthenorthcoastaneast–westrunningyoungvolcanicmountainrange,calledtheArfakMountains,which consist of andesitic and basaltic formations. Atertiaryfoldedmountainzonerunsthroughthe“neck”oftheBirdsheadsoutheastintotheOwen-StanleyRange,which connects with the Nassau or Oranje mountainranges. This is a very broad mountain zone with awidthestimatedatmorethan160km.
Themainlandshowsanumberofparallelzones.Start-ingfromthecoastofthePacificOcean(tothenorth),anarrowcoastalplainstretchesmoreor lesseast–west.
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Chaptertwo: GeomorphologyofIndonesia ��
This is bordered inland to the south by a mountainrange, known as the Northern Watershed mountains(Mohr, 1944) with granites, chlorites, and crystallineschistsasmajor formations.TheNorthernWatershedmountains include most probably the Cyclop and theBougainvillemountains (vanBemmelen,1949).Next tothismountainzone(tothesouth)isadepressionarea,knownastheMeervlakteorCentralLakePlain.Thenatu-raldrainagehereisprovidedbytheTaritatu(Idenburg)River,meetingtheTariku(Rouffaer)River,toformthe
Arfak MntsBiak
Yapen
Van ReesRange
Mam
beramo
River
PACIFICOCEAN
Tariku River
EilandenRiver
Idenburgtop
Teluk Cen-derawasih
Cartensztop Idenburg RiverNassau-Oranje Range
Kei Islands
CeramFakfak
Teluk Berau
Waigeo BIRDSHEADSorong
Digul-FlyDepression
ARAFURA SEA
W — E
Dig
ul R
iver
AruIslands
TanimbarIslands
Fly River
Figure 2.5 Geomorphology of Papua. (Scale: 1:12,500,000.)(From van Bemmelen, R.W. [1949]; Fisher, C.A. [1966]; Sigit,S.I.[1962];andRandMcNally[1995].)
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�0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Mamberamo or Tarikaikea River, which runs to thenorthintothePacificOcean.
TothesouthoftheCentralLakePlainliesacomplexmountainsystem,calledearlier theNassauorOranjeMountainrange,runningeast–westthroughthemainaxis of the mainland. The highest parts, the Idenburgtop(PuncakTrikora)andtheCartensztop(PuncakJaya)with summits reaching 4900 m and 5040 m, respec-tively,areknownastheSnowMountainrangewithever-lastingsnowandglaciersontheirpeaks.Tothesouthof the Snow Mountain range, a broad lowland plainexists, running toward the Torres Strait, which sepa-ratesPapuafromAustralia.ThisareaofcoastalplainisknownastheDigul-Flydepression,namedaftertheDigulandFlyrivers,whichcontributedtotheforma-tionofthisextensivecoastalregion.Thislow-lyingflatarea,mostlycoveredbytidalswampsandpeat,extendswestward over another important river, the EilandenRiver,andbeyond.TheextentofswampandpeatlandsexceedsthesizeofthoseinKalimantanandSumatra.
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��
chapterthree
ClimateofIndonesia
�.� ClimateDuringtheyearsinthepre-andpost-WorldWarIIperi-ods,aconsiderableamountofworkwasdoneonquali-tativeandquantitativeinvestigationsoftheclimateofIndonesia.TheDutchgovernmentneededthisinforma-tionfortheirplantations,andmanyofthelargeresearchstations were adequately equipped with weather sta-tions. Reliable and well-arranged climatological datawerecompiledandarenowavailableaspublicationsoftheMeteorologicalandGeophysicalInstituteatJakarta.Formorebasicdetails, reference ismadetoTeiletal.(1931),Boerma(1931),Braak(1925–1929,1931,1939,1948),Mohr(1944),SchmidtandFerguson(1951),Schmidt-TenHopenandSchmidt (1951), andMohrandVanBaren(1960).The intention of this text is to review, discuss,andapplytheweatherinformationonlyasafactorintheformationofIndonesiansoils.
Manytypesofclimateshavebeenusedfordelineat-ingtheclimateofIndonesia.Thenamesequatorialandtropicalclimateshavebeenassignedtocharacterizetheprevailingclimateinthearchipelago,andthetwotermshave been applied synonymously by many scientistsfor reasonsexplainedbelow.Another typeof climate
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applied tooftencharacterize theclimate in Indonesiaisthemonsoonclimate,andtheIndonesianpeoplecom-monlyrelatethewestmonsoonwiththerainyseasonandtheeastmonsoonwiththedryseason.Thismaybe true forcertainpartsbut isnotnecessarilycorrectforotherpartsofthearchipelago.Toalleviatesomeoftheconfusion,itisperhapsofimportancetodefinethethree typesofclimatesanddiscuss towhichpartsofIndonesiatheycanbeapplied.
�.�.� Theconceptsofequatorialandtropicalclimates
�.�.�.� EquatorialclimateTheequatorialclimateisconsideredtoexistwithintheequatorialzone,whichisusuallybyconventionacceptedtoliebetween5°Nand5°S(latitudes).Thewindpat-ternassociatedwiththeequatorialclimateiscalledthetrade wind. In the northeastern hemisphere, the tradewindblowsfromthenortheasterndirectiontotheequa-tor,whereasinthesouthernhemispherethewindcomesfromthesoutheasterndirection.Usuallyheavilyloadedwithmoisture,evaporatedfromthePacificandIndianOceans, these winds bring a lot of rains, which is thereason for the presence of a dense tropical rain forest,growingincountriesneartheequator.Duetoitslocationbetween6°Nand11°S, Indonesiamayfallwithinthezoneofanequatorial climate. Itsnorthern regionmaybeaffectedbythenortheasttradewind,butthesouth-ernregionisinfluencedbythesoutheasttradewind.Theequatorgoesacross theBukitBarisanMountainsnear
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Chapterthree: ClimateofIndonesia ��
Bukit Tinggi and stretches eastward across Pontianak,separatingtheislandsofSumatraandKalimantanintonorthern and southern halves. The remainder of thearchipelagoismostlyinthesouthernhemisphere.
Theequatorialclimateisgenerallycharacterizedbyhighprecipitation,asindicatedabove,andbyhightem-peraturesthroughouttheyear.Generallyspeaking,thisisthehotandhumidclimatethatmanypeopleassoci-ate with the tropics. For example, the towns of BukitTinggi and Padang in West Sumatra show a 20-yearmonthlyaveragetemperatureof20°Cand26°C,respec-tively,whichisfairlyconstantthroughouttheyear.Theannualprecipitationwasrecordedtoaverage2400mmforBukitTinggiand4500mmforPadang.ThetownofPontianak,whichtheequatorpassesrightthrough,asindicatedearlier,ischaracterizedbyamonthlyaveragetemperatureof26°Candanannualprecipitationaver-ageof3200mm.Bothtemperatureandprecipitationdonotfluctuatethroughouttheyear.Nevertheless,townsa little above or below the equator, such as Manado(1°N)intheMinahasapeninsulaandManokwari(1°S)intheBirdsheadofPapua,exhibitrainfallpatternswithmonthlyaveragesofonly100mmto130mm,respec-tively, for the months of July through October. How-ever,therainfallintheremainingmonthsoftheyearistwicethatmuch,withanaverageof280mm/monthforManadoand250mm/monthforManokwari.Althoughthe months from July to October receive only abouthalftheamountsofrain,itisdifficulttosaythatthesemonthsrepresentatruedryseasonwith100mmto130mmofrainfallpermonth.
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�.�.�.� TropicalclimateAtropicalclimateisdefinedastheprevailingclimateinthetropicalzone,whichisthezonebetweenthetropicofCancer (23°N)and the tropicofCapricorn (23°S).Therefore,thetropicalzonealsocoverstheequatorialzone,whichisperhapsonereasonwhymanyscientistsconfuseanequatorialclimateforatropicalclimate.Theconfusionisalsoaggravatedbytheabsenceofgeneralagreementastowhatthedefinitionshouldbeofatrop-icalclimate.AssuggestedbyKöppen(Braak,1931;Teilet al., 1931), a tropical climate is a climate within thetropicalzonethatexhibitsamonthlytemperaturethatneverfallsbelow18°C.Anotherconcept,whichappearstoalsobewidelyaccepted,isthatatropicalclimateischaracterizedbyaseasonalrainfall,meaningthatitisalternatedbyadryseason.Itshouldnotoccur intheformofconstanthighprecipitationthroughouttheyear,asexhibitedbytheequatorialclimate.Thetemperatureshould also not be the high temperature characteriz-ingadesertclimate(Fisher,1966).ThetemperaturesofJakarta and Bandung, in West Java, show a longtimemonthlyaverageof26°Cand22°C, respectively.Theyareconstantat thesevalues throughout theyear.Thelower temperature forBandung isdue to the locationofthetownhighupontheslopeofMountTangkubanPrahu.Theannualprecipitationwasrecordedovertheyears to average 1800 mm for Jakarta and 1900 mmforBandung.Bogor,ontheotherhand,located50kmsouthofJakartaontheslopesoftheGede-PangrangoMountains,ischaracterizedbyanannualprecipitationof4000mm.Theamountofrainfallappearstonotbedistributedveryevenlythroughouttheyear,withthe
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Chapterthree: ClimateofIndonesia ��
monthsofJunethroughSeptemberreceivinglessrainthantheothermonths.Amonthlyaverageprecipitationof70mmwasreportedforJakartaand80mmforBand-ungforJunethroughSeptember,whereastherainfallwas180mm/monthand200mm/monthinJakartaandBandung,respectively,intheothermonths.
Theabovesuggeststhepresenceofaweakdrysea-son in West Java, which tends to become graduallymore sharp or pronounced toward Central and EastJava. Surabaya, the capital of East Java, receives fromJulythroughOctoberanaverageofonly13mm/monthincontrast to themonthsofNovember throughJune,whereanaveragerainfallisreportedof200mm/month.ThedryseasonbecomesevenlongerandmoredrasticintheLesserSundaIslandschainbecauseoftheinflu-encesphereofthesubaridanddesertclimateofneigh-boringAustralia.
�.�.� Theconceptofmonsoonclimates
�.�.�.� ConceptofmonsoonsAmonsoonclimateisassociatedwithashiftingwindpatterncausedbyachangeinseasons.Thenamemon-soon originated most probably from the Arabic termmausem (meaningseason),because incontrast to tradewinds,themonsoonwindcanshiftitspathinoppositedirection with changing winter and summer seasonsof thecontinents in thenorthernandsouthernhemi-spheres.Thesystemwasoriginallyusedtocharacterizethe climate in India. The winter season on the Asiancontinentcreatesahigh-pressurecondition,forcingthewindtoblowsouthtothelow-pressureregioncaused
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bythesummerinthesouthernhemisphere.Thisresultsin a dry season for countries in the northern hemi-sphere (for example, India). When the winter seasonchangesinthenorthernhemisphereintosummertime,itisthenwinterinthesouthernhemisphere,andthischangeforcesthewindtoshiftitscourseintoanorth-erndirection.ItisthentherainyseasoninIndia,whichgenerallyoccursfromJunetoSeptember.Beforeenter-ingtheIndiansubcontinent,thewindhaspickedupalotofmoisturefromtheIndianOceanandbringstothecountrynotonlywaterbutalsorelieffromtheintenseheat.
Attemptshavebeenmadetoapplythisconceptofamonsoon for explaining the variety of climatic typespresentinmanypartsoftheworld,becausefourmon-soon systems have recently been defined and rec-ognized. They are the North American Monsoon,Northeast(Asian)Monsoon,SouthwestSummerMon-soon,andSoutheastAsianorIndianOceanMonsoon.Theseattemptsinaglobalapplicationofthemonsoonconcept make the problem even more confusing. Forinstance,manypeoplehavenotexpectedNorthAmer-ica to be affected by a monsoon, as it is still hard tobelieve in the North American Monsoon being theweathermakeroftheUnitedStates.Itistruethatahigh-pressuresystemiscreatedduringwintertimeabovethearcticregionofCanada,butnoinformationisavailablethat thiswillcreateawindsystemblowing towardalow-pressure system developed in the summertimeover another landmass located in the opposite direc-tion.TheonlycontinentinthisrespectisArgentina,farawayinthesouthernhemisphere.Itissummertimein
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Chapterthree: ClimateofIndonesia ��
ArgentinawhenwinteroccursintheUnitedStates,andviceversa.
ThegeneralideaisthattheprimeweathermakerintheUnitedStatesisacomplexsystemoflowandhighpressures, developed in the air because of changesin temperatures of the land surface, atmosphere, andwaterinlakesandoceans.Thesepressuresystemsareapparently affected by the Pacific Ocean in the westandtheGulfofMexicoandAtlanticOceanintheeast.Low-pressuresystems,assignedthesymbolLonweathermaps,usuallydevelopoverregionsofthePacificOceanduetotheevaporationoflargeamountsofwaterthatriseintotheair.Thesethenaretheallegedtropicalmon-soonsystems,anamethatU.S.weatherforecastersoftenusedforlow-pressuresystemsthatdevelopabovethePacificOcean.TheyareusuallycarriedeastwardbythepredominantlywesterlywindintheUnitedStates.Onlyinafewcasesare low-pressuresystemscomingfromtheAtlanticOcean,butduetotheprevailingjetstreamfromwesttoeast,theireffectisfeltonlyontheeasternseaboardandisseldomextendedtoaffecttheweatherpattern of the Western, Southwestern, Northwestern,andMidwesternStates.Dependingontheconditions,low-pressuresystemsaretherainmakersortheymayjustfizzleout.High-pressuresystems,developedbycool-ing conditions, are generally associated with dry airandareassignedthesymbolH.Wherehigh-pressuresystemsarepresent,theareausuallyhasnice,clear,andsunnyweather.Thesehighpressuresmaystallorblockthe movement of the low-pressure systems. At theselocations,thelow-pressuresystemmayunloaditscargoofmoistureintheformofsomekindofprecipitation.
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However,thehigh-pressuresystemscanalsobepushedawaybythelow-pressuresystemstowardtheAtlanticOcean.IftheymoveovertheBermudaislands,theyareoftencalledtheBermudahighs.
Inadditiontothepressuresystemsdiscussedabove,theweatheroftheUnitedStatesisaffectedbysystemsofcoolandwarmfronts.ThesefrontsarealsoconsideredimportantweathermakersoftheUnitedStates.Frontshavebeendefinedasfrontalbordersoflargeairmassesmovedbywindaction.ColdfrontsareusuallycausedbythearcticairmassesofCanada,andtheirmovementismainlysouthward.Ontheotherhand,warmfrontsmovenorthandnortheast,becausetheyoriginatepri-marilyfromthewarmwatersoftheGulfofMexico,andhence,theairmassbehindthisfrontismoistandwarm.Whenthewarmfrontcollideswiththecoldfront,thewarmandmoistairslidesoverthedensercoldairmasstoahigherelevation.Ontheotherhand,whenthecoldfrontpushesagainstthewarmfront,itcausesthewarmand moist air to rise to a higher elevation in the air,whereitmaycondenseintowaterdrops,ice,orsnow.Thewarmfront,whenactive,canalsofeedalow-pres-sure systemwitha lotofmoistureandenergy. Inallthese cases, theseactionsmay result in somekindofprecipitation,oftenaccompaniedbyviolentweather.
Nowthatweknowalittlebitmoreaboutmonsoon,low-andhigh-pressuresystemsaffectingtheclimatesofAsiaandNorthAmerica,respectively,itisuptoyou,thereader,tomakeyourownjudgmentaboutthecor-rectness of the use of North American Monsoon as theweathermakerintheUnitedStates.
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Chapterthree: ClimateofIndonesia ��
�.�.�.� WestandeastmonsoonsinIndonesiaThesystemofmonsoonwinds,discussedabove,waslaterextendedtocharacterizetheclimateofcountriesinSoutheastAsiawheresimilarwindpatternsasinIndiaare present. The climate of Indonesia, for instance, isconsideredbymanypeopletobedictatedbymonsoonwinds,butanumberofscientistsdisagreeaboutthis.ToconsidertheclimateofIndonesiaasmonsoonalonlymaynotbeentirelycorrect.Myopinionisthatthecli-mateofthearchipelagoshowsfeaturesofanequatorial,a tropical, and a monsoon climate, depending uponthespecificlocationwithinthebordersofthecountry.Large areas of Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Papua areaffected more by trade winds than by the monsoon.However,theislandsoutsidethelatitudesof5°NandSmayindeedfeelmoresubstantiallytheeffectofthemonsoonsystem(forexample,Java,Bali,Lombok,andespecially east on the Lesser Sunda Islands). BecauseIndonesia lieswithin the influencespheresofAsia inthenorthwestandAustraliainthesoutheast,themon-soonsystemisnowcontrolledmorebytheconditionsof these two continents. During wintertime, the highpressure,createdabovetheAsiancontinent,forcesthewindtoblowtothesoutheastwherealowpressureisformedbythesummerinAustralia(DecembertoFeb-ruary).Thisisusuallyreferredtoasthewest-monsoon,and theassociatednorthwesterlywind,aftercrossingtheSouthChinaSea,brings therainyseason inKali-mantanandSulawesi.ItisalsothecausefortherainyseasonintheLesserSundaIslands.Anaveragerainfallof270mm/monthwasrecordedinKupang,Timor,forthe months of October through March, in contrast to
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the6-monthdryseasonfromAprilthroughSeptember,whichregisteredonly16mmofrainpermonth.WhenwintertimearrivesinAustralia,themonsoonreversesdirection and blows to the low-pressure area in thenorthwest, created by the summertime in Asia. Thesoutheasterlywind,fromtheAustralianhigh-pressuresystem, is called the east-monsoon. This system comesfromthesubaridanddesert regionsofAustraliaandconsistsofdryair.WhenthiswindcrossestheTimorSea,ithasnothadthechancetopickupenoughmois-tureand is thereason forbringing thedryseason inthe Lesser Sunda Islands. However, after passing theBanda Sea, the east monsoon has picked up enoughmoisture from the sea, which brings a lot of rain toAmbon,Menado,andManokwari.
Fromthediscussionabove,itseemsthatalongitudi-nalvariationexistsinthemonsoonoverthearchipelago.Inotherwords,whenthewesternpartofIndonesiahasitsrainyseason,theMoluccasintheeasthavetheirdryseason,andviceversa.Therainyseasoninthiseasternpart isdue to theeastmonsoon,butonly the islandslocatedwithintheequatorialzoneintheeast(AmbonandotherislandsintheMoluccas)willbeaffected.ForJava,Madura,andtheLesserSundaIslands,locatedtothesouthof5°S(latitude),theeastmonsooncreatesthedryseason.Thisisespeciallytruefortheeasternpartofthisislandchain,wherelongandsharpdryseasonsare the norms for the months of April through Sep-tember.This is supportedbyevidenceobtained fromextensive studies on the geographical distribution ofthe flora in Indonesia in correlation with the climate.Theresultsseemtoindicatethatonlycertainpartsof
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Chapterthree: ClimateofIndonesia ��
the archipelago, and in particular the Lesser SundaIslandsinsoutheasternIndonesia,arecharacterizedbyatypicalmonsoonvegetation(Endert,1946;VanSteenis,1948),whereasmostofthewesternpartsarecoveredbyatropicalrainforest.Becauseaclimaxvegetationisoftenconsideredasanexpressionoftheprevailingclimaticcondition,manyscientistsbelievethatthepresenceofamonsoonflorashouldbeacceptedasanindicationforthepresenceofthemonsoonclimateintheLesserSundaIslands,asweshouldacceptthedistributionoftherainforestinSumatraandKalimantanastheproductofaconstantlywarmandhumidequatorialortropicalcli-mate.However,manypeopleremainunconvincedandareof theopinion that the lengthof thedryandwetseasonsismoreimportantforabetterdelineationofamonsoon,tropical,orequatorialclimate.
�.� Climaticdivisionsbasedonlengthofdryandwetseasons
Inordertobettercharacterizeamonsoonclimatefromequatorial and tropical climates, attempts were madebyseveralDutchscientiststodeveloplimitsofdryandwetseasons(Mohr,1944;SchmidtandFerguson,1951).OthershavetriedtodeterminetheclimaxvegetationinvariousregionsofIndonesia(Endert,1946;VanSteenis,1948),whereasIhaveexaminedtheusefulnessofKöp-pen’sclimaticsystemintheclassificationofIndonesia’sclimate.ThedatainTable3.1summarizethecombinedresultsoftheaboveefforts.
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�.�.� TheclimaticsystemofMohr
Mohr’s system isbasedupon the number ofdry andwetmonths(Mohr,1944).Adrymonthischaracterizedbyarainfallof≤60mm/month,whereasawetmonthisconsideredtohave≥100mm/monthofrainfall.ManyDutchscientists(Mohretal.,1972)believethatthesoilwillbecomeeasilydrywhenrainfallis≤60mm/month,whereasthesoilclimateishumidwhenrainfallisabovethislimit.Amonthwithprecipitationbetween60and100mmisthencalledamoistmonth.Thesoilwillreceivejustenoughwatertowetitspedon(orsoilprofile).Thiswaterisofbenefittogrowingplants.Mohr(1944)and
Mohr (1944) Number of Wet and Dry Months Endert (1946) Köppen
Climatic Class Wet Months>100 mm
Type ofVegetation
ClimaticSystem
Af120–1
2–3 9–10
3–5 7–8
I. Constantly Wet
II. Slightly or Weakly Dry
TropicalRain Forest
Am
III. Markedly DryTropical
MonsoonForest
Am
4–6 5–8IV. Severely Dry
7–8 5–6V. Fierce Drought
TropicalSavannah
AsorAw
Dry Months<60 mm
Table.3.1. NumberofDryandWetMonthsforClassifyingClimateandVegetationCoverinIndonesia
Sources:Mohr,E.C.J.(1944)andEndert,F.H.(1946).
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Chapterthree: ClimateofIndonesia ��
Mohretal.(1972)collectedrainfalldataoversufficientlylongperiodsoftimeandclassifiedtheclimateofIndo-nesiaintofivegroupsaccordingtothenumberofwet(≥100 mm/month) and dry (≤60 mm/month) months(Table3.1):
ClassIisawetorhumidclimate,wheretheaveragemonthlyrainfallseldomorneverfallsbelow60mm.ClassIIisaclimatewithaweakdryperiod.Underthisclimate,thesoildoesnotdryoutcompletely.ClassIIIisaclimatethatexhibitsadryseason.Thesoilmaydryoutinthedryseasontosomedepthin the pedon. During this period, evaporationapparentlyexceedsmoisturesupply.However,theamountofmoisturelostwillbereplenishedagainduringthewetseason.Class IV isa climatecharacterizedbyavery longand sharp dry season. The soil is dry for almosthalfoftheyear.ClassVisaclimatewithalongperiodofdrought.However, it is still too wet to consider it as anaridclimate.
Thisconcepthasmanypracticalapplicationsinsoiland agricultural science. Mohr is of the opinion thatatarainfallof>100mmamonth,theamountofwaterreceived by the soil exceeds the amount evaporated,andthemonthscharacterizedby>100mmofrainfallare called wet months, as indicated earlier. The excesswaterleachesthepedon,whereasalargepartisavail-ableforuptakebygrowingplants.Thisistheclimatethatwillsustainatropicalrainforest(Endert,1946;Van
•
•
•
•
•
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�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Steenis,1948).Ashortdryseasonwithamonthlyrain-fallof≤60mm,suchasinagroupIIclimate,isconsid-erednottobeharmfulandcanstillsupportthegrowthofalushtropicalrainforest.Ontheotherhand,atlongdryperiodsof3to5monthswithaprecipitationof<60mm/month,mostoftherainwaterpouringdownisrap-idlyevaporated,andthesemonths,calleddrymonthsbyMohr,tendtodryoutthesoilquickly.However,thesoilstillcontainsapparentlysufficientamountsofmoisture,replenishedduringthe7-to8-monthwetperiod,thatitcansustainatropicalmonsoonforestvegetationcover.When the dry season is long and sharp, as in groupIVclimate,theseverelydryconditioncansupplyonlyenoughmoisture for thegrowthof tropicalsavannahvegetation(Endert,1946;VanSteenis,1948).ThegroupV climate with its long and fierce drought periods isstilltoohumidtobeconsideredasarealdesertclimate.The soil possesses sufficient amounts of moisture forsustainingthegrowthofatropicalsavannah(Endert,1946;VanSteenis,1948).
Asindicatedabove,eachoftheclimaticclassesseemsto correlate with the distribution of a specific flora.Classes I and II (Table3.1) are the types of climatesoccurringinregionsofthetropicalrainforestscover-ingSumatra,Kalimantan,Sulawesi,Papua,andpartofJava.According toKöppen’sclimaticsystem, thecon-stantlywetclimategroupcanbeclassifiedasanAfcli-mate,whereastheclimatewithaweakdryseasonfallsintothecategoryofanAmclimate.ThelatterisnotedtooccurespeciallyinWestJava.Mohr’sclassIIIclimate,orthemarkedlydryclimate,seemstobethetypicalmon-soon climate, generally characterized by a relatively
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Chapterthree: ClimateofIndonesia ��
sharpdryseasonof3to5months.ThistypeofmonsoonclimateispresentonlyinCentralandEastJavaandinthewesternpartsof the islandsofNusaTenggara. Inadditiontotheseregions,themonsoonclimatecanbefoundinverylimitedareasofIndonesia(forexample,inAceh,NorthSumatra;Gorontalo,Sulawesi;Namlea,Moluccas;andMerauke,Papua).Thetypesofclimates,classifiedbyMohrasclassesIVandV,areaffectingonlytheeasternpartsofNusaTenggara,and thecloser toAustralia,thelongerwillbethedryseason.Thistypeofclimate,resemblingasavannah-typeclimate,isalsoreflectedbytheflora,asindicatedabove.
�.�.� ClimaticsystemofSchmidtandFerguson
The rainfall limits used by Mohr (1944) are appliedby Schmidt and Ferguson (1951) to revise Mohr’s cli-matic groupings with the purpose of eliminatingdisagreementsduetoinconsistenciesstillpresentintheclassificationoftheclimateofIndonesia.Theseauthorscalculatedtheratioorquotient(Q)oftheaveragenum-berofdrymonthsandaveragenumberofwetmonths:
Q Number of Dry Months mm/monthNumber= <( )60
of Wet Months mm/month( )>100 (3.1)
By using the quotient, Q, Schmidt and Fergusondivided the climate in Indonesia into eight types ofclimates, which they presented in a triangular dia-gram. There are, in fact, several climatic triangleversions present, as shown in Figure3.1. Mohr et al.(1972) originally used a semitriangular diagram forhis divisions of the five climate groups. In this text,
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therainfalldataofSchmidtandFerguson(1951)andthoseofMohretal.(1972)wereusedtocalculatetheQvalues.Thecalculatedvaluesarethenconvertedintopercentages by multiplying by 100%, used and inte-gratedintothediagramofSchmidtandFergusonasshowninFigure3.1.
21 3 4 5 6 7Average Number of Wet Months
Values of Q
Ave
rage
Num
ber o
f Dry
Mon
ths
8 9 10 11 12
2
1
0
3
4
5
6
7
8G
F
E
D
C
B
A
9
1011 700 %
300 %
167 %
100 %
60 %
33.3 %
14.3 %
0 %
12
H
Figure 3.1 ClimaticsystemofSchmidtandFerguson.(FromSchmidt,F.H.andFerguson,J.H.A.[1951];Mohr,E.C.J.[1944];andMohr,E.C.J.,VanBaren,F.A.,andVanSchuylenborgh,J.[1972].)
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Thesmallertheratioorquotient,Q,thewetterwillbetheclimaticconditions,whereasthelargerthevalueofQ,thelongerwillbethedryseason.AtQ=100%,theclimateischaracterizedbya6-monthdryperiod.ValuesofQabove100%indicatethatthedryseasonbecomeslongerandlonger.AtQ=700%,thedryseasonis10.5months,whichfortunatelydoesnotexistinIndonesia.MostpartsofthearchipelagoperhapsarecharacterizedbytypesAandBclimates,especiallythewholewesternregionofIndonesia.TypesCandDtypifytheclimatesof themonsoonregionsofCentralandEast Javaandotherregionswithasimilarpatternofsharpdrysea-sons,whereastypesEandFarefoundonlyinlimitedareasexhibitingtheverysharpandlongdryseasonsasprevailingintheeasternpartoftheNusaTenggaraIslandchain.TypesGandHarepracticallyabsent,asindicatedabove.Theyhavebeenobservedperhapsonlyoveraverysmallarea,suchas,forexample,inthePaluvalleyofSulawesi.
Though this systemseems tobegenerallyacceptedbytheforestserviceinIndonesia,manysoilscientistshaveviewed itasnotbeinganexact climatic system.Becauseitissolelybasedonrainfall,whichisjustonefactordeterminingtheclimate,theopinionexiststhatthesystemofSchmidtandFergusonwas justameredivisionofrainfalltypes.
�.� AltitudinalvariationsinclimateAsdiscussedearlier,Indonesiaiscoveredbyextensivemountain ranges, with mountains reaching summitssometimesover3000mhigh.Onaccountofthecontrast
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inreliefformedbythemountains,climaticchangeswithaltitudesabovesealevelareexpectedtooccur.Altitu-dinalzonesdevelopduetochangesinrainfallpattern,relativehumidity,temperature,andvegetationcover.
�.�.� Variationsinrainfallpatternswithaltitude
The total rainfall generally increases with increasingaltitudeandreachesamaximumsomewherebetween1000and1500mabove sea level.Thenumberofdrymonthsdecreasesgraduallywithelevationuntilacer-tain height is reached above sea level, where it startsto increase again (Table3.2). The point at which thenumberofdrymonthsstartstoincreaseagainisalsolocatedbetween1000and1500mabovesealevel.Thispointcoincidesnormallywiththecondensationlevelofwaterintheair,andatthisleveltheascendingaircools,resultingincondensationofwatervaporthatproducesalotofrain,densefog,andclouds.Atthesummitofthemountain,thenumberofdrymonthsoftenequalszero(Table3.2).
�.�.� Variationsintemperatureswithaltitude
Temperaturedecreasesgraduallywithincreasingalti-tude.Witheach100-mincreaseinelevationabovesealevel,thetemperaturedecreasesby0.6°C.ThevariationintemperaturewithincreasedelevationabovesealevelcanbecalculatedwiththeaidofaformuladevelopedbyBraak(1925–1929):
t=26.3°–h×0.6°C (3.2)
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Chapterthree: ClimateofIndonesia ��
where26.3° is theaverage temperature in IndonesiaindegreesCelsiusatsealevel,andhistheelevationinhectometers.
�.�.� Zonaldivisionsintolowland,upland,mountain,andhigh-mountainlands
Thevariationsorchangesinrainfallandtemperature,withincreasedelevationabovesealevel,arethereasonsformanyattemptstodividethecountrysideintoseveralaltitudinalzones (Mohr,1922;SchmidtandFerguson,
LocationRainfall Climate
MeanAnnualRainfall
<60 mm >100 mm Ka S&Fb
Pasar Minggu
Depok
35
95
266
540
900
1800
2211
3.2
2.0
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.6
0.0
7.9
9.9
11.5
11.8
10.1
10.6
11.1
2173
3130
4230
4880
3644
4201
5467
Afa
Afa
Afa
Afa
Af
Cfi
Cfi
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
Bogor
Tjiapus
Pondok Gedeh
Mandalawangi
Salak Volcano
mmm
Table.3.2. AltitudinalVariationsofRainfallandClimateinIndonesia
a K=Köppensymbols;b S&F=SchmidtandFerguson.Sources:Braak,C.(1931);Mohr,E.C.J.(1944);andSchmidt,F.H.andFerguson,J.H.A.(1951).
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1951; Van Steenis, 1948). On the basis of variations intemperatures with increased elevation, Mohr (1922,1944)recognizesfourzonesfromsealeveltomorethan1800mabovesealevel(Table3.3):
1. Tropicallowlands2. Tropicaluplands 3. Tropicalmountainlands 4. Tropicalhigh-mountainlands
For comparison, zonal divisions are also provided,developedbyVanSteenis(1948)andSchmidtandFer-guson (1951). As can be noticed in Table3.3, they aremuchsimplerthanMohr’szonalconcept.
Mohr
Zone °C Elevationm Zone Zone
Tropical Lowland
Tropical Upland
Tropical Mountain Land
Tropical High-MountainLand
Van Steenis S&Fa
Lowland
Upland
Upland
MountainLand
25–27
14–19
13–18
0–12
Tropical Zone
Tropical Zone
Submontane
MontaneZone
Subalpine
0–200
200–1000
1000–1800
1800
2400–4100
Table.3.3. ZonesofLowland,Upland,Mountain,andHigh-MountainLandsinIndonesia
a S&F=SchmidtandFerguson.Sources:Mohr,E.C.J.[1922,1944];VanSteenis,C.G.G.J.[1948,1954];Schmidt,F.H.andFerguson,J.H.A.[1951];andJunghuhn[1850].)
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Thealtitudinallimitsforthesezonaldivisionsoflandsarebelievedtoshiftsomewhattohigherorlowereleva-tionsabovesealevelinatropicalmonsoonclimate(Tan,1958;TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1959;VanSchuylen-borgh,1958).Theauthoralsowonderswhetheritisnotmoreappropriateusingnamessuchastropicalhighlandsandtropicalmountainlands,respectively,forthetropicalmountainlands(3)andhigh-mountainlands(4)?Thisismoreinlineandconsistentwiththeusageoftropicallowlandsanduplands.
Mohr’szonalconceptaboveisbasednotonlyonthelimitsoftemperatureandlocationabovesealevel,butapparentlyalsoonsuitabilityforthegrowthofcertaincropsandplants.Forinstance,thetropicallowlandhasbeendefinedastheregionnothigherthan200mabovesea levelandwith temperaturesnot lower than20°C.Theseconditionsappear tobeexcellent forsugarcaneandtobaccocultivationinIndonesia.However,inaddi-tiontotheabovefactors,amonsoonclimateisnecessaryfortheripeningprocessandharvestingofthetwocrops.Thetropicalupland,originallycalled“HillyLand,”isthezonebetween200and1000mabovesea level.At≥1000 m above sea level, coconut palm trees will notflourish.Thisisthezoneofthetropicalmountainland,wheregenerallythecondensationlevelofwatervaporintheairisreached,increasingtherelativehumiditythatconsequentlyproducescloudsandfog,oftenhoveringconstantlyoverthemountainsides.Theconditionsandcompositionofthevegetationcoverthenchangevisibly.Themountaintreesareusuallyloadedwithmoss,andconiferous trees start to increase in numbers. One oftheindigenouspinetreesinSumatraisthewell-known
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Pinusmerkusii,whichhasbeenusedfortransplantingonotherislandsforpulpproduction.Closetothesum-mit,startingat±2400mabovesealevel,thetimberlineisreached.VanSteenis(1954)hascalledthisthesubalpinezone.
�.� Significanceoftropicalandmonsoonclimatesinpedogenesis
Fromthediscussionabove,itcanperhapsbeconcludedthatitisverydifficulttodesignatetheclimateofIndone-siaeitherasamonsoonclimatealoneorasonlyatropi-calclimate.Threemaintypesofclimates,atleast,seemtooccurinthearchipelago.Theyarethetropicalrainforest climate, the tropical monsoon climate, and thetropicalsavannahclimate.Theequatorialclimatewithitstropicalrainforestiscoveredbythetropicalrainfor-estclimate.Thenametropicalhumidclimate isperhapsabetter termthan tropical rain forest climate,under-scoringmorethedeterminingfactorforclimate,ratherthantherainforest.Avegetationcoveristheresultingexpressionoftheprevailingclimaticconditions.
Ingeneral, the tropicalhumidclimateprevailsovermostoftheislandsinthearchipelago,andespeciallyinSumatra,Kalimantan,Sulawesi,Papua,andWestJava.The tropical monsoon climate is restricted to CentralandEastJavaandthewesternpartoftheLesserSundaIslandschain,whereasthetropicalsavannahclimateisfoundtoaffectsmallregionsonlyintheeasternpartoftheLesserSundaIslands, locatedunder the influencesphere of Australia. Because altitudinal variations in
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Chapterthree: ClimateofIndonesia ��
theclimateexist,thethreemainclimaticformswillnodoubtalsobeaffectedby thesechangesandwill fol-low similar zonal divisions with increased elevationabove sea level. These variations may have produceddifferent“shades”intheprevailingmainclimateoftheregion,whichareratherimportantfromthestandpointofsoilformation.Thedifferencesinclimatewillaffectthetypeofvegetation,andthis,inturn,willaffectthenatureofsoilsformed.
�.�.� Balanceeffectsbetweenprecipitationandevaporationindifferentclimatictypes
Oneof theeffectsofclimatecanperhapsbeascribedtothebalancebetweenprecipitationandevaporation,whichnaturallywilldifferindifferenttypesofclimates.Thetropicalmonsoonclimatewillaffectsoilformationwithalternatingdownwardandupwardmovementofsoilwaterinthepedon(soilprofile).Theupwardmove-mentduetothepullofevaporation,occurringmostlyduringthedryseason,mayvaryindurationwiththelengthof thedryseason. Itwillbe longer in the truemonsoonclimatesandshorterwherethedryseasonisweakandshort.Thesoilwillbeleachedduringthewetseason,butsomeoftheelementslost,especiallybases,willbe retransportedupwardduring thedryseason.Ontheotherhand,thetropicalhumidclimate,charac-terizedbyacontinuouslywetcondition,willaffectsoilformationwitharatherconstantdownwardmovementof soil water. In this condition, the soil is constantlyleachedandtendstobemoreacid inreaction,duetothelossofbases,thanthesoilinthemonsoonregions.
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�.�.� Altitudinalvariationsinsoilgenesisandsoilfertility
With increased location above sea level, soil organicmatter content, and in particular humic acid content,tends to increase substantially. This factor, togetherwiththecoolerandwetterclimateinthehighlandsorMohr’smountainlands,providesfavorableconditionsformobilizationofelements,especiallyAl,Fe,andCa,in the formof chelates (DeConinck,1980;Tan,1986).Due to formation of metal–organic complexes, humicsubstancesandotherorganiccompoundsmayacceler-atethedecompositionofsoilminerals,generallypres-ent in abundance in the young volcanic ash parentmaterials.Thedissolutionproductshaveaveryimpor-tantbearingonsoilgenesisandfertility.Movementormobilizationofsoilconstituentsisthemainreasonforhorizon differentiation, a process yielding soils withdifferentkindsofprofiles.Currentconceptsinforma-tionofspodichorizonsarebasedonformationofalu-minum-andiron-humicchelates.TheirmobilizationtotheBhorizonscausestheformationofthespodichori-zon,amaincharacteristicofspodosolsorpodzols.Thisprocesswascalledinthepast“podzolization,”anamethat was phased out by the U.S. soil survey division,creatingconfusionandargumentsfromalotofinter-nationalscientists.
Podzolizationgenerallyoccursincoolandhumidcon-ditionsintemperateregionsunderconiferousorothertypes of vegetation yielding acid humus. An almostsimilarconditioncanbefoundinIndonesiaonlyinthehighlandsorthetropicalmountain-landszone.Several
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Chapterthree: ClimateofIndonesia ��
otheraspectsinsoilgenesisrelatedtoorgano-complexformationwillbediscussedinChapter5,includingfor-mationofalbichorizonsandtranslocationofclays.
In addition to its role in soil genesis, organo-metalchelatesplayanimportantroleinmicronutrientavail-abilitytogrowingplantsandhencebenefitsoilfertilityingeneral.Becauseofchelation,Lindsay(1974)reportedthatmobilizationbydiffusionandmassflowofmicro-nutrientelementstoplantrootswasmadepossible.Thechelatesarebelievedtoprovidethecarriermechanismbywhichdepletedmicronutrientsat the roots canbereplenished. However, availability of chelated iron,zinc, and manganese is reported to be dependent onpHandstabilityoftheorgano-metalcomplexes.
The cooler climate of the tropical highlands is alsoidealforthecultivationofmanytemperateregioncrops,suchasIrishpotato,carrots,cauliflower,andcabbage.Thefreshproducecanbeharvestedyearlongforsaleatlocalmarketsorinshopsofbigtowns,suchasJakarta,Bandung,Surabaya,andMedan.Thelatterprovestobeaverylucrativebusinessforlocalfarmers.
Conditions in the lowlandsarequitedifferent fromthose discussed above for the mountain-land zone.Duetothehighertemperatures,decompositionofsoilorganic matter in the lowlands generally occurs at averyrapidrate,andhence,soilorganicmattercontentsare substantially lower than in the mountain lands.Themainsoilformationprocessinthelowlandsiscon-sidereddesilicification,bywhichsilicaisreleasedfromsoil silicatesby theprevailingdrasticweatheringduetohightemperatureandhumidconditions.Partofthesilicareactswithaluminumtoformclay,andanother
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partissubjecttoleachingintheconstantlyhumidcon-ditions.Mobilizationofironandaluminumisataveryminimumintheabsenceofadequateamountsofhumicacids,andtheseelements,instead,tendtoaccumulateinthesoil.Theprocesses,asdescribed,mayalsooccurintemperateregionsbutareusuallymorepronouncedin the humid tropics (Tan, 1998). In the past, such aprocessofsoil formationwasknownas laterizationorferralitization.Inessence,itisthereverseprocessofpod-zolization.Thesoilsformedwerecalledlatosols,theoxi-solsintoday’sU.S.SoilTaxonomy.
Intheuplands, thezonebetweenthe lowlandsandthe highlands or mountain lands, both podzolizationandlaterizationprocessescanoccursimultaneously.
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��
chapterfour
VegetationofIndonesia
�.� ClimaxvegetationThe vegetation is believed to reflect the climatic pat-tern of a particular region or country. The climate isexpected,ingeneral,toputitsimprintonthevegetationdevelopingintheregion.Consequently,thegrowthofthevegetationisadaptedtoandinbalancewiththepre-vailingclimaticconditions.Thetypeandcompositionofthisvegetation,dictatedbytheclimate,arecalledbyJenny (1941) the climax association. Therefore, differenttypesofvegetationarepresentinIndonesiaduetothepresenceofdifferent typesof climates.Because threemajor types of climates are recognized in Chapter 3,threedifferenttypesofclimaxvegetationmaybepres-ent in Indonesia—the tropical rain forest, the tropicalmonsoonforest,andthetropicalsavannahforest.
�.�.� Thetropicalrainforest
Thetropicalrainforestexistsintheconstantlywetareasof the humid tropics. It is generally characterized by
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evergreenformsofvegetation,asfarasithasnotbeendestroyedforfarmingandtimberproduction.Initsorig-inal state, the forest looksawesomeand impenetrableduetoanabundanceofverydensevegetativegrowth.Ingeneral,itiscomposedofawidevarietyofplantspe-cies,andonlyinveryfewexceptionscanonefindarainforeststandcomposedofasingleplantspecies.
Another characteristic of the tropical rain forest isthatitoftenformsthreedistinctivelayersofcanopies.Thehighestcanopyisformedbyverytalltrees,often40to60mhigh,toweringintotheskyasratherisolatedor widely spaced trees above the second layer of therainforest.Thissecondlevelisformedby20-to30-m-tall trees thataregrownmoreclosely together,henceyieldingadensecanopy,likearoof.Belowthissecondlevel,athirdlevelexists,consistingofsmallyoungtreesgrowingbetweenapopulationofavarietyof shrubsandothertypesofgroundvegetation.Alargenumberofcreepingpalms,thornyrattanplants,andmanytypesoflianas,climbingupwardsfromonetreetrunktowardanother,addtothetangledimageofathickanddenseundergrowth.Alayeroffreshlitter,consistingofdeadandhalf-decomposedleavesandtwigs,coversthesoil.In general, it takes at least 50 years to form a 20-cm-thicklitterlayerunderahealthyrainforest.Thislitterlayeristhelifelinefortherainforestduetoitsroleinnutrientcycling(Tan,2000).
�.�.� Thetropicalmonsoonforest
Thetropicalmonsoonforestexistsinthetropicalmon-soon climate. The southeastern part of Indonesia in
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Chapterfour: VegetationofIndonesia ��
particulariscoveredbytypicalmonsoonvegetation.Ingeneral,itismixedwithanumberofdeciduoustreesthatshedtheirleavesinthedryseason.Thoughmostofthetreesarenotthattall,somecanbeastallasthoseofthetropicalrainforest.Forexample,teak(Tectonagran-dis),acharacteristicmonsoon forest tree, cangrowastallas50m.Thetreesinamonsoonforestalsogrowratherwidelyspacedfromeachother.
�.�.� ThetropicalSavannahforest
The tropical savannah forest occurs only in limitedareas, such as in the eastern part of Nusa Tenggara,which is under the influence sphere of the arid anddesertregionsofAustralia.Ithardlyresemblesatrueforest,becausethevegetationissubstantiallythinnerorlessdensethanthatofthetropicalmonsoonforest.Thetrees of the savannah forest (for example, Acacia andEucalyptus species)aremoreadapted to longdrysea-sons.Withlotsofgrassvegetationbetweenthewidelyspaced trees, the tropical savannah forest, lookingmorelikeaparklandscape,isexcellentforgrazing.Theremainingwildlifeisuniquetothisregion,especiallythesmallwildhorses.Unfortunately,thesehorsesarenowontheendangeredspecieslist,ifnotalreadycon-sideredextinct.
�.� VegetationprovincesAnothermethodofdescribingthevegetationofIndo-nesiaistheconceptofVanSteenis(1948),whodividedthe archipelago into three vegetation provinces, each
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�0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
characterizedbyadistinctiveassociationofforestveg-etation,composedofspecificplantgenera.VanSteenis’three vegetation provinces are the West Indonesian,East Indonesian, and South Indonesian vegetationprovinces.
�.�.� WestIndonesianvegetationprovince
Thisprovince,characterizedbyaDipterocarpaceaerainforest(Figure4.1),issubdividedasfollows:
1. Dipterocarpaceae and Pinus forest of NorthSumatra.
2. Dipterocarpaceae and Ironwood (Eusideroxylonzwageri)forestofSouthSumatra.
3. DipterocarpaceaeforestofKalimantan,withIron-woodonthesoutheastcoast.
�.�.� EastIndonesianvegetationprovince
Thisprovince,characterizedbyanAgathisrainforest,issubdividedasfollows:
1. AgathisforestofSulawesi.2. Agathis forest with Ironwood, Melaleuca, and
sagopalm(Metroxylonspp.)ofMaluku. 3. Agathis forest andalpine grassland in theSnow
MountainrangeofPapua(WestIrian).
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Chapterfour: VegetationofIndonesia ��
�.�.� SouthIndonesianvegetationprovince
Thisprovinceischaracterizedbyamonsoonforestandisdividedasfollows:
Figure 4.1 TheDiterocarpaceaerainforestinthelowlandofNorthSumatrawithitsdenseundergrowth.
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1. Teak(Tectonagrandis)andCasuarinaforestofCen-tralandEastJava.
2. CasuarinaforestofBaliandLombok. 3. Savannah vegetation on the eastern islands of
NusaTenggaraand,inparticular,inTimor.Theseislandsarealsofamousforsandalwood(ExocarpuslatifoliaandSantalumalbum).
In addition to the major plant species listed above,thethreeprovincesarehometonumerousotherplantgenera. On the slopes of Mount Lawu in Central Java(SouthIndonesianVegetationProvince),thereareexten-siveforestareaswithtrees, identifiedbyBloembergen,ProfessorofBotanyatInstitutPertanianBogor(IPB;Indo-nesia), as Querqus spp. (personal communications). Formore detailed information on the vegetation of Indo-nesia,thereadersarereferredtothemultivolumeFloraMalesianabyVanSteenis(1954).Perhapsalsoofimpor-tanceistheworkofHeyne(1950)andthedetailedvege-tationmapoftheForestServiceofIndonesiaascompiledbyHannibal(Figure4.2).ItshouldberealizedthatthisvegetationmapofIndonesiadatesfromtheearly1940sto1950s,andthevegetationcoverofIndonesiahassincethenbeenchangeddrasticallybywide-scaledeforesta-tion for crop and timber production, including illegallogging,andbytheresultingdisastrouswildfires.Effortshavebeenmadetoassessthedestructionandtheextentoftheremainingvegetativecover.Byapplyingmoderntechniques,suchasLandsatsatelliteimagery,theForestServiceofIndonesiaistryingtoupdateolddataandoldmaps.
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Chapterfour: VegetationofIndonesia ��
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�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
�.� AltitudinalvegetationzonesBecausethevegetationwillfollowaspecificclimaticpat-tern,asindicatedintheaforementionedpages,inviewofthepresenceofaltitudinalchangesintheclimateofIndonesia, several vegetational zones can also be dis-tinguishedwithincreasedelevationsabovesealevel.Ingeneral,fivemaintypesofclimaxvegetationarerecog-nizedfromthelowlandstothehigh-mountainlands—thecoastalflora,therainforest,themountainforest,thecloud-belt forest, and the subalpine/alpine vegetation.Thesealtitudinalvegetationzonesmayoccurbothinthehumidtropicsaswellasinthetropicalmonsoonregions.Somepeoplemayperhapsobject,consideringthecoastalfloraasazoneofvegetation,causedbyaltitudinalchangesinclimate.Itisaddedhereforthesakeofcompleteness,becausethediscussionstartsfromsealevel.
�.�.� Thecoastalflora
Thecoastalformisadeterminingfactorintheforma-tionofacoastalflora.Whereextensivelow-lyingareasarepresent,stronglyinfluencedbythetidesofthesea,aMangroveforestdevelopswithmanyRhizophoraplants,locally calledbakauorbako-bakoplants.Anotherwell-knownmangroveplant is theNipahpalm(Nipa fruc-ticans), whose leaves are used by local folks to makebaskets and roof-thatch. This kind of forest usuallyflourishesonrivermudundersalineconditions.Atthemoreshelteredbeaches,thegentlyshelvingshorelinesoftheSundashelfareusuallyborderedbysuchaman-grovebelt,varyinginwidthfromafew100mtoseveral
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Chapterfour: VegetationofIndonesia ��
km.Thesearethekindsofswamps,oftenfoulsmell-ing,thatoccurextensivelyontheeastcoastofSumatra,southernandsouthwesterncoastsofKalimantan,andthesoutherncoastalplainofPapua.Theseawaterbringswiththetidelargeamountsofsulfatesthatareretainedbythecoastalsediments.Underanaerobicconditions,the sulfates are reduced into H2S, which in turn willreactwithirontoformFeS,givingtothesedimentsadirtyblackcolor (Tan,2000).Togetherwith theoffen-sive stench caused by the H2S gas, the dirty pollutedappearanceoftenturnspeopleaway.Nevertheless,themangroveforestareaprovidesshelterformanyformsof wildlife and is an important breeding ground formanytypesoffish,shrimp,andshellfish.
It is typical tofind thatmore inland, themangrovevegetationchangesgraduallyintoabrackishthenintoa freshwater swamp vegetation. As soon as the soilbecomesmixedwithmoresandymaterialandthesalineconditiondecreasesinland-ward,thetypicalmangroveplantsdisappeargraduallyandratherselectively.FirsttodisappeararetheRhizophoraplantsoftheAvicenniaspp.(locallyknownaskayuapi),thensecondinlinearetheNipahpalms.Thefreshwaterswampforestbehindthe mangrove belt supports a large variety of otherpalmtrees.ThePinangpalm(Arecacatechu)treesflour-ishinthiskindofswampandaresometimesfoundas“monocultures”(Figure4.3).Thenuts,knownasbetel-nuts,arefavoredasfoodbysomewildcacatuasandareusedforchewing-consumptionbylocalfolks.Theyarebelievedtobeaddictive,similartochewingtobacco,andbadforhumanhealthbecauseoftheircontentsofcar-cinogens.Anothercharacteristictreeofthefreshwater
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swamparea is thesagopalm(Metroxylon spp.) that isoften harvested by the people (Figure4.4). The starchfromthepithofthetreeisusedasfood,inthethicken-ingofgravy,orasglueandforthestiffeningofclothes.
Quiteadifferenttypeofcoastalvegetationwilldevelopifthecoastconsistsofabroadsandybeach.Inthiscase,dune formation often occurs, as is found along the
Figure 4.3 A“Pinangpalm”(Arecacatechu)forestinCeram(Moluccas)developedatriverbanksandfloodplainsunderanAfa(Köppen’s)climatetype.Theauthorisshown(ontheleft)withhissoilsurveycrew.
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Chapterfour: VegetationofIndonesia ��
northeastcoastofMaduraandthecoastalregionsborder-ingtheIndianOceanonthesouthandsouthwestcoastsofJava.Moreinland,behindthedunes,abeachforestusu-allydevelops,consistingoftreeswithfall-tintedleavesandbeautifulflowers, suchas theKetapang tree (Termi-naliacatappa),theHibiscusplants,andtheErythrinatrees.
Figure 4.4 Atypical“sagopalm”(Metroxylonsp.)forestintheMoluccas,developedinriverfloodplainsandfreshwaterswamps.
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�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
TheediblenutsoftheKetapangtreeareoftencollectedforlocalconsumption.However,onthesandybeaches,exposedtothesea,avarietyofsalt-tolerantgrassesgrow(forexample,Spinifex littoreus, locallyknownasrumputangin[grassthatbreaksthewind]).Thisgrassvegetationisapparentlyprotectingthebeachesbyencouragingthedunes to form. Large numbers of coconut palms alsogrowontheexposedbeaches.Wherethepalmtreesareabsent,Casuarinaequisetifoliatreescanbefoundgrowingontheshorelines.Thelattertreesarelocallycalledcamara(Indonesianforpine)trees,duetotheirlongneedle-likeleavessimilartopineneedles.
�.�.� Therainforestandthemountainrainforest
Movinginland,thecoastalvegetationgiveswaytoarainforestassoonastheconditionsbecomefavorableforitsdevelopment.Therainforeststartsatsealevelbutcanextend toward higher elevation. Usually the plants ortreesoftherainforestareverylargeandtall,oftentallerascomparedtothoseofthetemperateregions.Temper-ateregiontreesthatcanreachaheightof50mbelongtotheQuercussp.Inthehumidtropics,anumberofjunglegiantsmorethan60mhigharepresent.Theyareusuallyadornedwiththetypical“plankroots.”Anothercharac-teristicofatropicalrainforestistheprolificgrowthoflianas,rattans,andanassortmentofotherepiphytes.
As this rain forest extends to higher elevations, itscompositionchangeswithincreasingaltitude.Perhaps,at elevations of 100 m above sea level, some typicalplantsbegintodisappear.Lianasandrattansbecome
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gradually more slender and grow very poorly. Otherplantswillstarttodisappearordecreaseinnumbersat500to700mabovesealevel,whereastemperateregionplantsthenmaketheirappearancebetweentheindige-nousflora.Thisis,forinstance,thecasewiththeDiptero-carpaceaethatdecreaseinnumberatthishighelevation.Atthesametime,plants,typicalforamountainflora,appearandgraduallyincreaseinnumber.Forexample,atanelevationof500mabovesealevel,Quercus (oakorKayupasang)andCastaneajavanica(locallycalledKihiyur)orCastaneaargentea(Saninten)treesstarttoflour-ish.The fruitof theSaninten tree resembles the tem-perateregionchestnut.Athigherelevation,theSchimanoronhaetree(Kayupuspa)becomesdominant.Thelat-terisconsideredatrulytypicalmountaintree.
In many regions, the mountain flora may be domi-natedbyasinglespeciesoftrees.SuchisthecasewiththeconiferousforestinNorthSumatraandinCentralandEastJava.Intheseregions,themountainfloratendstobedominatedbyPinusmerkusii,anindigenouspinespecies,asindicatedbefore.
Theinfluenceofamonsoonclimateontherainforestandmountainfloracanbenoticedbytheappearanceofplantsadaptedtoaperiodicdroughtperiod.Thenthefloraconsistsmoreofdeciduousplants,suchasTectonagrandis(teak)inthelowlands,andQuercustreesinthecaseofamountainforest.
�.�.� Thecloud-beltforest
This name is probably better than the name “HighMountain Forest” as given by Mohr (1922). With
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increasing altitudes, the mountain rain forest, as dis-cussedintheprecedingsection,isgraduallyreplacedbyacloud-beltforest.Theconversionstartstotakeplacewhenthecondensationlevelofwatervaporintheskyisreached.Atthiselevation,lotsoffog,mist,andcloudsare consequently produced, which usually hang overthemountainsides.This iswhy thenamecloudbelt ispreferredinthisbook.Thiscondensationlevelmaybereachedat1000to1500mabovesealevel,butdepend-ingupontheconditionselsewhere,itmayalsobeginatanaltitudeof2000to2400m.
The cloud-belt forest is sometimes considered animpoverished type of a mountain rain forest. Due tothemistyconditionsproducinghighrelativehumidity,itsflora is typifiedbytreesdrapedbymanykindsofmosses.Atthelowerboundaryofthecloud-beltzone,plants typical of the mountain rain forest still exist,though in decreased numbers. With increasing alti-tudes, theysoondisappear tobereplacedby increas-ingnumbersofLaurantaceae,Myrtaceae,andconiferousplants.Atthehighestboundaryofthecloud-beltforest,thetreesareoftendistortedinappearanceandstuntedingrowth.Thesetrees,knottyandgnarledbythecoldmountain winds, will soon also disappear when athigherelevationthetimberlineisreached.
�.�.� Thesubalpinevegetation
Athigherelevationsabovesealevel,thecloud-beltforestwillbereplacedbyasubalpinevegetation.Asindicatedabove,atthehighestboundariesofthecloud-beltzone,thetreescanstillberelativelytall,thoughtheyaremore
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dwarfed and gnarled in appearance, especially whenthe “tree level” or “timberline” is reached. This leveldependsonthelocalclimate,topography,andgeomor-phology, but generally it starts at approximately 2400to 3000 m altitude above sea level. The large fluctua-tionsbetweenmaximumandminimumtemperaturesatthesehighestelevationsinIndonesia,togetherwiththelowrelativehumidityandlowairpressure,requireexceptionaladaptationforthevegetationtogrow.Thiscold and windy area above the timberline is oftencalled the subalpine zone. However, true alpine condi-tionsexistonlyintheSnowMountainrangeofPapua(WestIrian).
Duetolowtemperaturesandfiercewinds, theveg-etationtendstobegrasses,bunchgrasses,andshrubs.Mostoftheshrubshavefeltorvelvetyandhairyleavesand twigs as adaptations and protection against thesevereorharshgrowingconditions.AgoodexampleofsuchaplantistheEdelweissplant(AnaphalisjavanicaorLeontopodiumalpinum)foundonthemountaintopsinJavaandSouthSulawesi.Atthelowerboundariesofthesubalpinezone,closetothetimberline,somedwarfedanddistortedtreescanstillbeseengrowinginthebleaklandscape.Somerhododendronshrubsarealsofoundstrugglingtosurviveatthisaltitude.SporadicsurveysandvisitstothetopofthemountainsinJava,withtheirsubalpinevegetationandareasofpollengrassorbunchgrass, gave the impression to the author of this bookthattheysomewhatresembletheTussockgrasslandinthemountainsofNewZealand.
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��
chapterfive
Soilformation,classification,andlanduse
�.� Soil-formationfactorsBy previous conventional standards of pedology, thecharacter of the soil is attributed largely to the effectof interactions of five major factors of soil formation:climate, vegetation, parent material, topography, andtime(Jenny,1941;Joffe,1949;Robinson,1951;TaylorandPohlen,1962).Apparently thisconcept isstill relevanttoday,becauseithasnotbeenchallenged,but,instead,hasbeenquotedinmanymoderntextbooksofsoilsci-ence(BradyandWeil,1996;MillerandGardiner,1998;SoilSurveyStaff,2006b).
Asexplainedintheprecedingchapters,manykindsofrocksandvolcanicparentmaterials,severaltypesofclimates, different forms of vegetation, a great varia-tionintopography,andlandformsofdifferentagesarepresent in Indonesia. Though a great variety of soilsmayhavebeenexpected to form inviewof somanydifferences in soil-forming factors, surprisingly this
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seemsnottobethecase.Thepatternofthesoil’sdistri-butioninthearchipelagoisalsomoreregularaswouldnothavebeenexpectedfromthepresenceofthelargenumberofdifferentsoil-formationfactors.
�.� Soil-formingprocessesTheinteractionofthefactorsofsoilformationmaybeexpressedbyaseriesofsoil-formingprocesses,whichgenerallyinvolvecomplexphysical,chemical,andbio-logical reactions. The reactions may occur simultane-ously, or a sequence of reactions one after another isinvolved.Generally,itisbelievedthatthesoilisformedbythecombinedactionofadditionsoforganicmatterandinorganicmaterialstothesurface,transformationand new formation of compounds within the pedon,verticaltransferofsoilconstituents,andremovalofsoilcomponents from the soilbody (Simonson,1959;Tay-lor and Pohlen, 1962). The type of processes involvedvariesaccordingtotheconditions,andmanyprocesseshavebeenrecognizedinthisrespectasreasonsfortheformationofdifferentkindsofsoilsintheworld(Buolet al., 1973; Robinson, 1951; Taylor and Pohlen, 1962).Previous well-known processes of soil formation are,for example, laterization, podzolization, calcification,salinization,andgleyzation,representingprocessesforwarmhumid,coolhumid,semihumid,arid,andpoorlydrainedconditions,respectively.
Unfortunately,thisconceptofsoil-formingprocesseshasbeenphasedoutbytheU.S.DepartmentofAgri-culture(USDA)SoilSurvey,whichispromotingacon-ceptbasedsolelyonsoilmorphology(SoilSurveyStaff,
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1975,2006a).Differencesinsoilsaredeterminedbysoilprofilesonly,whicharedefinedasthemajorfactorforcausingvariationsfromsoiltosoil.Anumberofdiag-nosticpropertieshavebeendevelopedandassignedtoseveralofthesoilhorizonsforuseinidentificationofsoildifferences (SoilSurveyStaff, 1975, 2006a, 2006b).The soil-forming process in question should then bereadbetweenthelines.ThisideaoftheUSDAisappar-ently considered an excellent concept, because manyagreed to use it without question. However, a largenumber of scientists also have voiced concerns thattheU.S.SoilTaxonomysystemisoftennotapplicabletoconditionsdifferentthanthoseintheUnitedStates.ManyalsobelievethattheconceptistooartificialandsomewhatdistortedtofitU.S.conditions.Itshouldberevisedandadaptedappropriatelywhenusedinquitedifferentorforeignsoilecosystems.Readingsoil-form-ingprocessesinabstractionfrommorphologicaldataisveryriskyandmayleadtodifferentinterpretations.
ThefollowingissuesmayserveasanexampleaboutthedifficultiesusingtheUSDAsystem.Questionshavearisen,forinstance,astowhatthesoil-formingprocessofoxisols is intheUSDAsystem.Consideringoxisolsto be formed by oxidation is very unclear for many,whereasrelatingtheconceptofECEC(effectivecation-exchangecapacity),oneofthediagnosticpropertiesforan oxic horizon, to an oxidation process is stretchingtoofartheprinciplesofoxidationinsoilchemistry.Inaddition, the identification of oxisols solely on theirmorphologicalcharacteristicsisoftenveryconfusinginIndonesiaandmanyothercountries,becauseseveralofthemorphologicalfeaturesaretotheeyeoftensimilar
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to thoseofultisolsandsomealfisols in the lowlands.Many more examples can be given, but it is beyondthescopeofthisbooktoaddresstheweaknessesandstrengthsoftheAmericansystem.ItissufficienttosayherethattheUSDASoilTaxonomyisanexcellentsys-tem, but abandoning or phasing out well-establishedconcepts of soil-forming processes is perhaps unwar-ranted,ifnotarrogant.Whycanthetheoriesofsoil-for-mationprocessesnotexistsidebysidewiththeUSDASoilTaxonomysystem?Asfarascanbenoticed,thetwotheoriesdonotconflictwitheachotherandcanbeusedtosupporteachother.Scientistsaroundtheworldhavefrequently,butdiscretely,usedtheprocessesofsoilfor-mation tounderscore or emphasize thepresenceofasoilafterdoubtswereraisedwhenapplyingtheU.S.SoilTaxonomy(FAO-UNESCO,1998,2006,2007a).Manyoftheallegedlyoldterms,forexample,podzolsandsalinesoils,arestillinuseinGermanyandtheUnitedStates,respectively. The advantage of using both systems inparallel can be summarized by the following conclu-sion.By recognizing the factorsof soil formation, thesoil-formationprocess,andreflectedcharacteristics inthesoilprofile,geographicunitsofsoilsmaybedistin-guishedmoreproperlyandtheirdistributionmapped.
Forcompleteness,thesoil-formationprocesseswillbediscussedinthefollowingsections,andtheirinterpreta-tioninsomewhatmoremodernizedversionsaddressed.
�.�.� Previousconceptofsoil-formingprocesses
Intheearlystagesofdevelopmentoftheconcept,onlyfive major soil-formation processes are considered of
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importance,asindicatedaboveintheprecedingsection.However,severalotherprocesseshavebeendiscoveredandaddedsincethe1950s.Theadditionsincludeferral-ization and allitization (Kovda, 1964; Robinson, 1951),lixiviation (Mohr,1922;Mohratal., 1972), rubification(Kubiena,1962), illimerization(Kanno,1961),argilliza-tion, and melanization (Taylor and Pohlen, 1962). Forthepurposeofexplainingthemeaningoftheterms,alistofthesoil-formingprocessesisgivenbelow:
1. Laterization:Thisisaprocessinwhichsilicaandbases tend to be lost with the subsequent accu-mulation of sesquioxides in the pedon. A warmhumid climate is a requirement for a completedecompositionofprimaryminerals,releasingtheSi,bases,Al,Fe,andothercomponents.Thesoilsproduced were called latosols, lateritic soils, andlaterites.UsingtheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,thesesoilsarerenamedtodayasoxisols.Theadditionalpro-cesses,asproposedearlierbyRobinson(1951)andKovda (1964), are, in this author’s opinion, onlysubprocesses of laterization. Therefore, the pres-entauthorsuggestsdividinglaterizationintothefollowingtwosubdivisions:
a. Ferralization:. A subprocess of laterizationinvolvingalso strongchemicalweathering,bywhich silica is removed, causing sesquioxides,mainlyFe2O3,toaccumulate.
b. Allitization:.Thisisthesecondsubprocess,alsoinvolvingstrongchemicalweatheringbywhichsilicaisremovedandleavingAl2O3toaccumu-lateintheresidue(=soil).
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ThetwosubprocessesareoftenusedbyFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO[UnitedNations])scientists, which in combination are believed bythepresentauthortobethereasonforthedevel-opmentoftheFAOferralsols.Thelattercanbecon-sidered another alternative name for latosols oroxisols.
2. Podzolization:. This term is still used today bytheFAOandWRB(WorldReferenceBaseforSoilResources) systems for the formation processof podzols by which a rapid translocation takesplaceofiron,alumina,claymaterials,andhumicacidstotheBhorizons,yieldingsoilprofileswithwell-developedeluvialEandilluvialBhorizons.Bases are also depleted by leaching, causing thesoils formed to become very acidic. In a sense,the process is a reverse process of laterization.It requires the presence of a cool humid climateandvegetationyieldingacidichumus.Thehumicacidsformedplayanactiveroleinthemobiliza-tionprocessbyformingaluminumandironche-lates.Theprocessesofmobilizationofaluminum,iron,andclaysintheformofmetal(clay)-organochelatesarecalledcheluviation(leaching)andchil-luviation(accumulation)bytheFAOandWRBsys-tems (FAO-UNESCO, 2007c). The soils producedwerecalledpodzols,brownpodzolic,andgray-brownpodzolicsoils,whichtranslateintospodosolsandalfi-sols, respectively, in thenewU.S.SoilTaxonomy.The name podzol is still used in Germany andmanyotherEastEuropeancountries,asindicatedabove.
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3. Calcification:. This term is used for a process ofsoil formation in which the surface soil is keptsuppliedwithcalciumtosaturatethesoilcolloidstoahighdegree,renderingtheminthiswayrela-tively immobile. This process requires the pres-enceofasemihumidtosemiaridclimate,asfoundintheMidwestoftheUnitedStates,intheMedi-terranean, and in the monsoon regions of Indo-nesia. The process yields soils previously calledchernozems,brownforestsoils,andred-yellowMedi-terraneansoils.TheequivalentsintheU.S.SoilTax-onomyarethemollisols,inceptisols,andalfisols,respectively.
4. Salinization:. This is the name for a soil processbywhichsolublesalts tendtoaccumulate in thesoils.Theprocessrequiresanaridclimatewheretheaverageprecipitationislessthan500mm(20in.)annually.TheamountofH2Ofromprecipita-tionisinsufficienttoneutralizetheamountlostbyevaporationandevapotranspiration.Asthewaterisevaporatedintheatmosphere,thesaltsareleftbehindtoaccumulate.Inthepast,thesoilsdevel-oped were called saline soils, solonchaks, or whitealkalisoils.TodaythesesoilsarecalledaridisolsbytheU.S.SoilTaxonomy.
a. Solonization:. This is a process of removal ofexcesssaltsfromthesolonchaks,producingsol-onetzicsoilsorsolonetzs,whicharecalledarid-isolsbytheU.S.SoilTaxonomy.
b. Solodization:. This is a process of transloca-tionofsaltsandhighlydispersedsoilcolloidsto deeper horizons. The salts accumulated by
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salinization may eventually saturate the soil-exchange complex with Na. Increasing thesodiumsaturationisinfactasodicationprocessthatalsoresults inincreasingthesoilpH.Thelatter is referred to as alkalinization; hence, sol-odization is often also called sodication andalkalinization. The soilsproduced were previ-ouslycalledsolods,sodicsoils,orblackalkalisoils.TodaytheyarethearidisolsoftheU.S.SoilTax-onomy,nodifferenceinnameornomenclaturefromthesalinesoils.
. . Note:The“older”namesgivenaboveforthesalt-affectedsoilsarestill inusetoday.However,thegroups have been simplified, and each is distin-guishedbycriteriaonthebasisofelectricalconduc-tivity(EC),andexchangeablesodiumpercentage(ESP) (MillerandGardiner,1998;Richards,1954;Tan,1998):
1.SalinesoilsarecharacterizedbyvaluesofEC4mmho/cmat25°CandESP<15%.Thedis-persionofsalinesoilsstartsatESP=15%.ThesoilpHisordinarily≤8.5.
2.Saline-alkalisoilsaresoilswithEC>4mmho/cmat25°CandESP>15%.ThesoilpHisnor-mally≥8.5.
3.Nonsaline-alkalisoilshaveEC<4mmho/cmat 25°C and ESP > 15%. The soil pH rangesfrom8.5to10.
The selected criterion of 4 mmho/cm is sup-posed to be the limit at which salt damage to
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Chapterfive: SoilFormation,Classification,andLandUse �0�
cropsstartstooccur(KamphorstandBolt,1976;Richards,1954).
5.. Gleyzation:.This isasoil-formingprocessundertheinfluenceofexcessivemoistureconditions,nor-mally caused by poor drainage. Sometimes alsoreferredtoasgleying(TaylorandPohlen,1962),theprocess takes place in anaerobic environments,whereironisreducedyieldingthespecificgrayishandrustycolors.Itoftenoccursinthepresenceoforganicmatter inwetsoilswith lowordeficientoxygen content. The process is not restricted toanytypeofclimateandcanoccurintrazonally.Thesoilsformedarecalledingeneralterms,hydromor-phicsoils,thoughgleysolsarerecognizedintheFAOandCanadiansystemsofSoilTaxonomy.TheU.S.SoilTaxonomyplacedtheminanaquasuborder.
6. Lixiviation:.Thisisaprocessinvolvingmechani-calremovaloffinematerialsfromtheuppersoillayers,withoutthebreakdownofprimaryminer-alsandwithouttheactivityofsoilorganicmatter.
7. Rubification:.Thisisanonlateriticredearthforma-tion,usedbyKubiena(1962)insoilmicromorphol-ogy,characterizingasoilfabrichecalledrotlehm.
8. Illimerization:. This is a process of clay migra-tiontodeeperlayersinthesoilprofileandisalsoknownunderthenamesoflessivageandperhapsferralitization. It isnotexactlya soil-formingpro-cess, but more the reason for formation of Bt orargillichorizonsoftheU.S.SoilTaxonomy.
9. Argillization:. This is the formation of clays bychemicaldecompositionorweatheringofminer-alsintheparentrocks.
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.10. Melanization:.Thisistheformationofthickdarksurfacehorizons,enrichedwithsoilorganicmat-terwithnarrowC/Nratios.TheU.S.SoilTaxon-omyrecognizesamelanicepipedon.
Thefirstfiveinthelistabovearethemajorsoil-for-mationprocessesthatwerewellestablishedandexten-sivelyusedbeforetheywerephasedoutintheUnitedStates.Theremainder(6through10)arenotexactlysoil-formingprocesses,butonlybignoisesfromwell-knownscientists. The latter is perhaps one reason why theUSDASoilSurveyDivisionisopposedtousingthem.Ascanbenoticedfromthedescriptions,theyaremoreresponsibleforformationofaspecificsoilhorizon,orarejustsimplyweatheringprocesseswithoutformingaspecificsoil.
�.�.� Today’sversionsofsoil-formingprocesses
Efforts have also been made by several scientists toreplace the traditional soil-forming processes as dis-cussed above with new terms, which boils down tomodernizingtheoldversionsonly.Thenewversionsofsoil-formingprocesseswithapplicabilitytothedevel-opmentofpedons,suchasdesilicification,willbedis-cussed below, including translocation of clays and ofaluminumandiron,whicharemorerelatedtothefor-mationofargillic,albic,spodic,andoxichorizons.
�.�.�.� DesilicificationDesilicification isaprocess inwhichsilica is releasedfromsoilsilicates.Partofthesilicareactswithalumina
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toformclay,whereastheremainderissubjecttoleach-ing.Consequently,thesoilwillloseitssilicabutatthesame time will gain sesquioxides and other types ofclays due to residual accumulation of stable weather-ing products. This process may occur in the tropicsor in temperate regions in the presence of sufficientamountsofmoistureand the right temperature.Usu-allyitismorepronouncedinthehumidtropics.Ascanbenoticedfromtheexplanationabove,itisjustanewnameforapreviouslywell-knownsoil-formingprocesscalledlaterizationorferralitization.Acontinueddisilicifi-cationprocessovergeologictimeperiodswillultimatelytransformtheAl2O3mineralsintobauxite(Tan,1998).
Thesolubilityofsilicaisdictatedbythelawofpoly-merization.Silicaremainssolubleatconcentrationsof140mg/L in thepHrangeof2 to9 (Krauskopf,1956;Millot,1970;Tan,1998).Polymerizationoccurswhentheconcentrationsofsilicaexceed140mg/L,butthiscanbe prevented by the presence of humic acids. Humicsubstancesandotherorganicacidsareknowntoformcomplexesorchelateswithsilica,asillustratedinFig-ure5.1.Intheformofachelate,silicaremainssolubleandisfreetomovewiththepercolatingwaters,apro-cessenhancingdesilicification.Theauthorbelievesthatthis istheprocessbywhichsilicaandorganicmatterarelostduringtheformationofoxisols.Itexplainsthelowsilica-to-sesquioxideratiosandloworganicmattercontentsinoxisols.
�.�.�.� SilicificationThisisareverseprocessofdesilicificationthatoccursunderpoorlydrainedconditionsandlowpermeability.
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�0� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Leaching is inhibited, preventing loss of silica. Theresulting increase in H4SiO4 activity may lead to theformation of smectites and illites, characterizing thevertisols in the lowlands of East Java (Tan, 1998; VanSchuylenborgh,1971).Underchangingphysicochemicalconditions, smectite can be transformed into kaolin-ite and the latter into gibbsite, or vice versa, by desi-licificationandsilicificationprocesses,asillustratedinFigure5.2.Thesereactionsarereferredtoastransfor-mationbySinger(1979).
�.�.�.� TranslocationofclaysThis process, leading to the enrichment of B hori-zonswithclays,wasearliercalled illimerizationor les-sivage(Buoletal.,1973;TaylorandPohlen,1962).SuchB horizons are referred to as argillic (Bt) horizons in
OH
OH
OH
OH
Chelation
Si
Si
COO
COOH
O
O
OH
Complex Formation
Figure 5.1 Complexformationandchelationbetweenmonosi-licicacidandhumicacid.(FromTan,K.H.[1998].)
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Chapterfive: SoilFormation,Classification,andLandUse �0�
theU.S.SoilTaxonomy.Whydid theUSDASoilSur-vey suggest terminating this concept of soil-formingprocesses,favoringtheuseofsoilmorphology?Intheauthor’sopinion, the terms illimerizationor lessivagearemoreattractiveandmoreexplanatorythantheuseof morphology or profile characteristics. The same istrueforlaterization,podzolization,andthelike.
ThemigrationofclaysfromAtoBhorizonsismadepossiblebypeptizationoftheclays,whichisenhancedbyinteractionsoftheclayswithhumicacids(Greenland,1971; Tan, 1976). Though the exact mechanism is notknown, the hypothetical reaction, as shown in Fig-ure5.3, serves as an example. The reaction adds anacidicgroup(COOH)totheclaysurfaceandincreasesthenegativechargeoftheclay.Thesurfacepotentialoftheclay–organiccomplexisthenlargerthanthatoftheclay alone. Consequently, the electrokinetic potential,related to the zeta (ζ) potential, becomes larger. As a
Desilicification
AlSi
GibbsiteSilicification
KaoliniteSmectite
O2 or OH
Figure 5.2 Desilicification and silicification of smectite,kaolinite,andgibbsite.(FromTan,K.H.[1998].)
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�0� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
clay–organiccomplex,theclayremainssuspendedforalongertimeandmovesdownwardwiththepercolat-ingwater.Severalreactionsareresponsiblefordeposi-tionandclayaccumulationintheBhorizon.Movementofclaystopswherethepercolatingwaterstops,result-ing in flocculation of clay. Capillary withdrawal ofwaterfromtheporesintothesoil fabricdepositsclayonwallsofporesandpeds,producingtheargillansorclayskins.
�.�.�.� TranslocationofaluminumandironThe downward movement of aluminum and irontogether with organic matter results in formation ofalbic (E) and spodic (Bhs) horizons. This process wascalledpodzolization,givingrise to formationofpod-zols(spodosols).Severalscientistsbelievethatpodzols
COOHAl
O
OSi
OSi
O
Al
Si
Si
Org. Comp
Clay-Organic Complex
CLAY
COOH + H2O
OH + HO
O
Figure 5.3 Formationofhumo–claycomplexes.
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Chapterfive: SoilFormation,Classification,andLandUse �0�
areformedbyaprocesscalled lessivage.However,thelatterprocessmayexplaintheformationofargillic(Bt)horizonsbutdoesnotjustifythetranslocationofalumi-num,iron,andorganicmatter,requiredforthedevel-opmentofspodichorizonsorpodzols.
Mostoftheironsubjecttotranslocationcomesfromthedecompositionofbiotiteandferromagnesianminer-als.Formobilizationofirontotakeplace,thesoilsmustbewelldrained,andhence,mostoftheironisinoxi-dizedform—inotherwords,itisinFe(III)ionicform.The possible ionic forms of Fe(III) are Fe3+, Fe(OH)2+,Fe(OH)2
+,Fe2(OH)4+,andFe(OH)4−(VanSchuylenborgh,
1966).Formoredetailsonthechemistry,solubility,andmobilization of Fe compounds, including redox reac-tions,referenceismadetoTan(1998).
Almost all soil silicates are sources for aluminum.TheionicformsofAl(III)areAl3+,Al(OH)2+,Al(OH)2
+,Al(OH)4
−, Al2(OH)24+, Al2(OH)4
2+, Al4(OH)102+, and
Al6(OH)126+.Formoredetailsonthechemistry,solubility,
stability,andmobilizationofAl, reference ismade toTan(1998)andVanSchuylenborgh(1966).
ThegeneralconsensusisthatthepHrangeinmanysoilsissuchthatmostofthealuminumandironcom-poundsareessentiallyinsolubleandhenceimmobile.Thepossibilityofmigrationofaluminumandironintheirionicformsshownisverysmall.Otheragentsarerequiredtomakethemmoresoluble.Evidencehasbeenpresentedthatdecompositionproductsofsoilorganicmatter,andespeciallyhumicacids,arecapableofsolu-bilizingtheinsolublesubstancesbycomplexreactionsorchelation (Tan,2003).Asacomplexorchelate,alu-minumandironmayremainsolubleatpHrangesthat
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�0� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
makethemusuallyinsoluble.Stabilityandmobilityofthesecomplexesdependalsoon themetal concentra-tion in the soil solution and saturation of the humicexchangesites.Ifthealuminumorironconcentrationsare low, complexes will be formed in the A horizonwithlowmetal/organicligandratios.Inthiscase,theamountofsiliconandironchelatedareinsufficienttocauseimmobilizationoftheorgano-metalcompounds.The complex or chelate is then free to move downthepedon(DeConinck,1980).Duringthedownwardmigration,thechelatesmaypickupadditionalpolyva-lentcations,resultinginprogressivelydecreasingtheirnegative charges. The presence of higher cation con-centrationsinthesubsoilandanaciditydifferentfromthat in the A horizon may eventually neutralize theremainingcharges.Theconsequentprecipitationofthechelatesgivesrise to thedevelopmentofspodic (Bhs)horizons,diagnosticforspodosols(podzols)oftheU.S.SoilTaxonomy.
�.�.�.� RedoxreactionsReductionandoxidationreactionsoccurinalmostanysoils but have not been regarded or emphasized as asoil-formingprocess.Redoxreactions,infact,contributeto formationofplinthiteandgleyhorizons (Tan,1998).Gleyingisespeciallysignificantinpoorlydrainedsoils,suchas thepaddysoilswhereartificial inundationofthe soil is a required operation for the cultivation oflowlandrice(Tan,1968).
Bydefinition,reductionisagaininelectrons,whereasoxidationisalossofelectrons,asillustratedbytheclas-sicalreactionasfollows:
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Fe e Fe3 reductionoxidation
2+ −+ →← ++ (5.1)
Oxidation reactions usually occur in well-drainedsoils.Ontheotherhand,reductionprocessesaremorelikely to be predominant in poorly drained soils orwhere excess water is present. Usually known as thesoilredoxstate,thisconditionoccursinalmostanysoils.Both oxidation and reduction conditions can occursimultaneouslyinthesoil.Whilethesurfacelayersofthe pedon are in an oxidized state, the subsoil layersmaybeinareducedconditionowingtoafluctuatinggroundwater level. The latter may lead to pseudo-gleyformationortoplinthization.
Theredoxsysteminsoilsaffectsstabilityofironandmanganese compounds. To a certain extent, micro-bial activity and accumulation of organic matter arealso affected. Fresh organic matter is thought to aidformation of a reduced condition. Bloomfield (1953,1954)reportedthataqueousleafextractsreducedFe(III)intoFe(II)insoils.Themobilizationofironandman-ganeseduetoredoxconditionsandsubsequentforma-tionofiron-andmanganese-organochelates,hasbeenreportedtogiverisetoformationofiron-B,followedbymanganese-Bhorizonsinpaddysoils(Tan,1968).Intidalfloodwaterzones,reductionprocessesplayaconsider-ableroleinformationofsulfur-richsoils,asdiscussedinearlierpublications(Tan,2000).
SoilswithdifferentredoxconditionsmayalsoreactdifferentlyuponNfertilization. Inwell-drainedsoils,ammonium-N is subject to nitrification and con-vertedintonitrates(NO3
–).However,iftheammonium
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fertilizerisappliedtoareducedsoil,suchastopaddysoils, it remains available as ammonium (NH4
+). Formoredetailsontheredoxsystemandredoxpotentialsinsoils,referenceismadetoTan(1998).
�.�.� Influenceofclimaticvariationsonsoil-formingprocesses
InthehumidtropicsofIndonesia,movementofwatertendstobedownwardinthepedon,enhancingleachingofbasesandothersoilelementsreleasedbytherapiddecompositionofsoilminerals.Undertheseconditions,laterization or desilicification has been consideredto be the major soil-forming process in the lowlands,provided drainage conditions are favorable (Tan andVan Schuylenborgh, 1961a; Van Schuylenborgh andVanRummelen,1955).On theotherhand,podzoliza-tionhasbeendetectedastheprocessofsoilformationat higher altitudes, especially in the highlands or inMohr’s mountain lands. In between the two zones, atransitional zone exists, earlier called the uplands,where both laterization and podzolization have beennoticedtooccursimultaneously.
�.�.�.� MineralizationversushumificationThezonaldivisionsofsoil-formingprocessesabovearecausedbythechangingclimateswithelevationabovesea level, yielding differences in the rates of organicmatterdecomposition.Asindicatedearlier,inthelow-lands, organic matter is observed to be mineralizedcompletely,andonlyverysmallamountsofhumicsub-stances have been formed. The peculiar picture of a
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tropicalsoilprofileinIndonesia,exhibitingaverythinlitterlayer(Ohorizon)ontopofthemineralpartofthesoil,tendstogivesupporttotheabove.Consequently,onewouldexpecttheroleofhumicsubstancestoalsobeveryminimal,ifanyatall,insoilformationinthehumid tropical lowlandsof Indonesia.Becauseof therapid mineralization of soil organic matter into CO2,H2O, and other substances, several Dutch scientistswereoftheopinionthattheweatheringagent,percolat-ingthroughthepedon,isthereforemainlywatercon-tainingCO2(Hardon,1936a;VanSchuylenborgh,1958).Hence,therateofmineralizationofsoilorganicmatterandtherateofdiffusionofCO2gasintothesoilandtheatmosphereareconsideredthedeterminingfactorsforsoil formation in the humid lowlands. The producedCO2dissolvesinsoilmoistureandmayformcarbonicacid.Thereactionmaybeillustratedasfollows:
CO2+H2O→H2CO3 (5.2)
In pure water, the amount of CO2 dissolved gener-allyamountsto0.984×10−5moles/L,whichisbasedonair,containing0.03%CO2(at1atmpressure),thatisinequilibriumwithwater.ThepartialpressureofthisCO2(Pco2)equals0.29×10−3atm.ThevalueofPco2insoilairisexpectedtobesomewhathigherthaninordinaryairbecauseofproductionofadditionalCO2duetomin-eralization,respirationofroots,andmicrobialactivity.ForthechemicalcalculationsusingHenry’slaw,refer-enceismadetoTan(2000).
Dissolvedcarbondioxide,CO2,affectsmanybiologi-calandchemicalreactionsinsoil.Itisusedbyaquatic
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plants, suchasalgae, inphotosynthesis (Tan,2000). ItischemicallyactiveandinteractswithsoilmoisturetoformcarbonicacidasindicatedaboveandhencemayaffectthesoilpH.Carbonicacidisaweakacidandwilldissociatesomeofitsprotons,asindicatedbythereac-tionbelow:
H CO HCO H2 3 3→← +− + (5.3)
Byapplyingthemassactionlaw,VanSchuylenborgh(1958)reportedthefollowingrelationshiptobevalid:
k (HCO H )H CO
3
2= = ×
− +−)(
( ).
3
73 5 10 (5.4)
He then calculated, with Equation 5.4 and Henry’slaw, thepHvaluesof soilmoistureatdifferent levelsofPco2andcametotheconclusionthatatPco2=0.25× 10−3atm,thesoilpH=4.23.ThepartialpressureaboveisclosetothatofanormalCO2contentinairincontactwithwater.Onceagain,fordetailedchemicalcalcula-tions,referenceismadetoTan(2000)andVanSchuylen-borgh(1958).
ThoughthevalueofPCO2 insoilairwasconsideredhigherduetorespirationofplantrootsandmicrobialactivity, it can nevertheless be argued that the litterlayer(Ohorizon)ofsoilsinthelowlandsofIndonesiaisoftenverythin.Thisconditionmakespossiblearapidexchange of the produced CO2 with the atmosphericairabovebydiffusion.Consequently,thepartialpres-sureofCO2isexpectednottorisesignificantlyabove0.25×10−3atminsoilair,withtheresultthatthepHofthepercolatingwaterisstillaround4.23to4.0.Thisis
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then themainweatheringagent,whichhasanacidicstrengthsimilartothatofweakacids.
Athigherelevations,orinthehighlandsofIndonesia,quite different processes are taking place. Due to theprevailingcoolerclimate,chemicalactivitiesaresome-whatsubdued.Thelitterlayer(Ohorizon)tendstobebetterdevelopedandisoftenconsiderablythickerthanthatinthelowlandsoils.Consequently,morehumusisexpectedtobeformed.Oxidationofsoilorganicmatterwillalsobelessintensive,whereasmineralizationtendstobereplacedbyhumificationprocesses.Theweather-ing agent is, therefore, soil moisture, containing highamountsofhumicsubstancesandotherorganicacids.Itappearsthattheseorganiccompoundsareplayingagreaterroleinsoilformationthancarbonicacids,espe-ciallyataltitudesof1000mabovesealevelorhigher.Therefore,inthehumidtropicalhighlands,podzolizationis considered as the main soil-forming process. Theeffectsofhumicacidsinsoilformation,andespeciallyintranslocationofclays(illimerization)andofalumi-numandiron,resultinginformationofalbicandspodichorizons,havealwaysattracteda lotofresearchatten-tion(Aarnio,1913;Bloomfield,1953,1954;DeConinck,1980;Gallagher,1942;JonesandWilcox,1929;Tan,1986;VanSchuylenborghandBruggenwert,1965).Theprin-ciplesofmobilizationandimmobilizationofaluminumand ironasa resultofchelationbyhumicacidshavealsobeensufficientlydiscussedinthesectionsabove.
In the monsoon zones, the soils are affected by aseasonalalternatingwatermovement.Duringthewetseason,watermaypercolatedownward,favoringlateri-zationtotakeplaceinthelowlands.Laterizationisstill
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the main soil-forming process, especially in regionswithveryshortdryseasons.Itisalsonoticedthattheprocesscanproceedtohigheraltitudesinthemonsoonregions.Whereas in thehumid tropics, laterization ispronouncedonlyataltitudesof≤600mabovesealevel,inthemonsoonregionslaterizationisstilldetectedat1000mabovesealevel.Inmonsoonareas,wherethedryseason is especially longer and sharper, water move-ment tendstobeupwardduringthedryseason,andbecauseof this, somecalcificationprocessesaremorelikelytoaccompanytheprocessoflaterization.
Calcificationisnoticedtobecomemorepronouncedinmonsoonregionswithverylongdryseasons.Thisisthenthereasonwhythesoilsinthemonsoonzonesarelessacidicinreactionsthanthesoilsintheconstantlyhumidareas.
From the discussion above, the conclusion can bemade that the condition in the humid highlandsapproachesthatofacoolhumidclimate intemperateregions, where humification is believed to be moreimportantthanmineralization.ThiscanbesupportedperhapsbythedatainTable5.1,showingorganicmat-tercontentanditsC/NratioinatemperateregionsoilversussoilsofthehighlandsandmonsoonregionsofIndonesia.TheC/Nratiosofthegray-brownpodsolicsoil inthehumidtropicsoftheIndonesianhighlandscomparefavorablywiththoseofitscounterpartsoilinthe United States. The data indicate that these ratiosdecreasewithdepthintheprofile,meaningthatorganicdecomposition products richer in nitrogen have beenproduced (that is, humic substances). However, a dif-ferent trendwasobserved in thebrownpodzolicsoil
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ofthemonsoonregionsinIndonesia.TheC/NratioisnoticedtodecreaseslightlyfromAtoBt1horizons,toincreaseagainintheBt2horizon.Theoldtermsinsoilclassificationhavebeenusedabove,becausenonameisavailableintheU.S.SoilTaxonomysystemthatcom-parescloselytothebrownpodzolicsoiloftheIndone-sianmonsoonregion.
�.�.� Influenceofparentmaterialsonsoilformation
Resultsofinvestigationsindicatethattheparentmate-rial plays a very important role in soil formation inIndonesia (Tan and Van Schuylenborgh, 1961a; VanSchuylenborgh,1957,1958;VanSchuylenborghandVan
Gray-Brown Podzolic Soil
(Alfisol), USAb
Gray-Brown Podzolic Soil
(Alfisol), HumidTropicsa
Brown PodzolicSoil, Monsoona
Hor. Hor.%Cor %Cor C/N
A — 14.0 A 9.45 12.6 A 12.0 18.7
E — — E 7.19 9.2 — — —
B — 10.1 Bt1 5.45 7.9 Bt1 7.84 16.9
C — 7.6 Bt2 Bt22.73 6.3 7.65 21.4
C/N Hor. %CorC/N
Table.5.1. OrganicCContentsandC/NRatiosofTemperateRegionsandIndonesianSoils
a FromTan,K.H.andVanSchuylenborgh,J.(1961a)andVanSchuylenborgh,J.andVanRummelen,F.F.F.(1955).
b FromAnderson,M.S.andBeyers,H.G.(1934).
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Rummelen,1955).Itappearsthatonandesiticvolcanicmaterial quite different soils have been formed thanondaciticor lipariticmaterialsundersimilarclimaticconditions. Tan and Van Schuylenborgh (1959, 1961a)havedetectedformationofpredominantlylatosols,thecurrentoxisols,onintermediateparentmaterials,suchasandesitictuffs.Incontrast,red-yellowpodzolicsoils(theultisolsoftoday)werefoundonliparitictuff,whichisclassifiedasanacidicparentmaterial(seeChapter2fordefinitionsofthegeologicterms).Bothobservationswere valid for the lowlands under similarly constanthumidclimates.
Compared to the ultisols of the southern region ofthe United States, the Indonesian ultisols and oxisolsarerelativelymuchyoungerinage.TheAmericanulti-sols were formed after the latest ice age, the Wiscon-sinIceAge,whichisequivalenttotheWürmIceAgeofEurope.Accordingly,theyarenotmorethan25,000yearsold.ThesoilsinIndonesiaoriginatefromvolca-nicdepositsoflateHolocenetosubrecentgeologicage,whichisestimatedtobeabout12,000yearsold.ItcanbefurtherarguedthattheIndonesiansoilsmostlikelydonotrepresentfinalstagesintheirprocessofforma-tionbutare transitional forms toother soils. Inaddi-tion to the above, the prevailing higher temperaturesinIndonesiainduceamorerapidweatheringprocesstooccurthaninthetemperateregionzonesoftheUnitedStates. As discussed earlier, the average annual tem-perature in Indonesia may fluctuate from 13 to 20°C,whereas this temperature in the United States mayvaryfrom7to10°C.Thisisadifferenceofabout9°C.ThelawofVan’tHoffindicatesthattherateofchemical
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reaction increases two- to threefold with an increaseof10°Cintemperature(Tan,2000).Hence,itisperhapswarrantedtoconcludethatinIndonesiaacertainstagein soil formation would be reached in only one-halftoone-thirdof thetimeof thatrequiredintemperateregions.Thefasterrateofweatheringandsoil forma-tionissupportedbythefollowingfacts.OnAugust26and27,1883,adisastrouseruptionoftheKrakatauvol-canointheSundaStraitoccurred.Enormousquantitiesofvolcanicdustwereejectedintheair,coveringneigh-boringLangIslandwithvolcanicdepositsofmorethan30minthickness.Forty-fiveyearslater,onOctober31,1928,Versteeghdiscoveredasoilprofilewithasurfacesoilof35cminthickness.
In addition to the rate of weathering as discussedabove, an important factor affecting soil formation istheintensityofweathering,whichisalsoentirelydiffer-entbetweenIndonesiaandtheUnitedStates.Theissueofweatheringintensityisespeciallyimportantforsoilformation in themountainzonesof Indonesia,wherehumificationplaysasignificantroleinthedecomposi-tionofsoilorganicmatter(seenextsection).
�.�.� Precipitationandevaporationratioandweatheringintensity
Theconclusionwasmadeintheprecedingsectionthatsoil formation was also affected by the intensity oftheweatheringprocess,whichparticularlyaffectssoilformationinthemountainsofIndonesia.Theissueiscloselyrelatedtothestrengthofthesoilsolution.Theconcentration of the liquid percolating through the
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parent material in Indonesia is believed to be muchlower than that in temperate regions.This isperhapscausedbyadilutionoftheleachingsolutionduetothefactthatprecipitationalwaysexceedsevaporationinthehumidtropicsascomparedtothetemperateregions.InIndonesia,theevapotranspirationofamountainforestin West Java is estimated to be 860 mm of water peryear(Coster,1937),whichisconsiderablylowerthantheamountofannualprecipitation.BecauseNorthSuma-tra has a comparable humid climate as West Java, itsevapotranspiration figure is reported to be the same.However, theevapotranspirationvalue inEast Java isreportedtobesomewhathigherduetothepresenceofamonsoonclimate.Nevertheless,whentheaverageistaken,themountainsoilsinIndonesiaasawholehavebeen formed in climates exhibiting a rainfall/evapo-transpirationratioof3:6.Inthetemperateregions,thisratioofprecipitation/evapotranspirationisentirelydif-ferent.Forinstance,thezoneofpodzolicsoils,andinparticular of the alfisols (gray-brown podzolic soils),in theUnitedStates (Beyersetal., 1935) lies inabelt,inwhichtheprecipitation/evaporationratiofluctuatesbetween1.1and1.5.Thisratioisperhapsalittleonthehighside,becausetheevaporationindexusedincludesdataofevaporationfromafreewatersurfaceandhencedoesnotrepresentthelossofwaterbyevapotranspira-tionofanaturalforestvegetation.Nevertheless,atrendcan be noticed that the ratio is substantially smallerintheUnitedStatesthaninIndonesia.Theconclusionmaythenbedrawnthatdilutionoftheweatheringsolu-tion is much greater in Indonesia than in the UnitedStates. Therefore, weathering intensity is expected to
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bemuchsmallerinIndonesiabutconsiderablygreaterin the United States. This difference explains the factwhyinIndonesiathesamesoilsasintheUnitedStatescanbedevelopedfrommoreacidicor fromlessbasicparentmaterials.ThefollowingexamplesaregiventoillustratethedifferencesineffectofthestrengthoftheleachingsoilliquidontranslocationsofaluminumandironinIndonesianandtemperateregionsoils.Thedatain Table5.2 compare the mobilities of aluminum andiron, as expressed by the molar ratios of Al2O3/Fe2O3insoilsofIndonesiaandtheUnitedStates.Ascanbenoticed,thisratioisrelativelyconstantwithdepthintheprofileofalatosol(oxisols),soilsformedbylaterization.
Latosols(Oxisols)a
Red-YellowPodzolic Soils
(Ultisols)a
Gray-BrownPodzolic Soil
(Alfisols)a
Alfisols (MiamiSilt Loam)b
Horizon Al2O3Fe2O3
Horizon Al2O3Fe2O3
Horizon Al2O3Fe2O3
Horizon Al2O3Fe2O3
A1 5.50 5.28 4.75 4.68A1A1A/E
5.17 5.32 5.85 4.55EEBt1
5.13 6.10 7.47 3.19BBt1Bt2
5.09
5.39
8.90 8.26 3.38CBt2C
A2
A3
AC
C
Table.5.2. MolarAl2O3/Fe2O3RatiosofSelectedSoilsinIndonesiaandtheUnitedStates
a From Van Schuylenborgh, J. and Van Rummelen (1955); VanSchuylenborgh, J. (1957, 1958); Tan, K.H. and Van Schuylen-borgh,J.(1959).
b FromBeyers,Alexander,andHolmes(1935).
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As explained earlier, the weathering solution here iscomposedmainlyofwaterandCO2,whichwasconsid-eredarelativelyweakleachingsolutionforsoilforma-tion.However,theAl2O3/Fe2O3ratioincreasesfromAtoChorizonsinthered-yellowpodzolicsoil(ultisols)andthegray-brownpodzolicsoils(alfisols)ofIndone-sia.Thismaysuggest that translocationofaluminumisgreaterthanthatofironcompounds.Thesolubilityconstants (pK value) of aluminum and aluminum–organiccomplexesaregenerallysmallerthanthoseofiron and iron–organic complexes. At a pK = 32.0, theconcentrationofsolubleAl3+iscalculatedbyTan(1998)tobe1×10−2moles/L.Itagreeswiththeconceptthatstronglyacidicsoils (pH=4.0)contain largeamountsofaluminum.WhensimilarcalculationsweremadebyTan (1998) for amorphous Fe(OH)3, an Fe3+ concentra-tionof1×10–8.2moles/Lwasobtainedforasoilwitha pH = 4.0. This supports the allegations above thatiron ismore insoluble thanaluminum.Consequently,aluminum and aluminum–organic complexes maymoveearlierdownthepedonthaniron–organiccom-plexes(Tan,1998;VanSchuylenborgh,1966).Whenthealfisol (Miamisilt loam)of theUnitedStates isexam-ined(Table5.2),aquitedifferenttrendcanbenoticed.TheAl2O3/Fe2O3ratiosdecreasewithdepthinthesoilprofile, which can only mean that iron is made moremobile thanaluminum.The latter isbelieved tohap-penonlywhenotheragentsarepresent inconcentra-tionscapableofproducingastrongerleachingsolutionforchelatingmoreiron.Duetothegeneralpresenceofhumification processes in the temperate regions, theconcentration of the soil solution percolating through
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thepedonoftheMiamisiltloamisapparentlyhigherinhumicacidcontentorotherorganicsubstancesthanintheIndonesiansoils.
�.� ThesystemofsoilclassificationinIndonesia
Inprewartime,theclassificationofsoils inIndonesiafollowedtheDutchconcept.AreviewofthesystemandtheworkdoneinthisfieldisgivenbyEdelman(1947).
AfterWorldWarII,thesystemofsoilclassification,asdevelopedintheUnitedStates,replacedtheolderDutchsystem.Atfirst,soilclassificationbasedonthezonalityconceptgainedpopularityandwassoonadaptedforuseinsoilsurveyandsoiltaxonomyinIndonesiawithoutorwithslightmodifications,especiallyattheuniversities.This conceptgrouped the soils intozonal, intrazonal,andazonalgroups(Baldwin,Kellogg,andThorp,1938;ThorpandSmith,1949).Usingthissystemofsoiltaxon-omy,theSoilResearchInstituteatBogorstartedin1955toundertakeasystematicsurveyofthesoilresourcesinIndonesia.Afive-yearworkingplanwasestablishedinthisrespectincooperationwiththesoilsdivisionoftheFAO-UN.Alothasbeenachieved,butonlyasmallpartoftheresultshasbeenpublished(DudalandJahja,1957;DudalandSupraptohardjo,1957).
Thezonalitysystemabovewaslaterchangedsome-whatbySupraptohardjo(1961),whopresentedarevisedsystembasedonsoilmorphology.Theuseofsoilpro-files in the identification of soils was believed to beabletoeliminatethemanydifficultiesencounteredin
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soil survey and mapping. The modification places alotofemphasisonprofile characteristicsas shown inTable5.3,whereaselementsofsoilgenesisorsoil-form-ingfactorsfailedtobeconsidered.
Withtheprogressineducationstartinginthe1960s,many Indonesian scientists sent to universities andresearchinstitutionsintheUnitedStateswiththeKen-tuckyContractTeam(KCT)andMidwesternUniversi-ties Consortium for International Activities (MUCIA)projects (see Chapter 1) became exposed to the newU.S. Soil Classification system. At first introduced bythe USDA Soil Survey Division under the title of �thApproximation, A Comprehensive System of Soil Classi-fication (Soil Survey Staff, 1960), the system was laterrevised to become the current Soil Taxonomy, A BasicSystem of Soil Classification for Making and InterpretingSoilSurveys(SoilSurveyStaff,1975,2006b).OneofthemajordifficultiesencounteredinapplyingtheU.S.sys-teminIndonesiashouldbebrieflymentionedhere.TheU.S. Soil Taxonomy is unfortunately very difficult toread not only for many U.S. scientists, but especiallyforoverseassoilexperts,whoseprimarylanguagesarenotEnglish.Thetextisexcessivelywordy,andoveruseof“oneofthefollowing,”followedbythemany“ors”and“eithers,”with longsentences inbetween,makesone forget, when reaching the final words, what theissuewasinthebeginning.Anexampleisthefollow-ing:“Organicsoilsaresoilsthat(�)haveorganicsoilmate-rials that extend from the surface to one of the following:(a)....,or(b)...,or(�)...,and(a)...(�)...or(�)...etc.”(SoilSurveyStaff, 1990, p. 39, 2006a). And this example is not theworst.Themanychoicesandselectionsphrasedinone
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Category Profile Development Great Soil Group
A. Organic Soil Without Profile Development 1. Organosol
B.Mineral Soil I. Weak (A)C or No Profile
2. Lithosol 3. Regosol 4. Alluvial Soil
II. AC with Prominent A1 or Chernozemic A
5. Grumusol 6. Rendzina
III. A(B)C with Prominent A1 7. Andosol
IV. A(B)C with Color B 8. Brown Forest 9. Noncalcic Brown Soil
V. ABC with Textural B or Color B and High in Bases
10. Red-Yellow Mediterranean Soil
VI. ABC with Latosolic B 11. Latosol
VII. ABC with Textural/ Color B and Low in Bases
12. Red-Yellow Podzolic Soil13. Lateritic Soil
VIII. ABC with Podzol B 14. Podzol
IX. ABC with Prismatic/ Columnar B 15. Solonetz
X. AC/ABC with Gley horizon and Podzol B or Textural B or Textural B or Color B or Prominent A or Saturated with Ca, cs, and sa
16. Groundwater Podzol 17. Groundwater Laterite 18. Gray Hydro- morphic Soil 19. Low Humic Gley Soil 20. Humic Gley 21. Planosol 22. Solonchak
Table.5.3. SoilClassificationUsedattheSoilResearchInstitute,Bogor,Indonesia
Sources:Supraptohardjo,M. (1961);Dudal,R.andSupraptohardjo,M.(1957).
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
extremelylongparagrapharenotonlymindboggling,butalsoviolatetherulesofwritingtextbooks,journals,orreports.Nonetheless,severaloftheyoungergenera-tionofsoilscientiststriedtoapplythenewU.S.systeminIndonesiabutsoonrealizedthatithastobemodifiedsomewhatandadaptedtolocalconditions.TheBogorSoilResearchInstitutehasusedamodifiedversioninrevisingitsExploratorySoilMapofIndonesia.The2000-versionsoilmap,asshowninFigure5.1,recognizesinits indexthefollowingdivisionsofsoils inIndonesia,listed below by the author in descending order fromsoilswiththelargestacreages.
Thetotalsoilacreageislistedas1,882,102km2(Cen-treforSoilandAgroclimateResearch,2000).Ascanbenoticed,severalof thesoilordersoccur inverysmallacreages (for example, alfisols, spodosols, and verti-sols),perhapsforreasonsthattheyarenotrecognized
Percent.(%).of.Total.AreaInceptisols 38.51Ultisols 24.27Entisols 9.62Oxisols 7.50Histosols 7.01Mollisols 4.56Alfisols 2.77Aridisols 2.55Spodosols 1.16Vertisols 1.15Miscellaneous 0.90
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Chapterfive: SoilFormation,Classification,andLandUse ���
ortrulyoccuronlyinalimitedextent.Thiswillbedis-cussedinlaterchapters.
�.� LanduseinIndonesiaThe soils above are used in agriculture for the culti-vationoffood,estate,andindustrialcrops.ThemajorfoodcropsgrowninIndonesiawhenrankedbyacre-agesarerice,corn(calledmaizeinEuropeancountries),cassava,andsoybean.AsnoticedfromTable5.4,thesoilacreagesunderricefarexceedthosecultivatedbyotherfoodcrops,withcornsecond,cassava third,andsoy-beanfourthinimportance.Othercrops,notstatedhere,arefoundinsmallersoilacreagesthanthefourabove.Fromthedata,itseemsthatthebiggestconcentrationsofricecultivationareontheislandsofJavaandSuma-tra, with 5 million and 3 million hectares under rice,respectively (Biro Statistik Indonesia, 1999; FAO-WFP,
Table.5.4. AcreagesofMajorFoodCropsofIndonesia(×1MillionHectares)
Island Rice Corn Cassava Soybean
Java 5.00 1.80 0.69 0.67Sumatra 3.00 0.65 0.27 0.20Sulawesi 1.20 0.45 0.07 0.06Kalimantan 1.00 0.05 0.04 0.09BaliandN.Tenggara 0.63 0.34 0.13 0.15MoluccasandWestPapua
0.04 0.10 0.02 0.03
Total 10.87 3.39 1.22 1.20
Sources:BiroStatistik(1999);FAO-WFP(1999);Fisher,C.A.(1966).
69071.indb 125 4/25/08 10:41:59 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
1999).Thefiguresreferperhapstoacreagesoflowlandrice and to these should perhaps be added the acre-agesofuplandricecultivation.It is importanttonotethatwheneverpossible,thepeopleinIndonesiaprefergrowinglowlandriceorricegrownininundatedfields,calledpaddy-sawah.Mostofthesawahfieldsarelocatedonoxisols,ultisols,inceptisols,entisols,andpeatsoils(histosols).Riceisamajorstaplefoodcrop,andthe1999paddyproductionwasestimatedtobe48.6milliontons,an amount not much different from the 48.5 milliontonsreportedfor1998.AccordingtotheBiroStatistik,Indonesiahadtoimportintheyear2000anadditional3.1milliontonsofricetofeeditspopulation.
The most important estate and industrial crops arerubber,oilpalm,tea,coffee,cocoa,copra,andspices.Adistinction wasmadeby theAgency forAgriculturalResearchandDevelopment(AARD,1986)todividethenonfoodcommoditiesintoindustrialandestatecrops.Crops produced by large plantations owned by thegovernmentorlargecompaniesareclassifiedasestatecrops(forexample,tea,coffee,cocoa,andoilpalm).Allothercropsproducedbysmallholders,ownedbysmallfarmers,arecalledindustrialcrops(forexample,coco-nut[copra],fibercrops,andspices).Therubberoilpalmandcoconutpalmestates,fortheproductionofcopra,aregenerallyfoundinlowlandareas,wheretheclimateismostsuitableforgrowingtheseplants.Ontheotherhand, tea, coffee, and cocoa estates are usually culti-vatedintheuplandandhighlandsofIndonesia.Theyare considered mountain crops, and the best tea andcoffeeplantationsarefoundinthecoolmountaincli-mateof Indonesia.Tearequiresacoolhumidtropical
69071.indb 126 4/25/08 10:42:00 AM
Chapterfive: SoilFormation,Classification,andLandUse ���
Afclimate,andhence,mostoftheteaplantationsareinthemountainsofSumatraandWestJava.Ontheotherhand,coffeeismoreadaptedtoacoolmonsoonAmcli-mateofthemountainsofEastJava.ThenameJavaCoffeeis derived from this island. Another important estatecropissugarcane,whosecultivationislimitedtolow-landareaswithanAmaclimate.ThistypeofclimateisfoundinthelowlandsofEastJavawheremostofthesugarcane estates are therefore located. The soils arethevertisols withpoor physical properties. Indonesiaisalsoknownasthespiceislands,andthesespiceswerethereasonsforthePortugueseandDutchcompaniestoventureeastintheearlydaysofthe1500sand1600s.Themajorcropsproducingspices,cultivatedinIndonesia,includepepper(Pipernigrum),clove(Eugeniacaroyphyl-lataoraromatica),andnutmeg(Myristicafragans).PepperplantsarevinesandaremostlygrownbysmallholdersintheLampunglowlandofSouthSumatraandontheislandsofBangkaandBelitung.Thepepper fruits, intheformofkernels,areprocessedintoblackandwhitepepper,respectively,formarketing.Thefinalproductislocallycalledcollectivelymericaorlada.WhitepepperisthespecialtyoftheBangkaislands,whereasblackpep-perisproducedintheLampungs.Theclovetreeswereorginally grown in the Mollucas, but the cultivationwasextendedtoWestJavainthelate1960sduetosoar-ingdemandsforclovesbythedomesticcigarette,calledkretek,industry.However,duringthe1990s,cloveculti-vationseemedtowinddownagainduetounfavorablegovernment interference and because of import com-petitionfromZanzibar,Africa.ThetreesaregrowninWestJavaprimarilyinthelowlandsonultisolsandon
69071.indb 127 4/25/08 10:42:00 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
uplandandosols.Theflowerbudsareharvestedgreenanddriedtoproducethebrown-coloredcloves,locallycalledcengkeh.Nutmeg(locallyknownaspala)treesarealso grown originally in the Molluccas, but as is thecase with cloves, its cultivation has been extended tootherislandsoftheIndonesianarchipelago.Thefruitsareverytangyandsourintasteandthelargepitsorseeds inside the fruits yield after proper drying thenutmegs(calledbijipala;biji=pit),whereasthemem-brane or fleece enveloping the nuts is producing thenutmegmace(locallyknownaskembangpala;kembang=flower).Moredetailsonthecultivationandregionalimportanceofmajoragriculturalcropswillbeprovidedinthesoilsections.
69071.indb 128 4/25/08 10:42:00 AM
���
chaptersix
SoilsinthelowlandsofIndonesia
�.� IntroductionThesearethesoilsthathavebeenformedprimarilybylaterizationprocessesundertheinfluenceofyear-roundhumid tropical climates. Rapid and drastic weather-ingprocessesaredominant,whereasorganicmatterisusuallymineralizedintoCO2,H2O,andtheirmineralcomponents. Humification is of little importance andplays a minor role in soil formation. The major soils,discussed in the following sections, are the latosols,called oxisols, and red-yellow podzolic soils, calledultisols,by theU.S.SoilTaxonomy (SoilSurveyStaff,2006b). These soils tend to occur mainly in Köppen’sAfatypesofclimates.Aswillbediscussedinthesec-tionsbelow,itisverydifficulttocomparethesesoilsinIndonesiawiththoselistedintheU.S.SoilTaxonomy;hence,theFoodandAgricultureOrganization–UnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganiza-tion (FAO-UNESCO, 2006) and World Reference Base(WRB)forSoilResources(FAO-UNESCO,1998)systemsarealsoconsultedforproperdelineationsof thesoils
69071.indb 129 4/25/08 10:42:00 AM
��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
inquestion.Forexample,inIndonesiatheultisolscanbedistinguishedintolowlandanduplandultisols.Aswillbediscussed,thelowlandvarietytendstobered-yellowpodzolicsoilsdefinedbyacidicparentmateri-als,whereastheuplandvarietyismorethezonalgroupof red-yellow podzolic soils formed in tension zoneswhere both podzolization and laterization are occur-ring.Thesetermsofsoil-formingprocessesarecurrentlyphasedoutinthesoilscienceoftheUnitedStates,butfortunatelytheyarestillinuseandcurrentlyvalidintheFAOandWRBsystems.OtherimportantsoilsinthelowlandofIndonesiaarethered-yellowMediterraneansoils and grumusols, for convenience called lowlandalfisolsandvertisols,respectively.Bothsoilsaretypicalin theiroccurrence inKöppen’sAmaclimate,amon-soon-typeclimatedifferentfromtheyear-longhumidtropicalclimateoftheoxisolsandultisols.ThischapterwillalsodiscussthepeatsoilsthatoccurextensivelyinthecoastalregionsofIndonesia,whicharecalledhisto-solsbyU.S.soilscientistsbutarenamedtropicalpeatsoilsbyFAO-UNscientists(Andriesse,1988).Thesoilshaverecentlyattractedworldwideattentionduetotheirreclamationforfoodandtimberproduction.Thedisas-trousdeforestationintheeffortsaboveandtheensuingdamagingwildfireshavealarmedtheregionsinSouth-eastAsia.
�.� OxisolsThis group of reddish-colored soils of Indonesia, for-merly known as latosols, has received considerableattention. They are confined to the tropics (Beinroth,
69071.indb 130 4/25/08 10:42:01 AM
Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
1973), and many ideas concerning their genesis andclassification were suggested (Edelman, 1950; Har-ris, 1963;Kellogg,1949;Prescott andPendleton,1952).Manyargumentsandobjectionsstillexistconcerningitsnomenclature.Namessuchasterraroxashavebeensuggested(Beinroth,1973),andmanyothernameswereintroducedforthisgroupofsoils,someakinorrelatedtothetermlatosols,andothersonlystressingthekindofpresumedsoil-formingprocessthatmayhavetakenplace(Aubert,1954;Cline,1955;Harris,1963;MohrandVanBaren,1960).TheU.S.SoilTaxonomyhascompletelydeletedthetermlatosolsinfavorofoxisols(SoilSurveyStaff,1975,1990).Allofthemseemtohavetheeffectinmakingtheproblemevenmorecomplicated.
Thenamelateritewasfirstusedforthisgroupofsoils,as introduced by Buchanan in 1807 (see Prescott andPendleton,1952),andfromwhichthetermlaterizationisderivedfortheweatheringandsoil-formingprocessesofthissoil.Thishasledtothedevelopmentofnamessuchaslaterites,lateriticsoils,andlatosols.Generally,itisacceptedthattheprocessofformationofthiskindofsoilinvolvestheremovalofsilica,alkali,andalkalineearth with the consequent concentration of iron andaluminumoxidesandtheirhydratedforms.ThelatterwasdiscussedinChapter5.
InIndonesia,thisgroupofsoilsoccupiesmostofthelowlands,especiallyinJava.Ontheotherislands,thesesoilsdonotseemtobeveryimportant,andtheiroccur-renceseemstobelimitedtosmallareasorregions—inSouthSumatra(Lampungprovince), inWestSumatra(Padang and surroundings), in the southeastern cor-ner of Kalimantan, in South Sulawesi, and in North
69071.indb 131 4/25/08 10:42:01 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Sulawesi(Minahassaprovince).Formoredetailsaboutthedistributionofthesesoils,seetheExploratorySoilMapofIndonesia(Figure1.2).Ifonewouldconsultpre-war reports (Mohr,1938), a fargreaterdistributionoflatosols(oroxisols)intheIndonesianarchipelagothanisstatedabovewouldbenoticed.Thisproblemwillbeaddressedinmoredetailinthefollowingpages.
�.�.� Parentmaterials
The latosols (oxisols) in Indonesiaarederived fromawidevarietyofparentmaterials.Theyhavebeenformedfrombasictointermediatematerials,suchasquaternaryandesiticvolcanictuff,volcaniclahar,andriverdepositsorMiocenesediments,providedgooddrainagecondi-tionsprevail.Tertiarymaterialshaveformedsoils,usu-allyclassifiedasultisols(red-yellowpodzolicsoils)bytheBogorSoilResearchInstitute(Dames,1955),thoughtheirmorphologicalfeaturesaresimilartothoseofthelatosols.Themorphologicalcriterionusedtodifferen-tiate ultisols from latosols was in the past the quartzcontent.TheBogorSoilResearchInstitutethoughtthatinthiswaymappingproblemscouldbeeasilysolved.The soils containing quartz were mapped as ultisols,andsoilswithoutnoticeablequartzcontentwereiden-tifiedaslatosols.However,thatthisactioncreatesalotofconfusionisapparent.Thecentralconceptoflatosols(oxisols)doesnotexcludetheexistenceofquartzinthesoil.True latosols (or thecurrentoxisols)may, infact,contain quartz (Soil Survey Staff, 1960, 1975; Harris,1963). Latosols, which morphologically do not exhibitquartz,containappreciableamountsofquartzintheir
69071.indb 132 4/25/08 10:42:01 AM
Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
sandfractionswhenanalyzedbypetrographicmeans(Table6.1).
Thisseparationoflatosolsfromultisols,basedonthequartzcontent,isoneofthereasonswhythedistributionoflatosols(oxisols)inIndonesiaisnotaslargeaswouldhavebeenexpectedfromprewarreports.Manyofthesoils, which could have been classified as oxisols, arenowmappedasultisolsbyvirtueofthequartzcontent.
Thelatosolsinthelowlands,fromBogortothecoastalplain of Jakarta, originate from parent materials pro-ducedbyrecentquaternaryeruptionsoftheSalakandPangrango-Gedeh volcanoes. This andesitic volcanicmaterialstretchesnorthwardasavolcanicfanfromthefoot(±600mabovesealevel)oftheabove-statedmoun-tainstotheplainofJakarta(Verstappen,1953).Accord-ingtoVerbeekandFennema(1896),thisvolcanicfancanbedividedintotwosections:ayoungersectionandanoldersection.Theexistenceofsuchaseparationissup-ported by results of petrographic (Table6.1) and par-ticlesizedistributionanalyses(Table6.2).Theyoungersection, which is andesitic tuff and exhibits a hyper-sthenetohypersthene-augiteassociation(TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1959),occupiestheareaofBogornorth-ward to regions located at elevations of 100 to 150 mabovesealevel.FromhereontotheplainofJakarta,theoldersectionisfound,whichwasdeterminedasdacito-andesitic, a more siliceous material than the youngerandesiticvolcanictuff.Thedivisionlinecanbedrawnat the Ciluar profile, where the quartz content of thesandfractionsuddenlyincreases(Table6.1),andwherethe particle size distribution of the soil also changesabruptly (Table6.2). Other indications for the more
69071.indb 133 4/25/08 10:42:01 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesiaTa
ble
.6.1
.M
iner
alog
ical
Com
posi
tion
ofT
otal
San
dF
ract
ion
ofO
xiso
ls
Hor
izon
Mag
-.n
etit
eQ
uar
tzIr
on.
Con
cret
ion
Sil
icon
.O
rgan
icZ
eo-.
lite
Hyd
r-.
argi
llit
eV
olca
nic
.G
lass
Pla
gio-
.cl
ase
Hor
n-.
ble
nd
eA
ugi
teH
yper
-.st
hen
eO
livi
ne
Sto
ne.
Frag
men
tM
isce
l-.
lan
eou
s
Bro
wn
.Lat
osol
,.Pas
ir.M
un
can
g.(W
est.J
ava)
,.±40
0.m
.ab
ove.
Sea
.Lev
el
A1
171
5—
1—
524
tr7
12—
127
A3
292
4—
——
1017
23
5—
226
B1
132
151
trtr
57
21
7tr
443
B2
133
81
——
710
tr1
5—
151
C46
33
——
—5
19—
—10
——
14
Bro
wn
.Lat
osol
,.Bog
or.(W
est.J
ava)
,.±30
0.m
.ab
ove.
Sea
.Lev
el
A1
214
3—
trtr
412
tr5
11—
139
A3
223
2—
—tr
34
14
11—
545
B1
193
6—
—1
115
tr2
7—
541
B2
35tr
9—
1—
12
tr—
1—
150
69071.indb 134 4/25/08 10:42:02 AM
Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���R
edd
ish
-Yel
low
.Lat
osol
,.Cil
uar
.(Wes
t.Jav
a),.±
150.
m.a
bov
e.S
ea.L
evel
A1
7516
tr—
—2
3tr
—1
3—
—2
A2
312
8tr
—5
4—
725
—1
17
B1
307
6—
—17
67
—3
16—
420
B2
4312
14—
—20
—2
—2
4—
320
B3
506
152
—20
21
——
tr4
20
Red
.Lat
osol
,.Cib
inon
g.(W
est.J
ava)
,.±10
0.m
.ab
ove.
Sea
.Lev
el
A1
3810
9tr
2—
102
—2
8—
712
A2
528
101
1—
9—
——
7—
39
B1
5112
121
tr—
31
—tr
3—
314
B2
545
181
1—
tr—
——
1—
218
Red
.Lat
osol
,.Pas
sar.
Min
ggu
.(Wes
t.Jav
a),.P
lain
.of.
Jak
arta
,.±50
.m.a
bov
e.S
ea.L
evel
A1
3522
18tr
——
71
—5
1—
56
A2
5118
10—
1—
22
——
3—
85
B1
5717
14—
——
2tr
——
tr—
64
B2
5412
23—
1—
——
—tr
——
55
B3
4117
36—
1—
——
——
——
32
69071.indb 135 4/25/08 10:42:02 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
siliceousnatureoftheolderandesitictuffintheplainofJakartaarethelowerhyperstheneandespeciallythesubstantiallyloweraugitecountsintheredlatosolsofbothCibinongandPasarMinggu(Table6.1).Hence,toindicatethemoresiliceousnatureofthematerialsinthe
Profile I (7.5YR 4/4)(Brown Latosol)Pasir Muncang
<50 <2
Profile II (5YR 4/4)(Reddish-Brown Latosol)Bogor
Profile III (5YR 4/8)(Red-Yellow Latosol)Ciluar
Profile IV (5YR 4/6)(Red-Yellow Latosol)Cibinong
Profile V (2.5YR 4/6)(Red Latosol)Pasar Minggu
A1A2B1B2C
A1A3B1B2
A1A2B1B2B3
A1A2B1B2
A1A2B1B2B3
5.964.255.104.76
15.57
5.545.384.323.92
1.161.881.231.041.09
1.711.991.011.85
0.860.730.660.740.57
49.9753.1433.8632.1427.64
33.7936.8533.4730.89
14.4518.5714.89
7.5813.35
12.9213.07
9.268.10
11.4911.82
8.086.97
11.04
42.9241.6459.1161.6956.32
58.5954.9860.3461.71
81.1278.7181.7086.6685.50
83.2582.8488.5389.31
86.1586.1588.3990.6286.15
Percentage
50–2
Soil
Table.6.2. ParticleSizeDistributionofLatosols(Oxisols)
69071.indb 136 4/25/08 10:42:04 AM
Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
plainofJakarta,thenamedacito-andesitictuffisgiven.Hypersthene and, in particular, augite are mineralsoftenusedasmarkersforthepresenceofintermediatetothemorebasicvolcanictuff(forexample,andesitetobasalto-andesitictuffs)(MohrandVanBaren,1960).
Anotherissueinconnectionwiththeparentmaterialsistheopinionthatbasicparentmaterialswillproducethedarker-coloredlatosols,whereassiliceousvolcanicmaterialswouldgiverisetothedevelopmentoflighter-coloredlatosols(Dames,1955).SeeTable6.2,whereref-erence is made of brown- to reddish-brown (7.5-5YR4/4)-colored latosols (oxisols) formed on the youngerparentmaterials,whereasyellowish-redtored(5-2.5YR4/6)-coloredlatosols(oxisols)werefoundontheolderparentmaterials.Thoughhigherorganicmattercontentmaybea factor inproducing thedarkercolorsof thelatosols at higher elevations, it is believed that underequalclimaticandenvironmentalconditions,thehigherironcontentofthebasicmaterialsisanotherreasonforformationofsoilswithdarkercolors.Whentheparti-cle size distribution of the soils is studied (Table6.2),itcanbenoticed that theCiluar,Cibinong,andPasarMingguprofilesare composedoffineparticles.Theyareconspicuouslylowerinsandandhigherinclaycon-tents thanthePasirMuncangandBogorsoilprofiles,whicharelocatedclosertothecenteroferuptions.Thismay perhaps suggest that in addition to age and cli-mate,otherfactorsmayhaveplayedaroleintheforma-tionofthedifferentcolors,suchastextureoftheparentmaterials.Itisreasonabletoexpectthatonlythefinestmaterialshavebeentransportedfartherawayfromthevolcanoes and have reached the places in the coastal
69071.indb 137 4/25/08 10:42:04 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
plainofJakarta.Asageneralruleinphysicalchemistry,the finer the particles, the greater will be the surfacearea for better and easy attack by forces of weather-ing.Hence,soilsareformedintheplainofJakartawithhighclaycontents.Duetotheprevailinghotclimateintheplains,dehydrationanddessicationofironminer-alstendstooccur,givingrisetodevelopmentofhema-tites,whichimposetheirintensebrightredandyellowcolorstothelatosols.Ontheotherhand,themineralsinthelatosols(oxisols)ofBogorandhigherelevationsare more goethite-like in nature, generally carryingthedarkbrowncolors.Mohr(1938,1944)believesthatthecoastalplainofJakartainquestionwasinthepastmost probably inundated by the Java Sea. Therefore,theolderparentmaterialswouldhavebeendepositedmore likely inthesea,orafter theirdepositioninthePleistoceneagehavebeensubjectedtoaseabath.Eitherthevolcanictuffsweresubmergedatonetime,orafterhavingbeenweatheredintobrown-coloredsoilsweretemporarily submerged in the sea. Either or both ofthese treatments are thought to be sufficient to bringabout thedehydrationof ironoxidemineralsandtheconsequentdevelopmentofbrightredcolors.
�.�.� Climate
AspreviouslydiscussedinChapters1and3, latosols(oxisols)are foundin Indonesiaasazonalbelt in thehumidlowlands,fromsealeveltoplacesatelevationsof600mabovesealevel(Tan,1958;VanSchuylenborgh,1957). In this belt, they are formed under the influ-enceofahumidtropicalrainforestclimate,classified
69071.indb 138 4/25/08 10:42:04 AM
Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
byKöppenasanAfaclimate(Table6.3).Indrier,mon-soon(m),climates,theyhavebeennoticedtooccurathigher altitudes to approximately 1000 m above sealevel. Here, the climate is classified as Köppen’s Ama,whichissimilartoahumidtropicalrainforestclimate,butwithaslightinfluenceofadryseason.Ingeneral,it was noticed by various Dutch scientists, as well asbythepresentauthor,thattheregionsofoccurrenceoflatosolsarewithinthelimitsofKöppen’sAfatoAmcli-matic types. Latosols rarely occur in Indonesia in Asand Aw (savannah or aridic) climate types, and withtheprevailingconceptsofsoilsurveyandclassificationinIndonesia,thesesoilsarealsoseldomfoundinareaswith Cf (mesothermal) climates. Therefore, with ourpresentknowledge,noconclusionscanbemadeastothe relationship or correlations of Indonesian latosolswith the proposed subdivisions of oxisols into udox,ustox,andtorroxoftheU.S.SoilTaxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff, 1960, 1990). Tentatively, it can perhaps be statedthat latosols in Indonesia, falling in the udox subor-der,mostprobablywillbefoundinAfaclimaticareas,theustoxandtorroxinAwtoAsclimates,ifany.ThisisoneoftheissuesordrawbacksofapplyingtheU.S.SoilTaxonomyinforeigncountries.Thereisnoques-tion that it is a good system, but as indicated before,itappliesonlyforconditionsintheUnitedStates.Theclassification system also seems to be too artificial,because the use of morphology only complicates andfurtherconfusestheissue.Tothenewgenerationofsoilscientistsnotacquaintedwith theconceptof thesoil-formingprocessesoflatosols,thetermsustoxandtorroxindicatethattheseoxisolshavebeenformedunderdry,
69071.indb 139 4/25/08 10:42:04 AM
��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Rai
nfal
lA
ltitu
de<6
0 m
m>1
00 m
m
Mea
nA
nnua
lR
ainf
all
Type
of
Clim
atea
Wes
t Jav
a(H
umid
)
Pasa
r Min
ggu
Dep
ok
Lato
sols
Lato
sols
Podz
olic
Podz
olic
Bogo
r
Gun
ung
Mas
C&
E Ja
va(M
onso
on)
Tasik
mad
u
Kar
angp
anda
n
Taw
angm
angg
u
35 95 266
1100 10
0
600
950
1250
3.2
2.0
0.3
0.6
3.5
3.7
3.1
3.4
7.9
9.9
11.5
10.9 7.5
7.6
8.0
7.7
2173
3130
4230
3585
2533
2776
3194
2533
Afa
Afa
Afa Af
Am
a
Am
a
Am
Cfh
i
C A A A C C C CSa
rang
anLoca
tion
mM
onth
sm
mK
öppe
n
Soil
S&F
Tabl
e.6.
3.Th
eC
limat
eof
Lat
osol
(Oxi
sol)
Are
asin
Indo
nesi
a
aS&
F=
Sch
mid
tand
Fer
guso
n;K
öppe
n’s
sym
bols
:A=
col
des
tmon
th>
18°C
;C=
col
des
tmon
ths
betw
een
18a
nd−
3°C
;a
=w
arm
est
mon
th>
22°C
;f
=h
umid
;h
=a
nnua
lte
mpe
ratu
re>
18°C
;i=
dif
fere
nce
betw
een
cold
esta
ndw
arm
estm
onth
s<
5°C
;m=
mon
soon
.
69071.indb 140 4/25/08 10:42:05 AM
Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
aridconditions.AsdefinedintheU.S.SoilTaxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff,1990),eventheauthorisinclinedtothink that ustox are soils derived in ustic and torroxinaridicsoilmoistureregimes.However,theformationofoxisols(ortheformerlatosols)requiresthepresenceof lots of water, high temperatures, and well-drainedconditions,asconditionedbythedefinitionoflateriza-tion.Itisverydifficulttorealizehowtheseconditionscanbemetinanustic,torrox,orotheraridicsoilmois-tureregime.True,thesesoilscanbefoundinthedryclimates,butthisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthattheyhavebeen formedunder the influenceof the“aridic”climate.Manybelievethattheseoxisolsare“relics”andmayhaveoriginallybeenformedinAfatoAmclimaticregimes.Afterformation,theclimatehaschangedintothearidictypesofclimateswheretheoxisolsarenowfound.
Anotherimportantproblemistheinfluenceofchang-ingclimatewithincreasingaltitudesontheformationof oxisols with different colors in Indonesia. As dis-cussed above, brown to reddish-brown latosols (oxi-sols) are generally found at higher elevations (300 to1000m)abovesealevel,whereasred-yellowtoredlat-osols (oxisols) are usually noticed at lower elevations(200mtosealevel).Thisdifferencewasexplainedintheprecedingsectionasduetodifferencesinparentmate-rials.However, itshouldalsoberealizedthatorganicmattertendstoaccumulatemoreinsoilsathigheralti-tudesthaninsoilsatlowerelevationsabovesealevel.Asdiscussedearlier,mineralizationofsoilorganicmatterprevailsinthelowlands,whereashumusformationandaccumulationarefavorableinthesoilsoftheuplands
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
andhighlands.Theresultingdifferenceinorganicmat-tercontentisanadditionalreasonfortheoccurrenceofdarker-coloredlatosolsintheuplandsandlighter-col-oredlatosolsinthelowlandsofIndonesia.Whenlato-sols (oxisols) also occur in association with andosols,intergradesareformedattheborderregions,formerlycalled black latosols (Tan, 1959), which perhaps exhibitsomeresemblancetothehumiclatosolsofHawaii(Cline,1955). The U.S. Soil Taxonomy thought to cover someof these latosols (oxisols) by classifying the brighter(lighter)-colored soils as rhodic hapludox or kandiudoxand the humus-rich soils as humic rhodic hapludox orkandiudox(SoilSurveyStaff,1990).Noreferenceismadeto a tropical origin of the oxisols, which is expected,because a number of U.S. scientists do not believe in“tropicalsoils,”asmentionedearlier.Unfortunately,thetropudoxhasbeendeletedaltogether,aswellasthetro-pudalfs and tropudults, used in the older versions oftheU.S.SoilTaxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff,1960,1975).However,troporthents,tropaquents,tropofluvents,andsoforth,arestillrecognized,whichmakesthesystemratherinconsistent.
�.�.� Soilmorphology
Previousconceptsindicatethatlatosolsarefeaturelessin morphology, exhibiting usually deep profiles withminimum horizon differentiation. This is somewhatreflectedinthesystemoftheU.S.SoilTaxonomythatrequires theupperboundaryofoxichorizons,oneofthediagnosticcriteriaforoxisols,tobewithinadepth
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
of150cmofthesoilsurface.BecauseoxichorizonsareBhorizons,itisperhapsclearthatacompletesoilpro-fileofABChorizonscanthenbemorethan1.5m(=±5ft)thick,andmanylatosol(oxisol)profilesinIndonesiawill even be 3 m (±10 ft) deep before reaching the Chorizons. In many cases, the profile was customarilydugtoadepthofnotmorethan1.5morless,andthedescription will then cover only this exposed part ofthelatosol.Thisisperhapsoneofthereasonsformak-ingconclusionsthatlatosols(oxisols)havenocleardif-ferencesinhorizons.
Undertropicalconditions,suchasoccurringinIndo-nesia,atleasttwokindsofmodalprofilescanbefound:a moderately deep (brown latosol) and a very deeplyweathered profile (red latosol). After careful and thor-oughexaminations inthefield, theconclusioncanbereachedthattheoxisolsoftheredlatosol types,whicharetheoldestinage,havemorphologicalfeaturessimi-lartotheclassicallatosolprofileaspresentedbyPrescottandPendleton(1952).ApictureshowingaredlatosolisprovidedinFigure6.1,andtheaccompanyingsoilpro-filedescriptionofaredlatosolisasfollows:
Thesoilprofileis locatedinCibinong,the plain of Jakarta, Indonesia (50m above sea level), exhibiting a roll-ing topography with the soil profiledugonaflatpart of the topof a roll-inghill.Thevegetationiscomposedofgrasses and Eupatorium bushes, withisolatedbambooforestscatteredinthesurroundings.
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Ascanbenoticed, theprofile isverydeep,andthetransition from the concretion layer at 230 cm to themottledzoneisverygradual.Themottledzoneiscon-sideredsimilarasplinthite,andDutchscientistsareof
Depth.(cm) Profile.Description
0–20 5YR 3/4, dark reddish-brown (field moist),strong fine crumb, clay, friable, many roots,sometermites.
20–40 2.5YR3/4,darkreddish-brown(fieldmoist),strongfinecrumbtosubangularblocky,clay,friable, iron coating, many pores, abundantinsectactivity,roots.
42–67 2.5YR3/4,darkreddish-brown(fieldmoist),strongfinegranular,clay,friable,ironcoatings,manypores,abundantinsectactivity,roots.
67–104 2.5YR3/4,darkreddish-brown(fieldmoist),strong fine granular, clay, friable, less ironcoatings, porous, abundant insect activity,roots.
104–200 2.5YR 3.4, dark reddish-brown (field moist),strongfinegranulartoweakmediumblocky,clay,friable,veryporous,roots.
200–230 Blackiron/manganeseconcretionlayer(2to5mm),littleclaypresent,structureless.
230–280 Mottled zone, strong medium subangularblockytoblocky,clay,firmtofriable.
Redmottles:5YR4/6.
Grayishmottles:10YR7/1.
Note: The soilprofileabove isunderfield conditionby theeyebrightredtoreddish-brownincolor.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
theopinionthattheoxisolsinIndonesiacanbedividedinto two types: oxisols without plinthite and oxisolswithplinthite(Mohretal.,1972).Theoxisolsinthelow-landsof Indonesia areusually plinthitic,whereas theoxisols in the uplands generally do not exhibit plin-thites in their profiles. This difference is due to dif-ferences in soil-formation processes as discussed indetail inChapter5,Section5.2.3,stressingtheimpor-tanceoftheeffectofmineralizationoforganicmatter
Figure 6.1 RedLatosolatCibinong,PlainofJakarta.
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
inthelowlands,andtheinfluenceofhumificationandchelation in the uplands and highlands. Perhaps it isnecessary to reinforce here some of the details. ThelowlandoxisolsofIndonesiahavebeenformedundertheinfluenceofleachingagentscontainingmineraliza-tionproductsoforganicmatter.Incontrast,theuplandoxisolsareformedmorebyanadditionalinfluenceofleachingagentscontaininghumicacids.
Thebrownversionofoxisolsexhibitscolors thatareusually in the 10YR to 7.5YR hues and are less clayeythanitsredcounterpart.Asindicatedearlier,theprofiledoesnotpossessplinthite.Ironconcretionlayers,mottledzones,andpallidzonesarerarelypresent.Thehypoth-esisisthatbrownoxisolshavenotreachedthestageofformationofredlatosolsduetotheinfluenceofdifferentfactorsofsoilformationathigherelevations.Anexampleofabrownlatosolprofiledescriptionisgivenbelow:
Depth.(cm) Profile.Description
0–16 10YR3/4(moist),darkyellowish-brown,clay,strong fine to medium granular structure,friable, many roots, termite activity, gradualsmoothboundary.
16–33 7.5YR 4/2 (moist), dark brown, clay, strongfine granular structure, friable, many roots,termiteactivity,gradualsmoothboundary.
33–57 10YR 4/3 (moist), brown, clay, weak, finegranular, friable, slightly more compact thanthehorizonabove,gradualsmoothboundary.
57 7.5YR 4/4 (moist), brown, clay, weak finegranular,veryfaintiron/manganesemottles.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
Profileislocatedinarubberplantation,nearBogor,WestJava(250mabovesealevel),withrollingtohillytopography.It was dug on a flat part of the area,whichiscoveredbyanunderbrushofsparse native vegetation, composed ofmainly grasses, with isolated spots ofbushes.
Betweenthetwomodalprofilesabove,differentkindsofintergradesarepossible.Anironconcretionlayermaybepresentthatisverythininthickness.Partofthetoppartofthesoilprofilecanbeerodedandbecomesverythin.Theremainingerodedsoilfrequentlyreceivesnewmaterialsfromneweruptionsbecauseoftheactivevol-canisminIndonesia.Recentadmixturesofvolcanicashandrockfragmentsintheremainingsoilallowfortheoccurrenceofanewcycleofsoilandclayformation.
Atafewlimitedareas,whererejuvenationwithvol-canic ash has not happened and where erosion hascompletelystrippedoffthetopsoil,theconcretionlayer,whenpresent, tends tosurfaceandbecomecementedoveraperiodoftimetobecomeanironcrustlayer.Thishas been noted by the author in limited areas in thelowlandseastofJakarta.Theywereonlyafewsquaremeters wide and were surrounded by ordinary lato-sols.Suchformations,consideredtobethestartoftheformation of laterites, may take hundreds of years tofinish.
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
�.�.� Soilclassification
Internationally, the classification and terminology ofthesesoilshavebeencriticallydebated,sincetheirfirstintroductioninsoilscienceunderthenameoflaterites(Harris, 1963; Mohr and VanBaren, 1960). Many con-cepts and many names were presented (Cline, 1955;Kellogg,1949).Kellogg(1949)proposeduseofthenamelatosolorcromosolatthesubgrouplevelforthisgroupofzonalsoils,whichhepreviouslycalledlateriticsoils.The central concept of latosols is that they are zonalsoils exhibiting dominant characteristics associatedwith low sesquioxide ratios in the clay fractions, lowcation-exchangecapacities,andlowcontentofmostoftheprimaryminerals.Thesoilsarecomposedentirelyofsecondarymineralsandquartz,showingminimumhorizondifferentiationandpossessingahighdegreeofaggregatestability.
Asubdivisionatthegreatgrouplevelcanbecreatedbyusingappropriateadjectivestolatosol.Forexample,Cline(1955)classifiedthesoils inHawaii intothefol-lowinggreatgroups:
1. Lowhumiclatosols,developedatelevationof≤2600m,under125to1000mmrainfall(annually).
2. Humic latosols,developedatelevationsfromsealevelto750mabovesealevel,under1000to2500mmrainfall(annually).Thisgroupisdifferentiatedfromtheformerbyahighorganicmattercontent.
3. Ferruginous humic latosols, occurring in simi-larclimaticzonesasthehumiclatosols,buthave
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
purplish A horizons, overlying a heavier red toreddishBhorizon.
4. Hydrolhumiclatosols,developedatelevationsof150to1500mabovesealevel,under3800to9000mmannualprecipitation.
Manysoilscientistsseemtoobjecttousingthenamelatosol, and termssuchasallitic soils, solduralitic, ferral-sol,andthelikeweresuggested,especiallybytheFrenchschool (Aubert, 1954; Harris, 1963). Kovda (1964), whoseemedtobeinfluencedbytheFrenchsystemofsoilclas-sification,suggestedadivisionofthesesoilsofthehumidtropicsintotwomajorgroups.Dependinguponthehydroregimeandthebalancebetweenmineralandorganicmat-tercontents,Kovdapresentedthefollowingdivisions:
1. Alliticsoils,formedonaresidualalliticweatheringcrust. This group includes tropical brown earth,yellow earth, red earth, rubrozem, and bauxitesoils. The brown and yellow earth soils containkaolinite,butattheredearthstage,kaolinitedis-appearsandgibbsiteandboehmitepredominate.
2. Alliticsoils,formedonferruginousaccumulativeweatheringcrustasaresultofanancientorcon-temporaryhydromorphousprocess.ThesearethelateritesasproposedbyBuchanan.
In Indonesia, the soils were first called laterite or lat-eritic soils, but later the name latosols was adopted(Table6.4).
Supraptohardjo (1961)distinguishes latosols fromlat-eriticsoilsbyclaimingthat the lateriticsoilshave iron
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��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
concretions throughout the solum in contrast to lato-sols.Heproposesplacingthelateriticsoilsinthegroupofsoilswithtextural/colorBandlowinbases,orinthesamecategorywithred-yellowpodzolicsoils(Table5.3).
With the inception of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy (SoilSurvey Staff, 1960, 1975, 1990, 2006b), the Bogor SoilResearch Institute tried to adapt its existing conceptabovetothenewU.S.system.AsindicatedinChapter1, in thepostwarefforts toquickly replace theDutchscientists,whowereforcedtorepatriatetotheirhome-land, many young Indonesian scientists were sent toU.S.universitiestopursuefurthergraduateeducation.Manyofthem,especiallythesoilscientists,havebeenexposedtotheU.S.SoilTaxonomysystem.Becausethisistheonlysystemthattheywereobligatedtostudyin
Table.6.4. SummaryoftheTermsUsedbyDutchandIndonesianSoilScientists
1910 Mohr Redlateriteformation1916 Mohr Redlateritesoil,red
lixivium1916 MohranddeJongh Lateritesoilfrom
volcanicmaterial1933 Thorenaar1936 TeRiele Laterite-lateriticsoils1937 Idenburgh1938 Hardon Laterite-lateriticsoils1950 VanderVoort Lateriticsoils1951 VanDijk Lateritesoils1955 Dames Lateriticsoil1957 DudalandSupraptohardjo Latosols1958 VanSchuylenborgh Latosols
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
U.S. classrooms, they were now eager to disseminateandapplythisnewacquiredknowledgeinIndonesia.Hence,theU.S.SoilTaxonomyseemstogainmorepop-ularityinIndonesiathantheFAO-UNsoilclassificationsystemoranyothersoilclassificationsystem.Moreover,manyoftheFAO-UNscientistsobtainedmostoftheireducationintheUnitedStates.Aftergraduation,theytooseemtobemostwillingtoincorporatetheU.S.con-ceptintotheFAOsoilclassificationsystem.Therefore,itisnowonderthattheFAO-UNsoilclassificationsystemwasatonetimebiasedtowardtheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,buteffortshavebeennoticedlatelytofurtherdeveloptheirsystemontheirownbymanyofthenewgenera-tionofFAO-UNsoilscientists.
TheU.S.SoilTaxonomyplaceslatosolsinthecategoryofoxisols,whichrecognizesfivesuborders:aquox,tor-rox,ustox,perox,andudox.TheorthoxusedbyBeinroth(1973)hasapparentlybeendeletedinnewereditions.Fordefinitionsandcriteria,referenceismadetoSoilSurveyStaff(1990,2006a).AscanbenoticedfromTable5.3,theIndonesian soil classification system is based on mor-phologicalfeatures,similartothatoftheU.S.SoilTax-onomy.Therefore,onlysmalladaptationsandrevisionsin terminology and definitions are required. Latosols,which were defined as soils with latosolic B, are nowconveniently changed into oxisols. As defined by theU.S.SoilTaxonomy,thesearethesoilsthatmusthaveanoxichorizonwithitsupperboundarywithin150cmofthesoilsurfaceormeettherequirementsof≥40%clayinthesurface18cm.MostoftheoxisolsinIndonesiawillmeettherequirementof40%clayinthesurface18cm(Table6.1)butmayhaveproblemsinmeetingpart,ifnot
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
all,oftherequirementsforoxichorizons.Theapparenteffectivecation-exchangecapacity(ECEC)ofIndonesianoxisolsmorelikelywillexceedthe≤12cmol(+)/kgclayrequirementandsowillbetherequiredcontentof10%weatherable minerals in the 50- to 200-µ fraction (SoilSurveyStaff,2006a,2006b).Theseareduetothefrequentrejuvenationofthesoilswithfreshvolcanicash,richinminerals,bases,andcations,andtheveryrapidweath-ering in the humid tropics. They are the reasons forthecontentionthattheU.S.classificationconceptneedsadjustments for it to properly work under Indonesianconditions.TheoxisolsinIndonesiaaredifferentfrom,forexample,theDavidsonsoiloftheUnitedStates,withwhichtheywerefrequentlycompared,orevenfromoxi-solsinPuertoRicoorHawaii.ExceptinHawaii,theU.S.oxisolsarerelativelyoldsoilsthathavealsoneverbeensubjectedtorejuvenationprocesseswithnewashdepo-sition from volcanic eruptions, whereas their climaticconditionsforweatheringarequitedifferentfromthoseofthehumidtropicsinIndonesia.
Asdiscussedearlier,thelatosolsofIndonesiamayfitplacementasudox.Forreasonsexplainedbefore,theyrarelycanbeplacedasustoxortorrox.Unfortunately,latosols cannot qualify to become aquox, because thecriteriaforaquoxviolatethebasicprinciplesofforma-tion of latosols, requiring well-drained conditions fordesilicificationormobilizationofsilica.Onpaper, thepresence of aquox is not an issue, but under poorlydrainedconditions,asrequiredforformationofaquox,theprocessofsilicificationoccursandnolatosolswillthenbeformed.Theseprocesseshavebeendiscussedin detail in Chapter 5. The issue of aquox is another
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
reasonforconsideringtheU.S.soiltaxonomytobeanartificialsystemonly,whichlacksitsconnectionswithfieldconditionsoftheoutsideworld.Toavoidcreatingmoreconfusion,noattemptswillbemadetoalsocor-relatethelatosolswiththelowercategoriesoftheU.S.soilclassificationsystem.
�.�.� Physicochemicalcharacteristics
�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionAscanbenoticedfromthedatainTable6.2,theoxisolsinIndonesiaareveryfine-texturedsoils.Thebrown-toreddish-brown-coloredoxisols,indicatedearliertobetheyoungestinage,arerelativelycourserintexturethanthered-coloredoxisols.Theirclaycontentsrangefrom42.92to61.71%,qualifying the twobrownvarieties listed inTable6.2tobecalledclayeysoils.TheA1horizonofthebrownoxisolis,infact,siltyclayintexture,whereasthatofthereddish-brownlatosolisclayeyduetoitsslightlyhigherclaycontent.Thered-yellowandredoxisolsareconsiderablylowerinsand(>50µfraction)andhigherinclaycontentthantheyoungerbrownoxisols.Inthered-coloredsoils,thesandcontentmayevendropto<1.0%,whereastheclaycontentmayvaryfrom86.15to90.62%inAtoBhorizons.Inalltheoxisolprofilesstudied,thedis-tributionofclayseemstoberatherconstantwithdepthinthesoilprofiles,confirmingtheconceptoflatosolsoroxisolswithrespecttotheiruniformparticlesizedistri-butionwithdepth.Suchahighclaycontentandratheruniform distribution with depth in the profile seemtoagreewith thenowdeletedconceptsof the tropicalorthoxfromHawaii (SoilSurveyStaff,1975).However,
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
thesefeaturesareinsharpcontrastwiththeDavidsonsoilinthesouthernregionoftheUnitedStates.Theclaycontent in theDavidsonsoil is reportedtorangefrom31to66%withdepthintheprofile,withthehigherclaycontentnotedintheBhorizons.Generally,soiltexturesinDavidsonsoilsoftheU.S.southernregionsvaryfromsandyloamtoclayloamandclayfromAtoBthorizons(Robertson,1968).Theoccurrenceofsuchanargillic(Bt)horizon isa requirement forultisolsbut isagainst thegeneral concept of oxisols or latosols. Dutch scientistsbelievethatlatosolsexhibitingclaymovementdowntheprofile, yielding clay accumulations in B horizons, areaffectedbypodzolizationandshouldbeproperlyclas-sifiedaspodzolicsoils,whichagreesfairlywellwiththeconceptofultisols.
Theratheruniformlyclaydistributionoveraconsider-abledepthintheoxisolprofiles isprobablyduetothenatureoftheclaymineralandthehighcontentoffreeironoxides.Thelatterhaveacementingeffectontheclayparticles,givingrisetodevelopmentofhighlywater-sta-ble aggregates (soil structure) and the often gritty feelof these soils when rubbed in the field determinationforsoiltexture.Thecementingeffectalsodecreasesclaymobilitytoaminimum,causinguniformityinclaycon-tentdowntheprofile(VanSchuylenborgh,1958).
�.�.�.� ChemicalcharacteristicsIngeneral, theoxisolsof Indonesiaaremoderately toslightlyacidinreactions,withpHvaluesvaryingfrom5.5to6.5.Some,andinparticularthered-coloredvari-eties,arestronglyacidsoils(Table6.5).
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
Profile pHH2O(1:1)
Corg % N % CECme/100 g
BaseSat. %
Humid Tropics
CN
ApBrown Latosola
5.65.95.6—
A2B1B2
Red Latosola
4.94.74.84.3
ApB1B2B3
Reddish-BrownLatosolb
6.56.2
A1A2
Monsoon
A1Brown Latosolb
6.66.45.85.5
B1B2B3
5.96.06.0
2.61.81.1—
2.11.21.10.8
3.21.3
1.380.620.410.21
1.560.950.860.82
101112—
22141116
118
14.26.3
11.46.6
13.312.812.812.8
18171710
12211922
——
————
————
0.260.160.09—
0.090.090.100.05
0.280.16
0.100.100.040.03
0.120.070.070.066.7
A1B1B2B3
Reddish-BrownLatosolc
62737262
10552
4221
————
————
Table.6.5. SoilOrganicMatter,Nitrogen(N)Content,Cation-ExchangeCapacity(CEC),andpHH20ofSelectedOxisolsinIndonesia
Note: Cation-exchangecapacity(CEC)andbasesaturationanalysesbyNH4ace-tatemethod;me/100g=cmol/kg.
a FromSupraptohardjo,M.(1961).b FromMohretal.(1944);VanSchuylenborgh,J.(1958).c FromTan,K.H.andVanSchuylenborgh,J.(1959).
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Thesoilsoftheconstantlyhumidregionsseemtocon-tain appreciable amounts of organic matter, consideringtheconcentrationsreportedfor%Corg,rangingfrom2.1to2.6%inthesurfacehorizons.Thisisnotexpectedinviewofthesoils’redcolors.Italsocontradictstheopinionofmanyscientistsaboutloworganicmattercontentsinoxisols.
The nitrogen contents of the brown oxisols in thehumidtropics,rangingfrom0.26to0.28%intheirsur-facehorizons,aresubstantiallyhigherthanthoseofthesoilsintheUnitedStates,wherethepercentageofnitro-genhasbeenreportedtovaryfrom0.06to0.18inthesurfaceofmostU.S.mineralsoils(Brady,1990).Intheredoxisols,itssurfacesoilnitrogencontentisaslowas0.09%,but thisvaluecompares favorablywith thatofU.S.ultisols.Theabovefactsseemtosupporttheopin-ionabouttherelativelyhighfertilityleveloftheoxisolsinIndonesia.ItvalidateslocalrumorsthatevenstickswillgrowinIndonesianoxisols,asisthecasewithcas-sava or yuca (Manihot sp.) cuttings, stuck in the soilswithout any other measures of cultivation. The latteris perhaps also supported by the often high percent-ageofbasesaturation.Inthebrownoxisol,thepercentbasesaturationisoftenreportedashighas≥70%inBhorizons(Table6.5),thoughitisconsiderablylowerintheredoxisolsofthehumidregions.Thisdifferenceisacceptable,becausethebrownoxisolshavebeenformedfromandesitictuffandaretheyoungestinage.Thered-coloredoxisolsoriginatefromlessrichparentmateri-als(e.g.,dacito-andesitictuff)andarealsoolderinage,whereastheiroccurrenceintheplainofJakartafavorsahigherdegreeofweatheringandmoreleachingthanin the uplands. The data of cation-exchange capacity
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
(CEC)inTable6.5alsosuggestthatthevalueforECEC(=CEC+Al)willmostlikelyexceedthe12cmol(+)/kgclay,arequirementforoxichorizons,creatingtheissueofU.S.oxisolsbeingquitedifferentfromoxisolsinthehumidtropicsandinparticularinIndonesia.ForKCl-extractableAl3_contentsseeTable6.6.
�.�.�.� ChargecharacteristicsOnthebasisofthepresentknowledgeofsoilchemis-try, thesoilelectricalchargesareheldresponsible forthemanychemicalreactionsoccurringinsoils.Thesecharges,originating frombothorganicand inorganicsoilconstituents,areusuallyexpressedintermsofCECvaluesandcanbeashighas200cmol(+)/kgforhumus,to100cmol(+)/kgsmectite,and30cmol(+)/kgforillitetoaslowas8cmol(+)/kgforkaoliniteand4cmol(+)/kgforsesquioxides.
ResultsofchargedistributionanalysesbyMehlich’smethod (Mehlich, 1960), as listed in Table6.6, indi-catethattheoxisolsinIndonesiacarrylowpermanentcharges(CECp),thoughitisnoticedforthered-coloredoxisolstoberelativelyhigherinthesecharges.Thedif-ferences are more pronounced for the CEC (v=vari-able),CECatpH8.2andCECm (m=maximum).Thedata show the low values for the variable charges toincrease significantly from the reddish-brown to thered-yellowoxisols,withtheredoxisolsexhibitingcom-parativelythehighestvariablecharges.Thedifferencesinvariable charges seem to justify themorphologicaldivisionsintobrown-andred-coloredoxisols,withthelowestvariablechargesexhibitedbythebrownvariet-iesofoxisols,whereasthehighestvariablechargesare
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
exhibitedbythered-coloredoxisols.Thesubstantiallyhigher variable charges are perhaps an indication ofthe presence of higher amounts of sesquioxides andamorphousornoncrystallineclaysbesidekaolinite in
Soil Profile CECv CECp CEC8.2 CECm A13+ACE
Reddish-BrownOxisol
ApA2B
Red Oxisol,Jakarta
A1A2BPlinthite
Red-YellowOxisol
0.30.30.3
A1A2B
1.32.42.6
2.53.12.07.5
Red OxisolJonggol
A1
5.629.487.11
19.6714.08
7.216.26
9.724.78
11.94
11.9612.7811.78
12.4215.4013.89
31.6126.3218.6121.90
14.536.26
17.52
23.4026.1228.57
7.829.199.54
15.8816.9913.7112.65
6.567.689.32
10.6711.1210.98
10.2612.3911.48
23.8817.3510.1016.33
13.999.77
16.35
20.7922.6323.13
4.642.914.37
4.213.272.89
10.07
4.724.994.41
8.839.85
11.35
B1B2
4.26.58.4
Humid Tropics cmol(+)/kg
Table.6.6. ChargeCharacteristicsofOxisols
Note: AnalysesbyMehlich’smethod.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
the red oxisols. Therefore, the chemical activities ofredoxisolsmaybeaffectedmorebysesquioxidesandnoncrystallineclaysthanbycrystallineclayminerals.ThisisincontrastwithU.S.oxisolsandespeciallywiththeDavidsonsoil,usedoftenascomparison,where,asindicatedearlier, crystalline clays (kaolinites) seem toplayamoreimportantrole.
�.�.�.� ClaymineralogyInvestigationsintheprewarperiodbyDutchscientists(Hardon,1939)haveidentifiedbyx-raydiffraction(XRD)analyseskaoliniteintheclayfractionoflatosols(oxisols).Inaddition,VanSchuylenborgh(1958)detectedbyXRDsmallamountsofhydrargillite,theEuropeannameforgibbsite. The occurrence ofkaoliniteandgibbsitehasbeensupportedbydifferentialthermalanalyses(DTA)conductedbytheauthorattheInstitutPertanianBogor(IPB).However,theDTAthermograms(Figure6.2)alsolistotherdetailsabouttheclaymineralogyofthediffer-ent-coloredlatosols.Whenthethermogramsarestudiedfromnumber1to10,itisobviousthattheclaysofthebrownandreddish-brownlatosols(numbers1through5)yieldthermogramswithstrongendothermicpeaksat150to190Candbetween500and600C,whichbystandards in DTA indicate the presence of halloysite.However,consideringtheXRDresultsstatedabove,theclaymineralisthenmorelikelydisorderedkaolinite.Thelow-temperatureendothermicpeaksbecomegraduallyweaker,thoughstillpresent,intheDTAthermograms(fromnumber6to10).Athermogramwithadominantpeakonlyat500 to600C isusuallycharacteristic forkaolinite. Therefore, the kaolinite detected in the red
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latosolsappears tobemixedwithhalloysiteclay.Thelatterisduetotransformationofsomeofthedisorderedclayminerals intowell-ordered (crystalline)kaolinite.Theoccurrenceofhalloysiteordisorderedkaolinitein
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
°C
300
100
500
600
800
900
Figure 6.2 Differential thermal analysis (DTA) thermo-gramsofCiawibrownlatosols:(1)A1,(2)A3,and(3)B3hori-zons;Bogorreddish-brownlatosols:(4)A1and(5)B3horizons;Ciluaryellowish-redlatosols:(6)A1horizons;Sukamajayel-lowish-red latosols: (7) A1 and (8) B3 horizons; and PasarMingguredlatosols;(9)A3and(10)B2horizons.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
thebrown latosols isbelieved tobepossible,becausethesesoilsarecomparativelytheyoungestinageandhaveprobablynotreachedthefinalweatheringstagesin the constantly humid climate. The red latosols, ontheotherhand,aretheoldestinageandhavebeensub-jectedtomoredrasticweathering,includingdehydra-tionprocesses,yieldinghighamountsofhematites,asexplainedearlier.Hematitesareknown to carryhighvariablecharges.Thevaryingamountsofgibbsitepres-entareindicatedbytheDTAendothermicpeaksaround350C,whicharestrongestinthermograms4and5.Thelattermaysuggestthatthereddish-brownlatosolshavecomparativelythehighestamountsofgibbsite.Forthepurposeofenhancingclarityofpresentation,summa-rizedinTable6.7arethedataonclaymineralogyofthelatosols(oxisols)inrelationtotheirweatheringstages,asdeterminedbydifferentcolors,thicknessofsoilpro-files or profile depths, weatherable mineral contents,andCEC.
�.�.� Landuseandevaluation
�.�.�.� EvaluationofanalyticalpropertiesThe total area of Indonesia occupied by oxisols isapproximately141,157.65km2or14,115,765ha(seepage16orFigure1.2),whereasthetotalareaofthesesoilsinJavaamountsperhapsto1,253,100haormore.Theyareclayey soils, but they exhibit excellent physical prop-erties, characterized in general by stable and stronggranular to crumb structures. Notwithstanding theveryhighclaycontent,thesoilconsistenceisexcellent,thoughinwetconditionsthesesoilsareslightlyplastic,
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andwhendrymaycrackandshrinksomewhat.Ingen-eral, they are well drained, have good permeability,andexhibitmoderatewater-retainingcapacity.Regard-lessoftheredcolors,organiccarboncontentsinsurfacesoilsarenottoolow(Table6.5)andcontradicttheopin-ionofmanysoilscientistsaboutoxisolsalwaysbeinglow in organic matter contents. However, the chemi-cal activities of these soils in Indonesia are affectedmorebyvariable-chargeclayminerals thantheirU.S.counterparts.Regardlessofthehighleachingandthe
Soil Profile Depth
Primary Mineral Content
(other than
quartz)
Clay Mineral
Suite
Variable Charges in Terms of
CECv
BrownOxisol
Moderate Moderate Low
Reddish-BrownOxisol
Moderate
Red-YellowOxisol
Red Oxisol Very Deep Very Few (+ quartz)
Halloysite or Disordered Kaolinite
High
Halloysite + Kaolinite
Halloysite, Kaolinite, + Hematite
Moderate Halloysite + Gibbsite
Low
Medium Deep Few (+ quartz)
Table.6.7. ClayMineralogyofOxisolsinIndonesiainRelationtoDegreeofWeatheringStages
Note: AnalysesbyMehlich’smethod.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
resultingslighttomoderateandstrongsoilacidity,thepercentagebasesaturationisrelativelyonthemediumto high site because of the frequent rejuvenation byvolcaniceruptions.Therefore,duetosomeofthemorefavorable featuresand theoftendeepprofiles,oxisolsinIndonesia,asawhole,formgoodagriculturallandsandallowfordeeprooting.Thisisincontrastwiththeopinion of Beinroth (1973), who indicates that annualcrops with shallow roots may suffer from even shortdryperiodswhengrownonoxisolsinPuertoRico.Aswill be discussed below, the oxisols in Indonesia areconsidered productive soils for vegetable gardeningandfruitcrops.TherelativelyyoungeroxisolsinIndo-nesiaareoftenprovidedwithhigheramountsofplantnutrientsbynewashdepositsandespeciallywhenirri-gatedcanbeconsideredashighlyproductivesoils.Theolder, more developed members are strongly leachedandhavelostmostoftheirbases(Table6.5).Theseredoxisolsarealsostronglyacidicinreactionsandmaybedeficient innitrogenand inmanycases inphosphateandpotassiumaswell.Anexceptionistheredoxisolfrom tephretic volcanic material, which is generallyrichinpotassiumandphosphate.ThisgroupofoxisolsislocatedinCentralJava,forinstance,intheareaoftheMuriavolcano(Dames,1955).Inthiscase,thesoilcanbeclassifiedashighlyproductive.Nevertheless,mostoftheredoxisolsinthelowlandarecultivatedwithavarietyofcrops thataresurprisinglyproducingwell.Cassavaandbananas,oftengrownwithoutadditionalfertilization,providemoderatelygoodyields.However,resultsoffieldexperiments(AARD,1986)indicatethattheyieldswillbeincreasedconsiderablywithadequate
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applicationsoforganicmatterandespeciallywhenthelatteriscombinedwithartificialfertilizers.
�.�.�.� SignificanceofbasicsoilpropertiesIn view of the rapid mineralization processes in thelowland of Indonesia, the organic matter contents of1to2%insurfacesoilsmayquicklybedestroyeduponcultivation.Thisrequiresresupplyingtheoxisolswithorganicmatterthatcanbeappliedintheformsofplantor organic residues or green manures, or a combina-tionofboth.Thesoilsalsoneedadequatefertilizationtooffsetnutrientlossesbyplantuptakeandespeciallybyleaching.ThelowCECneedsperhapstoberaisedtohighervalues,sothatmoreoftheappliednutrientscanbeheldontheexchangecomplexforplantuseandbepreventedfromleaching.BecausetheCECismostlycausedbyvariablecharges,increasingitsvaluecanbeachievedeasily.TheconventionalmethodinIndonesiaisbylimeapplication,whichnotonlyincreasesthesoilpHbutalsoraisesthevariablecharges.Limeapplica-tionappearstobeveryhelpfulinincreasingthefertilitylevelofthesetypesofsoilsinthetransmigrationareasofSitiung,WestSumatra(Hakim,1982,1985).Frommorerecent investigations, it is noticed that organic matterisalsocapableofincreasingthetotalCECvalueofthesoils.HumicacidisknowntocarryCECs5to10timeslarger than those of smectite or vermiculite minerals(Tan, 2003a). Cultivation including the use of organicmatterwillnodoubtbereceivedwithenthusiasmbytheorganicfarmingsociety.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
�.�.�.� Agriculturaloperations�.�.�.�.� Ricecultivation Largeareasoccupiedby
oxisolsareprobablycultivatedwithlowlandrice,locallycalled“sawah”forwetpaddy-fieldsor inundatedrice(Figure6.3). Rice cultivation in Indonesia still followstraditional principles by impounding water in dikedterraces.Theseneatlyman-madeterracesclimbupthehillsides, and the irrigation water is recycled for useagainbypassingitthroughfromthehighestterracedfieldsinthemountainsidesortheuplandstothelow-est sawah fields in the lowlands. The sawah method
Figure 6.3 Female workers, usually owners or their rela-tives,plantingriceseedlingsinasawahfield.Theywillalsoweedthefieldsandtakepartinharvesting.Paymentfortheseservicesisusuallyintheformofashareinthepaddyyieldthattheycancashinbysellingtooneoftheseveralmiddle-men,preyingasbuyersinthefield.Mostoftentheywillkeepitforconsumption.
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used tobeverydependenton the rain foraconstantsupplyof irrigationwater.But,duringheavyrainfallsthe dikes could collapse, destroying extensive tractsofsawahfields.Also,duringperiodsofextremelydryseasons,nowaterisavailable,especiallywhenitismostneeded.Tocopewiththoseproblems,theDutchstartedin1937buildingmodernirrigationworksandcanalstocontrolbanjirs(floods),knownlocallyas“banjircanals,”and began construction of “waduks” (large ponds orreservoirs) for thestorageof rainwater.This isappar-entlycontinuedtodaybytheIndonesiangovernment,andmentionismadeinChapter1ofthe1965Jatiluhurmultipurpose dam project for control of the annualfloods affecting the Citarum River in West Java. Thehugeartificiallakecreatedcontainssufficientamountsofwateryear-longforirrigationofmorethan240,000haofpaddy-fieldsinthecoastalplainofJakarta.EffortsinconstructioncontinuebybuildingahugedamunderaveryrecentSiakriverproject,sponsoredbythegovern-mentsofWestSumatraandRiau(seeChapter1).Whenfinished,theprojectwillgeneratehydroelectricpower,controlannualbanjirs,andprovideaconstantsupplyofirrigationwatertotheagriculturalfieldsofboththeprovinces.
DuringtheDutchoccupation,riceyieldsinthepre-warperiodweregenerallyintherangeof1000kg(1met-ricton)ofdrypaddyperhectarewhengrownwithoutfertilization. However, with available irrigation waterandapplicationsofadequateamountsofnitrogenandphosphatefertilizers,riceyieldswerelaterreportedtobedoubled.However,VanDijk(1952)mentionedayieldofgabahorunhulledrice(fortheperiodof1923to1940)
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
ofonly1.24tons/hawhenplantswereadequatelyfer-tilizedwithNPK+Ca.Itwasnotedthatinsomecasesnoresponsewasobtainedbytheapplicationofpotas-sium fertilizers, which was believed to be caused bytherelativelyhighcontentofavailablepotassiumintheirrigationwater(Dames,1955;Go,1957;VanDijk,1952).Theuseofimprovedricevarietieshasraisedriceyieldssince1986to4to5tonsperhectare(gabahorgrain).Intherice-producingareasofCianjur,consideredthericebasketofWestJava,theyieldin2006was6tons/ha(airdrygabahorairdrygrain)fromanIR64ricevariety.ThefarmersinIndonesiapreferhigh-yieldingricevarietiesthatmatureearlyandexhibitgoodeatingqualities(forexample,IR36,IR64,andCisadane)(AARD,1986).TheIR36andIR64arevarietiesdevelopedbytheInterna-tionalRiceResearchInstitute(IRRI)inLosBãnos,thePhilippines, and originate from a cross between theIndicaxJaponicaricevariety.TheCisadaneisnativetoIndonesiaandbelongs to the Indicavariety.A formerfavorite Indonesian variety was the Peta, which wasusedbytheIRRIinitsearlybreedingtrials,whichpro-ducedtheIR8,thefirstreleasedhigh-yieldingricevari-ety,carryingthebeneficialattributesofthejaponicaandindica(Tan,2000).
Thepaddy-fieldsarenormallycultivatedbythefarm-ers but are also often managed by a system of share-cropping.Agreatmanywealthypeople,livinginlargecitieslikeJakarta,considerowningpaddy-ricefieldsasa highly regarded social standing and have investedtheirextracapitalinbuyingsawahsinthecountryside.Becausetheylackthetimeandtheknowledgetoprop-erlycultivate thesawahs, it iscustomaryto loan their
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propertytolocalfarmersintheformofsharecropping.Byharvesttime,theownerswillbeinthepaddy-fieldstocollecthalfofthepaddyyield,thegoingrateinshare-croppingatthistime.Thericeyieldsareusedforlocalconsumptionorforsaletomiddlemenatapriceof2000rupiahs/kg (drygrain),whosell itagain to ricemillsforRp.3000/kg.Inthericemills,thegrains(gabbah)arehulledandprocessedintopolishedrice,calledberasinIndonesia.Normally70%ofthegabahyieldberas.�Thelatter,readyforexportorlocalconsumption,isworthRp.5000/kgatthemarkets,whichamountstoUS$0.50(atarateof$1.00toRp.10,000.00).ThoughintheUnitedStatesriceissellingforaround$2.00/kgatthesuper-markets,atyieldsof6tonsgabah/ha(or4200kgberas/ha),ricecropsarestillprovidingahandsomeincometoIndonesianfarmers.
Intheolddays,manyDutchcompaniesestablishedhugericemills,especially intherice-producingareasofthenortherncoastalplainofJava(forexample,intheTelukpucungareaneartheBekasiRiverandinthethen-famous Pemanukan and Ciasam lands on the banksand surroundings of the Pemanukan River in WestJava).Thefarmersatthattimewereencouragedtogrowrice crops for sale and processing at those rice mills.Thatpartthatthefarmerkeptforconsumptioncouldusuallybehulledandmilledintoberasatthemillsforasmallfee.Today,thisconceptofdoingricebusinessseemstocontinue,andmanylocallyownedricemillsarenowavailablefromTangerang,Bekasi,Cikampek,
�Riceplant=paddy;unhulledricegrain=gabah;hulledorpol-ishedrice=beras;cookedberas=nasi;hence,weeatnasi,butgabahandberasarebirdseed.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
totheKrawangareasinWestJavaandextendingintothecoastalplainsoftheTegalareainMiddleJava.
�.�.�.�.� Nonrice crops The area not used forsawahsiscultivatedwithuplandrice,palawija(nonrice)crops,vegetablesandfruittrees,andalsoestatecrops.Thenonricecropsincludecorn,soybean,peanut,mungbean, and the like. Upland rice is rice cultivated ondrylands,plantedinthesamewayascornisgrown.Uplandriceandcornplayaveryimportantroleinthetransmigration program of the Indonesian govern-ment.AsdiscussedinChapter1,farmersfromdenselypopulatedareasinJavaarerelocatedinSumatra,Kali-mantan, or other less densely populated islands. Thetransmigrants are usually provided with 2 hectaresof land,andthefocusatthestart is thenongrowinguplandriceandcornforaquicksupplyoffood.Whenadequately fertilized, corn yields are 3 to 3.5 tons/ha(drykernels),whichhavemorethandoubledfromthe1.56tons/hareportedfortheperiodof1923to1940(VanDijk,1952).Otherimportant(nonrice)cropsarecassava(yucca,Manihotutilissima)andsweetpotatoes(Ipomoeabatatas),whichcanyield12to16tons/haand10to20tons/ha,respectively,whengrownontheoxisolswithadequate fertilization (O. Iskandar,BogorAgricultureUniversity,IPB,andD.H.Goenadi,ResearchInstituteofBiotechnologyforEstateCrops,personalcommuni-cations).WithcompleteNPK+Cafertilization,theyieldof cassava in Indonesiahas topped33.6 tons/ha (TanandBertrand,1972).
Inthehumidregions,corn,cassava,orsweetpotatoareoftenalsogrowninrain-fedsawahfieldsinrotation
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afterrice(forexample,riceintherainyseason,followedbythenonricecropsduringtherelativelydryerseason).However,where irrigation isavailable, farmersprefergrowingtworicecropsormoreperyear.
�.�.�.�.� Vegetablecrops Thevegetable,fruits,andother horticultural crops are grown preferably in thevicinityoflargetownsornearmajorpopulationcenters(ThrowerandDudal,1957),wherethedemandsforthesecommoditiescancommandhighprices.Thevegetablesare the local lowland varieties—for example, spinach(Amaranthus spp., locally called bayem), green onions(Allium fistulosum), long beans (Vigna sinensis, locallycalled“kacangpanjang”),cucumbers(Cucumissativus,or “ketimun”), eggplants (Solanum melongena, locallycalled “terong”), “sawi” (Brassica rugosa), “kangkung”(Ipomoeareptans),andthelike.Theyareraisedonsmallpatchesofemptylands,onriverbanksforeaseofwater-ing,orasbackyardgardening(Figure6.4).Often,largetreatmentswithorganicmanuresorcompostareneces-saryandareappliedtotheoxisolstoensurethegrowthandproductionofcommerciallyacceptablecrops.Arti-ficialfertilizerswereeithernotavailableatthattimeorwererelativelyexpensive.Shallots(Alliumcepa),locallycalled “bawang merah,” are usually grown after riceinthedrypaddy-fieldsofthenortherncoastalplainofCentralJava,nearthetownsofBrebesandTegal(westofSemarang),wheretheclimateismorefavorableforthiskindofcrop.Cabbage,carrots,andothertemperateregionvegetablesareusuallycultivatedintheuplands,andespeciallyinthehighlandsofthemountainareasofIndonesiaondifferentkindsofsoils.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
�.�.�.�.� Fruit crops A variety of fruit trees arealsogrownonoxisolsinthevicinityofpopulationcen-ters. For example, several varieties of mangoes (Man-giferaindica);rambutans(Nepheliumlappaceum),asortof
Figure 6.4 Farmer carrying vegetables grown on emptylandinasuburbanareaintown.Thegardenisclosetoariverforeaseofwateringandconvenientlylocatedincloseprox-imitytoconsumersandlocalmarketplaces.
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litchi;guava(Psidiumguajava),locallycalledjambukelu-tuk(Figure6.5);sawo(Achraszapota);andmangosteens(Garcinia mangostana) are growing well around largetownsasbackyardgardeningorinsmallorchardsontheoxisols,oftenwithoutapplicationsof fertilizersofanykind.Recentinvestigationshaveshownthatspray-ingwith1%KNO3of theflowerbudsofmangoes (of
A B
C
Figure 6.5 (A) Rambutans and (B) ripe guava fruits readyformarket.(C)Papayasemangkagrowingonthetrees.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
thearumanisvariety)increasesthenumberoffruitsby28%(AARD,1986).TheCibinongareanearmetropoli-tan Jakarta isknownfor thesesmallorchardsonredoxisols, and the fruits are offered year-long in smallstalls lining up major highways to town (Figure6.6).Theareaisalsoknownforproducingparticulartypes
Figure 6.6 AtypicalfruitstallintheCibinongarea,show-ing baskets of jeruk siam, papaya semangka hanging fromtheceilings,andothervarietiesoffruits,enticingbuyersfromtravelersandpeoplefromnearbymetropolitanJakarta,capi-talofIndonesia.
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oforanges,calledlocally“jeruksiam”or“jerukpaseh”(Citrusnobilis),favoredbyconsumersinJakartafortheirsweettasteandjuicynature.Whencitrusisgrownonsandy soils, the plants may show micronutrient defi-ciencies with symptoms resembling a CVPD (citrusvein phloem degeneration) disease. Fortunately, thiscanbecorrectedeasilybyapplicationofzinc,manga-nese, and magnesium (AARD, 1986). Another popu-lar Cibinong product, grown on oxisols, is a specialtype of papaya (Carica papaya), called locally “papayasemangka”(semangkameans“watermelon”),duetoitsdeepredmelon-likeflesh.Bananas(Musasp.)andsev-eralothervegetablesareoftengrownasintercropswithpaddyriceonthedikesofthesawahs.
�.�.�.�.� Estatecrops Themajorestatecropgrownonoxisolsisrubber(Heveabrasiliensis).Fibercrops,suchascotton(Gossypiumbarbadense),“kapok”(Ceibapentan-dra),“sisal”(Agavesisalana),and“cantala”(Agaveangus-tifolia), were at one time also cultivated on the Dutchplantations,duetotheirsuitabilityforgrowthonoxi-solsinthehumidlowlands.
Therubberplantationsarelocatedmostlyinthelow-lands, but some estates and smallholders’ plantationscanoccasionallybefoundintheloweruplands.BecauseoftheiroriginfromCentralandSouthAmerica,char-acterizedalsobyhotandhumidclimatesandalmostsimilarsoilconditionsasinIndonesia,theheveatreeshaveshowntobetheonlyplantsspecificallyadaptedforplantation agriculture on Indonesian oxisols. Tea andcoffeearecultivatedmoreondifferentsoilsinthecoolmountain regions of Indonesia. Rubber has attracted
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
attentionsincethedaysoftheconquistadorsbecauseofitselasticity,itsapplicationaserasersinthe1700s,andlateralsoforsealingobjectstomakethemwatertight.Severalvarietieswereoriginallyavailableintheirnativehomelands(forexample,Heveabrasiliensis,Heveaguya-nensis,Ficussp.,andManihotglaziovii).Theoldestrubberplantation(datingbackto1846)waspresumablyaFicusplantation,locatedatthePemanukan-CiasemlandsinWestJava(MaasandBokma,1957),butHeveabrasiliensiswaslaterconsideredsuperiorovertheothersinrubberproduction.ThehevearubbercultivationinsoutheastAsiastartedwhenheveaseedswere,allegedly,in1876smuggledfromtheAmazonjungles,Brazil,byHenryWickham,whogerminatedthemintheKewGardensofEngland (Fisher, 1966).This storywasdisputedbyDutchscientists,whoclaimedthat,thoughveryroman-tic,theseedswereobtainedandsent,infact,withtheproperlicense(MaasandBokma,1957).Itwaspresum-ablygrownatfirstintheEnglishgardensforitsbotani-calvalue,butafter thediscoveryof thevulcanizationprocessbyGoodyearandDunlop,revolutionizingthetire and automobile industry, hevea rubber became avery importantcropat thestartof the twentiethcen-tury.ItscultivationspreadquicklythroughsouthandsoutheastAsia,andbytheendof1920,itwasthelead-ingexportproductofthethenDutchEastIndies.Since1929,thedemandforrubberhasincreasedevenfurtherdue to the invention of foam rubber. Unfortunately,this demand for natural rubber diminished sharplyin 1945 because of the discovery and development ofsyntheticrubberinGermany.InIndonesia,manyofthe
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rubberplantationshavenowbeenreplacedbyoilpalmplantations.
Inplantationagriculture,theheveaplantsareplantedasclonalseedlingsorbud-graftsinneatlylaidoutrows.ExperimentstationsinIndonesia,suchasAlgemeneVer-eenigingvoorRubberOnderzoekterOostkustvanSumatra(AVROS) (see Chapter 1) in Sumatra, have put mucheffortintodevelopinghighlatex-yieldingrubberclonesresistanttotheleafblightdiseasebyDothidellasp.,capa-bleofwipingoutwholeplantations.Dependingonthemethodsused,thenumberofplantsmayvaryfrom400to500treesperhectareorlesswhenplantedwithinter-cropsforcashcrops.Withoutintercropping,theemptyspacesbetweentherowsoftreesarecoveredbycoverplants,preferablylegumes,whichvaryfrombushtypes(e.g., Crotalaria and Tephrosia spp.) to creeping coverplants.Thecreepinglegumesfavoredforuseascoverandgreenmanureplantsare,forexample,Centrosema,Pueraria,Mimosa,orCalapogoniumspp.Cleanweedingoperations, used in the beginning, were later aban-donedbecauseoferosionandsoildegradationhazards.Thecoverplantsareexpectedtoprotectthesoilsandat thesame time improve thephysical, chemical,andbiological conditionsof the soil for thegrowthof theheveaplantsintherows.Exceptduringplantingtime,whenphosphateswereplacedintheplantingholes,thetrees are seldom fertilized. The cover plants, instead,usuallyreceivetreatmentswithphosphorusandpotas-siumfertilizers.Nitrogenfertilizertreatmentsofyoungheveatreesareoftendeletedforfearofwinddamage(MaasandBokma,1957).However,treesatproducingstagesmayreceivefertilizertreatmentsof±100gsulfate
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
ofNH4plus50gKC1pertree.Thoughthesuggestionwasalwaystofertilizetreesoncein2years,resultsofinvestigationshaveshownlatexproductiontoincreaseto700to800kg/hawithannualfertilizerapplications,as compared to 300 to 400 kg/ha when unfertilized(Maas and Bokma, 1957). The latex yields have beenincreaseddramaticallytodaywiththeuseofnewhigh-yieldingclones(e.g.,AVROS2037,BPM1,PR255,andPR300).Theaverageyieldofa5-year tappingperiodwas recorded to range from 1000 to 2000 kg/ha peryear(AARD,1986).Withthedeclineofthelargerubberestates,smallholders’plantationshaveapparentlytakenoverthecultivationofrubberinIndonesia,because70%of the rubber is now produced by these small farms.Thelatexyieldisstilllow,buttheyhopetoincreaseitinthefuturebyusingnewhigh-yieldingclonesandbychangingthetappingsystem.Insteadofthenow-in-usesingletappingsystem,theuseofadouble-panelsystemisencouragedandbeinginvestigated.Thetreesarecutattwodifferentheights,andpreliminaryresultshaveshowna20%increaseinlatexyields(AARD,1986).
�.� UltisolsThisgroupofsoilswaspreviouslycalledred-yellowpod-zolicsoilsandconstitutesimportantsoilsworldwide.Incontrasttothelatosols,thered-yellowpodzolicsoilsarefoundnotonlyintropicalregions,butarealsoimpor-tantsoilsinNewZealand,Australia,andespeciallytheUnitedStates.Theycoverextensiveareasinthesouth-ern region of the United States from Virginia on theeasternseaboardtoTexasinthewest.Thesesoilshave
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
beenformedintheSoutheasternStatesfromclayeyandloamysedimentsoftheCoastalPlain,derivedfromero-sionofAppalachia(FiskellandPerkins,1970;Perkinsetal.,1973),andtheconceptoftheirgenesiswasdiscussedby a number of scientists (McCaleb, 1959; Simonson,1949).ByWesternstandards,red-yellowpodzolicsoilsareconsideredtobeformedbypodzolizationprocessesonsoils’materialsaccumulatedthroughlateriticweath-ering in tension zones. The latter are defined as areaswheretheclimatefacilitatesbothlaterizationandpod-zolizationprocesses,suchasislikelytohappeninthesouthernregionoftheUnitedStatesandperhapsalsointhelowlandsofNewZealand.Simonson(1949)believesthatsuchatheoryisdifficulttomaintain,becausered-yellowpodzolic soilsalsooccur in the tropics,whichinhisopinioncannotbeconsideredastensionzones.Atthattime,Simonson,alongwithmostU.S.scientists,perhapsdidnot realize that theuplandsof Indonesiaexhibitclimaticfeaturesfavoringtheoccurrenceofbothpodzolization and laterization. However, under Indo-nesianconditions,red-yellowpodzolicsoilscanoccurin the tension zones as well as in the lowland areasdependingonthetypeofparentmaterial.Thiswillbeexplainedinmoredetailbelow.
The red-yellow podzolic soils appear to be morewidely distributed in Indonesia than are the latosols(oxisols).Withareportedsoilacreageof45,678,616ha(seepage16orFigure1.2),theextentofred-yellowpod-zolicsoilsis3to4timeslargerthanthatofthelatosols.Basedonthesizeof theirdistribution, thesesoilsareperhaps,nexttoinceptisols,themostimportantsoilsofIndonesia.Similartothelatosols,theyarealsoreddish
69071.indb 178 4/25/08 10:42:18 AM
Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
toyellowish-redincolor,andifitwasnotfortheirquartzcontentsandtheiroriginfromacidicparentmaterials,theyareoftendifficulttodistinguishfromtheoxisols.TheyaremajorsoilsinthelowlandsofSumatra,Kali-mantan,Sulawesi,theMoluccas,andPapua,wheremostofthedacites,liparites,andgranitesarefound.InthelowlandsofJava,red-yellowpodzolicsoilsoccuronlyinBantam,thewesternprovinceofWestJava,ondaciticandandesito-daciticparentmaterials.Onintermediateor more basic parent materials, red-yellow podzolicsaremore typical in theuplandareas.Forexample, inCentralandEastJava,whereandesito-basaltictuffsaremoreprevalent,thesoilsarefoundonlyintheuplandsabovethezonesoflatosols,inthetensionzones.
�.�.� Parentmaterials
Thered-yellowpodzolicsoilsinthelowlandsofIndo-nesia have been derived from acid parent materials.They may range from rhyolitic or liparitic to dacitictoandesito-dacitictuffs,withquartzcontentsdecreas-inginthissequence(Table6.8).Insomecases,thesoilscan also be formed from intermediate to more basictuffs or from calcareous materials of tertiary origin,whichoftencontainquartz(Supraptohardjo,1961;TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1961a).Inthelattercase,theyare found in the uplands, called earlier the tensionzones.InthewesternpartofWestJavaandinneigh-boring Lampungs, South Sumatra, the parent mate-rialsaredacitic innature.Aconsiderablepartof theregionbetweenthevillagesofSerang,Rangkasbitung,
69071.indb 179 4/25/08 10:42:18 AM
��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Tab
le.6
.8.
Min
eral
ogic
alC
ompo
siti
ono
fAci
dic
Tuf
fs
Nat
ure
.of
.Tu
ffs
Vol
can
ic..
Gla
ssQ
uar
tzS
anid
ine
Alb
ite
Oli
go-.
clas
eA
nd
esin
eM
agn
etit
eIl
men
ite
Bio
-.ti
te
Gre
en.
Hor
n-.
ble
nd
e
Bro
wn
.H
orn
-.b
len
de
Hyp
er-.
sth
ene
Ap
atit
eZ
irco
n
Rhy
olit
icm
am
md
md
—f
fa
md
—f
fa
Dac
ito-
L
ipar
itic
ma
md
fm
—m
mm
mf
md
fm
Youn
gD
acit
icm
mf
—m
md
aa
md
am
dm
fm
d
Old
D
acit
icm
md
f—
mm
mm
ma
fa
md
md
And
esit
o-
Dac
itic
mf
——
aa
mm
mm
md
af
f
Not
es:a
=a
bund
ant(
++
++
);m
=m
any
(++
+);
md
=m
oder
ate
(++
);f=
few
(+);
–=
rar
eor
trac
e.So
urce
:See
als
oTa
n,K
.H.a
ndV
anS
chuy
lenb
orgh
,J.(
1961
).
69071.indb 180 4/25/08 10:42:18 AM
Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
Serpong,andTangeranginBantam,WestJava,iscov-ered by this dacitic volcanic tuff. It originated fromeruptionsofthenowextinctDanauvolcanoofthePleis-toceneera,locatedintheextremenorthwesternpartofWestJava.Thelatesteruptionwassocatastrophicthatit destroyed the mountain from the Earth’s surface.PartofthetuffalsocoverslargeareasofneighboringLampungs, located across the Sunda Strait in SouthSumatra.AnotherpartwasdepositedintheJavaSeaandtheSundaStraitandmixedtosomeextentwithtertiarysediments.
IntheotherpartsofSumatra,theparentmaterialsofred-yellowpodzolicsoilsvaryinnortherndirectionoftheislandfromdacitictolipariticorrhyolitic.
InKalimantan,theparentmaterialsarealsoacidicinnature,butthedifferenceisthattheyarenotofrecentvolcanic origin. Here in Kalimantan, the materialsbelong to the oldest land surfaces present in Indone-sia(seeChapter2).Granites,tertiarycalcareousmate-rials, shales, sandstone, and other tertiary sedimentscontainingquartzcanbefoundandcontributetofor-mationofthered-yellowpodzolicsoilsinKalimantan(Supraptohardjo,1961).
�.�.� Climate
Intemperateregions,asintheUnitedStates,NewZea-land,andelsewhere, theclimateof thearea inwhichred-yellow podzolic soils occur may be classified asKöppen’sCworCsclimatetypes.Thesearetemperateregionclimates(C)withwetwinters(w)ortemperate
69071.indb 181 4/25/08 10:42:19 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
regionclimateswithdrywinters(s),respectively.ThisisnotthecaseinIndonesia,wheretheclimateinwhichthesesoilsoccurislimitedtotheAfaclimatetypesorthehumidtropicalrainforestclimates(Table6.9).TheyareseldomfoundinAwaclimatesorinCtypesofcli-mate (Dudal and Supraptohardjo, 1957). In the coolerareasofthetropics(Köppen’sC-typeclimate),usuallythe brown podzolic soils, gray-brown podzolic soils,andpodzolsoccuronacidicparentmaterials.
Depending on altitudinal climatic differences, thedarker-coloredorreddermembersarelocatedatrela-tivelyhigherelevations,whereasthebrighter-coloredoryellowmembersarefoundmoreatlowerelevations.
�.�.� Soilmorphology
The standard concept of red-yellow podzolic soilsin the United States is that they are well-developedand well-drained acid soils, having thin organic (O)and organomineral (A) horizons over light-coloredbleached (E) horizons. These surface horizons areunderlainbyred,yellowish-redtoyellow,more-clayey(Bt) horizons. Coarse reticulate streaks or mottles ofred, yellow-brown, and light gray are characteristicsof deeper horizons where parent materials are thick(FiskellandPerkins,1970;Perkinsetal.,1973;Simon-son,1949).Suchaconceptofred-yellowpodzolicsoilsisalsousedinIndonesia,withtheexceptionthatthesoilsoftenlacktheEhorizons.Itisoftenverydifficulttoidentifyableached(E)horizonbecauseoffrequentrejuvenationwithvolcanictuffs.Inthelattercase,the
69071.indb 182 4/25/08 10:42:19 AM
Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
Rai
nfal
lA
ltitu
de<6
0 m
m
>100
mm
Mea
nA
nnua
lR
ainf
all
Typ
e of
Clim
atea
mm
S&F
Ban
tam
(Wes
t Jav
a)
Rang
kasb
itung
Jasin
ga
15 90
1.1
0.5
10.0
10.9
2379
3348
Afa
Afa
A A
RY P
odzo
lic
RY P
odzo
lic
Nor
th S
umat
ra
Paka
nbar
u
Pem
atan
g Si
anta
r
Para
pat
6
400
920
0.5
0.2
2.2
10.4
11.0 8.4
2870
3130
1921
Afa
Afa
Afa
Afa
A A B B
RY P
odzo
licBr
own
Podz
.
Kal
iman
tan
Tan
jung
Köp
pen
2509
9.3
1.6
36
Loca
tion
Soil
mM
onth
s
Tab
le.6
.9.
The
Clim
ate
ofR
ed-Y
ello
wP
odzo
licS
oil(
Ult
isol
s)A
reas
in
Ind
ones
ia
aS&
F=
Sch
mid
tand
Fer
guso
n;K
öppe
n’ss
ymbo
ls:A
=c
old
estm
onth
>18
°C;a
=w
arm
-es
tmon
th>
22°C
;f=
hum
id.
69071.indb 183 4/25/08 10:42:20 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
soilexhibitsanalmostsimilarmorphologyasredlato-sols.ThekeystotheU.S.SoilTaxonomyseemtosup-portthelatter,becausenoE(albic)horizonsarestatedascharacteristichorizonsofultisols(SoilSurveyStaff,2006a,p.33).Whenthetextisconsultedandafterwon-deringabouttheproperchoicesfollowingtheseveral“eithers” and many “ifs” and “ors,” the conclusioncanbemadethatonlyanargillic(Bt),akandic,andafragipanare the threemajorhorizonscharacterizinga profile of ultisols. No mention is made about basesaturations.Anexampleofaprofiledescriptionofared-yellowpodzolic soilof Indonesiafitting theU.S.Department of Agriculture (USDA) morphologicalconceptingeneralisasfollows:
Red-yellow podzolic soil, in the low-land(100mabovesealevel)ofBantam,West Java; topography: gently rollinghills;vegetation:densetropicallowlandforest with underbrush composed ofbushesandgrass.Theprofileislocatedonthetopofalowhill,withmoderatelywell-drainedconditions.
Horizon Depth.(cm) Description
A 0–10 10YR5/6 (fieldmoist),yellowish-brown,siltyclayloam,stronggran-ular to moderate fine subangularblocky,friable.
Bt1 10–40 7.5YR 5/6, strong brown, clay,moderate fine subangular blocky,faintclay/ironcoatings,friable.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
Another profile description, representing the red-yellowpodzolicsoilsofWestSumatra,isgivenbelow.ThisprofileislocatedintheexperimentalfieldsoftheFaculty of Agriculture, University of Andalas, LimauManisCampus,Padang,Indonesia.Theareaislocatedat350mabovesealevel.Thesoilisderivedfromdacitictuff, is well drained, and is located on the slope of asmallhill.Thehillyareaiscoveredbyvegetationcom-posedofbushes (forexample,Pandanus sp.,Diplaziumsp.,Pipersp.,andImperatasp.grasses).
A photograph, illustrating the soil profile above, ispresentedinFigure6.7.
Horizon Depth.(cm) Description
Ap 0–15 10YR4/4,darkyellowish-brown,clay, weak fine blocky, friable,many macropores, lots of coarseand fine roots, diffuse wavyboundary.
Bt2 40–52 7.5YR4/6,yellowish-red,clay,mod-erate medium subangular blocky,friable,ironcoatings,somemottles.
Bt3 52–85 5YR4/8,yellowish-red,clay,mod-erate, medium subangular blocky,friable, clay and iron coatings,mottles.
Bt4 85–110 5YR 5/6, yellowish-red, clay,massive,slightlyfirm,mottles.
C +110 10YR 7/2, very pale brown, clay,massive,slightlyfirm,mottles.
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
�.�.� Soilclassification
The taxonomic classification of red-yellow podzolicsoils isapparentlylessconfusingthanthatof latosols(oxisols). IntheU.S.SoilTaxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff,2006a),thesoilsareplacedintheultisolsorder,whichisdefinedasagroupofsoilshavingargillic,Bt,horizons,
Bt1 15–29 10YR5/6,yellowish-brown,clay,weak medium blocky, friable,abundantmacro-andmicroporesand lotsofcoarseandfineroots,diffusewavyboundary.
Bt2 29–65 10YR5/8,yellowish-brown,clay,weak medium blocky, friable toslightlyfirm,coarseandfineroots,less macropores but abundantmicropores, diffuse, broken,boundary.
Bt3 65–116 10YR5/6,yellowish-brown,clay,weak medium blocky, friable toslightlyfirm,somefineroots,lessmacroporesbutabundantmicro-pores,diffusebrokenboundary.
C +116 5YR 5/8, yellowish-brown, clay,massivetoweakmediumblocky,friable, small amounts of roots,smallamountsofmacropores,lotsof micropores, diffuse, broken,boundary.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
andbasesaturations<35% in thecontrolzone.Thesesoils are formerly known in New Zealand as yellow-brownearths(TaylorandPohlen,1962)andareclassifiedasacrisolsintheFAO-UNsystem.(FAO-UNESCO,2006).In the Australian soil classification system, the clos-estfitisthekurosol,duetoadescriptionrequiringthepresenceofastronglyacidicBthorizon(CSIRO-ACLEP,
Figure 6.7 Red-yellow podzolic soil (ultisol) at the experi-mentalfieldsoftheUniversityofAndalas,Padang,WestSuma-tra,Indonesia.(CourtesyofIr.Burhanuddin,formerAssistantDeanFacultyofAgriculture,and Ir.DatukR. Imbang,SoilScientist,UniversityofAndalas.)
69071.indb 187 4/25/08 10:42:21 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
2006).TheAustralianchromosol isdefinedashavingaBtthatisnotstronglyacidic.TheCanadiansystemdoesnotrecognizethisgroupofsoils,andthisisalsotruefortheothertemperateregioncountries,wheretropicalandsubtropicalconditionsarenotpresent.InIndonesia,someoftheproblems,asdiscussedearlier,arethefactthat often these soils are very difficult to distinguishfrom latosols. Because the E horizon is often obscureormissing,andduetoamorphologyalmostsimilartothatoflatosols,onlycarefullaboratoryanalysesmaybeabletosolvethisissuesatisfactorily.ThoughatexturalBcaneasilybedeterminedbyprofessionalsoilsurvey-ors, it shouldbe realized thatnoteverysoil surveyorinIndonesiahasathisorherdisposalawell-equippedlaboratoryforcheckingpercentagesofbasesaturation.Therefore,inthepast,thesesoilswereclassifiedinIndo-nesiaaslaterites,lateriticsoils,andthelike.Ascanbenoticedfromthesummaryofnamesused(Table6.10),the only distinction to make these “laterites” qualifybeingred-yellowpodzolicsoilsisthequartzcontent.
UnderIndonesianconditions,threesubgroupscanberecognizedonthebasisofcolorsanddrainagecondi-tions.Ingentlyrollingtopography,asreportedbyVanSchuylenborgh (1957), the soil drainage ranges fromrather well drained on top of the hills grading in tomoderately well-drained conditions on the slopes tobecomesomewhatpoorlydrainedinthevalleys.Thisleadstothedevelopmentofredpodzolicmembersonthe top of the hills, red-yellow podzolic members ontheslopes,andyellowpodzolicsoilsinthevalleys.Incontrast,theU.S.SoilTaxonomyrecognizesfivesubor-dersonthebasisofwetnessandcolor,organicmatter
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
content,andsoilmoistureregimes(forexample,aquults,humults, udults, ustults, and xerults). In view of thesoils’ occurrence in Indonesia mainly in Afa climatetypes,mostoftheIndonesianred-yellowpodzolicsoilscanperhapsbecorrelatedwiththeudults.Asindicatedearlier,red-yellowpodzolicsoilsseldomoccurinAwaor dryer climates; hence, ustults and xerults are lesslikelytobefoundinIndonesia(DudalandSuprapto-hardjo,1957).TheyellowmembersasdescribedabovebyVanSchuylenborgh(1957)canbeplacedinthegroupof aquults. Some humults may perhaps be present athigherelevationsinthetensionzones.
Table.6.10. NamesUsedforRed-YellowPodzolicSoilsbyPreviousAuthorsinIndonesia
1916 Mohr Kwartshoudendelaterietgrond(Quartz-containinglaterite)
1932 TeRiele Rode kwarts gronden (Redquartzsoil)
1937 Idenburg Rode kwarts gronden (Redquartzsoil)
1939 Hardon Rode lateritische kwartz zand-grond(Redlateriticquartzsandsoil)
1950 VanderVoort Degradedlateriticsoil1955 Dames Podzolizedlateriticsoil1957 Dudaland
SupraptohardjoRed-yellowpodzolicsoil
1957 VanSchuylenborgh
Red-yellowpodzolicsoil
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��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
�.�.� Physicochemicalcharacteristics
�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionAscanbenoticedfromthedatainTable6.11,thetextureoftheultisols(red-yellowpodzolicsoils)ofIndonesiaisnotasheavyasthatoftheoxisols(latosols).However,theclaycontentinIndonesianultisolsissubstantiallyhigher than that of their counterparts in the UnitedStates.TheTiftonsoil(thermicplinthicKandiudults)inGeorgiaisreportedtohaveonly10to13%clayinAandBt1horizons,withamaximumof41.6%noticedintheBt2(FiskellandPerkins,1970).
In contrast to the relatively uniform distribution ofclaywithdepthintheprofilesofoxisols,theultisolsinIndonesiaarecharacterizedbyclayincreasesinBhori-zons(theBthorizons),indicatingthepresenceofpod-zolizationintheirformation.Aftercomparativestudieson the thicknessesofAandBhorizons ofultisols inIndonesia, Van Schuylenborgh (1957) tends to agreewiththeideaofSimonson(1950)thattheincreaseinclaycontentintheBhorizonhasnotbeencausedentirelybymechanicaltranslocationofclayfromAtoBhorizons.Suchanincreasecouldhavebeentheresultofclayfor-mationinsitufromhydrolyticbreakdownsubstancesofsoilmineralsproducedinAhorizons,suchassolubleSiandAlsubstances,whichare leacheddownintoBhorizons. Though the explanations given seem to bereasonableenough,notethatinallcasestheChorizonsare always heavy in texture. In many cases, the claycontentintheChorizonsis50to60%(seeTable6.11),exceedingdistinctlytheamountofclaypresentintheupperAhorizons.Thelatterissuggesting,infact,that
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
theheavier textureof theBhorizonscouldhavealsobeentheinfluenceoftheparentmaterials,orinotherwordsisalithologiceffect,whichfindssupportbythefollowing.FiskellandPerkins(1970)havereportedthatextensive weathering of the parent materials of ulti-solsmayhavebeenthecauseforthepresenceofheavytexturesinsubsoils.Suchahighdegreeofweatheringdeepdowninthepedonisthenaformofgeochemicalweatheringincontrasttopedochemicalweathering,whichmostlyoccursinsurfacesoils.Anotherpossibilityworth
Particle Size Distr. Base Sat.
%
C %
N % Soil
>50 µ 50–2 <2 µpHH2O C/N
Red Podzolic (Kalimantan) Ap
Bt1
Bt2
Red-Yellow Podzolic (Bantam, West Java) A1
Bt1
Bt2
C
Red-Yellow Podzolic (West Sumatra) Ap
Bt1
Bt2
C
31.0
24.0
23.0
15.0
11.1
9.5
8.1
10.6
4.2
20.1
33.4
36.0
32.0
30.0
48.2
41.4
35.3
28.0
11.3
11.3
18.7
15.5
33.0
44.0
47.0
36.8
47.5
55.2
63.9
78.1
84.5
61.2
51.1
4.4
4.3
4.4
5.4
4.2
4.3
4.6
5.6
5.0
5.2
5.1
12.4
20.0
23.0
24.5
32.0
43.3
40.3
55.4
13.3
8.9
11.5
—
—
—
4.4
1.0
1.0
0.8
4.8
1.9
1.3
1.7
—
—
—
0.32
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.46
0.18
0.10
0.10
17
14
15
13
14
16
16
10
10
13
17
Table.6.11. PhysicochemicalCharacteristicsofRed-YellowPodzolicSoils(Ultisol)inIndonesia
69071.indb 191 4/25/08 10:42:22 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
mentioningis that inIndonesiathecoarser textureofthe surface horizon could be due to it being youngerthan thehorizonsbelow.Smallamountsof freshvol-canicasharebeingdepositedfromtimetotimeduetovolcaniceruptions.
�.�.�.� ChemicalcharacteristicsThesoilsarestronglyacidic inreaction.WithpHval-uesvaryingfrom4.0inAhorizonsto5.0inthelowerBhorizons,theyareaunitmoreacidicthantheoxisols.Thebasesaturationof24to50%inAhorizonsissur-prisinglyhigh,butis,however,withinthelimits(<35%)inBthorizonsforqualifyingthemtobeplacedasulti-sols. The data in Table6.11 indicate that the ultisol ofJavaexhibitscomparativelythehighestpercentagebasesaturationthanthoseofthesoilsinNorthSumatraandKalimantan. This is to be expected because the soilshave been formed in Java on younger and less acidic(daciticversuslipariticinNorthSumatraandgraniteinKalimantan)parentmaterial.Thehighvalueof55.4%fortheAhorizonoftheSumatranultisolisattributedtothehighorganicmattercontent,becausesampleswerecollectedinvirginsoilscoveredbynativeforeststands.
OrganicmattercontentsinAhorizonsarealsosur-prisinglyhighwithvalues recordedashighas4% intermsoforganiccarbon.Organiccarbonof>0.9%intheBthorizonsofthered-yellowpodzolicsoilsofIndone-siamayperhapsqualifythemtobeplacedashumultsintheU.S.SoilTaxonomy.Eventheyellowpodzolicsoil(Table6.11)withaB2ghorizon,confirmingthepoorerdrainageintheirformationaspostulatedabove,exhibits
69071.indb 192 4/25/08 10:42:22 AM
Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
organiccarboncontentsof>0.9%intheupper15cmoftheargillichorizon.
�.�.�.� ChargecharacteristicsTheultisols(red-yellowpodzolicsoils)inIndonesiaarecharacterizedbylowpermanentcharges(CECp)oftheorderof3to7me/100gor3to7cmol(+)/kg,withthelowervaluesexhibitedbythesoilsofKalimantan.ThesoilsareinvariablyhighinfreeorexchangeableAlcon-tents,butagainthered-yellowpodzolicsofKalimantanexhibit, comparatively, substantially lower exchange-ableAlpercentagesthanthesoilsinJavaandSumatra(Table6.12).
Thevariablecharges,asexpressedbyCECv,aresome-what higher, and their values vary only very slightlybetween the soils of Java, Kalimantan, or Sumatra.However, the CEC at pH 8.2 and the maximum CECarequitelarge,showingvaluestwiceashighasthoseoftheCECv.SeveraloftheexceptionallyhighvaluesofCEC8.2andCECmintheAhorizonsarecontributedbythehighorganicmattercontent.Thesamples,asindi-catedearlier,werecollectedfromvirginsoilsundertheoriginalvegetationcover.Theobservationsabovecon-firmtheopinionthatthesesoilsarevariable-chargedsoilsandhencemayexhibitachemicalbehavioruponuseand cultivation different from permanent-charged soils(Tan,2003b).Theconclusionforconsideringthesesoilsasvariablechargedissupportedbythepresenceofrel-ativelyhighpositivecharges,asexpressedintermsofAEC(anion-exchangecapacity)values,rangingfrom8to14me/100gor8to14cmol/kgsoil.TheexceptionisintheultisolsofKalimantan,derivedfromgranite,
69071.indb 193 4/25/08 10:42:23 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
whereAECvaluesareintherangeof3to4me/100gor3to4cmol/kgsoil.
�.�.�.� ClaymineralogyDifferential thermal analysis (DTA) of the clay frac-tions shows a mixture of 1:1 type of clay minerals,gibbsite,andthedominantpresenceofamorphousornoncrystallineclays.Thisobservationisinsupportof
Soil A13+ CECp CECv CEC8.2 CECm AEC
HumidTropics cmo1(+)/kg
Red-Yellow Podzolic Soil, Bantam, West Java
A 4.6 5.45 7.75 13.20 16.24 8.42
E 4.3 5.60 7.85 13.45 15.30 9.28
Bt1 6.2 6.10 10.30 16.40 20.50 11.46
Bt2 6.2 6.00 9.00 15.00 19.13 10.60
Red-Yellow Podzolic Soil, Aceh, North Sumatra
A 2.8 7.06 7.26 14.32 19.20 3.94
Bt1 4.1 6.76 7.07 13.83 9.32 3.74
Bt2 5.8 5.36 13.57 18.39 7.38 3.33
Red Podzolic Soil, Kalimantan
A 1.3 3.85 17.02 20.87 28.82 12.53
E 0.7 3.13 9.25 12.38 21.94 12.35
Bt1 1.1 4.34 9.77 14.11 20.63 13.53
Table.6.12. ChargeCharacteristicsofUltisols
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
consideringthesoilsasvariablecharged.Thepresenceof some 2:1 clays, as reported from x-ray diffractionanalysesbyVanSchuylenborgh(1957), is lessobviousbyDTA.Smectite,whenpresent,createsseriousissuesin the prevailing concepts of ultisols in the UnitedStates,wherekaoliniteisbelievedtobethecharacter-izingclaymineral(McCaleb,1959;RichandObenshain,1955).Simonson(1949)alsosuggestedtheuseofsmec-titeasthedistinctionbetweenultisols(red-yellowpod-zolic)andalfisols(gray-brownpodzolicsoils).Thesoilscontainingkaoliniticclaymineralsare,inhisopinion,ultisols,whereassoilswithsmectiteintheirclayfrac-tions should be called alfisols. The noncrystalline oramorphous claysare shown inDTA by the combina-tionofverysharplowendothermic(±200C)andverysharp high exothermic peaks between 900 and 1000C(Figure6.8).X-raydiffractionanalysesof theultisolclays,yieldingweakdiffractogramsorcurveswithveryweaklow-intensitypeaks(Figure6.9),supportthepres-ence of large amounts of amorphous, noncrystalline,or short-range-orderclayminerals (GoenadiandTan,1989).ThisisinsharpcontrastwiththeXRDcurvesoftheoxisols,showingsharphigh-intensitypeaksat0.712and0.359nmforthepresenceofcrystallineclays(e.g.,kaolinite).Thismineral is,however,alsoconsideredavariable-charged clay mineral. Its permanent chargeisrelativelysmallduetothesmallamountofisomor-phous substitution in the tetrahedral and octahedralpositions.Mostofthenegativechargeinkaoliniteorigi-natemorefromdissociationoftheH–ionsofexposedoctahedral-OHgroups,aprocesswhichisalsosoilpHdependent. Therefore, the electronegative charges of
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
kaolinitewillalsoriseandfalldependingonsoilpHvalues.Nevertheless,someofthesoilscientistsdisagreewiththeaboveandareoftheopinionthatkaolinite,asisthecaseofsmectite,doesnotpossesspH-dependentcharges unless aluminous impurities are present (DeVilliersandJackson,1967;FiskellandPerkins,1970).
200
400
600
800
1000 °C
1
2
3
4
5
Figure 6.8 Differential thermal analysis (DTA) thermo-gramsofred-yellowpodzolicsoilclayfractions:(1)Aand(2)BtHorizon,Aceh,NorthSumatra; (3)BtHorizon,Kaliman-tan;(4)Btand(5)CHorizon,Bantam,WestJava.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
�.�.� Landuseandevaluation
�.�.�.� EvaluationofanalyticalpropertiesAsindicatedearlier, theultisolsareperhapsthemostwidely distributed soils of Indonesia. The total areawithultisolsfarexceedsthetotalacreageoftheoxisolsinthearchipelago.ThesoilscovermostofthelowlandsinSumatra,Kalimantan,Maluku,andPapua. In Java,theultisolsoccurmostlyinBantamandperhapsalsoathigherelevationsinthetensionzones.
1.402 nm
ULTISOL0.369
0.359
0.444
0.444
0.719
0.712 nm
28 20 12 3
B
AOXISOL
B 11
2θ
A
Figure 6.9 X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectrograms of A andB horizons of clay fractions of ultisols (Bantam, West Java)andoxisolsofIndonesia.(FromGoenadi,D.H.andTan,K.H.,[1989].)
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
However,incontrasttooxisols,theultisolsinIndone-siagenerallyexhibitpoorphysicalandchemicalproper-ties.Mostofthesoilsarerelativelyheavy-texturedsoilsbutpossessalowdegreeofstableaggregation,whichoftenresultsinlowpermeability.Thesepropertiestendtomakethemverysensitivetosevereerosion.Drasticweathering and high leaching have also resulted instronglytoverystronglyacidconditions,withpHval-uesoftenexhibitedoneunitbelowthoseoftheoxisols.Most of the nutrients have also been transported todeeperlayers.However,becausethebasesaturationinthesubsoilislessthan35%,theamountofnutrientsheldismostlikelyinadequateforplantandcropgrowth.Inaddition,atadepthof1to2m,thenutrientsmayberelatively out of reach to shallow-rooted crops. Thesesoilsare,therefore,consideredtobepooragriculturalsoils. Similar characteristics have been reported fortemperateregionultisols(forinstance,inthesoutherncoastalplainof theUnitedStates),makingthesesoilsinfertileunlessproperlymanaged(FiskellandPerkins,1970;Perkinsetal.,1973).However,soilorganicmatter,nitrogen,availablephosphorus,calcium,andespeciallypotassium contents, though generally considered lowinsurfacesoils,showconsiderablevariationinIndone-sianultisols.Forinstance,theultisolsofWestJavaarecomparativelymore fertile than theircounterpartsonthe other islands. Due to their location in the moun-tainrangeofJava,theseultisolshaveexperiencedfromtimetotimesomekindofarejuvenationprocessintheformofnutrient-richandesiticashshowers.Worthmen-tioningare theultisols inSumatraand theMoluccas,which are rich in potassium. The ultisols in Sumatra
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
aredevelopedmostlyfromliparitictuff,relativelyrichin feldspar, biotite, and muscovite (Van Dijk, 1952).Thesemineralsareimportantsourcesofpotassiumforperennialcrops,suchasrubberandoilpalm,whichareextensivelygrowninthelowlandsofSumatra.Thisisespecially true for theyoungermembersor soils thathave received rejuvenation in the recent past in theformofvolcanicashshowers.TheultisolsintheMoluc-casoriginatedfromschists,richinmicas,andarethere-forealsorichinpotassium.Nevertheless,theultisolsofbothSumatraandtheMoluccasmaystillhavethepoorphysicalpropertiesexhibitedbyultisolsingeneral(Tanetal.,1963,1965).
Totheaboveshouldperhapsbeaddedthatinvirginconditionswhere the vegetation cover is still present,theultisolsinIndonesiamaystillhavehighamountsoforganicmatterintheirsurfacelayers,ascanbenoticedfromthedatainTable6.11.Inaddition,thenutrientcon-tentofthesoilsurfaceisoftenmaintainedatadequatelevelsforproperplantgrowthbytheprocessofnutrientcycling.Butassoonastheareaisdeforestedandthesoilcultivated foras littleas1year, theavailablenutrientsupplyofthesoilsurfaceissoonexhausted.
�.�.�.� SignificanceofbasicsoilpropertiesThe properties related to low degree of aggregatestability and low pH have to be corrected when ero-sionhazardsaretobedecreased.Chemically,thiscanbe achieved by liming the soils properly, a processbywhichnotonly thesoilpHcanbeadjusted to thedesiredlevelforpropercropproductionbutwillalsoincreaseorenhanceaggregationofsoilparticles.Good
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�00 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
aggregationofsoilparticles is requiredfor thedevel-opmentofsoilstructures,whichinturnpromotestheformationofporespaces,beneficial in improvingsoilpermeability. In addition, the application of organicmatter, compost,greenmanuring,andother typesofsoil-structure-enhancingprocessesmaybeperformedalone or in combination with the above. The applica-tionofsoilamendments,suchasphosphogypsumandother soil stabilizers, is consideredby somescientistsanalternativemethodtotraditionalproceduresforcon-troloferosion(Levy,1995).
AsthesoilpHisincreasedbylimingprocedures,thevariablecharges,arisingfromsoilorganicmatterandthehighlyweatheredclay,arealsoincreasedsubstan-tially. The latter, as reflected in higher CECv, CEC8.2,and CECm values (Table6.12), was discussed earlierfor enabling the soil to storemorenutrients forplantgrowth. Enlarging the soil CEC is very important, inviewoftheneedtoapplyfertilizersincontrollingthesoil’s inherent low nutrient content and in offsettingnutrientlossesbyleachingandplantuptake.However,asindicatedintheaforementionedsection,inthefer-tilizationprocedure,itshouldbekeptinmindthatsev-eraloftheultisolsarepotentiallyrichinpotassiumandmaynotneedlargeamountsofK-fertilizers.
�.�.�.� Agriculturaloperations�.�.�.�.� Shiftingcultivation Mostoftheareacov-
eredbyultisolsislocatedontheratherthinlypopulatedislandsofSumatra,Kalimantan,Sulawesi,andPapua.Becauseinthiscaselargeareasoflandsareavailable,shifting cultivation is often practiced. This method is
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia �0�
locally called the ladang or huma system and is oftenerroneously considered synonymous with the slash-and-burn method. By definition, shifting cultivationinvolves complexcyclesofprocesses thatallow landstoliefallowforsometimeaftercultivationandrecoverbeforeagainbeingslashed,burned,andcropped.Com-monly,afamilyorunitofsettlersfunctionscollectivelyinclearingtheforest.Theythenclaimcustomaryrightsover the particular stretch of territory that was culti-vated,oftenamountingto50km2ormore,whichwasreferredtoinChapter1astanahadat.
Thismethodofshiftingcultivation,practicedmostlyin the tropical rain forest, has attracted worldwideattention due to an allegedly massive deforestation.However, when conducted properly, it encourages attheendof thecycle thegrowthofasecondary forestand hence will result in minimal ecological damage.Slash-and-burnisonlypartofitandcanbepracticedon itsownwithout thenecessarycyclesof fallowfol-lowedbydevelopmentofasecondaryforeststand.ThemethodispracticedlatelyincloserelationtotheIndo-nesiangovernmenttransmigrationprogramforarapidclearing of the forest and production of enough foodforthemigrantsettlersduringtheirfirstyears,ensur-inginthiswaythesuccessorfailureoftheresettlementprogram.Duetoviolentconflictsinthe1990sbetweenthesettlersandindigenouspeople(seeChapter1),andbecause of the Asian financial crisis in August 2000,large-scale transmigration programs have now beencancelled.Slash-and-burnwas,infact,alsoconductedintemperate-regionforestsofNorthernEurope,whereitwasknownbydifferentnames(forexample,swidden,
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�0� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
assarting,andsvedjebruk).Onitsown,itisaverycontro-versialmethod,andmanyscientistsconsideritharmfulto the ecology. The issue of slash-and-burn is exacer-batedwhen themethodcontributedsince1990 to thedeforestation of lands of more than 40,000 ha annu-allyinColombiaforthecultivationofcrops,producingillegaldrugs, suchasmarijuanaandcoca. Ithasalsoreceivedworldwideattentionwiththedisastrousflare-upsofwildfires,destroying in1997and1998partsofthepeatforestinsouthKalimantan.Thick,toxicsmokefrom these wildfires was also covering Medan andPalembanginNorthandSouthSumatra,respectively,and has even spread dangerously over neighboringSingaporeandMalaysia,forcingtemporaryclosuresoftheirairports.
In shifting cultivation, most of the trees and othertypesofvegetationarecutandlefttodry.Partsofthetimber are collected and used as building material,whereasanotherpartmaybeusedasfirewoodorformakingcharcoal.Assoonastheresidualvegetationisdry,itisburnedtoclearthesoilforcultivation.Inviewofthestronglyacidicreactionandlownutrientcontentsofultisols, theashprovestobetemporarilybeneficialinincreasingthesoilpHandsupplyingnutrients.Thecleared plots are usually cultivated with upland rice,maize, or root crops—for example, cassava (Manihotutilissima)andbanana (Musaparadisiaca)orother fruittrees.Recently,hotpepperplants(CapsicumannuumorCapsicumfrutescens)arebecomingverypopularashumacrops.MostIndonesianfoodisveryspicy,andhotpep-perisoneofthemainingredientsusedtomakeithotandspicy.The increasingdemandforhotpepperhas
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia �0�
increaseditsmarketpriceoftentosuchalevelthatitismoreprofitablegrowinghotpepperthanuplandriceinthehumas.Intercroppingisoftenpracticed,andthreestoriesofcropsmaythenbepresent,withsweetpota-toes, hot peppers, and taro as the “ground-dwelling”crops, whereas cassava, banana, or papaya constitutethemiddlestory,andcoconut,jackfruit,andotherfruittreesaretheupper-levelcrops.Intheheydayofrubber,rubber treeswerealso favored intercrops.Whencropyields decrease after 1 to 3 years, due to a decline insoilfertility,thefieldsareleftfallow,allowingthemtoreturn into a secondary forest stand, a cycle vital forthis type of cultivation. The banana and other fruittreesarestillproducinginthesecondaryforestgrowth,whencultivationhastoshifttoanewplotthathasbeencleared also by the slash-and-burn method. The rub-bertreesarethenalsoreadytobe“tapped.”Alltheseprovideawelcomeadditioneithertothedietortothesettler’sincome.Ifthemethodiscarriedoutproperly,theold site canbeusedagain inabout8 to10years.The International Center for Soil Research and Agro-forestry (ICRAF, personal communications) at Bogorisevenoftheopinionthatideally20yearsareneededbeforereturningcroppingatthefirstsite.Theybelievethatbygiving the landenoughtimetorecover,shift-ingcultivationcanbeproductivewithfewerecologicalimplicationswhileprovidingamethodofsustainableagricultureinthelightlypopulatedregionsofIndone-sia. If and when the cycle is too short, this may pro-ducevastareasofwasteland invadedbycochongrass,locally called alang-alang (Imperata cylindrica). The lat-teristhecaseinmanyareasofSumatra,Kalimantan,
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�0� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
andtheMoluccas.Settingfiretothedrygrassesduringthedryseasoninordertoproduceyoungshootsthatattractdeerandothergameanimalscontributestothefurtherimpoverishmentoftheultisols.Naturalrefores-tationneedsconsiderabletimeandmuchhelponsuchpoorsoils.Despite theuntidyandsloppyappearanceofthecultivatedplots,thelinkbetweentheprotectivevegetationandpreservationofafertilesoilisimplicitinshiftingcultivation,whereastheuseofashafterburn-ingasasourceofnutrientsupplyandavoidingexces-siveweedingandotherdrasticcultivationpracticesareconsidered by many people eminently sound (Fisher,1966).
�.�.�.�.� Rice cultivation. Because rice is a majorstaple food in Indonesia, growing rice has receivedmoreattention in theagriculturaloperationsof Indo-nesia than other crops. As discussed earlier with theoxisols,riceiscultivatedinIndonesiabytwomethods(forexample,inundatedpaddy-fieldanddrylandmeth-ods). The paddy-field (locally called sawah) method,bywhichlowlandriceisgrownindikedandinundatedplots of land, is the traditional method. This methodispracticedextensivelyinJavaandBali,wherepaddy-fieldsaredotting the landscape fromthe lowlands tothe mountain regions. In the less densely populatedareasofSumatra,Kalimantan,Sulawesi,andPapua,thepaddy-fieldsarelessnumerous,thoughstillconsideredthemostimportantmethodforgrowingrice.Therefore,relatively largeconcentrationsofpaddy-fieldsonulti-solsseemtobelocatedmorenearcentersofpopulatedareas in Sumatra (e.g., Banda-Aceh, Medan, Padang,
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia �0�
Jambi,Benkulu,andLampung).Substantialareaswithlowland rice areas are also found in West Kaliman-tan,SoutheastSulawesi,Maluku,andnearMeraukeinSoutheastPapua. InthesurroundingareasofMedan,NorthSumatra,andinSolok,WestSumatra,thepaddy-fields produce the Medan and Solok rice, respectively,favoredforconsumptionbylocalpeopleinSumatra.
Undersawahculture,thesoilsneedfertilizationwithlargeamountsofnitrogen,phosphate,andinsomeulti-sols also with potassium. Heavy applications of limeandphosphate(e.g.,1to5tonsCaCO3and200to500kgtriplesuperphosphateperhectare)havebeenrecom-mendedbyGo(1961)toensureoptimumriceyields.Thenitrogenusedshouldbeappliedpreferablyintheformofurea,becauseitsacidityisonlyone-thirdthatofsul-fateofammonia.Intheabsenceofadditionalfertiliza-tion,riceyieldsmaybeashighas1700kg/haintermsof dry grain (Van der Giessen, 1949; Van Dijk, 1952).Withadequatelimingandfertilization,thericeyieldsareintherangeof4to5tons/ha,thoughinexperimen-tal fields using hybrid rice (for example, Batang SamoandBatangKampar)yieldsof8to10tons/hahavebeenreported(AARD,1986;Sujitno,2004).
Grownas ladangrice,alsocalledpadigogooruplandrice in shifting cultivation, a short-growing variety isrecommended that can produce within a period of 4monthswhenrainfallisrelativelythelargest.Theyieldsof this typeof riceareusually lower,butwithyieldsrecorded at 2 to 5 tons/ha with adequate liming andfertilizer applications, they are still good rice yields,thoughsomeofthepadigogovarieties(e.g.,PB-36andSingkarak)havebeenreportedinexperimentalfieldsto
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�0� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
yield 3 to 5 tons/ha (Sujitno, 2004). The two varietiesareresistanttotheblastdisease,causedbythefungusPyriculariaoryzae,thatoftencreatesseriousproblemsinthecultivationofuplandrice(AARD,1986).
�.�.�.�.� Estate crops. A large variety of estatecrops were grown during the prewar Dutch colonialtimeontheultisolsofSumatra,includingrubber,sisal(Agave sisalana), cantala (Agave angustifolia), manilla-hemp(Musa textilis),andmanyothercrops that toler-atetheprevailingtropicalhumidclimate(Holthuisetal.,1950).Thefiberfromtheagaveandmusacropspro-videsimportantrawmaterialforthethrivingrope,cord,andstringfactory,locatedinLampung,SouthSumatra.Sometobaccoculturesandalittleteawerealsonotedin North Sumatra. Because of the need for intensivecare and heavy fertilization on the nutrient-deficientultisols, tobaccocultivationseemed later tobemovedto themore fertile lowlandandosolson the footslopeofMountSibayakinNorthSumatra.However,duringthattime,rubberwasstillconsideredthemajorestatecrop on ultisols. But due to the threat from syntheticrubberin1945andhencedecreasingworlddemandinnatural rubber, much attention has been given latelytoreplacing itwithoilpalm(Elaeisguineensis), locallyknownaskelapasawit. Itscultivationhassincegrownsubstantiallyinimportance,especiallywiththepoten-tial for use of its crude or residual oil as biodiesel, analternative fuel source for powering automobiles andthelike(Goenadi,2006).
Thecountryoforiginofoilpalmisstillabigissue,though a majority of scientists believe that it was
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia �0�
introducedinIndonesiafromtropicalAfrica.However,others claim South America as the country of originbecausenotonlyE.guineensis(theonlyspeciesfoundinAfrica),butalsoE.MelanoccocaandmanyotherspecieswerefoundwildinSouthAmerica(VanHeurn,1950).TheoilpalmcameinIndonesialongbeforetherubber“crisis,”perhapsinthenineteenthcentury,andlikerub-beriswelladaptedforgrowinginthehumidtropicsofSumatra.BecausetheultisolsofSumatrawerereportedtovarywidelyfromrichtopoorin,especially,potas-siumcontent, such conditionswillbe reflected in thegrowthofthetrees.Apoorcropwillbefoundonthesoilslowinpotassium-bearingminerals(<0.100%K2Osoluble in25%HCl),whereas thesoilswithrelativelyhighercontentsofthepotassiumminerals(>0.100%K2Osolublein25%HCl)arenotedtosupportbettercrops(VanDijk,1952).Theaverageyieldin1940was3500kgoilperhectare.
Inthewild,theoilpalmgrowstoconsiderableheights,makingitverydifficulttoharvestthefruitsthatdevelopin clusters at the tops of the trees. Recently, dwarfedtrees(Figure6.10)havebeendevelopedbyproperbreed-ing to facilitate theharvestingof the fruitsbymeansofmanuallycuttingtheclustersfromthegroundwithaknifeperhapsattachedonlytoashortpole.Today’sbreedingprogramsinIndonesiaareaimedatproduc-ingveryshort,high-yieldingpalmswithlowcholesterolandhighvitaminAcontent.ThedwarfhybridscamefromthecrossingbetweentheDuras,descendantsfromapalmspecies inBogor,andtheDumpy,apalmspe-ciesfromSerdang,Malaysia.At6to9yearsofage,thecrossisreportedtoyieldarecord30tonsperhectare
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�0� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
annuallyintermsoffreshfruitbunches(FFBs)(AARD,1986). The Indonesian Research Institute for EstateCropsconsidersthisyieldof30t/hatheattainableyieldandbelievesthatthegeneticalpotentialFFByieldisintherangeof35to40t/ha.Theoilisderivedfromboththe mesocarp around the kernel and from the kernelitself,andtheoilextractionrate(OER) isaround22%
Figure 6.10 Dwarf oil palm tree. (Courtesy of the Indone-sianResearch Institute forEstateCrops.PhotoprovidedbyDr.Ir.DidiekH.Goenadi,Director.)
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia �0�
fromthemesocarpand6%fromthekernels.MostofthevitaminA,ifnotall,isinthemesocarpoil(personalcommunication,DidiekH.Goenadi).
�.� LowlandalfisolsThe name lowland alfisols was selected to represent agroupofreddish-coloredsoilsderivedfromcalcareousparentmaterial, formerlyknownas terra rossa soilsorredMediterraneansoils.ThesesoilsarecalledchromosolsintheAustralianSoilTaxonomy(Isbell,2002),andkas-tanozemsintheFAO-UNESCOSoilMapoftheWorld.TheclosestfitintheU.S.SoilTaxonomyisthealfisols,thoughthismaynotagreefullywiththeconceptofredMediterraneanorterrarossasoils,asdiscussedfurtherbelow.Therefore,thenamelowlandalfisolswillbeusedinthistextbecauseoftheirmainoccurrenceinthelow-landsofIndonesiaandinviewoftheircloseassociationwithoxisols.
RedMediterraneanor terra rossa soils,oftencalledterra rosa or terra roxa soils, are widely spread in theMediterraneanregions,fromPortugalandSpainoverItaly to theBalkanpeninsula.Theyarealso found inthenorthcoastofAfrica.Oftheseveralconceptspres-ent, the most popular is the concept as proposed byReifenberg (1929) and Blanck (1930), who define thesoilsas follows:RedMediterraneansoilsaremoreorless deep red loams, formed on limestone as a resultofspecificsoil-formationprocesses,dictatedbycondi-tionsofatypicalMediterraneanclimate,andgenerallycharacterizedbyrainywintersandhot,drysummers.The soil-forming processes may be a combination of
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��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
lixiviation, calcification, and laterization or ferraliti-zation.Consequently, thesoilsshowenrichmentwithsesquioxidesandsomesilica.Thehighcontentofironwiththeusuallyloworganicmattercontentgivesrisetothedevelopmentofbrightredcolors,propertiesthatdistinguishthemfromastandardalfisolofthetemper-ate regions. Compared with other soils of the humidtropics(forexample,oxisolsandultisols),theypossessa higher content of alkali and alkaline earth and arealsoalkalineinreaction.Calciumandironconcretionsmay be present. Reifenberg (1929) was of the opinionthat the soils should be considered as a preliminarystageoflateriteformation.SuchanideawassupportedbyJoffe(1949),whoplacedthesoilsinthegroupofsoilsaffectedbylaterization.Healsosuggestedthatthesoilsmight have been formed in an earlier geologic timewhenintheMediterraneanregionahumidtropicalcli-mateprevailed.Thestressuponthecalcareousoriginisthesubjectofmanyarguments,andmanyItaliansoilscientistshaveproposedtheideaofaeolianorvolcanicorigin(Joffe,1949).
In Indonesia, this kind of soil is found in CentralandEastJava,Madura,andinNusaTenggara,overtheislandsofBali,LomboktoTimor.Ontheotherislandsofthearchipelagotheyareoflittleimportance.
�.�.� Parentmaterials
As far as the author’s experiences are concerned, thered Mediterranean soils of Indonesia originate fromreef limestone parent materials. However, a numberof soil scientists in Indonesia have noticed that the
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
soils can also be formed from calcareous sandstoneand basic volcanic materials (Dudal and Suprapto-hardjo, 1957).Theyhave found these soilsonbasalticashdeposits,locatedonthelowerslopesoftheBaluranvolcanointheeasterncornerofEastJava.Withrespecttotheabove,Wisaksono(1953)suggestedtodividethesoilsintotwogroups:pureredlimestonesoilsandfalseredlimestonesoils,respectively.Theformerhasdevel-opedonpure limestone rocks,whereas the latterhasbeen formed from calcareous materials, which havereceivedcontaminationintheformofvolcanicash.Thelattersoilsare,therefore,foundmoreintheneighbor-hoodofthevolcanicchain.Thesedifferencesinparentmaterialshavebeensubstantiatedbyresultsofminer-alogicalanalyses.Thepureredlimestonesoilspossesssand fractions, composed of iron oxides and the pri-maryminerals,zircon,tourmaline,epidote,andanda-lusite, considered typical minerals of old nonvolcanicsediments.Ontheotherhand,thesandfractionofthefalseredlimestonesoilistypifiedbyavolcanicmineralsuite,containingaugiteandhornblende,inadditiontomagnetite.Theironcontentinthefalseredlimestonesoiliscomparativelyalsomuchhigherthanthatofitspurecounterpart.
Thedifferencesinparentmaterialsareusuallycou-pledwiththetopographyandthephysicalconditionsofthesoils.Whenformedonreeflimestoneorcalcare-ousparentmaterials,reliefisundulating.Whenformedonvolcanicmaterials,reliefrangesfromhillytomoun-tainous.Thepureredlimestonesoilsarealsomoredif-ficulttocultivateandbehavemorelikeheavy-textured
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
soilsthanthefalseredlimestonesoil.Inthedryseason,pureredlimestonesoilstendtoformwidecracks.
�.�.� Climate
Theoccurrenceofthesoilstendstobelimitedtothesoutheastern part of Indonesia, which is generallycharacterizedbythedriestclimateofthewholearchi-pelago. As can be noticed from Table6.13, the real(pure) terrarossasoilsare located inareaswithAsaorAma(Köppen)climatetypes.TheAsatypeofcli-mate ischaracterizedbya longdryseasonfromthemonths of May through September, where some ofthemonthsoftenreceivelessthan3to5mmrainfall/month.Thisdryseasonisalternatedbyarainyseason,whichclimaxesduringthemonthsofDecember,Janu-ary,andFebruary,wherethehighestaveragemonthlyrainfallsarerecordedbetween200and300mm.Sucha climatic pattern, common in the surroundings ofTuban,Madura,andKupang,resemblescloselythatofaMediterraneanclimate.However,ascanbenoticedfrom Table6.13, the soils can also develop in Ama(Köppen)climatictypes.Thoughthistypeofclimatewas defined earlier as a monsoon climate, the rela-tivelylongerwetseasonalsohasitsclimaxduringtheperiod of December through February. It has a verysharpdryseasonwithaveragerainfalloftenrecordedoflessthan5mm/month.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
�.�.� Soilmorphology
The morphology of the soils is in fact not too com-plex.Liketheotherred-coloredsoilsdiscussedintheprecedingpages,theredMediterraneanorterrarossasoilshavealmostnodistincthorizondifferentiations.Dependingonthelocalconditions,thesoilprofilemaybeverydeep,butoftenitcanalsobethin.Anexampleofadeepprofileisgivenonthenextpage.Thevegeta-tioniscomposedofvillagegardencropswithlowlandfruit andkapok (Ceibapentandra) treesandgrassesasundergrowth.
Rainfall Altitude
<60 mm >100 mm
Mean Annual Rainfall
Type ofClimatea
East Java
Tuban
Bojonegoro
Cepu
Randublatung
0
15
30
55
5.6
4.0
3.9
3.1
5.2
7.3
7.2
7.7
1373
1872
1901
2312
Asa
Ama
Ama
Ama
E
C
C
C
Terra Rossa
Terra Rossa
Madura
Tanah Merah 47 4.1 6.9 2006 Asa C
Terra Rossa
Nusa Tenggara
Kupang 48 6.0 6.0 1687 Asa E
Location
m Months mm Köppen
Soil
S&F
Table.6.13. TheClimateofTerraRossaSoils(LowlandAlfisol)AreasinIndonesia
a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols:A = coldestmonth>18°C;a=warmestmonth>22°C;m=monsoon;s=sum-merdryseason.
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Incasesofratherthinorshallowprofiles,whicharemorecommoninMadura,theduskyredsurfacesoilisoften50to100cmthick,underlaindirectlybythepar-entrock,composedofCaCO3orcalcite.
Based on color differences, it appears that these redMediterranean soils can be distinguished into thefollowing:
1. Red Mediterranean soils with colors near 2.5YR3/2to3/6.
2. Brown Mediterranean soils with colors between7.5YR3/2and6YR3/4.
3. Red-yellow Mediterranean soil with colors near5YR4/4to6/8.
Horizon Depth.(cm) Description
Ap 0–33 2.5YR 3/2, dusky red, clay, weakmedium crumb, friable, manyroots.
B1 33–69 2.5YR 3/4, dark reddish-brown,clay,weakfinecrumbtogranular,friable,fewCaCO3fragmentspres-ent,horizonismorecompactthantheA.
B3 69–95 2.5YR 3/4, dark reddish-brown,clay,weakfinecrumbtogranular,friable, some very faint claycoatings.
B3 95 2.5YR3/6darkred,clay,granular,friable,faintFecoatings,horizoniscomparatively more compact anddrier.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
This group of Mediterranean soils often occurs inassociation with other groups of soils according totopography. The red Mediterranean soils are locatedgenerallyontopofthehills,gradingintorendzinasontheslopesandintoblackmargaliticsoils(grumusols,ver-tisols)inthevalleyswheredrainageconditionsarethepoorest.SuchasequenceofsoilsisoftenfoundintheRembang-TubanhillsinCentral–EastJava.AdifferenttopographicalsequenceofsoilswasreportedbyDames(1955)inthesouthernmountainsofCentral–EastJava.Ontopofthehills,redlateriticsoils,withacidreactions,lowbasesaturation,andexchangecapacities,aregrad-ingintobrowntodarkbrownsoilsontheslopesandintomargaliticsoilsagainatlowerelevationsorinthevalleys.Soilaciditydecreases,whereasbasesaturation,cation-exchange capacity, calcium content, plasticity,andstickinessofthesoilsgraduallyincreasefromthetopofthemountainstothevalleysasnaturaldrainagegraduallybecomespoorer.
�.�.� Soilclassification
Asdiscussedearlier,thesoilswerefirstcalledterrarossaorredMediteraneansoilsandbytheAustralianSoilTax-onomylateridentifiedaschromosols(Fosteretal.,2004).The FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the World considersthemtoberelatedtokastanozems,thoughthedescrip-tionofrendzinasmayalsofitsomewhattheconceptofredMediterraneansoils.IntheEuropeanliterature,thesoilsaretypicalforregionshavingaclimateresemblingthatofaMediterraneanclimatewiththerainywinters
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
anddrysummers(Blanck,1930;Reifenberg,1929).MostEuropeansoilscientistsconsiderthesoilstobelateriticinnature,whereassomebelievethattheyareintheini-tial stages of forming laterites, as indicated above. IntheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,thesesoilsaregroupedinthealfisols,asoilorderdefinedashavingargillic,kandic,or natric horizons, and base saturations >35% in thecontrolzone.Thesoilscanperhapsbeplacedasustalfs,underthegreatgroupnamerhodustalfs.Theusticmois-ture regime is correlated for tropical regions with amonsoonclimatethathasatleastonerainyseasonof3monthsormoreduringthe“winter”months.However,in the temperate regions of subhumid climates, therainyseasonsareoccurringinspringandsummerorinspringand fall.Suchaclimaticpattern,occurring,forexample,inthestateofGeorgia,doesnotagreewitha Mediterranean climate as described above. Never-theless, red-coloredsoils, similar inmorphologywithoxisolsorultisols,butpossessingbasesaturation>35%in the control zones, have been identified in Georgiaasalfisols(H.F.Perkins,personalcommunication)andelsewhereinthesouthernregionfromtheplainsoftheMississippitoTexasandOklahoma(SlusherandLytle,1973).Soils,identifiedasPleistoceneTerraRossas,do,infact,existincentralTexas,whichareconsideredmorepaleosols(Young,2006).Incontrast,Kubotaetal.(2005)classifiedterrarossasofParaguayaseitheroxisolsorultisols,whichseemedtohaveobtainedtacitapprovalforpublicationfromtheeditorsofSoilScienceSocietyofAmericaJournal.
InIndonesia,theseredsoilswereformerlyclassifiedaslateriticsoilsderivedfromlimestone(Table6.14),then
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
renamed red-yellow Mediterranean soils in the 1960sbytheBogorSoilResearchInstitute(DudalandSupra-ptohardjo, 1957; Supraptohardjo, 1961). In analogy tored-yellowpodzolicsoils,usingthenameofred-yellowMediterranean soil then allows for subdividing the
Table.6.14. SummaryofNamesUsedbyPreviousAuthorsforRedMediterraneanSoilsinIndonesia
Year Author Name
1922 Mohr Roodaarde(redearth)1938 Mohr Lateritegroundvankalksteen1944 Mohr Lateritefromlimestone1932 TeRiele Kalkroodaarde(redlimestone
soil),Terrarossa1937 Idenburg1939 Hardon Rodekalkgrond(red
limestonesoil),Terrarossa1950 VanderVoort Redlateriticlimestonesoil1953 Wisaksono Tubuhtanahkapurmerah(red
limestonesoil)1953 VanRummelen Kalkroodaarde(redlimestone
soil,Terrarossa;classnotes,personalcommunication)
1955 Dames Redlimestonesoil,Terrarossa1957 Dudaland
SupraptohardjoRed-yellowMediterraneansoil,Terrarossa
1960 MohrandVanBaren Terrarossasoils
1962 Dudal RedMediterraneansoils1972 Mohr,Van
Baren,andVanSchuylenborgh RedMediterraneansoils
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groupintored,red-yellow,andbrownMediterraneansoils.Today,thesesoilsarerecognizedinIndonesiaasalfisols.BecausetheamountsoffreesesquioxidescanoftenreachhighvaluesinthisgroupofsoilsofIndone-sia,thequestionoftenarisesastowhytheycannotbedefinedashavingoxichorizonstoo.But,thehighper-centages of base saturation and higher soil alkalinitymayraiseadditionaldifficultiesforplacingthemintotheustoxgroup.
�.�.� Physicochemicalcharacteristics
�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionThe data in Table6.15 indicate that the majority ofthesoilsarefine in texture.Theyarenot loamysoilsas defined by Reifenberg (1929) and Blanck (1930) fora modal concept of a red Mediterranean soil, but theIndonesian varieties are more clayey soils. They alsoshowasharpincreaseinclaycontentfromAtoBhori-zons.Althoughanargillichorizon(Bt)isthuspresent,duetotheirgranularandcrumbstructures,anexcel-lenttogoodsoilporosityismaintained,permittingthedevelopmentofexcellentinternaldrainageconditions.
�.�.�.� ChemicalcharacteristicsThesoilreactionisintheslightlyacidiccategory,withnearlyallpHvaluesabove6,whichisinsharpcontrastwiththeoxisolsandultisols.Thesameistrueforthesoilbasesaturation.Thisiscommonlyveryhigh,oftenreaching values of percentage base saturation ≈99%(Table6.15).Thehighbasestatusisperhapsoneofthereasons for the formationofa relativelystablecrumb
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
togranularstructure.Asdiscussedinprecedingpages,the soils are found limited to areas with pronounceddryseasonsandwet“winters.”Theclimateisthusofthe type that permits an alternating downward andupwardmovementofsoilwater,asdiscussedinChap-ter3.Basesthatpercolatedownthepedonduringthewet season will most likely be moved or transportedupwardagaintothesurfacesoilduringthedryseason,a
Table.6.15. PhysiochemicalCharacteristicsofLowlandAlfisolsofIndonesia
Particle Size Distribution (%) Base
Sat. % C %
N %
Soil Profile
50–2 <2 µ
pHH2O
Ap
Bt
B2
B3
1.63
1.50
1.41
1.05
49.1
32.9
45.4
48.9
49.3
65.6
53.2
50.1
7.1
6.9
7.0
7.1
—
—
—
—
2.5
1.9
1.6
1.2
0.18
0.09
0.07
0.06
Ap
Bt
B2
41.0
20.0
15.0
32.0
22.0
11.0
27.0
58.0
74.0
7.7
7.2
6.8
99.0
99.0
82.0
1.0
0.9
—
0.12
0.12
— —
>50 µ
Red Mediterranean Soil (Tuban, East Java)
Red-Yellow Mediterranean Soil (Madura)
A
Bt1
Bt2
16.0
7.0
7.0
33.0
18.0
19.0
51.0
75.0
74.0
6.5
6.5
6.2
89.0
78.0
65.0
—
—
—
—
—
—
13.5
19.4
23.0
18.6
8.3
7.5
C/N
15.0
18.0
18.0
Brown Mediterranean Soil (Baluran Volcano, East Java)
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��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
processpreviouslycalledcalcification.Thelatterprocesswill saturate the clay complex with bases and hencewill precipitate and aggregate the clay and other soilparticlestoformcrumbsorgranularstructuralunits.
�.�.�.� ClaymineralogyAccordingtoHardon(1939),theclayfractionofthered-yellow Mediterranean soil is characterized by halloy-site. This is substantiated by more recent analyses ofthepresentauthor,whoalsonoticedbyDTAanalysesthepresenceofadditionalclayminerals,suchasvary-ing amounts of sesquioxides in amorphous or parac-rystallineforms.Thered-yellowMediterraneansoilsoftheRembang-Tubanhills inEast Javaespeciallyseemto contain substantially high amounts of sesquiox-ides. The latter are also confirmed by total elementalanalyses,andspecificallybythedeterminationsofsili-con,aluminum,andironcontentsoftheclayfractions,showing the soils to have silica/sesquioxides {SiO2/(Al2O3+Fe2O3)}ratiosintherangeof0.9to1.1.Suchlowratios are generally exhibited by the amorphous clayfractions of Andosols. Consequently, these particularred Mediterranean soils of Indonesia have to be con-sideredmorealliticorferraliticinnaturethantheotherredsoilsinIndonesia.Crystallineclaysofthe1:1layertypesareusuallycharacterizedbyratios intherangeof2to3,asfrequentlyreportedforthekaoliniticclaysof oxisols, and ultisols (Mohr et al., 1972). Reifenberg(1929) and Joffe (1949) mentioned silica/sesquioxidesratiosof3andhigherfortheredearthsonlimestonein the Mediterranean regions. These high values aregenerallyindicativeforthepresenceof2:1layertypes
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
ofclays,suchassmectitesormontmorillonites.SeveralscientistsinIndonesiaalsomentionedthepresenceofsmectiteminerals in the“pure”terrarossasoils fromlimestone rocks (Mohr et al., 1972; Wisaksono, 1953),becauseof thebasicenvironment favoringthe forma-tionof2:1clays.However,itisbelievedthathalloysiteandother1:1layertypesofmineralsaremoretypicaloftheclaysof“false”terrarossasoils,duetotheadmix-tureoftheparentmaterialswithvolcanicash.
�.�.� Landuseandevaluation
�.�.�.� EvaluationofanalyticalpropertiesChemically,thesoilsarepoorinnitrogenandorganicmattercontents,andinmanycasesalsoinphosphateandpotassium.However,thesoilsdevelopedfromvol-canicashmayoftenshowatendencytocontainhigheramounts of phosphate and potassium. The calciumcontentintheseparticularsoilsisrelativelylowerthanthatofthesoilsformedonpurelimestonerocks(Dames,1955;Wisaksono,1953).Butasawhole,thered-yellowMediterraneanorlowlandalfisolscanbeconsideredashavingbetterbasesaturationconditions than the redlatosolsorred-yellowpodzolicsoils.
�.�.�.� SignificanceofbasicsoilpropertiesTheagriculturalpotentialitiesoftheselowlandalfisolsareforthegreaterpartdeterminedbythedistributionofrainfall,thedrainageconditions,andthegreatlocalvariationsofsoilswithregardtopedondepthandstoni-ness.Theprofiledepthmayvaryfromseveralcentime-terstoameter(ormore)thick.Theshallowsoilsareasa
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
ruleratherstonyandcontainmanyrockoutcrops.Thephysicalsoilpropertiesareperhapsalmostcomparabletothoseoftheredlatosols.Theclaycontentsarealsovery high, which tend to cause the soils to becomeslightlyplasticandsticky.However,theextremelyhighbasesaturationisthereasonforthepresenceofstrongcrumb to granular soil structures, resulting in goodsoil permeability. On drying, the soils tend to crackintomedium-sizedblocksthatarefirstratherhard,butwhichusuallycrumbleafterprolongeddrying.
�.�.�.� Agriculturaloperations�.�.�.�.� Small landholders’ or farmers’ crops Asa
rule,agriculturaloperationsarelimitedtoplaceswithdeepersoils.Whereirrigationispossible,thesoilsareusedforricecrops,sugarcane,andtobacco.Thericeisoften grown as sawah culture. In areas where irriga-tionisnotpossibleandwherethewatersupplyhastodependonthelocalrainfall,cornisplantedinthebegin-ningofthewetseason,followedbytobacco,afterwhichthesoilsremainfallowduringthedriestperiodofthedryseason.Onveryshallowsoils,oneplantingseasonisusuallyfollowedbyfallowfor1or2years.Thefal-lowlands, locallycalled tegalans,areespecially foundin large acreages on the poorer soils in the parchedlimestoneregionsofthenortheasternpartofJavaandin Madura. However, the tegalans support goats andmany heads of cattle (Dames, 1955; Supraptohardjo,1961),raisedmainlyforpullingcartsordrawingloads,thoughsomemaybekilledfortheirmeat.
On deep soils, intercropping of cassava (Manihotutillissima) and upland-rice crops is common practice.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
Thisisconductedeveryyear,followedbyacropofcornandpeanutsorsoybeans.Kapok(Ceibapentandra)treestogetherwithbetel(Piperbetle)plants,fruittrees,andincertaincasesalsocotton,aregrownonlowlandalfisols.Thebetelplantisavineorclimbingpepper,whoseleavesareharvestedgreenandchewedwithbetelnutandlimeas stimulants. In addition, smallholder cultivation oftobaccohasbeenencouragedbytheIndonesiangovern-mentforexportandlocalconsumption.TheareaundertobaccoinEastandCentralJavaandMaduraisnowesti-matedtobe200,000haandgrowing,buttheyieldof300to650kg/haisstillconsideredlow(AARD,1986).Localvarieties of tobacco, such as the Madura type, JeponKenek,arecommonlygrownforthemanufactureofthenow famous kretek cigarettes. These cigarettes, spicedwithclovesandwhenburnedproduceaverypungentsmell,wereproducedfirst for localconsumptiononly.Recently,theyhavebeenexported,andthedemandforkretekallegedlycontinuestogrowrapidlybothlocallyand internationally.TheVirginia-type tobacco,mainlyforexport,isplantedinCentralandEastJavaonlandsordinarilyusedforuplandrice.Theyincludethevariet-iesofNorthCarolina,NC95andNC254.
�.�.�.�.� Estatecrops. Thetwomajorestatecropsarekapokandteak.KapokisplantedintheoldDutchplantationsasafibercrop,whereasteakisplantedfortimberbytheStateForestServiceasaforeststand.Bothplants,developingintohugetrees,areusuallygrowninthedriestregionsofIndonesia.Inthisrespect,thecli-mateofthelowlandalfisolsturnsouttobemostfavor-ableforcultivationofthesecrops.Along,dryseason
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
withnomorethan4monthshaving60to100mmrain/monthismostsuitableforthecultivationofespeciallykapoktrees.
�.�.�.�.� Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) The kapoktreesarenotindigenoustoIndonesiaandarefoundwildinthesouthernpartofMexico,theWestIndies,andinSenegalandAngola,Africa.Twotypesofkapok—theCaribbeanandIndica—wereformerlyusedbytheDutchestates. The name implies that the Caribbean kapoktreeshouldhaveoriginatedfromtheCaribbeanIslands,WestIndies,butToxopeus(1950)indicatesthatitwasaCongovariety.Ontheotherhand,theindicakapokisnativeinSouthAsia.
Kapokisplantedasseedlings,cuttings,orbuddings,and in the former Dutch estates they were generallyneatly arranged in rows using a 10 × 10 m plant dis-tance.Insomeoftheestates,cacao(chocolate,Theobromacacao)isoftenusedastheintercrop.Incontrast,kapokisfrequentlyalsoplantedbylocalfarmers,calledtaniorpetani,inirregularpatternsintheyard,alongtheroads,oronareasseparatingthetegalansfromthepadi-sawahfields.InEastJavaandinSulawesi,anotherkapokarea,thetreesareoftenplantedtoformhedgessurroundingeachofthetani’sprivatelyownedtegalans.Thefiberisproducedinlargeelongatedfruitpods,likecottonpro-ducingitsfiberin“fruitballs.”Thefiberpodsareusu-ally harvested during October and November, whicharetheendofthedryseason,byclimbinginthetreeandshakingthemloosefromthebranches,inasimi-lar manner as harvesting pecan in the United States.Thecleanedandprocessedfiberisusedtodaymainly
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
asmattressfiller,forfillingpillowsandcushions,andasthefiller-liningofjacketsandotherwinterclothing.Akapokmattressiscoolandfirm,easytorepair,andfarcheaperthanthespringmattressesoftoday;hence,kapokisasought-aftercommodityinIndonesia.IntheDutchcolonialtime,kapokwasalsousedasinsulationmaterial in refrigerators, walls, and ceilings, but thispractice was discontinued because of the firehazard.Unfortunately, thefiber isof suchquality that it can-not be spun into thread, like cotton. Research in thisrespectisstillongoing,andthreadsofkapokandcot-tonmixtureshavesuccessfullybeenproduced.
�.�.�.�.� Teak (Tectona grandis) Teak, the otherimportanttreecropforthesedryregions,isusuallycul-tivatedasaforeststandbytheForestServiceofIndone-sia.TheplantisnativetoIndiaandothercountriesinSouthAsia,wherethreemajorspeciesarerecognized:Tectonagrandis,thecommonteak,whichiswidelydis-tributed in India and Thailand; Tectona hamiltoniana,knownasdahatteak,isalocalspeciesofMyanmar;andTectonaphilippinensis,alsocalledphilippineteak,isnativetothePhilippines.Thenameteakallegedlycamefromthekku,atermfromthelanguageofthepeopleinKeralaofSouthIndia.
Becauseofitsexcellentwoodfortimber,teakplantsare today introduced in the West Indies, Belize, andPanamaand inZambia,Tanzania,Nigeria,andotherWestAfricancountries.
InIndonesia,thecommonteak,locallycalled jati,isplanted and historically cultivated mainly on JavabytheStateForestServiceusinganagroforestrysystem.
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
The plants are especially adaptable to the areas withpoorsoilsonthetertiaryridgesofEastJava.Theydonot grow too well in the regions of the humid tropi-calrain forest.Theplantsareusuallycultivatedfromseedlingsandraisedonnurserybeds,andvegetativepropagation by means of using stem cuttings is stillunder investigation. Teak is known to be a difficultand very slow-growing plant. Given adequate time,theplantsmaygrowintoverylargetreesof30to40mtall.Theyaredeciduousinnature,becauseinIndone-siatheyshedtheirleavesinthedryseason.Thegreenleavesareoftenharvestedbylocalfarmersandusedasmaterialforwrappingmeatandproduce.Thetreescanbeharvestedaspolesandsmalltimberattheageof7to8yearsbutwillattainaheightof10mortallerandagirth≈60cmattheageof20years.Theageofthetreeisusuallyassessedfromtheannularringsformedinsidethetreetrunk.
Teakwoodisweather,seawater,andtermiteresistant;hence,it isverydesirableforbuildingqualityhouses,boats,andfurniture.Itisextensivelyusedforlayeringwoodenfurniture,asisthecasewiththeDanish-stylefurniture,andforproducingvariousgradesofplywood.Becauseoftheteakwood’ssuperiorquality,experimentsare conducted today in India and Thailand to raiseteakonsmalllocalfarmsasasustainableestatecrop.Many of the local teak farms often use annual cropsasintercrops(e.g.,mungbeans),providingtheneededcashincomeforthefirst6yearsofgrowth.InIndia,theyoungteakplantsareoftenirrigatedwhenneededandgiven100gofNPKfertilizersinthepitatthetimeofplanting.However,teakgrownunderirrigationisoften
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
reportedtobepronetowinddamage,whereasblistersmaydevelopintheinnerheartwood.
�.� VertisolsThesearethedark-coloredsoilsthathavebeencalledgrumusols in many countries. A review is given byOakes and Thorp (1950), who mentioned the occur-renceofextensiveareasofgrumusolsinAfrica,India,thesouthernUnitedStates,SouthAmerica,Australia,thePhilippines,andvariousislandsintheSouthPacific.Hence,variousnamesareusedforthisgroupofsoils(e.g.,blackcottonandregursoilsinIndia,andblackturfsoilsinAfrica).Atonetime,thesoilswerealsoidenti-fiedasatropicalchernozem(Joffe,1949).InIndonesiathesoils were formerly called marl soils or margalitic soils(Dames, 1950; Mohr and Van Baren, 1960). Neverthe-less,thesoilsallhavecertainfundamentalcharacteris-ticsincommon.Theyareusuallyextremelyplasticandstickywhenwet,andwillshrinkupondrying,formingwideanddeepcracks.Whenwet,theywillswellagain,closing the cracks. The clay fraction is usually domi-natedbysmectiteorothermontmorilloniticor2:1layertypeofclay,whichisthemajorreasonforthesoil’shighshrink–swellcapacity.Becauseofthephysicalproper-ties above, the soils are often considered as black self-mulchingsoils.
InIndonesia,thesekindsofsoilsseemtocoverratherextensiveareasofthelowlandsofCentralandEastJava.TheyarefoundinparticularintheDemakplain,eastofSemarang,andalongthenorthcoastfromRembangtoMadura,wheretheyoftenoccurintoposequencewith
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
thelowlandalfisolsorredMediterraneansoils,asdis-cussed in the preceding section. Grumusols are alsofoundtothewestofYocyakarta,inthelowlandstothenorthofSurakarta,intheregionsofMadiunandKediri,andintheareaoftheLusi-Randublatung-Soloriverval-leysofCentralJava.TheyaremajorsoilsoccupyingtheareasbetweenPasuruanandBangilandinthesouth-ernmountainsofEastJava.InWestJava,grumusolsarelimitedinoccurrenceandcanbefoundonlytoaverylimitedextentinthesurroundingsofCheribon,intheCimanukrivervalleynorthwestofBandung,intheval-leyofRajamandalabetweenBandungandCianjur,andin Jonggolnear Jakarta.Vertisolsappearnot tooccurextensively outside Java, because the parent materi-alsforsoilformationinSumatraandKalimantan,forexample, are mostly liparitic (or rhyolitic) tuffs andgranite, respectively. These types of parent materialsaretooacidicandhenceareunfavorableforformationofsmectiteclayminerals.
�.�.� Parentmaterials
OakesandThorp(1950)indicateintheirreviewthatinthevariouscountrieswheregrumusolsoccur,thesoilshavebeenfoundmainlyonlimestone,clayeycalcareoussediments,orresiduumofbasicrocks,suchasbasalt,gneiss, and argillaceous limestone. In Indonesia, thesoilswerethoughtatfirsttobeconnectedwithmarls,andhencethenamemarlsoilswasusedinprewartimeby Dutch soil scientists for this group of soils. How-ever,thisnamewaslaterrevisedbyDames(1950)intomargalite from marga, the Latin word for marl. It was
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
notedlaterthatthesoilscanalsodeveloponvolcanictuffs, claystone, and even on materials enriched withquartz,providedtheothersoil-formingfactorswillbesuchthattheytendtofavorthedevelopmentofanalka-lineenvironmentrichinsilica.Dames(1955)reportedgray margalitic soils derived from andesitic volcanicashatthefootoftheLawuVolcanointheeasternpartofCentralJava.Anotherareawithgrayish-blackmar-galitewas foundat the footof theBatuagungMoun-tainrangeat thesoutheasternsectionofCentral Java.Thesesoilswerecalledtheacidictypesofmargalites,duetothelowercalciumcontentsandlowerpH,whichisgenerallyintheslightlyacidrange.Margaliticsoilshavealsobeenfoundonalluvialplaindeposits,suchasintheLusiRivervalleys,butthesedepositsoriginatedfrommaterialserodedfromtheKendengandRembanghills,whichgenerallyarecomposedofreeflimestone.Tertiary marine volcanic tuffs and shales containinglittleorno limehavealsobeenrecognizedas impor-tantparentmaterials for formationofmargalitic soils(Dames,1955;Wisaksono,1953).Inthisrespectthetop-ographiclocationfavoringpoordrainageconditionsismost important.Detaileddiscussionof thegenesisofmargaliticsoilsfromnoncalcareousorlessbasicparentmaterialisgivenbyMohrandVanBaren(1960).Basedon differences in parent materials, Dames (1955) pro-posedadivisionofgrumusolsintothreegroups:
1. Grumusolsofthetertiaryhills,whichincludethesouthernmountainsofCentralandEastJava,theKendenghillsandtheRembanghills.
2. Grumusolsofthequaternaryvolcanoes.
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��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
3. Grumusols of the alluvial plains, which includetheLusivalley,theDemakandRembangplains.
�.�.� Climate
Grumusolsoccurworldwide in coolandwarm temper-atezonesaswellasintropicalclimates.Nevertheless,theoccurrence of the soils has been found to be limited toregionswithawell-definedrainyseason,alternateddur-ingtheyearbyaverysharpanddryseason.OakesandThorp(1950)believethatthetotalannualrainfallshouldbelessthan1270mm(50inches).InIndonesia,theannualrainfalloftheareaswherethesoilsarelocatedmayexceedinmanycasesthelimitstatedabovebyOakesandThorp.However, according to Mohr and Van Baren (1960) thistotalannualrainfallmaynotexceed2400mm/year.Theregionswiththisrelativelyhighamountofprecipitationayeararethentheupperlimitsinwhichgrumusolscanoccur.ThetypicalclimateofvertisolsinIndonesiaissup-posedtobethedrymonsoonAwaclimatewithasharpandlongdryseason.However,asindicatedbythedatainTable6.16,thesoilsarealsocommonlyfoundinKöppen’sAmaclimatewithatotalannualrainfallofmorethan2000mm,suchasisthecaseinTasikmadu.Butinthisregion,othersoils (forexample, latosols) tendalsotobecomeofmoreimportanceinassociationwiththevertisols.
Grumusols have rarely been reported to occur in thehumidAfaorinthecoolmountain,CforCs,climatetypes.InWestJava,whichingeneralisconsideredahumidAfaarea, the regions with grumusols are also known to becharacterizedbyasharp,thoughshort,dryseasonduring
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
theyear.Forinstance,theclimateofCheriboncanfallinthecategoryofanAmaclimate.However,morerecentlyblackmargaliticsoilshavebeenreportedbyVanLoenentobepresentnearLakeWisselinPapuainaperhumidregionwith5000mmannualrainfall(MohrandVanBaren,1960),thoughasstatedabove thesoil is seldomfoundoutsideJavaduetotheunfavorabletypeofparentmaterialforitsformation.Basedontopographicvariations,Dames(1955)suggestsdividingthesoilsintouplandmargaliticsoils,asfoundintheRembang-TubanhillsofCentralandEastJava,and lowlandmargaliticsoils,mostlylocatedintheplainsandrivervalleys.ItisnotclearwhetherDamesmeanttousethetermsaspopularterms,butthetwogroupsofsoilsinquestionseemtodifferinfertility.
Rainfall Altitude
<60 mm >100 mm
Mean Annual Rainfall
Type ofClimatea
East Java Tuban
Bojonegoro
Randublatung
Madiun
0
15
55
66
5.6
4.0
3.1
4.1
5.2
7.3
7.7
6.6
1375
1872
2312
1887
Awa
Ama
Ama
Ama
E
C
C
D
Grumusol
Tasikmadu 100 3.5 7.5 2265 Ama C Grum+Lat.
Location
m Months mm Köppen
Soil
S&F
Table.6.16. TheClimateofGrumusol(Vertisol)AreasinIndonesia
a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols:A = coldestmonth >18°C; a = warmest month >22°C; m = monsoon; w =sharpdryseason.
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
�.�.� SoilmorphologyThe typical grumusols in Central and East Java areusuallydeep,dark,clayeysoils,containingsmectiteormontmorillonitic clays. In dry conditions, the surfacesoilgenerallyhasatypicalstronggranulartofinestruc-ture, which is designated by the Dutch soil scientistsasacauliflowersoilstructure,becauseofitsappearancesimilartoacauliflower(Wisaksono,1953).Anexampleofadeepgrumusolprofileisgivenbelow:
Grumusol of south Tuban (East Java).The area is characterized by a rollingtopograpyandtheprofileislocatedinavalley.Thevegetationisasecondaryteak (Tectona grandis) forest with grassandweedsasundergrowth.
Horizon Depth.(cm) Description
A1 0–17 5Y 4/1–3/1 (field wet), dark grayto very dark gray, clay, crumb,friable,manyroots.
A2 17–27 5Y 4/1, dark gray, clay, friable toslightly sticky, crumb, few smallCaCO3fragments,roots.
A3 27–45 5Y5/1–4/1,graytodarkgray,clay,granular toweakmediumblocky,friabletosticky,moderateamountsofCaCO3 fragmentsorconcentra-tions,faintclaycoatings,roots.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
Thesolumofmargaliticsoilsisgenerallyconsideredrelatively thick.Soilswithveryshallowtopsoils, rest-ingdirectlyontheparentrock,areinfactnotconsid-eredmargalitesinIndonesia,butrendzinas.ThisgroupofsoilsisfoundintheRembang-Tubanhills,frequentlyoccurring in an irregular pattern in association withtheredMediterraneanorterrarossasoils.Anexampleofarendzinatypeofsoilisgivenbelow:
The soil is located in south Tuban inhilly topography. The profile is dugon a flat part of a slope in a coconut(Cocosnucifera)gardenwithgrassesasundergrowth.
Horizon Depth.(cm) Description
A 0–14 2.56/2(fieldwet),lightbrownish-gray,siltloam,crumb,friable,fineCaCO3fragments.
D +14 Softlimestonerock.
AC 45–59 5Y5/1,gray,clay,granulartofinestrong blocky, friable to sticky,manyCaCO3fragmentsorconcre-tions,claycoatings,fineroots.
C 59–80 5Y4/2,olive-gray,clay,finestrongblocky, sticky, abundant CaCO3
fragmentsorconcretions.
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Undertheconceptofgrumusols,thistypeofrendzinabelongstothesamegroupofmargalitesandotherdarkclayeysmectiteormontmorilloniticsoilsasdefinedbyOakesandThorp(1950).
Asisthecaseinothercountries,thesoilsinIndonesiashowsomevariationsincolorandothersoilproperties.Inthesoildescriptionabove,onecannoticetheabsenceofdistincteluvialandilluvialhorizons.Insomecases,horizons of calcium concretions may develop to thatextent that they could then qualify to be B horizons.Dames(1955)hasreportedthatinwell-developedgru-musols,theparticularlimehorizonissometimes1mthick. In other cases, interbedding of limestone plateshasbeenobserved. In therelativelymoreacidicsoils,limeconcretionsareusuallyabsent.Coarseprismatictomassivesubsoilstructuresarecommonintheacidicmargalitic soils, and on Sumba Island with the moreextremedryseasons,gilgaiformationhasbeennoticed(Howard,1939).
Thecolorof the soils isoftendarkgray toblack inthe surface horizons and gray in the lower horizons.It ispossible that smectiteclay isnot theonly reasonfor thecolor,becausegraycolorsoftendevelopwhenpoor drainage conditions prevail. It is then used asan indication foradvancedgleization.Gleizationpro-cesseshavebeenreportedtoplayaroleintheforma-tion of grumusols. The presence of iron concretions,frequently reported, in grumusols supports the pres-enceofgleization.SuchacasehasbeennotedinthetirsofMorocco,andaccordingly,thesesoilsarecalledgleytirs(OakesandThorp,1950).Dames(1955)hasusedthecolordifferencesforsubdividingthesoilsofIndonesia
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
intoblackmargalites,darkgraytobrownmargalites,andyellowmargalites.Hebelievesthatthehumusandcal-ciumcontentarepartlytoblameforthedevelopmentofdifferentcolors.Themargaliticsoilsrichinlimearemostlyblack,whereasthosecomparativelypoorinlimearemoregrayishtoyellowincolor.
�.�.� Soilclassification
Asmentionedearlier,thesoilswereknowninvariouscountries under different names. In India, they werecalled black cotton or regur soils, whereas in Morocconamessuchasgleytirs,deepandcrusttirswereused.AccordingtoMohrandVanBaren(1960),theblackturfsoils of South Africa belonged to this category. Othernames used in the past were tropical black soils andsmonitza(SoilSurveyStaff,1960).IntheolderU.S.soilclassificationsystemtheywereclassifiedasrendzinas.ThehoustonclaywasatypicalexampleusedbyOakesandThorp(1950).Thesesoilswereincludedintheclas-sification system of Thorp and Smith (1949) as intra-zonalsoilsandgiventheofficialnamerendzina.ThoughOakes and Thorp (1950) tended to agree somewhat,theyalsostatedthattheusageofthetermrendzina intheUnitedStatesmaybe inconflictwith theprevail-ingconceptsofrendzinaselsewhereintheworld.Theysuggestedtheuseofthetermgrumusol(grumusmeans“little heap, hillock, or crumb” in English) for all thedarkclayeysoilswiththestrikingphysicalandstruc-turalfeaturesaspreviouslystated.Thistermhassincebeen used worldwide. With the introduction of the
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
U.S.SeventhApproximation(SoilSurveyStaff,1960),asecondattemptwasmadetogroupthesesoilstogetherundervertisols (fromtheLatinverto,meaning“invert,to turn”), which was chiefly based on the outstand-ingphysicalpropertiesofhighshrinkingandswellingdue to thedominating influenceofexpanding2:1 lat-ticetypesofclays.ThenamevertisolsismaintainedinthecurrentU.S.systemofsoil taxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff,2006a)andalsousedintheFAO-UNworldsoilmap.Whythetermvertiischoseninsteadofverto(asisthecaseofandiinsteadofandowithrespecttoandisols)is still one of the many controversies of the U.S. SoilTaxonomy. The current Australian soil classificationsystemusesthenamevertosolsandseesnothingwrongwithusingverto,whichisinfacttherealLatintermforinvert(CSIRO-ACLEP,2006).
InIndonesia,thesoilswereformerlyclassifiedasmarlsoils (Dutch: mergelgrond), as indicated earlier, whichwas later revised by Dames (1950) into margalites. Inthisrespect,Dames(1955)wasoftheopinionthatmar-galitescorrelateswithrendzinas.Inthefollowingyears,DudalandSupraptohardjo(1957)proposedtheuseofthetermregursoilintheBogorSoilResearchInstitute’sprogramofthesystematicsoilsurveyofIndonesiawiththe cooperation of the FAO-UN. However, this namewasgraduallyphased out, andgrumusol wasat thattimewidelyacceptedinIndonesia,whichwaschangedagain recently into the name vertisols, the officiallyacceptednameusedtodayinIndonesia.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
�.�.� Physicochemicalcharacteristics
�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionThedatainTable6.17indicatethatthegrumusols(ver-tisols)inIndonesiaaregenerallyheavy-texturedsoils,showingclaycontentsbetween49and80%.ThisagreeswithreportsbyDames(1955),whoclaimsthattheclaycontentsusuallyexceed50%,unlesstheparentmateri-alsarerichinfinequartz.Wisaksono(1953)alsonoticed
Particle Size Distribution (%)
Org. C %
N %
Profile Horizon
50–2 <2 µ
pHH2O
A1
A2
A3
AC
1.89
1.48
1.59
1.29
23.42
20.51
22.39
28.19
74.69
78.01
76.02
70.52
7.15
7.25
7.60
7.75
2.65
1.90
0.99
0.78
0.23
0.16
0.09
0.06
11
12
11
13
A
D
0.52
—
18.69
—
80.79
—
6.65
7.31
2.77
—
0.09
—
30
—
>50 µ
C N
Margalite (Tuban, East Java)
Rendzina Type (Tuban, East Java)
A
AC
C
9.0
9.0
10.0
39.0
39.0
41.0
52.0
52.0
49.0
6.8
7.0
7.0
1.0
0.6
—
0.10
0.08
—
10
8
—
Margalite (Tomo-Cheribon, West Java)
Table.6.17. PhysicochemicalCharacteristicsofMargaliticSoils(Vertisols)
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
thatthesoilsdevelopedfromquartz-richparentmate-rialstendedtobelighterintexture,andfoundtheveryfinequartzcontenttobeashighas50%.Becausethisfinequartzis<2µm,itisbydefinitionclay.However,itmaynotexhibitthestickinessandplasticityofclays,andhence,thesoilcanfeelmorelikealoam-texturedsoil,thoughthismayhaveaffectedonlyslightly theothercharacteristic physical properties due to the presenceofthe2:1layerlattice-typeofclays.Similartovertisolsinothercountries,themargaliticsoilsofIndonesiaareextremelyplasticandstickywhenwet.Theyshrinkondrying,formingwideanddeepcracks.
Nomechanicaleluviationofclaycanbenoticed.Thesoilhasanalmostconstantoradecreasingclaycontentwithdepthinthepedon,becausethesurfacesoilmulchesitselfduringthedryseason,andconsiderableamountsofsoilmaterialsfromtheAhorizonareslougheddownintothebottomofthecracks.Thismaterialismovedup(coughedup)againduringthewetseason.
�.�.�.� ChemicalcharacteristicsThe soils vary in soil reactions, exhibiting pH valuesgenerallyfrom6.5to7.8.Thealkalinityincreaseswithdepthinthesoilprofile(Table6.17).Thecation-exchangecapacityisveryhighandisoftenreportedintherangeof50to100cmol/kg,whichismainlysaturatedbycal-ciumandmagnesium(Dames,1955).Someofthesoilsmayonlybepartlysaturatedwithcalciumandmagne-sium,andtheyarethencalledtheacidictypesofverti-sols.Invertisolsaffectedbyverydryconditions,mostofthecalciummayevenhavebeenreplacedbysodiumions.Insuchacase,asolonetzictypeofsoilmayoccur.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
Ironconcretionsarenoticedtobegenerallypresentinthepedonsandincreaseincontentswithdepthinthesoilprofile.This is in supportof thegeneralbeliefofsomeoftheDutchscientiststhatgleizationispresent.Inaddition,mostofthemargaliticsoils(vertisols)arelowinphosphateandpotassium.Perhaps,only thosethathavebeendevelopedfrombasalticvolcanicasharesomewhatricherinphosphateandpotassium.
Theorganicmattercontentisusuallylowforsuchdarkcolors. In termsoforganiccarbon, itmayrange from0.6 to 3.0% in the surface horizons. But Dames (1955)indicatesthatitmayincreaseto4or5%ifunderforest,andheisoftheopinionthattheamountofhumusandcalcium content determine the color of the soils. Thesoilsrichinlimeandhumusaremostlyblack,whereasthosethataremoreacidic(lesssaturatedwithcalciumandmagnesium)aremoregrayincolor.Adetaileddis-cussionisprovidedbyMohrandVanBaren(1960)ontheeffectoforganicmatteronthecolorproblem.Theseauthorsbelievethatnotonlytheorganicmattercontent,butalsothedegreeofhumificationandthenatureoftheclaymineralsareimportantfactorsaffectingthedevel-opmentoftheblackcolorsofthevertisolsofIndonesia.
�.�.�.� ClaymineralogyVertisolsingeneralarecharacterizedbyclayfractionscontainingsmectitesormontmorillonites,whichare2:1layerlattice-typeclays.ThevertisolsofIndonesiaarenodifferentinthisrespectandarecharacterizedbysmec-titeclaysashasbeendeterminedwithx-raydiffractionanalysesbyHardon(1939).Thisisalsosubstantiatedbythepresentauthorwithdifferential thermalanalyses.
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��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Wisaksono(1953)alsonoticedthedominatingpresenceofsmectitesinthegrumusols.Thesmectitecontentwasestimatedtovaryfrom75to100%intheclayfractionsofthesurfacehorizonsofblackmargaliticsoils.Intheyellow margalites, their clay fractions seemed to bemixturesofsmectiteandkaolinite,andinsomecases,bothmineralsmayamountto50%ofeach.
The silica/sesquioxide ratios are in support of thepresence of smectites. The values of the SiO2/R2O3ratiosareconsideredtobe1.0to2.0for1:1layertypesof clays (kaolinite and halloysite), but in the range of2.0to3.0for2:1layertypesofclays(smectites).AscanbenoticedfromthedatainTable6.18,thesilica/sesqui-oxide ratios of the clay fractions of oxisols are in therangeof1.0to2.0,whereasthoseoftheclaysofverti-solsarefrom2.0to4.0.ThesehighSiO2/R2O3ratiosareindicativeofanonlateritictypeofclayformationandsupportthepresenceof2:1layertypesofclays.Addi-tional support isprovidedby theextremelyhighcat-ion-exchangecapacity,whichcanevenreachvaluesof100cmol/kg,asindicatedinthesectionabove.Becausetheelectronegativechargesofsmectitesoriginatefromisomorphoussubstitution,thenegativechargesarecon-sideredpermanentorconstantcharges.Hence,thecation-exchangecapacitywillremainrelativelyconstantandmaynotchangesignificantlywithchangesinsoilpH.Thisgroupofsoilsisgenerallyclassifiedaspermanentchargedsoils,incontrasttotheoxisols,whichweredes-ignatedearlierasvariable-chargedsoils(Tan,2003b).
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
Vertisol (Margalite)Tuban, East JavaA1A2A3
Oxisol (Red Latosol)Cibinong, West JavaApB1B2B3
Vertisol (Rendzina)Tuban, East JavaA
Andosol, Deli, NorthSumatra, 50 m absA1
AC
A2B
Andosol, BogorWest Java, 600 m absA1
2.883.072.93
1.701.901.801.90
4.44
1.38
1.191.05
2.52
1.54
1.511.22
4.243.873.94
————
10.06
8.59
8.729.19
3.52
4.86
4.805.27
12.2211.8511.52
————
44.70
11.8
10.29.5
8.85
7.45
7.246.42
2.332.442.331.97
1.401.601.401.60
4.04
1.25
1.060.96
1.27
1.251.03
A3B
SiO2R2O3
SiO2AI2O3
SiO2Fe2O3
Al2O3Fe2O3
Table.6.18. Silica/SesquioxideRatiosofClayFractions
Note: R2O3=Al2O3+Fe2O3;abs=abovesealevel.
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
�.�.� Landuseandevaluation
�.�.�.� EvaluationofanalyticalpropertiesChemically, the soils are rich in calcium and magne-sium, though these contents may vary in the severaltypesofmargalitesfromhighertolowerlevels,depend-ingonoriginandlocations.Themargaliticsoils,devel-oped from volcanic tuffs or limestone mixed withvolcanicash,aremorelikelytobelowerincalciumandmagnesiumcontents.Soilreactionsareintherangeofslightlyacidic toslightlybasic,andthesoilpHissel-domnoticedtodecreasebelow6.5.Atthisslightlyacidicreaction,thesoilsarecalledtheacidicmargaliticsoilsandoftenlackCaCO3concretionsintheAhorizons.Ontheotherhand,margaliticsoilsaregenerallydeficientinphosphatesandcanalsoberatherlowinpotassiumandinnitrogen.Inthiscase,itisnoticedthatthesoilsfromvolcanictuffsareapttocontainhigheramountsofphosphatesandpotassiumthanthosederivedfromlimestone.Thisisperhapsduetothephosphorus-andpotassium-bearingminerals in thevolcanicash.Nev-ertheless, Dutch scientists have reported citric acid-extractableP2O5andK2Ocontentsintherangeof0.002to0.040%and0.004to0.025%,respectively,whicharecommonlyconsideredtobelowforproperplantpro-duction.Thesoilsthathavebeencultivatedforalongtimemaybeextremelydeficientinphosphates(Dames,1955;VanDijk,1952).
�.�.�.� SignificanceofbasicsoilpropertiesThe most striking features of the soils are the swell-ing and shrinking properties according to moisture
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
contents.Theshrinkingofthesoilsduringthedrysea-sonproduceswideanddeepcracks,whereasswellingofthesoilsduringtherainyseasontendstofavormassmovement. In this way, sheet and gully erosion areenhanced,anderosioncontrolmethodsareverydiffi-culttopractice.Thesoilsarealsoveryhardwhendryand very sticky and plastic when wet, making themverydifficulttoplow.Thesoilsarealsoveryheavyandimpermeable. Water movement and aeration are con-sideredverypoor.Duetotheshrinkingandcracking,watermayrunthroughthecrackstothesubsoil,satu-ratinginthiswaythedeepersoillayers,causingthemto stay moist for a long time. This perhaps enhancesgleizationprocesses,suspectedbyseveralDutchscien-tists to be an additional soil-forming process of mar-galiticsoils.
Becauseof thepoorphysicalcharacteristicsandthelownutrientcontents,asdiscussedabove,thesoilswillformingenerallypooragriculturallands.Developmentofrootstodeeperlayersisoftenimpeded,whereaswiththedevelopmentofcracks,manyoftherootsmayalsoberupturedortheirdevelopmentharmfullydecreased.Theunfavorablephysicalpropertiesmakeitveryhardtocultivatethesesoils;inthedryseasonitisstonehard,whereas in thewetseason it isslickandveryplastic.However,itisbelievedthattheycanbecultivatedeasieratamoisturecontentcalledfieldcapacity.Atthiscondi-tion,soilmoisturecontentisjustadequateforproduc-ing a friable soil consistence. The soil is then not toostickyortooplastictoworkwith,whereassoilstructureisexpectednottobecomedamageduponplowinganddigging. It is often suggested to keep the soils under
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
greenmanures,orothertypesofvegetation,evenundergrasseswhenfallow,inordertoimprovesoilstructureand other physical properties. Due to the low nutri-entcontents,especiallyinphosphorusandpotassium,adequate fertilizer applications are needed to ensureproperplantgrowthandcropyieldsonmargaliticsoils.Thesearepermanent charged soils, and limingwillnotincrease theircation-exchangecapacities to theextentasisthecasewithoxisols.Moreover,theircalciumandmagnesiumcontentsareoftenadequate,andtheymayneedlimeonlytooffsetthelossofcalciumandmagne-siumduetoplantuptakeandleaching.
�.�.�.�AgriculturaloperationsWhere irrigationwater isavailable, thesoilsareusedforsawahorpaddy-fields.UsuallythewatersupplyisaformidablechallengeinthesedryregionsofIndonesia,andinmanyareasirrigationispossibleonlyintherainyseason.Ifnotusedforgrowinglowlandrice,thesoiliscultivatedwithsugarcane,corn,soybeans,peanuts,andVirginiatobacco.Inthedryseason,eventheriversmayrundry.Drought-resistantcropsarefavoredduringthistimeof“hardship,”calledlocallytheseasonofpaceklik.Thisistheregionwheremostofthepalawijaornonricecropisproduced.Onnonirrigatedfields,farmersdigalargehole,liftingandplacingasawholetheblockofsoilonthesideofthepittoletitgraduallycrumblebyitself.Cassava,corn,orotherpalawijacropsareplantedinthehole, which is then filled with compost, litter mixedwithmanureandthecrumbledsoilmaterialfromtheblock.Thismethod,knownlocallyasthegolanmethod,seemstobeadequateformanyfarmers(Dames,1955).
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
Another frequently applied method is planting thecropsonraisednarrowbeds,whichmayimprovethedrainage, by rapid removal of stagnant water duringheavyrains.Theareasofvertisols ingeneralarealsothemainregionsforgrowingsugarcane.However, infact, it is not the soil but the climate that determinesthesugarcanecultureintheregion.Sugarplantsneedadryseasonfortheripeningprocess.Teakisanotherimportantcropcultivatedonmargaliticsoils.
�.�.�.�.� Small landholders’ or farmers’ crops. AsisthecaseelsewhereinIndonesia, inEastJavariceisalsothemostfavoredcrop,grownininundatedfieldsbylocal farmers.Themajorpaddy-fieldsor“sawahs,”where lowland rice is grown in the vertisol region,are present only in areas where irrigation is avail-able,suchasintheLusirivervalleyandintheDemakplain.Irrigatedlowlandriceisalsofoundintheplainsof Rembang, north of Demak. In sawah culture, thepoorphysicalpropertiesofthesoilsseemtobeoflittleproblem,becausethesoilmediumispuddled,whereasirrigation brings nutrients and silt, improving in thiswaythesoilconditionsforlowlandrice.Ingeneral,thericeyieldsareconsideredmoderatelygoodbytheuseof NPK fertilizers (Dames, 1955; Van Dijk, 1952). Thericecropisusuallyfollowedinthedryseasonbycropsof cassava, sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas), soybeans,greenbeans (Phaseolus radiatus), castoroilbeans (Rici-nus communis), an assortment of chili crops (Capsicumannuum),andsomecotton.
On the nonirrigated fields, where rain is the mainsupplierofwater,maize,cassava,andchiliesaregrown
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
duringthewetseason,whichisfollowedinthedrysea-son by a second crop of corn, soybeans, mung beans(Phaseolus radiatus), and some watermelons (Citrullusvulgaris).
Fruittreesareoftengrownbythefarmersasbackyardgardening,suchascoconut(Cocosnucifera);severalvari-etiesofmangos(Mangiferaindica);sawo(Achrassapota);jackfruit,locallycallednangka(Artocarpusintegra);andkedondong (Spondias dulcis), a sweet–sour fruit with alarge,serratedpit.Anothercrop,welladaptedtothisdryregion, is thecashewnut (Anacardiumoccidentale).Thefruitisconsumedbylocalfarmers,whereasthedriednutsarecashcrops.LargeconcentrationsofcashewnutproductionarealsofoundintheMarosareaofSouth-ernSulawesi.
The fruit trees survive well during the dry season,becausetheycandrawmoisturefromthesubsoil,whichis wet most of the time, for reasons discussed above.Inaddition,somekapokandbambootreesaregrown.The bamboo is used mainly as material for buildinghouses,thoughexcessmaybesoldinthenearbyvillagemarket.Thisisalsothecasewiththeotheragriculturalproducts,whicharegrownmostlyforconsumptionbutmaybesoldascashcropswhenavailableinexcess.
�.�.�.�.� Estate crops Themajorestate cropsaresugarcane,coconut,andteak.Asstatedearlier,byvirtueofclimaticconditions,thisistheregionofsugarcane,asareSumatraandKalimantanthemainregionsofrub-berandoilpalmdue to theirhumidtropicalclimate,andtheMoluccastheregionforspices.Anotherprob-lemisthatthecultivationofsugarcaneisnotconducted
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
onlandsownedbytheestates,butonlands,preferablysawahlands,rentedfromlocalfarmers.Afterthecaneharvest, the sawahs have to be returned to the localownersfortheirusualcultivationwithriceandotherfoodcrops.Severalpeople,especiallyBritishscientists,believe that the cane sugar plant (Saccharum officina-rum)findsitsorigininIndia,butKoningsberger(1950),aDutchscientist, indicates that thespeciesSaccharumspontaneum, locally called glagah, is found growing inthewildinJava.Becauseofitsstrongrootsystemandvigorousgrowth, it isused forbreedingat the SugarExperimentStationatPasuruan,EastJava.BycrossingitwiththeS.Officinarum,the2878-POJ(ProefstationOostJava=EastJavaExperimentStation)varietywasdevel-oped,atthattimefamousforitsresistanceagainstthesereh (witch-hazel) disease. This disease was detectedin1881andhasalmostdestroyedthesugarcanecultureinJavabetween1880and1900.Itwaspartofthereasonfortheestablishmentinrapidsuccessionofseveralsug-arcaneexperimentstations.Sugarcane, locallyknownas tebu, cultivation apparently started in the 1880s intheareasofCheribon,Pekalongan,andTegal,stretch-ingfromtheeasternpartofWestJavatothenorthwestof Central Java, where in 1885 the Sugarcane Experi-ment Station of West Java (Proefstation West Java) wasestablishedatKagok,SlawinearTegal,followedayearlaterby the Proefstation Central Java at Semarang, andfinallyin1887bytheProefstationOostJavaatPasuruan,EastJava.Thelattergraduallyassumedallmajoractivi-tiesinsugarcaneresearch,becausemostcanecultiva-tion was concentrated later in Central and especiallyin East Java, where the climate is most favorable for
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
growingtebuorcane.However,plansareonthedraw-ingboardtocultivatesugarcaneinTelungBawangoftheLampungs,SouthSumatra,thoughthisregionis,infact,toohumidforaproductivesugaryieldofthecanecrops.
Stemcuttingsareplantedintheestatesusuallyatthestartofthedryseason,inAprilorMay,whenadvan-tagecanstillbetakenfromthelastshowersattheendoftherainyseason.Thecaneisusuallyreadyforhar-vestaround18monthsofage.Hence,inAugustofthefollowingyear,thelandusuallyhastobereturnedtothelocalfarmersfortheirfoodproduction.ThesuccessincaneproductionbytheDutchgrowerswastheappli-cationoftheReynososystem,sometimesknownastheJava method, a cultivation method using a trench sys-tem,developedbyaCubanscientist,AlvaroReynoso,in1865.ThismethodhasmadetheDutchinJavaalleg-edly the best producers of cane, and since then themethodwascopiedallovertheworld.Afterthelandhasbeenreturned,orevenbeforethat,thefarmermovesin quickly and starts planting his palawija crops, inthiswaytakingadvantageoftheresidualeffectofNPKfertilizationfromthepreviouscanecrop.Thesubsoil,whichisoftenmoistduringthisdryseasonforreasonsdiscussed earlier, will still provide enough water forplantgrowth(Koningsberger,1950).
ItisperhapsnecessarytoaddthattheproductionofsugarinIndonesiaisalsocarriedoutbylocalfarmers.However, incontrast to thewhiterefinedcrystallizedsugarproducedbytheDutchestates,thefarmer’ssugaris not produced from sugarcane only, but often fromcellsapofotherplantsproducingsugar—forexample,
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
arenpalm(Arengasaccharifera),lontarpalm(Borassusfla-bellifer),andcoconutpalm(Figure6.11andFigure6.12).Thesapcollectedfromthearenpalmandthecoconutwaterareboiledtoevaporatetheexcesswater.Thethickbrownmasscollectedisthenpouredintoforms,usu-allybamboocups,toconsolidate,yieldingbrownsugar,calledgulaaren(gulameans“sugar”)andgulamangkok,respectively. The gula aren is favored by housewivesinIndonesiaforitsnicearoma.Thesapcollected,drip-pingfromanincisionatthebaseoftheflowerclusterofthearenpalm,isalsooftenmadeintopalmwine.
�.�.�.�.� Coconut(Cocosnucifera) Thisisanotherimportantcropnotonlyforsugarproduction,butalsofortheproductionofcopra,amajorexportproductof
Figure 6.11 Coconutsinacoconuttree.
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��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Indonesiaand inmanycasesalso for local consump-tion.Todaycoconutisnotconsideredanestatecropbythe Indonesian government but is grouped togetherwithtobacco,fiber,andspicecropsasindustrialcrops.Estatecropsarerubber,oilpalm,tea,cacao,andsugar-cane.Thedivisionbetweenindustrialandestatecropsisarbitraryandbasedonlyonthefactthattheplantsinthecoconutgrouparecultivatedmostlybylocalfarm-ers,whereasthesecondgroup(rubber,andsoforth)iscultivatedbylargeestates(AARD,1986).
A B
Figure 6.12 (A)Arenpalmwithfruitclusters.(B)Fruitsofthearenpalm,producedbycrackingandremoving(hulling)thehardfruitshells,areadelicacyasdessertiniceandsyrup.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
Incontrasttosugarcane,coconutisnotrestrictedtotheareaofvertisolsonly.Whereasclimaticrestrictionshaveconcentratedsugarcane inEast Java, rubberandoilpalminSumatraandKalimantan,thepalmtreeisfoundextensivelythroughouttheIndonesianarchipel-ago.TheyareoftenadorningthecoastsofmanyislandsfromSabang in thewest toMerauke in theeast,pro-viding theclassical imageofa tropical island.Atonetimeinthepast,coconutcultivationfortheproductionof copra seemed to be concentratedmore in theeast-ernhalfof the Indonesianarchipelago,andrubber inthewesternpart.Themajorcopra-producingareasarenoticedespeciallyinSulawesi,wheretheYayasanKelapaMinehassa (MinehassaCoconutFoundation) is locatedandintheDigulareanearMeraukeinPapua.However,today,importantsmallholderplantationsarefoundnotonly in Sulawesi, but also in Maluku; West, Central,andEastJava;Lampung(SouthSumatra);Aceh(NorthSumatra);andWestSumatra(AARD,1986).
The plant will grow on a variety of soils from theheavy vertisols, to oxisols, ultisols, and the light-tex-tured,sandyalluvialdepositsalongsidetheriversandoncoastalterrain.CoconuttreesarefoundtoflourishonthesandydunesinWestSumatra,WestKalimantan,and the southern coastal areas of Pangandaran, WestJava, and Merauke, Papua. The plants are even culti-vatedoncoralsandsinTalisseestate,aformerDutchestateinNorthSulawesi,locatedonthecoralislandofKinabohutan.Theplantsareusuallygrownbytrans-planting pregerminated coconuts from the nurseriesintothefields(Reyne,1950),andittakesanaverageof8to10yearsbeforethetreesreachtheirfullproductive
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
capacity(AARD,1958).Thetallvarietiesmaythenreachheightsof20to30m,butdwarfvarietiesarealsoavail-ableandpreferredforeaseinharvesting.SeveralofthedwarfvarietiesareoftenusedinJavaandSumatraasbreedingmaterialsforcrossingwiththenormallytalltrees.Thetwocommonlyknowninthepastwerekelapagading(kelapameans“coconut”andgadingmeans“ivorycolor”)withivory-coloredfruitsandkelapapuyuh(puyuhmeans“dwarf”)distinguishedbygreen-coloredfruits(Reyne,1950).Today,theNiasYellowDwarfisusedforbreedingnewhigh-yieldinghybrids(AARD,1986).Forthe purpose of harvesting, mounting steps are oftencut in the tree trunks,whichapparentlydonotdam-age the tree. In certain cases, especially in Sumatra,thefarmercanrentaberuk(Macacusnemestrinus),abigape,trainedforharvestingcoconuts.Paymentisoftendone by sharing the coconut harvest with the trainerorowner.MostoftheplantsinIndonesiatodayare60yearsoldandconsideredbeyondtheirfullproductivecapacity.Theyneed tobe replacedbyyoungerplantsthataremorehardyandcanyield50to120fruits/treeperyear,whichaccordingtotheIndonesianAgencyforAgricultural Research and Development will meet aproductiontargetof2to4tonscopra/haperyear,withminimuminput(AARD,1986).Asstatedearlier,copraisamajorexportcommodity for Indonesia foruse intheoilandsoapindustries.
In addition to the importance of producing copra,coconut provides the farmer with a variety of homeapplications. The coconut juice, squeezed from thecoconut meat, yields cooking oil for frying, preferredlocallyoverpeanutoiloroil-palmoil.Coconutwater,
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
ifnotusedfordrinking,isevaporatedtoproducethegulamangkok.Themeatissometimesusedforlocalcon-sumption,butitssqueezedjuice,whennotusedfortheproduction of cooking oil, finds extensive applicationin the preparation of the many local dishes (e.g., ren-dang,orIndonesianbeefstew).Acoconutvariety,pre-ferredforconsumptionofitsmeat,isthekelapakopiyor(Cocos nucifera var. pultaria). The coconut flesh is softandmushy,nothardasordinarycoconut,withatex-turebetweenthickyogurtandcottagecheese.Itcanbescoopedeasilywithaspoonandisverynicewithiceandsyruporusedinicecream.Thecoconuthuskfindsapplication for home and kitchen cleaning purposesandoftenalsoasamediumforgrowingorchids.Ontheotherhand,thecoconutshell,sometimesusedformakingcharcoal,isnowasought-aftermaterialforlin-ingsorinlaysoftabletopsandothertypesoffurniture.Polishedproperly,theshelltopsexhibitaperfectshinecompetingwiththatofturtleandotherseashells.Theleavescanbewovenintobasketsorroomdividersandwalls.Theycanalsobearrangedtoproduceroof-thatchforthefarmers’houses.
�.� HistosolsThis chapter is about the organic soils in Indonesia,locallycalledtanahgambut,orpeatsoil.TheuseofthenameHistosolsasthetitleofthischapterisonlyforcon-venience,becausetheorderhistosolsalsoincludesmin-eralsoilsthatarehighinorganicmattercontents.Manypeoplehavedefinedorganicsoilsindifferentways,andthenewerversionsareusuallyeitheranextensionora
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
revisedversionoftheolderdefinition.Originally,soilscontainingmorethan20%organicmatterbyweight(or>50%organicmatterbyvolume)arecalledorganicsoils(Brady,1990).ThistraditionalconceptoforganicsoilistodayreflectedintheFAOdefinitionof folichorizon,ahorizonthatmusthave>20%Corgbyweight(Driessen,2001),andbytheU.S.SoilTaxonomydefinitionofhisticepipedon,wheretheminimumlimitsofCorgaresetat18%or16%,dependingonthecontentsofthesoilclayfractions (Soil Survey Staff, 2006a). The two horizonsaboveareconsidereddiagnostichorizonsforhistosols,anamechosenbyUSDAscientiststoreplacethenameorganic soils. From the above, it is perhaps clear thathistosolsarenotnecessarily tobepeatsoils,but theymayincludepeatsoils.
Peat has been studied by biologists and botanists,and its science has developed the most in countriespossessing huge areas of peat, such as in Russia andinFinland,wheretheheadquartersoftheInternationalPeat Society (IPS) is also located. This society in Fin-landcallstheareaswithpeatdepositspeatlands,whichincludewetlands,moor,bog,marshes,mires,andfens.Peat lands and mires are considered wetland ecosys-tems,containinglargeaccumulationsoforganicmatter,leadingtotheformationofpeat(IPS,2004).TheSwiss-basedRamsarConventiononWetlands,firstestablishedin1971 inIran,definespeat landasadepositofsemi-decayedplantmaterialaccumulatedover5000to8000years (Ramsar,2006).Otherscientistsarecallingpeatswampsandthevegetationabovepeatswampforest.Somepeoplealsoincludemangroveswampsandtidallowlandsinthiscategory(Driessen,2001;Kyuma,2003;
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
VandenEelaart,2004),makingtheconceptofpeatandpeatswampsveryconfusing.
Most of the peat soils in the world are generallylocatedincoastalplains,deltas,andfluvialandlacus-trine areas. According to Driessen (2001), the type oforganicmaterialmayvaryintheworldfrompeatmossof the arctic and boreal regions, to sphagnum, reeds,andsedgesintemperateregions,andtreesofmangroveandpeatswampvegetationofthehumidtropics.Thesphagnumisamoss,growinginwetareas,whereasthesedgesaretuftedmarshplants,growingtogetherasabunchoffluffyplants.Theirremainswhencompactedor mixed with other plant debris form the temperateregionpeat.Accumulationofthedecomposedmaterialisconditionedormadepossibleworldwideeitherbylowtemperaturesorexcesswater(Brady,1990).Tothese,twomorefactorswereaddedbyDriessen(2001)forslowingthedecompositionoforganicresidues:extremeaciditypluslownutrientcontentandhighlevelsofelectrolytesplusorganictoxins.Otherscientistsconsiderthelattermoretheresultsratherthanthereasonsforpeatforma-tion,whichwillbeexplainedbelow.
Differenttypesofpeatshavebeenrecognizedintheworld,anddifferentnameshavebeenusedbydiffer-ent authors, aggravating the existing confusion aboutthe concept of peat as mentioned earlier. The oldest,andperhapsalsothesimplestconcept,wasthedivisionintotwomaintypesofpeats:basinpeat,developedindepressions or low-lying areas of marshes and bogs,andblanketpeat,whichformsinareaswithhighlevelsofrainfallandthatpracticallycoverstheareaasablan-ket.Lately,lowmoorpeatsarerecognizedincontrastto
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
highmoorpeats(Driessen,1978,2001).Theformerisusu-ally foundmore indelta,marine,andfluvial regions,and is considered topogenous, which is explained byAndriesse(1998)aspeataffectedbyhydrotopographyorbytheactionofthegroundwaterlevel.Thesecondtype,calledhighmoorpeat,isombrogenousorpeatformedbytheactionofrainwateronly.Thistypeofpeatisfoundintheuplands,thoughDriessenaddedthatinlowlandareas the ombrogenous type could also form on topof topogenouspeat. It seems, therefore, that the lattertypeofpeat is related tobasinand theombrogenousone to blanket peat. The ombrogenous peat is calledombrophilouspeatbyAndriesse(1988),whoconsidersittobeoligotrophicoraveryacidicandnutrient-deficientpeat.Thetypeofwaterinvolvedintheformationofthistype ofpeat isnormally low in calcium, magnesium,andpotassiumcontents,whichproducespHvaluesof≤4.Thisisincontrasttotemperateregionpeats,calledreophilous peat by Andriesse, which is more eutrophic.For example, water entering peat swamps in Scandi-navia,ischaracterizedbypHvaluesbetween6and7becauseofenrichmentwithbasesandnutrientsleachedfromthesurroundinglands(MooreandBellamy,1974).Inbetweenrheophilousandombrophilous,Andriesserecognizestransitionalpeat,whichheconsidersmesotro-phic.Foramoredetaileddiscussionofthetypesofpeatabove,referenceismadetoMooreandBellamy(1974)andAndriesse(1988).
InIndonesia,peatsoilortanahgambutoccursexten-sively in thecoastal lowlands,andonly inPapuahassomehighlandormountainpeatbeendiscovered.Somebelievethatthepeatsoilisformedmoreinlandbehind
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
themangrove swamps,butothershave reported thatpeat soil canexistnotonly in themangrovebutalsoin the coastal tidal swamps. The latter finds supportbytheexistenceinIndonesiaofpeatsoilswithoutandwithpyrite.Aswillbeexplainedinalatersection,thepyriteaswellasthetidaleffectoftheseacanproduceveryacidsoils.TheFAO-UN,bulletin59,placesthepeatsoilsofIndonesiainthegroupoftropicalpeats,definedasallorganicsoils in thewetlandsof the tropicsandsubtropicslyingwithinthenorthernandsouthernlati-tudesof35degrees, including thoseathighaltitudes(Andriesse, 1988).However, it shouldbe realized thatnot all the wetlands produce peat, since in Sumatra,West Kalimantan, and Indonesian Papua, large areasof freshwater wetlands are present in addition to thepeat-forming wetlands (Page, 2006). The use of theTropicalprefixintheterminologyofthisgroupofpeatsoil is deemed essential to distinguish Tropical peatfromTemperateRegionPeatbecauseofdifferencesinformationandcomposition.Theplantmaterialsinthetropical regions, and in particular in Indonesia, fromwhichthepeatsoilshaveoriginatedaremainlytrees.Intemperateregions,thevegetationforpeatformation,asindicatedearlier,ismainlysphagnum(Sphagnumsp.)andsedges(Cyperaceaesp.).
AccordingtotheSoilMapoftheSoilResearchInstituteof Indonesia (Figure1.2,page16), theacreageof tanahgambutis13,193,500ha,nexttooralmostequalingthe14millionhaofthelatosolsoroxisols.However,theFAO-UNBulletin59estimatedanacreageof17millionhaoftropicalpeatinIndonesia,secondtoCanadaandRussiawheretheextentisstatedtobe150millionhaineachof
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
thecountries(Andriesse,1988).However,suchacompar-isonisperhapsinerror,becausetheverylargeacreagesinCanadaandRussiaaremostlikelycomposedofmix-turesoftemperateregionpeatsandothersoilshighinorganicmatter.Thetable,asamatteroffact,usesorganicsoilsasthetitle,whichhas,ofcourse,awidermeaningthantropicalpeatsoils.Thisgroupofpeatsoilswasrec-ognizedinIndonesiaonlyatthebeginningofthetwen-tiethcentury,afterthediscoverybyKoordersin1895ofextensivepeatareasinSumatra(Andriesse,1988;Polak,1950).ThegeneralconsensusbeforethattimewasthatpeatcannotexistorbeformedinthetropicalclimatesofIndonesia,favoringrapiddecompositionandminer-alizationoforganicmatter.Thisissuewillbeaddressedinmoredetailbelow.TodaythesoilshaveattractedalotofattentionforuseinincreasingcropproductionduetotheincreasingdemandforfoodtomeetthepopulationgrowthinIndonesia.
�.�.� Parentmaterials
TanahgambutortropicalpeatofIndonesiaoriginatedfrom different kinds of materials than mineral soils(forexample,oxisols,ultisols,andthelike).Theparentmaterials are vegetative remains from the vegetationofthepeatswampforest.Thisvegetationthenequals,inessence,themeaningofa“parentrock”intermsofthegenesisofmineralsoil.Thedeadvegetativeresidue,definedaslitterinsoilsscience,isthentheparentmate-rialforpeatformation.Andriesse(1988)objectsinrelat-inglittertopeat,whichconfusestheconceptofpeatanditsformationevenfurther.Litterisindeednotequalto
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
peat,butitistheparentmaterialforpeatformation,asindicatedabove.Thedecayedlitter,invariousdegreesofdecomposition,formsthepeatdeposits,whichdepend-ingonconditionscanbe50cmto1mthick.
Severalofthetheoriesindicatethatthepeatswampforest vegetation ordinarily develops on sedimentsdeposited at the inland edges of coastal mangroveswamps as rivers drain toward the coast (Andriesse,1988;Page,2006;Wikramanayakeetal.,2002).Theriversediments, trapped between the tangle of mangroveroots,areslowlybuildingup, formingapeat swamp.The latter is less subject to frequent flooding and isconsideredbymanyarain-fedswamp,whichisinsci-entific terms called ombrogenous. As indicated earlier,thevegetationofthepeatswampforestofIndonesiaiscomposedoftrees.Attheedgesofthepeatswampfor-est,thetreesareoftengrowingtall,withatreetrunkdiameterof50to80cmatheightsof1to2m.Movingtothecenteroftheswamp,theybecomegraduallysmallerandslender,usuallyexhibitingnarrowcrowns;hence,thenameofpoleforestisusedbyWikramanayakeetal.(2002)toidentifythispartoftheswampforest.Thesetrees often exhibit smaller trunks and basal areas,and because of these, the pole forest tends to have ahigherdensityoftrees.Itcoversthecentralpartoftheswampforestasadomeandisbelievedtofunctionasaspongeregulatingwaterinthepeatswamp.Mostofthetreesarenotendemic,andmanyoftheDipterocar-paceae plants from the neighboring tropical lowlandrainforestcanalsobefoundinthepeatswampforest.However,incomparisontothetropicalrainforest,thevarietyoftreespeciesisrelativelysmaller inthepeat
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��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
swampforest(Wikramanayakeetal.,2002),whereasitscompositioninSumatraandKalimantanisreportedtobenotmuchdifferent.SomeofthemajorspeciesfoundinbothregionsarethetalltreesoftheShoreasp.,locallycalled pohon meranti (pohon means “tree”), Gonystylusbancanusorlocallyknownaspohongaru,andTristaniaobavataorsumatranaorpohonmulu.Thethreearecon-sideredasperhapsthemostvaluabletreesfortimber.Twopalm treeshavealsobeenmentioned (e.g.,Livis-tona hasseltii and Cyrtostachys lakka) as characterizingthepeatswampforestofIndonesiabyWikramanayakeand coworkers. In addition, the following trees havebeen reported growing in the peat regions: Plorariumalternifolium, belonging to the tea family and locallycalled pohon rengadean; Polyathia glauca or pohon karau;Stemonurus sp. or pohon batu item; and Radermacheragigantaeorpohontuwibatu.Allfourarefoundespeciallyon the east coast of Sumatra. From the swamp forestofKalimantan,thefollowingtreeshavebeenreported,although they may also grow in Sumatra: Cratoxylonglaucumorpohongeronggang;Calophyllumsp.,aferntree,calledpohonpaku;Combretocarpussp.orpohonteruntumbatu;Palaquiumsp.orpohonsemaram;andParastemonsp.orpohonmeriawak.
Destruction of the primary peat forest by natural,accidental,ordeliberatelysetforestfiresmaynotonlybeharmfultothelossofbiodiversityinplantandani-mal life, but may also result in regrowth with gelamvegetation, trees of the paper bark Melaleuca sp., orwithalang-alanggrass(Imperatacylindrical).Thesetypesof vegetation, often developing as monocultures, are
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
difficult to control, and are considered to convert theareaspracticallyintowastelands.
�.�.�.� DecompositionoflitterandgenesisofpeatAccordingtoRussianauthoritiesinpeatformation,thelitterisgenerallysubjectedatfirsttodecompositionbyaerobicbiochemicalprocessesofmicroorganismspres-entinthesurfacelayersofthedepositsduringperiodsof lowsubsoilwater(Kurbatov,1968).Thedeeperlay-ersofthepeatformedbythis initialprocessarethenaffectedbyanaerobicprocesses.AccordingtoAndriesse(1988),thisformofpeatisaforestpeat,whichisessen-tiallynodifferentfromathicklitterdeposit.Incontrast,AndriessebelievesthatthetropicalpeatofIndonesia,mostly developing in swampy conditions, is affectedmorebyanaerobicprocesses,duetospecifichydroto-pographical conditions. This creates redox conditionswithasubstantialreductioninoxidationreactions,oftenreflectedbyhighsulfurandsodiumcontentsinthepeatdeposits.Thisprocessofpeatformationinwaterloggedor reduced conditions, called by Andriesse paludifica-tion, involvesaprimarypeat formationat thebottomofadepression,followedbyformationofasecondarypeatlayerontopofit,withatertiarypeatdepositabovethis.InthehumidtropicsandmonsoonregionsofIndo-nesia,withtheirhighevapotranspiration,formationofsecondary and tertiary layers of peats is consideredpossible only where the conditions are continuouslywet,suchasinthecoastallowlandsofSumatra,Kali-mantan,andWestPapua.Becausemanyscientistsalsoregardthepeatecosystemintheseregionsasombrog-enousorombrophilous,thewaterenteringthesystemis
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
derived only from precipitation, as explained earlier.Andriesse(1988)believesthatthistypeofpeatiscom-parabletohighmoorpeat,whereastheeutrophiclowmoor peat is considered more uncommon for condi-tionsinIndonesia.
Peatswampsareconsideredbylocalpeatauthoritiesasgiantsponges,soakinguporadsorbinghugeamountsof water from rain or rivers to release it again partlyduringthedryseason.Inthisway,theyserveaswatercatchmentsthatareabletocontrolfloodsduringperi-odsofheavyrains.Theyalsoseemtoplayanimportantroleinbufferingcoastallandsfromtheharmfuleffectofsaltwaterfromthesea.Inaddition,thepeatswampsare believed to have a filtering effect, by which con-taminantsandpotentialpollutantsarefiltered,whichmaybeharmfulwhentheyreachthegroundwaterandwateroflakesandriversofthesurroundingareas.
�.�.� Climate
InthehumidtropicsandmonsoonregionsofIndone-sia,withtheirhightemperaturesandhighevapotrans-piration, formationofpeat ispossibleonlywhere theconditionsarecontinuouslywetduringtheyear.Suchconditionsappeartobepresentinthecoastallowlandsof Sumatra, Kalimantan, and West Papua. Togetherwiththetidaleffectofthesea,thiscombinationofcon-ditionsappearstobeidealforpromotingtheanaerobicecosystemneededintheaccumulationoflargedepositsofdecomposedandpartlydecomposedorganicmate-rial,calledtropicalpeat.ThedatainTable6.19,adaptedfrom rainfall data collected during a 30-year period
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���Ta
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69071.indb 263 4/25/08 10:42:44 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
from1971to2000fromrainstationslocatedclosetothepeatswampregions,areinsupportofthepresenceofyear-longwetconditions.Theonlyexceptionisperhapsthe area near Merauke, Papua, where a 6-month dryperiodhasbeenrecorded,alternatedbya6-monthwetseason.TheareasnearMedan,Pakanbaru,andPalem-banginSumatradonotexhibitmonthswithrainfalls>60 mm. Medan, located on the northeast coast ofSumatra,seemstobecharacterizedbyaclimatewith9rainymonthsof>100mmpermonth.Theremaining3monthsdonotqualifytobecalled“dry”(rainfall<60mm),becausetheamountofrainfallisbetween92and98mm/month, recorded inparticular for themonthsofFebruary,March,andApril,respectively.Thesameistrueforthe1monthof“drier”periodinPakanbaruandPalembang,respectively.Pakanbaru,situatedinthepeatareaofRiau(mideastcoastofSumatra),receivedon average 98 mm of rain during the month of June,whereasPalembang,inSouthSumatra,received81mmofraininthemonthofAugust.Therefore,theparticu-larmonthswith rainfalls<100mmcanpracticallybeconsideredaswetmonths.
�.�.� Soilmorphology
AnexampleofatanahgambutprofileisprovidedbelowfromtheSilautpeatarea,locatedatthesouthernborderofWestSumatra,closetotheprovinceofBenkulu.Theareawas formerlyconsidered inhospitableandseem-ingly inaccessible, where health hazards discouragedlocal farmers from settling. However, the Silaut peat
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
swamp was opened recently for the now terminatedtransmigration program of the Indonesian govern-mentinitsefforttorelievethestressinJava,duetoitsincreasinghighpopulationdensity,andalsotoincreasecropproductiontomeetthedemandformorefoodbythe growing population of Indonesia. The soil profiledescription was recorded by a team of scientists andprofessionalsfromtheUniversityofAndalas,Padang,underthe leadershipof Ir.DatukImban,pedologist-soilmorphologyandclassification.
ThepeatsoilintheSilautswampforestvariesfrom0.5to3mthick,whereasinsomeplacesitcanbemorethan3mthick.Thedeeperthepeatsoil,theless“attractive”orthemore“monotonous”thedescription,byshowingonlyOhorizons;hence,apeatprofileof1mthicknesswasselectedfortheexamplebelow,withthepurposetoalsoshowthemineralsoillayers.Inthecultivationofthesepeatsoils,itappearsthatthepresenceoradmix-ture with mineral soils proves to be of advantage bybeingmorefertilethanthepuredeeppeatdepositthatisoftenalsoveryacid.
ThepeatsoilprofileislocatedonflattopographyofthepeatswampofSilautatanelevationof3mabovesealevel.Theparentmaterialisdeadresiduefromthetreesgrowingintheswamp,showingcharacteristicsofapoleforest(seeFigure6.13).Theyarecomposedofthefollowingspecies:Parinariumsumatranum,locallycalledpohon batu or pohon kalek; Campnosperma microphyllumor auriculatum, locally called pohon terantang; and afewother trees thatwerenotdetermined.Theprofiledescriptionsareasfollows:
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Themineralpartsabove,C1,C2,andC3,areintegralpartsof thepeatsoilprofile.ThesymbolsCareusedinsteadofA,becausethesehorizonswereconsideredparentmaterials,thoughothersmayobjectandprefertheuseofthesymbolA.AccordingtoRussianconcepts,peat soils include thepeat layersand theupperhori-zonsofthemineralsoilunderneath.Theorganicandmineralhorizonsareconsideredtogetherasapedoge-netically homogenous soil profile, with a similar his-toryofdevelopment(Inisheva,2006).
Horizon Depth.(cm) Description
Oa 0–74 10YR2/1,black,sapricpeat,satu-rated with water, nonsticky andnonplastic,abundantknee-roots.
Oe 74–87 10YR 3/2, very dark grayish-brown,hemicpeat,saturatedwithwater, nonsticky and nonplastic,noknee-roots.
C1 87–100 10YR5/4,yellowish-brown,sandyclayloam,massive,slightlysticky,nonplastic, saturated with water,noroots.
C2 100–132 5YR6/2,pinkish-gray,sandyclayloamtoclayloam,massive,slightlysticky, nonplastic, saturated withwater,noroots.
C3 132–169 10YR 4/3 dark brown to brown,sandy loam, massive, nonstickyand nonplastic, saturated withwater,noroots.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
�.�.� Soilclassification
Theclassificationofpeatsoilshasattractedspecialatten-tionincountriespossessinglargeareasofpeat lands,thoughmostofthemhaveplacedthesesoilstodayinthehistosolsorder.TheWorldReferenceBaseforSoilResources(WRB),developedbyaninternationaleffort
Figure 6.13 NativepeatswampforestatSilauttransmigra-tion area, showing the tall slender trees, characteristic of apoleforest.
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
betweentheInternationalUnionofSoilScience(IUSS),theFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO),andtheInternational Soil Reference and Information Centre(ISRIC),hasclassifiedthemashistosols(FAO-UNESCO,1998).ThehistosolsorderwasintroducedbytheUSDA,SoilSurveydivisiontoreplacethenameoforganicsoilasdiscussedearlier.ThissoilorderwaslateradaptedbytheFAOsystem,which,incontrasttotheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,includesafolichorizonasdiagnosticforhis-tosols.FordefinitionsandcriteriaofboththeFAOandU.S.SoilTaxonomy,referenceismadetoFAO-UNESCO(1998),Driessen(2002),andSoilSurveyStaff(2006a).Asalwaysinscience,exceptionsseemtobepresenttotheabove.Forthepurposeofmakingtheissuesomewhatmorecomplete,butnottoolongwinded,twooftheclas-sificationsystemsonpeatsoilsdeviatingfromtheabovewillbementionedbelow.
TheCanadiansoilclassificationsystemhasprovideddifferentversionsofclassificationofpeatsoils,withoneplacingthemintheorderoforganicsoils,dividedintofibric,mesic,andhumicsuborders,whereasthesecondversionhasplacedpeatsoilsunderthewetlandsgroup.Thewetlandclasses,bogs,fens,swamps,marshes,andshallow waters all contain peat. However, the bogsandfensare, inessence,composedofdense layersofpeats.Thebogtypesofpeatsaretheoligotrophictypes,whereasthefentypesofpeatsarethemoreeutrophictypes (CWS,2006).Anotherexception is found in theAustralianSoilClassificationsystem,whichplacedpeatsoilsasorganosols(CSIRO-ACLEP,2006).
Andriesse (1988) made suggestions for a classifica-tion scheme of peat soils on the basis of topography,
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
surface vegetation, chemical properties, botanical ori-gin, physical properties, and genetic properties. It isperhaps a grand idea, if more details have been pro-vided instead of only a very sketchy idea. Moreover,onlyplainnameshavebeenpresented—norealclassifi-cationsystemwasoutlined.Thesixbasicfactorsabovealsohave tobestreamlinedproperly,becausesurfacevegetation and botanical origin seem to be the same.Sedge,heath,andsphagnumaresurfacevegetationbutcanalsobeconsideredbotanicalorigin.TheexamplesofTemperateRegionandTropicalPeats for classifica-tion under genetic properties appear to indicate thatperhaps“geneticproperties”shouldbemoreappropri-atelychangedinto“climaticproperties.”
In Indonesia, the soils are called tanah gambut orpeatsoil,asstatedearlier.ButsincetheIndonesianSoilResearchInstitutehasadaptedtheU.S.SoilTaxonomyasthebasisforsoilclassification,thesesoilshavebeenplacedinthehistosolsorder.TheU.S.systemrecognizesfoursuborders—folists,fibrists,hemists,andsaprists—thoughnofolichorizonorfolicmaterialisrecognizedasisthecaseintheFAO-UNsystem.Thecharacteristicsofthefoursubordersemphasizethecontentsofsphag-numfibersonlyandtheirdegreeofdecomposition.Peatsoil in Indonesia has been derived from trees and isonereasonwhyAndriesse(1988)preferstocallittropi-calpeat,whichheconsidersdifferent fromtemperateregionpeatderivedfromsphagnum,hedges,andheathvegetation.Nevertheless,theauthoritiesattheUniver-sityofAndalas,Padang,placedthesoilprofiledescribedaboveasatroposaprist.Thetropiprefix,fromtropic,isperhapsmorewarrantedandwouldbeacceptedmore
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��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
favorably by U.S. soil taxonomists due to their habitofusingthevowel“i”(forexample,andisolinsteadofandosol).JudgingfromtherapiddecompositionrateinthehumidtropicsofIndonesia,mostofthepeatsoilsinIndonesiaareexpectedtobetropisaprists.
�.�.� Physicochemicalcharacteristics
�.�.�.� AcidityofpeatThedatainTable6.20showthetanahgambutortropi-calpeat soilofSilaut toexhibitpHvaluesof3.2,andsimilar pH values are detected in the mineral parts(C1,C2,andC3)of thesoilprofileunderneath.Thesestrongly acidic reactions have always been used byalmostallpeatauthoritiesforconsideringthistypeoftropicalpeatasoligotrophicorombrophilousinnature.Thescientistsbelievethatthepoorconditionwascre-atedbythewaterenteringthepeatdeposits.However,rainwater,thoughindeeddeficientinbases,exhibitspH
Particle Size Distribution (%)
Org. C %
N %
Profile Horizon
50–2 <2 µ
pHH2O
Oa
Oe
C1
C2
C3
—
—
54.0
45.0
79.0
—
—
21.0
22.0
11.0
—
—
25.0
33.0
10.0
3.2
3.2
3.6
4.4
3.5
59.7
51.4
2.3
1.3
1.4
4.03
3.26
0.19
0.12
0.13
15
16
12
11
11
>50 µ
C N
Table.6.20. PhysiochemicalCharacteristicsoftheSilautTanahGambut
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
valuesbetween6and7,andonlyinveryfewexceptions(e.g.,acidrain)willitspHbe≤4.Intheauthor’sopinion,humicacidsmayhavesomeeffect,butitistheanaero-bicdecompositionoforganicmatterandthepresenceofpyritethatproducetheextremelyacidicconditionsandpoornutrientstatus.Thesewillbeexplainedbelow.
Andriesse(1988)reportedthatmostpeatinIndone-siamaycontainhighamountsofsulfurbecauseofitsformation in anaerobic environments due to the spe-cific hydrotopographic conditions. In such anaerobicecosystems,sulfurbacteriaarecapableofusingoxygenfromsulfatesfordecompositionoforganicmatter.Theanaerobicreactioncanbeillustratedasfollows:
2CH2O+SO42–+2H+→H2S+2CO2+2H2O (6.1)
Formation of H2S is common in swamps and mayespeciallyoccurintidalswampareasaffectedbysea-water, such as in mangrove swamps. Seawater con-tainshighamountsofsulfates,whichareretainedbythecoastalsedimentsorthesoil.Duringitsformationonthefringesofmangroveswamps,theombrogenouspeatinIndonesiahasapparentlypushedthemangroveswampforesttomovemoretowardthecoast.Itwasthemangroveforestecosystemthatshiftedinthedirectionof thesea,butnot thesoil,whichwas, infact,gradu-allycoveredbyablanketofpeat.Thesulfatesfromthesea,originallyadsorbedbythesedimentsunderneaththepeat,arepermeatingupwardtobemixedwiththeOhorizonsabove.Theyareusedforbio-oxidationandconvertedintoH2SasshownbyEquation6.1.Whenthishydrogensulfideisallowedtoaccumulate,itisnotonly
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
toxictomanysoilorganisms,butitalsocreatespollu-tionproblems.Fortunately,agroupofbacteria isalsopresent insoils thatarecapableofoxidizingH2Sintosulfurandthissulfurintosulfuricacid.Thereactionscanbewrittenasfollows:
2H2S+O2→2S+2H2O (6.2)
2S+2H2O+O2→2H2SO4 (6.3)
Thesulfuricacidformedisthenthereasonfordevelop-mentoftheextremelyacidicconditions.Thesoilswiththesestronglyacidreactionsaresometimescalledcat-claysoracidsulfatesoils.
Someof thepeatsoils in Indonesiaarealsoknowntocontainpyrite,especiallythosethathavedevelopedoverthemangrovesoils,whenthesetidalswampeco-systemsshiftedtowardthecoastduetoencroachmentofpeatasexplainedabove.Themineralsedimentsunder-neath thepeat contain thepyrites, andmanyauthorshaveconfusedthisbystatingthepresenceofpyritesinpeatorbyclaimingthattheombrogenouspeatinIndo-nesiawasalsoformedinmangroveswamps(Kyuma,2003;VandenEelaart,2004).Hence,shallow(thin)peatsoilsareexpectedtobecontaminatedmorewithpyritethanthethick,deep,peatsoils.Thelattermayperhapsbevirtuallyfreeofpyriteintheirupperorganichori-zons.Pyrite,Fe2S,isamineralthatuponbio-oxidationcanproducesulfuricacid,ascanbenoticedfromthereactionbelow:
Fe2S+2H2O+O2→2Fe2++4H++4SO42– (6.4)
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
�.�.�.� NutrientstatusofpeatThelowpHvaluesoftheSilautpeatcorrespondcloselywiththelowbasesaturationandtheconcentrationofexchangeablebasesdetectedintheprofile(Table6.21).However,thenitrogencontentisrelativelyhigh.Percent-agesofnitrogen,intherangeof3.0to4.0%(Table6.20),arewithintherangeof0.3to4.0%asreportedfornitro-gencontentofpeatsoilsworldwide.Thecontentof4.0%NintheOahorizonoftheSilautprofileistwiceashighasthe1.98%NreportedbySuhardjoandWidjaja-Adhi(1977)fortheirtropicalpeatofRiau,EastSumatra.ThehighnitrogencontentoftheSilautpeatsoilisexpectedtobemorethanadequateforcropproductionandthe
Exchangeable Bases HClExtractableBase
Sat. CEC
P2O5 K2O
Bray P
Oa
Oe
C1
C2
C3
2.1
2.3
2.9
2.4
2.1
1.2
1.3
1.7
2.0
1.7
0.11
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
9.0
8.0
14.0
12.0
14.0
40.5
55.8
32.8
38.1
28.5
13.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
8.0
5.0
5.0
8.0
8.0
56.0
13.0
11.0
11.0
11.0
Ca Mg K Na
Table.6.21. ExchangeableBases,BaseSaturation,Cation-ExchangeCapacity(CEC),HCl-ExtractablePhosphorus(P)andPotassium(K),andBray-PContentsofSilautTanahGambut
Notes: Exchangebases,basesaturation,andCECincmol/kg;HClextractablesinmg/100g;BrayPinppm.
Source:ChemicalAnalysesbySoilsLaboratory,UniversityofAnda-las.(DataprovidedbyIr.DatukImbang.)
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
growthofmostplants.Mollisols, thebestsoils in theworldforagriculture,exhibitnitrogencontents in therange of only 0.07 to 0.30% (Brady, 1990). Andriesse(1988)isoftheopinionthatsuchahighnitrogencontentisinconsistentwiththeoligotrophicnatureofIndone-sianpeatsoilsandsubmittedthetheoryofHardonandPolak(1941)asanexplanation.Thelatterauthorssug-gestedthatduringthedecompositionofcelluloseandlignin plus other nitrogen-containing substances, thecellulosepartisperhapsdestroyedveryrapidly,leavingtheotherorganicsandtheirnitrogentoaccumulate.
The phosphorus concentration, detected in the OahorizonoftheSilautpeat,intheamountof13mg/100g = 0.013% P2O5, compares favorably with the rangeofphosphorus concentration reported forpeatworld-wide.Totalphosphorus levelsofoligotrophicpeatsofSarawakwerealsointherangeof0.004to0.01%.Theavailable phosphorus content, extracted by the Bray-1method,of56ppmdetectedintheOahorizon,isveryhigh considering the fact that concentrations of ≥30ppmarehighbyBray-1soil-Ptestranking,whereasarangeof16 to30ppmis rankedmedium(Tan,2005).ThoughAndriesse(1988)claimsthatthehighphospho-rus levels canbeexplainedagain similarlyas for thehighnitrogencontentsabove,thisstilldoesnotexplainwhythehighnitrogenandphosphoruscontentsareatoddswiththeoligotrophicconcept.Thehighconcentra-tionscanindeedbeexplainedbythetheoryofHardonandPolak(1941),buttheystillsuggestamoreeutrophicnatureoftheseombrogenictropicalpeats.Thereasonforapoornutrientmediumofthistropicalpeatshouldbefoundsomewhereelse,perhapsintoxicityproblems,
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
dueespeciallytohighaluminumcontents.Thiswillbethetopicofthenextsection.
�.�.�.� AluminumcontentsinpeatThe exchange acidity and aluminum concentrations,extractedby1NKC1,areveryhigh(datanotshown).Thealuminumcontentinparticular,determinedintheOahorizon,of448.2ppmisextremelyhigh.Thiscon-tentincreasesinOeandC1horizonsto494.1and666.9ppm,respectively,todecreaseagainsomewhatintheC2andC3horizonsto596.7and385.2ppm,respectively.However,thelatterfiguresarestilltoohighforgrow-ingcropsandplants.Evenwiththepresenceofhumicacidsinthepeat,theextremelyhighconcentrationsofaluminumareexpectedtobedeadlyfornormalplantgrowth.Aluminumtoxicityhasbeenreportedtooccuratconcentrationsaslowas50ppmAl(Foyetal.,1978;TanandBinger,1986).
�.�.�.� CarboncontentsandCorgsequestrationbypeat
TheorganiccarboncontentsoftheSilautpeatareveryhigh (Table6.20) and confirm the importance of peatdeposits in sequestration of organic carbon. Seques-trationoforganiccarbon isavery important issue inlightofmitigatingglobalwarmingbycontrolling theemissionofCO2intotheatmosphere.PeatbogsoftheCanadian Wetland Classification Center (CWS, 2006),fittingthedefinitionofoligotrophicpeatliketheSilautpeat,areconsideredtocontainmorecarbonthanalltheotherpeatlandsoftheworld.
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Andriesse (1988) believes that Corg is perhaps themost important property, due to the consideration inmanycountriesoftheuseofpeatasasourceoffuelandbecauseofproblemsarisingduetocultivation.Fibristwas reportedbyAndriesse tocontain48 to50%Corg,mesic peat (which corresponds to hemist) 53 to 54%,andsaprist58to60%organiccarbon.TheCorgcontentofthesapristofSilautis59.6%,whichisinagreementwithAndriesse’sdata.
�.�.�.�.� Redoxpotentialofpeat. Fororganiccarbontobeabletoaccumulateaspeatinthehumidtropics,where oxidation is generally the rule, the productionofbiomassmustbegreaterthanthedecompositionofthisorganicmatter,asindicatedbyAndriesse(1988).Inanaerobicsystems,thisbalancebetweenaccumulationanddecompositionisinfluencedbyacomplexsystemofredoxreactions.Sucharedoxsystemisusuallysim-plifiedinthefollowingequationbelow(Tan,1998):
Eh=E0+(RT/zF)ln(oxidation/reduction) (6.5)
inwhichEhistheredoxpotential,E0istheelectrochem-icalpotentialatstandardstate,Risthegasconstant,TisthetemperatureinKelvin,zisvalence,andFistheFaradayconstant.
Thevalueoftheredoxpotential,Eh,determinestheaccumulationordestructionoforganicmatterandtheformationofpeat.WhenEhincreasesinvalue,itisclearfromtheequationthatoxidationprocessesaregreaterthanreduction,andpeatwillbedestroyedbytheoxida-tionoftheorganicmatter.Thisgenerallyhappenswhen
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
aerationisimproveduponcultivationofpeatlands,andtheenhancedlossoforganicmatterwillresultinwhatis called “subsidence.” The redox potential also con-trolsthesolubilityofmanynutrients.AtlowEhvalues,reductionprocessesprevail,andasarulemetalcations,such as the micronutrient elements, are then presentin their reducedstate inwhich theyaremoresolublethanintheiroxidizedstate.Forexample,Fe(II)orFe2+ismoresolublethanFe(III)orFe3+ions.Nitrogenwillalsobepresentintheammoniumform,NH4
+,ratherthaninthenitrateform,NO3
–.However,Andriesse(1988)indi-catesthatnexttoorganic-N,thenitrogenispresentasnitrate-N.BecauseNO3
–istheoxidizedformofN,thismayraisemanyquestionsduetotheanaerobic(reduc-tion)environmentandstronglyacidconditionsprevail-inginthepeatsoils.Theauthoraboveaddedthatwithincreasing age in development, the nitrogen contentincreasedinamounts,buthisexplanationsfailedtojus-tifyhiscontention,andhisexplanationsseemtoraisemorequestions.
�.�.�.� PhysicalpropertiesThemostimportantphysicalpropertiesrelatedtoissuesofwaterconditionsinanaerobicsystemsoftropicalpeatsoilsinIndonesiawillbediscussedbelow,forexample,bulkdensity,water-holdingcapacityormoisturereten-tion, and available water content. The others, texture,structure,porespaces,andswelling–shrinking,arealsoimportantparametersbutareratherdifficulttoassoci-atewithpeatsoils.Forexample,soiltexture,ofsignif-icance in mineral soils (oxisols and ultisols), is basedonthepresenceorrelativeconcentrationsofsand,silt,
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
andclay,mineralparticles thatshouldnotbepresentinsubstantialamountsintruepeatsoils.Itseemsthatmostofthepeatscientistsconfusethiswithplasticity,which is also exhibited to some degree by peat soils.Theconceptsanddefinitionsofthephysicalpropertiesabove have been developed for mineral soils, whichare generally aerobic soil systems. Therefore, the useof physical properties for aerobic soil systems shouldbeusedwithcautioninanaerobicsoilsandhavetobeinterpretedverydifferently.
�.�.�.�.� Bulk density. In Basic Soil Science, abulk density value of ≤0.5 g/cc characterizes in gen-eral organic soils (Brady, 1990). The official unit forbulk density in the United States is Mg/m3, which isan awful unit, because in laboratory determinations,thesamplesaremeasuredingramsandcc,andnotinMg or tons and cubic meters (Tan, 2005). FortunatelyMg/m3=g/cc,andhencethelatterwillbeusedinthisbook.Bulkdensityvaluesoftropicalpeatarereportedtobeconsiderablysmallerthantheaboveandaregen-erallyintherangeof0.12to0.09g/cc(Andriesse,1974).Theavailabledataalsosuggestthatthesevaluestendtobehigherforthesurfaceandsomewhatlowerinthesublayersofthepeatprofile.Thismaywellindicatethatbulkdensity increaseswith increaseddecomposition,becausetheorganicmatterinthepeatsurfaceisusuallyinamoreadvancedstageofdecomposition than thatlocated in the deeper layers. This observation is sup-portedbyresultsofbulkdensityanalysesofKaliman-tantropicalpeatbyDriessenandRochimah(1976),whoreportedaKalimantanfibristtoexhibitabulkdensity
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
of ≤0.1 g/cc, as opposed to 0.2 g/cc for a Kalimantansaprist. Inaddition to theabove, cultivationhasbeennotedtoincreasethebulkdensityofpeatsoils,provid-ing more support to the contention of decompositionraising the bulk density of peat soils. A bulk densityvalueof0.35g/ccwasreportedbyAndriesse(1988)forthe0-to15-cmlayerofcultivatedpeatsoilattheAgri-culturalResearchandEducationCenter,UniversityofFlorida,BelleGlade,whereasthisvaluewas0.18g/ccat45to60cmdepth.However,higherbulkdensityval-ues insurface layersare insharpcontrastwith thosenoted in mineral soils, where compaction of the sub-soilalwaysproducedhigherbulkdensityvaluesinthedeeperlayers.Thisraisesmanyquestions,becausethedeeperpeatlayersarealsosubjectedtogreatercompac-tionthanthoseonthesurface.
Theextremelylowbulkdensityvaluesarenotcom-parablewiththoseexhibitedbymineralsoils,andtheymust be interpreted in a different way. Bulk densityvaluesofmineralsoilsintherangeof1to1.5g/ccareindicativeofthepresenceoffavorable,ifnotexcellent,physical conditions, with lots of pore space, for plantgrowth.Higherbulkdensityvalues,1.8to2g/cc,indi-cate poor physical conditions and lower amounts ofporespaces.Generally,sandysoilsexhibithigherbulkdensitiesthanfiner-texturedsoils.Thecoarse-texturedsoilsarecomparativelylowerintotalporespacesthanthefine-texturedsoils.Bulkdensitygenerallyincreaseswithdepthinthesoilprofilebecauseoflowerorganicmattercontent,lessaggregation,andmorecompaction.Compaction destroys pore spaces, forcing solid parti-clesintothepores.Plowingandtillageoperationsare
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��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
usually designed to restore and increase pore spacesanddecreasebulkdensity.However,thetractortracksproducecompactionandincreasebulkdensity.Becausethisconceptofbulkdensityanditsanalysishavebeendeveloped for mineral soils, perhaps new definitionsandnewmethodsareneededfororganicsoilsand,inparticular,forpeatsoils.
�.�.�.�.� Water retention. Theconcept inmineralsoilsisthatwaterisheldintheporespacesbydifferentforcesofattractionexertedbythesoilmatrix,theelectri-calchargesofions,andsurfacetensioninthecapillar-ies.Forspecificdetails,referenceismadetoTan(2000).This water held in soils constitutes the reserve watersupplyforplantusebetweenadditionsofwaterbyrainorirrigation.Theforces,expressedintermsofenergylevels, suchasmatric (ψm),osmotic (ψo), andpressure(ψp)potentials,arecollectivelycalledthewaterpotential(ψw),whichisusuallydefinedasfollows:
ψw=ψm+ψo+ψp (6.6)
Thewaterpotential(ψw)hasanegativevaluebecausethe matric and osmotic forces reduce the free energylevelsoilwater.Insimpleterms,soilwaterheldbythesoil matrix and solutes cannot move freely. Also, thelargerthenegativevalueofψw,thesmallertheamountofwaterpresentinsoils.However,thiswaterpotentialcanalsobeexpressedintermsofpositivevalues.Thelatterthenrepresenttheoppositeforce,orsuctionforce,which is referred to as soil moisture tension. The ten-sionforcecanbeexpressedinvariousways, interms
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
ofpounds/squareinch,centimeters(cm)ofwater,cen-timeters (cm) of mercury (Hg), atmospheres, bars, orpF. The units cm of water, bars, and pF are the mostcommonunitsusedinsoilscience.Fordetails,seeTan(2000). Based on the relative degree of soil moisturetension,soilmoisturecanbeclassifiedphysicallyintofree water, water held between pF 0 and 2.64; capil-larywater,waterheldatpF2.45to4.5(orbetweenfieldcapacityandhygroscopiccoefficient);andhygroscopicwater,waterheldatpF≥4.5.
Andriesse (1988) distinguishes three types of waterto be present in peat soils: physically and chemicallybound water, capillary and film water, and immobi-lizedwater.Fromhisdescriptions,chemicallybound,capillary,andfilmwaterareapproximatelywaterheldby matric and osmotic forces, whereas his physicallyboundandimmobilizedwateraremorelikelythefreewaterheldatpF0 to2.64.Andriesseclaims that rawpeat may contain 200 to 500% of immobilized waterandperhaps250to400%ofcapillarywater.
According to the biological classification, that partof water available to plants, called traditionally avail-able water, is defined as water held between the fieldcapacityandwiltingpointorbetweenpF2.45andpF4.2.Unfortunately,thedefinitionandlimitsofpFval-uesabovehavebeendeveloped formineral soilsandappearnottoapplyforpeatsoils.Theconceptofavail-ablewatermustbeinterpretedorneedtoberedefineddifferently for tropical peats, because the amount ofwateratfieldcapacity (pF=2.45) isoften too lowforgrowingplants inpeat soils.Peat soilsareoftencon-sideredasgiantsponges,capableofsoakingupwater
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
inamountsfargreaterthanoxisols,ultisols,andothermineralsoils(DriessenandRochimah,1976).Theyarepracticallystilldryforgrowingplantsatwaterlevels,heldbythesoilmoisturetensionsdesignedaboveformineralsoils.
�.�.� Landuseandevaluation
�.�.�.� EvaluationofanalyticalpropertiesFromthediscussionsabove,itappearsthatthetropicalpeatsoilsofIndonesiaaremorethanadequatelysup-pliedwithnitrogenandphosphorus forcropproduc-tion.Asexplainedearlier,thenitrogencontents,intherangeof3to4%,areveryhighandcomparemorethanfavorablywiththoseinmollisolsandandosols,mineralsoilsoftenconsideredthemostfertilesoilsintheworld.Thephosphorusconcentration,asextractedbytheBraymethod,alsocomparesfavorablywiththatofmollisolsand andosols. A value of ≥50 ppm is well above thehighestlimitforsoil-Pcontent,asdeterminedbysoil-Ptestrankingforplantgrowth.
Thesoilreaction,aluminumcontent,waterretention,and several other physical properties make cultiva-tionofthetropicalpeatsofIndonesiaverydifficult,ifnota“nightmare.”Duetothefactthatthesesoilsareanaerobicsystems,largeamountsofH2Sandpyritecanbeproduced,whichuponoxidationareconvertedintosulfuric acid yielding the very low pH levels, almostprohibitiveforgrowingcrops.Thealuminumcontents,extractable by KCL, are so high that they will mostlikely prevent adequate crop production by creatingseverealuminumtoxicityproblems.Thewatercontent
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
andproblemsofwaterretentioncompoundtheissuesabove by making the conditions far worse for grow-ing crops. The soils contain water in amounts morethanmineralsoilscanretain,butatfieldcapacity(pF=2.45),theamountofwaterthatbydefinitionispres-entinmaximumamountsforplantgrowthistoolow.Andriesse (1988) has reported that sprinkle irrigationisoftenrequiredtosupplyenoughadditionalwaterforvegetablegardeningonpeatsoilsinBrazil,thoughthegroundwaterlevelisonlyatadepthof30cm.Thisisalso thecase in theSilautpeat soils.Allof theabovesuggests the presence ofgreatdifferences in the con-ceptsofwaterretention,capillaryactions,andavailablewatercontentsbetweenmineralsoilsandpeatsoils.Theextremelylowbulkdensitymayalsocauseproblemsingrowing treecrops.Treesare topheavy,andbecausethebulkdensityofpeatsoilsistoolowforprovidingthem with adequate support, they tend to lodge. Thetreeswilleventuallytrygrowingupwardagain,creat-ingthecrookedtreesoftenseengrowingincultivatedpeatsoils.
�.�.�.� SignificanceofbasicpropertiesTocontrolthestronglyacidreactionsandthehighalu-minum contents, liming is one way, and perhaps theonly way, to create a suitable peat soil medium forcropproduction.However, theamountsof lime tobeapplieddependnotonlyonthecropstobegrownbutalsoonthetypeofpeat landandon,especially, localeconomicconsiderations.InIndonesiathelatterisoftenthedetermining,ifnotalimiting,factor,becauselimingmaterialsareexpensiveformostofthefarmers.Local
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
experimentaltrialsaresuggestedtobeconductedfirstforthedeterminationofthecorrectlimerequirementsofeachpeatlandbeforecultivation,asalsopointedoutby Andriesse (1988). Andriesse believes that the lim-ingoftropicalpeattoapHof5.2isharmfulduetoadecrease in phosphorus and calcium uptake. Resultsfrom experiments on peat soils in Sarawak, whichneighbororextendtothepeatlandsofSouthwestKali-mantan, Indonesia,haveshownthat limingtopH4.6producedthebestresultsincorn,peanut,andcassavayields(TieandKueh,1979).TieandKuehindicatedthatwithsomecrops(e.g.,pineapples),nolimingisneces-saryifthepeatsoilhasapH=4.0orabove.OnlyatsoilpH≤3.5,aone-timeapplicationof5 t/haofdolomiticlimestone was suggested with an additional 1.3 t/haannuallyforthepurposeofmaintainingthesoilpHatthedesiredlevel.Thechoiceforusingdolomiticlime-stone,CaMg(CO3)2,raisesmanyquestions,becausethislimingmaterialisknownnottoaffectsoilpHbutwillinsteadsupplycalciumandmagnesium.AccordingtoBasicSoilScience,calciticlimestone,CaCO3,isthemate-rialthatgenerallywillraisethepHofacidsoils.
Excesswaterneedstoberemovedtoalevelsuitableforgrowingcrops,requiringaerobicsoilmedia.How-ever, draining the soils by building drainage canals,as is often done in most peat lands, may raise morequestionsratherthansolvetheproblem.IntheUnitedStates, the peat soils are drained at various depths,and for some crops these soils are even drained to adepth of 90 cm (Andriesse, 1988; Lucas, 1982). Drain-ing peat soils too deep (for example, by lowering thewater table to a depth of 60 cm) is a disadvantage to
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
cropyields,andawatertabledepthof40cmisnotedtoproducethebestresultsintheyieldsofcorn,potatoes,andonioncrops(Lucas,1982).Deepdrainage,definedasdrainingtoadepthof60cm,mayencouragerapiddecompositionoforganicmatter,initiatingtheprocessofsubsidence.Moreover,thetoppeatlayercanbecometoo“dry”formostplantsthanwouldbeexpectedevenwithagroundwaterlevelatadepthof30cm,asnotedindrainedpeatsoilsatSilaut(Figure6.14).Asindicated
Gambut
––35
cm––
Figure 6.14 AwellintheSilautgambutortropicalpeatsoil,WestSumatra,showingagroundwaterlevelat30cmdepthbelowthesurface.
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
earlier, Andriesse (1988) reported that in such cases,sprinklerirrigationwasneededtokeepthewatersup-plysufficientlyhighforvegetablecrops.
Thelowbulkdensityvaluesraisealotofproblemsinlodgingoftreecrops,becausealooseandfluffyphysi-calconditionfailstoprovideasturdyandsolidfounda-tionforrootstoanchorthetop-heavytree.Innature,thevegetationseems tocopewith thisphysicalconditionbygrowingintoa“polevegetation,”asexplainedear-lier.Perhapsthiscanbesimulatedincultivationoftreecropsbydecreasingtheplantspacings.Itistruethattheyieldmaybedecreased,butabalancecanbefoundbyexperimentationsbetweenthelowestdecreaseinyieldsanddecreasedplantspacings.Todecreasethehazardoflodgingevenfurther,themethodabovecanperhapsbecombined with the “hole-in-hole” cultivation methodoftendone in thepeat landsofSarawak,Malaysia.Alargeholeof1mdepthand40cmwideisdug,andatthebottomof thispitanother smallerhole isdug forplantingthetreecrop(e.g.,coconutoroilpalms).
�.�.�.� AgriculturaloperationsIntheUnitedStates,themajorpeatlandsarelocatedinFloridaandintheregionoftheGreatLakes.Duetodif-ferentclimaticconditions,differentagriculturalopera-tionsarenoticedbetweenthetworegions.InFlorida,whereitiswarmerandhumid,horticulturalcropsaregrown,suchastomatoes,beans,andcucumbers,mostlyduring the winter for supplying the northern stateswithneededvegetablesduringthecoldmonths.Inthenorthernregion,neartheGreatLakes,peatsoilsarecul-tivatedinthesummermainlyforcutflowersandbulbs
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
(forexample,tulipsandnarcissusordaffodils)andforgrowingIrishpotatoes.Thestronglyacidconditionsofthepeatsoilsseemtobeverybeneficialincontrollingthepotatoscabdisease.
InIndonesia,thecultivationofpeatsoilsisquitedif-ferentandcontrastingthanthatintheUnitedStates.Thepeatforesthastobeclearedandmostofthevaluabletimberremovedfor localuseor forsale.Theremain-ingvegetativeresiduesareusuallyburnedtoclearthesoils for cultivation. When carelessly conducted, thisoftenresultsinforestwildfires,asexperiencedinIndo-nesiain1997untilthepresentday,explodingoftenintoreal infernos with thick black toxic smoke, hoveringdangerously over Indonesia to neighboring MalaysiaandwhichcanbefeltasfarasThailand.Whengrow-ing aerobic crops, excess water has to be drained, aprocess that also spellsdisaster.Asdiscussedearlier,peatsoilactslikeasponge,soakinguphugeamountsof water from rain and rivers. As a sponge, one justneedstosqueezeonepointofthespongetoforcealltheadsorbedwaterout,meaningthatasinglecanalhasthepotentialtodrainalargeareaofthepeatland.Oncethepeatsoilisdried,oxidationoforganicmatterstartsatarapidrate,causingsubsidenceorevendestructionofthepeatlands.However,duetothestresscausedbytheincreasingpopulationdensityandtheneedforincreas-ing foodproduction, thepeat lands in Indonesiawillbecultivated.AspointedoutbyVandenEelaart(2004),todayitisnotaquestionforarguingagainstreclama-tionofpeatsoils,butitisnowmoreanissueinprovid-ingtheknow-howformanagingwiselythesevaluablenaturalresources.
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
PeatlandsinIndonesiaareusedforplantingoilpalmandrubberoften in the formofhugeplantationagri-culturaloperations.Thelocalfarmers,usuallysettlersfrom the transmigration programs of the Indonesiangovernment, are growing rice, corn, cassava, pepper,andotherfoodcrops.InRiau,EastSumatra,pineapplesare grown, whereas the peat soil in West Sumatra isoftencultivatedwithsmallbushytypesoffernplants,whoseyoungshootsareedibleandsoldtolocalrestau-rants intheregion. Itappearsthatsimilarediblefernshoots,fromfernplantsgrowingonAlaskapeat,havealsobeenservedbyrestaurantsinAlaskaashealthanddelicatessenfood.
�.�.�.�.� Rice cultivation. As usual, the farmersin Indonesia prefer growing rice whenever possible.Dependingonthewatersupply,twotypesofricecul-tivation are conducted: lowland rice and upland rice.Suchapreferenceandtypesofcultivarsavailabletodaywere addressed earlier in the sections of ultisols andoxisols.However,inthecaseofgrowingriceontropicalpeatsoils,thecultivationoflowlandriceseemstobethebest,duetotheinundationmethod,creatingorperpet-uatingtheanaerobicconditionsneededinthepaddy-sawahs.Accordingtobasicsoilchemistry,reclamationofpeatwillbemostsuccessfulwhen thebalancecanbemaintainedbetweendecompositionandaccumula-tionoforganicmatterunderanaerobicconditions,andbytheuseofcropstoleranttolowredoxpotentialsandstrongly acidic reactions. Lowland rice is expected todisturbthebalanceintheredoxreactionstheleast.How-ever,remediationofhighsoilacidityandtoxiclevelsof
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
ironarenecessary,whichisoftensuggestedbylimingand by leaching and draining methods using pump-ing stations as applied in the Dutch polders systems.Alltheseare,ofcourse,verycostly.Ontheotherhand,growinguplandricewillincreasetheredoxpotential,whichmayacceleratedecompositionoforganicmatter.Inaddition,uplandriceismoresusceptibletothehighironcontentofmostpeatsoilsinIndonesia.AscanbenoticedinFigure6.15,padigogoorpadihuma(uplandrice)intheUniversityofAndalasexperimentalfieldofSilautpeatsoilfailedtoproduceduetoseverealumi-numtoxicityproblems.Althoughsagoplants(Metroxy-lonspp.)areknowntobeveryadaptabletogrowingatlowredoxpotentials,sagoasafoodcropseemsnottobeacceptedwellbymostpeopleinIndonesia.Asstatedabove,atypeofediblefernbushisplantedextensivelyinthepeatsoilsofWestSumatra.Fernplantsareveryadaptableforgrowinginreducedconditionsandwilltolerateverylowredoxpotentials,stronglyacidicreac-tions,andhighironcontents.Allothercropsrequiringaerobic conditions for growth will increase the redoxpotentialandwillaffectthedecompositionoforganicmatter,resultinginincreasedsubsidenceandthegrad-ualdegradationofthepeatsoil.
�.�.�.�.� Estate crops Today we have to distin-guish between large- and smallholders’ estates. ThelargeestatesbelongtolargecompaniesortotheIndone-siangovernment,whereasthesmallestatesareownedbylocalfarmers.Thelatterservesordinarilyasasup-plierbygrowingthecropwiththepurposeofsellingthe raw yields to the large estates. The major estate
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��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
crops,cultivatedontropicalpeatsoils,arerubberandoilpalms.Withthedeclineintheworldrubberdemand,oilpalmcultivationistodayontherise,anissuediscussed
Padi gogo (kering)Gambut Silaut
Figure 6.15 Top: Upland rice (padi gogo), grown on Silautgamutortropicalpeatsoil intheexperimentalfieldsof theUniversityofAndalas,Padang,WestSumatra,showingsignsofirontoxicity.Bottom:Corn(Zeamays)isdoingbetter.
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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ���
inmoredetailinthesectiononagriculturaloperationsofultisols(Section6.3.6.3.3).However,growingtreesinsoilswithextremely lowbulkdensityvalues,suchasintropicalpeats,hascreatedalotofproblems.Asindi-catedabove, thehazardsof lodgingandformationofcrooked trees isgreatly increased.Todealwith theseproblems,dwarfvarietiesofoilpalmtreeshavebeendeveloped,whichwerediscussedinmoredetailinSec-tion6.3.Theyoungplantsaretobeplantedinshallowpeatsoilswheneveravailable,wherethesurfaceOhori-zonislessthan1mthick.Thehole-in-holemethodofplantingmaybeanadvantage,becausethemineralsoil,closetothesurface,mayprovideopportunitiesforrootdevelopmentinamediumofhigherbulkdensity,andhencecansturdilyanchorthetreeabove.
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���
chapterseven
SoilsintheuplandsofIndonesia
�.� IntroductionThe uplands are the regions where rapid and drasticweatheringprocessesarenolongerthedominantpro-cessesinsoilformation.Duetoacoolerclimate,humi-ficationinsteadofmineralizationofsoilorganicmatterbecomes of importance. These are the regions, earliercalledthetensionzones,definedinChapter6astheareaswheretheclimatefacilitatesbothlaterizationandpod-zolizationprocesses,suchasare likelytooccurinthesouthernregionoftheUnitedStatesandperhapsalsointhelowlandsofNewZealand.Assuchtheycanbecon-sidered transitionzonesbetween the lowlands,wheremineralization isaprominentsoil-formingfactor,andthe mountains where humification is more importantthan mineralization processes of soil organic matter.ThisissuehasbeenaddressedindetailinChapter3.Thesoils formedmay thenalsobeconsidered transitionalbetween the lowlandsoils formedby laterizationandthemountainsoilsformedbypodzolizationprocesses.
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
SeveralmajorgroupsofsoilswererecognizedintheuplandbyVanSchuylenborgh(1958),viz.podzoliclato-sols,usuallyoccupyingthelowestpartsoftheuplandregion, and next to this group a region of brown for-est soils, currently classified as inceptisols. The lattersoilsareusuallyfoundatthehighestelevationsoftheuplandareasborderingthemountainregions.Forrea-sons explained below, the podzolic latosols will notbediscussedindetail,thoughtheywillbeaddressedappropriatelyforcompletenesssothatduplications indiscussionscanbeavoided.Thebrownforestsoilsarearecognizedgroupofsoils,andinEuropewerewell-knownunderthenameofbraunerde.
�.� PodzoliclatosolsThenamepodzoliclatosolsisusedhereduetotheinflu-enceofpodzolizationintheformationoftheselatosolsintheuplands.Itiscustomaryinmanyothercountriestoapplythetermpodzolicasaprefixtonamesofsoilsshowingsomecharacteristicsofpodzolsbuthavenotdevelopedyet intotruepodzols.Detaileddiscussionsonthevalidityorsignificanceforusingthetermspod-zolic,podzolized,podzolization,andlessivageareprovidedbyDudal(1965)andPetersen(1976).
The podzolic latosols are rarely mentioned in thesoilsoftheUnitedStates,WesternEurope,andRussia,because they do not occur in many temperate-regioncountries.InIndonesia,thepodzoliclatosolsareadis-tinctlyzonalgroupofsoils,locatedtransitorybetweenthe latosols (oxisols) of the lowlands and the brownforestsoils(inceptisols)oftheuplands.Theyareoften
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Chapterseven: SoilsintheUplandsofIndonesia ���
foundincloseassociationmorewithacidbrownforestsoilsthanwithothermembersofthebrownforestsoilgroup.VanderVoort(1950)consideredthesoilstobedegradedlateriticsoils,butthepresentauthorbelievesthatthesepodzolic latosolsareperhapsrelatedtothelateriticsoilsofthetemperateregions.ThesoilsoccurmostlyinthecooltropicalrainforestclimateoftheAftypebutcanalsobefoundinthecoolerlimitsofanAfaclimate.Becauseof thiscoolerclimate, thesoilsshowcharacteristicsduetolaterizationprocesseswithadis-tinctshadeofpodzolization.Inthisrespect,theymayperhapsbecomparabletosoilscalledtheDavidsonsoil(ThermicRhodicKandiudults)ofthesouthernregionsof theUnitedStates,whichatonetimewasclassifiedas reddish-brown lateritic soil (England and Perkins,1959). Inviewof theabove, thepodzolic latosolsmaywell be a tropical version of rhodic kandiudults. Theareaoftheupland,inwhichpodzoliclatosolsdevelop,lies between the principal regions of laterization ofthe lowlands and podzolization of the highlands ormountains.Itisatruezonalregion,wheretheforma-tionofthisgroupofsoilsisdictatedbysimilarclimaticfactorsasthoseof thesouthernregions intheUnitedStates. Therefore, these podzolic latosols are presum-ablythetruered-yellowpodzolicsoils,formedbylat-erizationandpodzolizationfromweatheringproductsof acidic, intermediate as well as basic volcanic tuffs.VanSchuylenborgh(1957)andDames(1955)earliersus-pectedthatthepodzoliclatosolsoftheuplandmayberelatedtothered-yellowpodzolicsoilsofthelowland.However,theclimaticconditionsandothergeneticfac-tors for theuplandsoilsaresomewhatdifferent from
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
thoseof the red-yellowpodzolic soilsof the lowland,whereacidicparentmaterialsandquartzcontentshavebeenusedasdeterminingfactorsintheirformation,asdiscussedinChapter6,Section6.3.Forthesakeofdif-ferentiatingthemfromthemoreorlesslithologicgroupoflowlandultisols,theauthorproposesherewithtocallthe zonal upland variety upland ultisols. They do notcontainquartzinappreciableamountsasthelowlandultisols,buttheirotherdiagnosticproperties,however,asdefinedintheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,arenotdifferentfromthoseofthelowlandultisols(VanSchuylenborgh,1958).Therefore,becauseultisolshavebeenaddressedinChapter6,Section6.3,itisdeemedredundanttodis-cussagaintheseuplandultisols.
�.� InceptisolsThese are the brown-colored soils in Indonesia, simi-lartosoilsformerlyknownasbrownforestsoils intheUnitedStatesandtodaycalledcambisolsbytheFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO)oftheUnitedNationsandtheWorldReferenceBaseforSoilResources(WRB)systems.TheyarethesolsbrunsinFrance.Inthetem-perate regions, this group of soils is mostly formedunderabroad-leafdeciduousforestinahumidclimate,characterizedbyanannualrainfallof≤750mmandatemperaturerangeof4°Cinwinterto18°Cduringthesummermonths.TheseconditionscanoccurinIndone-siaonlyintheuplandandmountainregions.However,theamountofrainfallisheresubstantiallyhigherthanthatstatedaboveforthetemperateregions.
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Chapterseven: SoilsintheUplandsofIndonesia ���
The brown forest soils are perhaps the most inves-tigatedbutalsothemostdebatedsoilsinEuropeandothercountriesoftheworld.ThehistoryofthesesoilsstartedwhenRamannintroduceditin1905underthenameofBraunerde, forbrownearthorbrown-coloredsoils, developed under the influence of a temperateclimate, with a moderate amount of leaching in theprofile. Worldwide, such conditions usually occur inregionsbetween30°and55°northoftheequator,butinIndonesiatheyarefoundintheuplands.Ramann’sconceptisbasedonthegeographicaldistributionandon the presumed soil-forming processes that mighthavetakenplace(TavernierandSmith,1957).Sinceitsintroduction,thenamebraunerdeorbrownforestsoilbecamemorepopularthananyothername(e.g.,brownearth,brownsoils,brunizem,phaeozems,andcastano-zems)andwassoonusedwidelyforthegroupofsoilswithbrowncolors,developedundertheinfluenceofadeciduousforestinatemperateclimate.
TheRussianideaatthattimeshowedonlylittledif-ferences with regard to the soil-forming processes.GlinkastatedthatbrownearthsofWesternEuroperep-resentedthefirststagesofapodzoltypeofweathering(Joffe,1949).ThesoilswereconsideredtobetransitorybetweenthepodzolinthenorthtotheyellowandredearthsinsouthernRussia.Thisideawassuggestedear-lierbyStebutt(1930),whobelievedthatthebrownforestsoilshavebeeninfluencedbybothpodzolizationandredearth formationprocesses.Thebrownforestsoilswerenotedtobemoreadaptedtothewarmerclimateof theredearths than to thecolderhumidclimateofthepodzols.Itseemsthattheoldconcepthasremained
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
unchanged today, because the brown forest soils arestillconsideredastheirsouthernvariantsofpodzolsofthetaigaorborealforest(Karpachevskiyetal.,2006).
This relationship between brown forest and pod-zolicsoilsisalsodistinguishedinWesternEuropeandAmerica.Thesoilsarebelievedtoexistmoreincloseassociationwithpodzolicsoilsandareclassifiedinthepodzolicsoilgroup(Joffe,1949;Robinson,1951).BrownforestsoilsareevenreportedtohavebeenrecognizedasfarnorthasSweden.Thismaybeoneofthereasonswhy gray-brown podzolic and brown podzolic soilswere previously included under the name braunerde.However, theconceptabovewas laterchangedsome-whatintoonewithamoresharperdelineationofbrownforestsoils,inwhichtheothertwosoilsareexcluded.According to the newer ideas ofWesternEurope, thedefinitionmostlyfollowedisthatbrownforestsoilsaredevelopedfromcalcareousorbasicparentmaterialsinatemperateclimateundertheinfluenceofadeciduousforest(TavernierandSmith,1957).Thesoilusuallypos-sessesahighdegreeofbasesaturation.Thetopsoilisgenerally dark brown due to a high content in mull-humus.ThesoilbecomesgraduallylighterincolorwithdepthintheprofileandgradesintheparentmaterialwithoutpassingoverintoanilluvialBhorizon.TheBhorizonhaschangedjustenoughtoliberateironoxides,whosebrowntoreddishcolorswerepartofthereasonsfor naming the soil brown forest soil. This idea of a Bhorizonistheoriginforthedevelopmentofaconceptofcolor-BhorizonbyLaatsch,which in1960wasusedfor thedefinitionofacambichorizonof theU.S.SoilTaxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff,1960,2006a).
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Chapterseven: SoilsintheUplandsofIndonesia ���
The brown forest soils can be found in Indonesia,mostlyinJavaandontheotherislandsofthearchipel-ago,wherebasicparentmaterialsare located.Tomeettheclimaticrequirementsforformation,thesoilsusuallyoccurintheuplands,ortheiroccurrencemayextendtoplaces≥600mabovesealevel.Attheselevelsandhigher,theclimateresemblesahumidtemperateclimate.
�.�.� Parentmaterials
IntheUnitedStates,brownforestsoilsoccuronlyonbasicandstronglycalcareousmaterials.Fromacidicormore siliceous parent materials, gray-brown podzolicsoils, or alfisols, tend to be formed under similar cli-maticconditions(Cline,1949).ThisisalsotrueinIndo-nesia.Asindicatedabove,thesoilsdeveloponlyonthecomparativelymorebasictointermediateparentmate-rials—that is, basalto-andesitic to andesitic tuffs (TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1959;VanSchuylenborgh,1957;VanSchuylenborghandVanRummelen,1955).
Themineralogicaldata(Table7.1)confirmthatbrownforestsoilsofIndonesiaoriginatefromintermediatetobasicvolcanicmaterial.TheparentmaterialofthesoilinEastJavaiscomparativelythemostbasicandisclassifiedasbasalto-andesitictufffromeruptionsoftheArjunaVol-cano.Thesoilislocatedatapproximately1200mabovesealevel,anditssandfractiondoesnotcontainquartz,amineraloftenmarkingthepresenceofacidicmateri-als,suchasrhyolites, liparites,andgranites.Themin-eralcountsindicatethepresenceofmoderateamountsofvolcanicglassandalotofandesine-oligoclaseminer-als.Thelatterareplagioclasefeldspars,oftenpresentin
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�00 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesiaTa
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Chapterseven: SoilsintheUplandsofIndonesia �0�
intermediatetobasicvolcanictuffs.Basedontheheavymineral counts, the mineral suite appears to be of ahypersthene-augiteassociation.AsdiscussedearlierinSection6.2.1onparentmaterialsofoxisols,hypersthenemineralsareoftenusedasmarkersforidentificationofintermediateandaugiteofintermediatetobasicvolca-nicmaterials(e.g.,andesiteandbasalt)(MohrandVanBaren,1960).Hence, todifferentiatetheArjunaparentmaterialfromtheothertwoparentmaterials,itisgiventhenamebasalto-andesitictuff,whichindicatesitsmorebasicnature.ThebrownforestsoilinCentralJava,alsolocatedatapproximately1200mabovesealevel,origi-natesfromandesitictuffoftheLawuvolcano.Thistypeofvolcanicmaterialislessbasicthanthebasalto-andesitictuffabove.Itdoesnotcontainquartzandhassubstantialamountsofandesine-oligoclase,butsignificantlymorevolcanicglass than theArjuna tuff. Itsheavymineralfractionexhibitsahypersthene-augiteassociation.ThebrownforestsoilofWestJavaisfoundat600mabovesealevelandhasbeenformedfromandesitictuffoftheSalakvolcano,whichiscomparativelytheleastbasicofthethree,asindicatedbythepresenceofsmallamountsofquartz.Itexhibitsaslightlyhighersanidine-oligolaseconcentrationbutisthelowestinvolcanicglasscontent,whereastheheavymineralfractionischaracterizedbyahyperstheneassociation.Thelowaugiteconcentrationprovidesadditionalsupportforthelessbasicnatureofthe Salak volcano andesitic tuff. Therefore, the namedacito-andesitictuffisgiventoindicateitsmoresiliceousnature.
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�0� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
�.�.� Climate
Theoriginalconceptofthebrownforestsoilsconsidersthe soilsasbeingdevelopedunder the influenceofatemperateregionclimate,characterizedbyalternatingrainyanddryseasonsduringtheyear (Blanck,1930).Thesoilsarethussubjectedtosevere leachinginoneseasonandnoorlittleleachingintheotherseason.InIndonesia,suchaclimateispresentintheuplandsandhighlandsormountainregions,asshowninTable7.2.The data indicate that the areas of brown forest soilsarelocatedmostlyinKöppen’sAftoAmclimatictypes.However,thesoilshavealsobeenoftenfoundateleva-tionsof≥1000m,wheretheclimateisclassifiedasacoolmountainCficlimate.Ordinarily, thistypeofclimatefavorspodzolization,idealforformationofgray-brownpodzolicsoilsandpodzols.Brownforestsoilshavenotbeen located in lowland climates, such as the Afa orAmaclimatictypes.ThedatainTable7.2indicatethatthesearethetypicaltypesofclimateforformationoflatosolsoroxisolsandsuchconditionsaretoohotforthedevelopmentofbrownforestsoils.ThesoilshavealsonotbeenfoundinIndonesiainregionswithAwaclimates,duetothedesertorsavannahtypeofclimatebeingtoodryandtoohot.
The climatic variations present in the brown forestsoilregionsseemtohavesomeinfluenceonthetypeofbrownforestsoilsformed.Undertheinfluenceofamorehumidclimate,suchastheAfclimateinthemountainsofWestJava,leachingofthesoiliscomparativelymorepronouncedthanforthatofthesoilslocatedinAmcli-mates.Thelatterarethemonsoonclimatesprevalentin
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themountainsofCentralandEastJava.Consequently,brown forest soils with acidic reactions tend to beformedinWestJava,whicharecalledacidbrownforestsoils(TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1959;VanSchuylen-borgh,1957).On theotherhand, themore traditionalbrownforestsoils,asdefinedintheUnitedStates,havebeendevelopedmoreinthemonsoonalAmclimateofthe mountains in Central and East Java. The issue offorming different soils due to variation in climate is
Rainfall Altitude
<60 mm >100 mm
Mean Annual Rainfall
Type ofClimatea
West Java
Bogor
Ciapus
Pondok Gedeh
Mandalawangi
Salak Volcano
266
540
900
1800
2211
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.6
0.0
11.5
11.8
10.1
10.6
11.1
4230
4880
3644
4201
5467
Afa
Afa
Af
Cfi
Cfi
A
A
A
A
A
Latosol
Brown Forest
Brown Forest
Gray-Brown Podzolic
East–Central Java
Tasikmadu
Karangpandan
Tawangmanggu
100
600
950
3.5
3.7
3.1
7.5
7.6
8.0
2265
2776
3194
Ama
Ama
Am
C
C
C
Latosol
Brown Forest
Gray-Brown
Sarangan 1290 3.4 7.7 2533 Cfhi C Podzolic
Location
m Months mm Köppen
Soil
S&F
Table.7.2. TheClimateofBrownForestSoilsinIndonesia
a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols:A = coldestmonth>18°C;a=warmestmonth>22°C;f=humid;i=hotsum-mer;m=monsoon;C=warmestmonth>10°Candcoldestmonthbetween18°Cand−3°C.
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perhaps related to the climatic concept in Sweden ofTamm(1930),whoproposedadivisioninclimaticandaclimaticbrownforestsoils.Theclimatictypesofbrownforestsoilsareformedonparentmaterialspoorincal-cium,underabeechandoak forest.Theyarereadilypodzolized whenever the vegetation changes into aheathorconiferousforest.Theaclimatictypeofbrownforest soil is formedoncalcareousparentmaterialoronparentmaterialenrichedwithcalciumfromseepagewater.Thiskindofbrownforestsoilismorestableandallegedlywillnotbeinfluencedbyaheavystandofaconiferforest.
�.�.� Soilmorphology
AccordingtotheoriginalconceptasproposedbyBlanck(1930), the braunerde or brown forest soil is character-izedbyadark-coloredtopsoil,richinmull-typehumusand possessing a crumb structure. Underneath thetopsoil liesabrownhorizon,consideredthe“proper”braunerde,andoneormoreotherB-typesofhorizons.Theymayhavevaryingdegreesofrustymottlingsandvaryingamountsofsesquioxidesorclays.ThestructureoftheBhorizonsismostlyangularblockytogranular,whereasthestructuralunitsareoftenporous.Tothisdescription the following was recently added by theU.S. Seventh Approximation (Soil Survey Staff, 1960)and the more recent U.S. Soil Taxonomy (Soil SurveyStaff,2006a).Thesoilsshouldnothaveableached(albic)EhorizonandanilluvialBthorizon.
Followingthedefinitionsabove,twotypesofmodalprofilescanberecognizedinIndonesia.Basedoncolor
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differences,a light-coloredandadark-coloredvarietyhavebeennoticedinIndonesia.Asanexample,oneofa lighter-coloredprofiles ispresentedbelow(TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1959):
Brown Forest soil at Tawang Manggu(East–Central Java). The profile islocated in an area at an elevation of1250mabovesealevel.Thevegetationisatropicalrainforest.Colornotationreferstoair-dryandfield-wetsamples,respectively.
Horizon Depth.(cm) Description
0 1–0 Litterlayer.
Al 0–15 10YR 5/2 to 10YR 3/2, brown tovery dark gray-brown, strongmediumgranular,siltloam,friable,composedofpredominantlyearth-wormcast.
A2 15–34 10YR4/1to10YR2/2,darkgraytoverydarkbrown,strongfinecrumb,siltloam,veryfriable,manyroots.
B1 34–45 10YR 5/3 to 7.5YR 3/2, brown todark brown, weak fine crumb, siltloam,friable,manyroots.
B2 45–75 10YR6/3to7.5YR4/4,palebrownto brown, strong fine subangularblocky,siltloam,friable,fewroots.
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As can be noticed, the color is brown throughoutthe profile and especially in the deeper horizons. Nomechanicalilluviationofclayisnoticed,whereasbleach-inginthesubsurfacehorizonisabsent.Duetotheverydarkgrayish-brown(10YR3/2)colorofthetopsoil,thissoilisoftenmistakenforandosols.
�.�.� Soilclassification
ThesoilswereclassifiedintheUSDAsystemasintrazonalsoils(ThorpandSmith,1949),buttheyaregroupedaszonalsoilsinWesternEuropeandstillaretodayinEast-ernEurope(Karpachevskyetal.,2006).TheyarecalledbrownforestsoilsbytheMacaulayLandUseResearchInstitute, Kelso, England, braunerde in Germany, solbrun inFrance,andbyothernames inHungaryandRussia,suchasbrownearth,luvisols,planosols,areno-sols,andalisols(Karpachevskiyetal.,2006).Inthepast,thenamebrownearthwasoftenusedinpartsofWesternEurope,whereasatone time, thesoilswereclassifiedas phaeozems and castanozems by the older FAO-UNsystem.IntheWRB,brownearthsaremappedasluvisols,whereasseveralBritishandFrenchscientistscall the lattersolbrun lessivé,due to thepresenceofa
B3 75–114 10YR 6/6 to 10YR 5/4, brownish-yellow to yellowish-brown, weakmedium subangular blocky, siltloam,friable,fewroots.
C +114 10YR 7/3 to 10YR 5/3, very palebrowntobrown,massive,siltloam,noroots.
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weaklyargillichorizon.Thelatterisoftennotapparenttoacasualsoilsurveyor.WiththeintroductionoftheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,severalofthesoilscientistsintheUnited States tried earlier to place brown forest soilsinthealfisolsandmollisolsorders.Buttodaytheyarerecognizedasinceptisols.
Thebrownforestsoilsareconsideredingeneraltheearly stages in development of podzolic soils. This isperhapsonereasonwhyagroupofsoilscientiststriedtoclassifythemasbrownpodzolicsoils,whichaccordingtoseveralotherscientistsmayberelatedtothesolbrunacidesofFrance.Thoughsomegroupedthemintothealfisols,mostsoilscientists,however,considerthemtobesoilsinatransitorystateofformationfromayoungtoamaturesoil.Therefore,thenamescambisols(fromtheLatincambiare=tochange)andinceptisols(fromLatininceptum=beginning)aregivenbytheFAO,WRB,andU.S. Soil Taxonomy, respectively. Classifying brownforestsoilsascambisolsorinceptisolsmayraisealotofarguments,becausemanysoilscientistsbelievethatthesoilsarenotinthebeginningphaseofformationasthekeyterms“cambiare”and“inceptum”wanttoconvey.Brownforestsoilshavewell-definedA,B,andChori-zons,whereas theBhorizons, though lackingargillicfeatures,areasmatureasanyotherBhorizons.IntheGerman literature, the termpodzol-braunerdehasbeenusedfrequently,whichwasbelievedtobesimilartoabrownpodzolicsoil.ThedescriptionpresentedbyAlte-müller (1962) for a podzol-braunerde approaches theconceptofthebrownpodzolicsoilsintheUnitedStates.KrebsandTedrow(1957)havereportedtheoccurrenceofacidbrownforestsoilsinnorthernNewJerseyand
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northernNewYork,whichat the timewereofficiallyclassifiedasbrownpodzolicsoils.Theopinionthatthesoilsareinatransformationstageofbecomingbrownpodzolic soils remains a speculation. None of thisgroupofsoilshasbeennoticedtoconvertintobrownpodzolicsoils.TheCanadiansoiltaxonomyusedatonetimethenamebrunisols,replacingthenamebrunizems,whichwouldhaveplacedbrownforestsoilsasasubor-derofmollisols.Thishasbeenphasedoutandisnownolongerinuse.
In Indonesia, little attention is given to brown for-est soils, and their classification is therefore oftenneglected. In the Dutch colonial time, the soils weregrouped together under the name of mountain soils.However,duringthepost-WorldWarIIperiod,thefewremainingDutchsoilscientists reported thatsomeofthese mountain soils should, in fact, be classified asbrownforestsoils.VanSchuylenborgh(1958)andVanSchuylenborgh and Van Rummelen (1955) describedtheoccurrenceofbrownforestsoilsintheuplandsandespeciallyinthemountainsofIndonesia.BasedonsoilpHandsoilgeneticprocesses,theybelievethatthesoilscanbeclassifiedintothreedifferentkindsofbrownfor-estsoils:
1. Brown forest soils, characterized by moderatelyacid reactions, and formed by a combination ofpodzolization and calcification processes. Suchsoil-formation processes are possible only athigherelevationswithacoolerandmonsoon,Am,climate.
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Chapterseven: SoilsintheUplandsofIndonesia �0�
2. Acidbrownforestsoils,characterizedbystronglyacidicreactions,andformedbypodzolizationpro-cesses.The latteroccurmainly in thecoolerandhumidconditionsofanAfclimate.Thesearethesoilsthathavebeenarguedtobebrownpodzolicsoils.
3. Latosolicbrownforestsoils,characterizedbyneu-tral to slightly acidic reactions, and formed by acombinationofpodzolizationandlaterizationpro-cesses.Thesearetheuplandsoilsbelievedbytheauthortoborderthezonesofthelatosols.
During the same period above, the Soil ResearchInstituteofIndonesiabegantoclassifyallsoilsinthemountainsasandosols,althoughnomentionismadeofandosolsintheircurrentexploratorysoilmap(Figure1.2,page16,Chapter1).SincetheInstitutehasadaptedtheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,thebrownforestsoilsareper-hapsplacedtodayintheinceptisolsorder.
�.�.� Physicochemicalcharacteristics
�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionThedatainTable7.3indicatethatbrownforestsoilsaremedium-toheavy-texturedsoils.Thetextureismostlysiltloam,andtheexampleofsiltyclaysisfromanacidbrown forest soil.The latter is locatedat lowereleva-tions of West Java in regions, formerly called tensionzones,definedearlierasregionswherelateriticweath-eringandpodzolizationarebothimportantprocessesinformationofthesoils.Thelaterizationprocessandresulting higher clay content are the reasons for Van
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��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Schuylenborgh(1957)tocallthisparticularsoilLatosolicBrownForestSoil.Thetwoothersoilsarelocatedathigherelevations,wheretherateoflaterizationislessthanthat
Particle Size Distribution (%)
Org. C %
N %
Profile Horizon
50–2 <2 µ
pHH2O
A1
A2
B
28.3
34.7
38.3
60.4
55.5
53.4
11.3
9.8
8.3
5.69
5.74
5.77
10.0
7.5
2.8
—
—
—
—
—
—
A1
A2
B1
B2
B3
12.0
16.1
18.5
17.3
15.9
79.1
71.5
69.0
71.7
74.6
8.9
12.4
12.5
11.0
9.5
7.08
7.15
6.94
6.66
6.53
20.0
15.8
9.9
8.3
5.7
0.86
0.62
0.55
0.48
0.33
23
25
18
17
17
C 29.9 51.1 19.0 6.18 3.1 0.13 23
A1
A2
B1
B2
C
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
40.3
42.1
39.2
28.3
8.3
4.52
4.62
4.24
4.72
4.82
3.0
2.3
0.9
0.7
0.3
0.25
0.19
0.08
0.08
0.04
12
12
11
8
8
>50 µ
C N
Brown Forest Soil, Arjuna Volcano, East Java
Brown Forest Soil, Lawu Volcano, Central Java
Acid Brown Forest Soil, Salak Volcano, West Java
Table.7.3. PhysicochemicalCharacteristicsofBrownForestSoils
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Chapterseven: SoilsintheUplandsofIndonesia ���
ofpodzolization.Thetrendinclaycontentswithdepthinthetwoprofilesisalwaysindecreasingorder,whichis in support of the concept of brown forest soils. Asindicated earlier, one of the general requirements forbrownforestsoilsisalackofmechanicalilluviationofclays.Thedecreaseinclaycontentswithdepthinthesoilsuggeststhattheclayfractionofbrownforestsoilsisinanimmobilestate.Thiswillbediscussedinmoredetailinthenextsection.
�.�.�.� ChemicalcharacteristicsThepHofthebrownforestsoilsisintherangeof4.5to 7.2 (Table7.3). On the basis of variation in soil pH,thesoilscanbedividedintotwogroups:brownforestsoilswithslightlyacidictomoderatelyacidicreactions(pH7to5)andbrownforestsoilswithstronglyacidicreactions (pH5 to4).The stronglyacidic condition isthereasonforcallingthelatteracidbrownforestsoil,thoughVanSchuylenborgh(1957)preferstonameitlat-osolicbrownforestsoils.Thissoilisperhapsequivalentto theacidbrownearthsorsolbrunacidsasdefinedbyCline(1955).
ApHrangeof4.5to7.2suggestsgenerallythepres-ence of a moderately to high base status—in otherwords, the clay fraction ismore likely saturatedwithbases,promotingflocculationofclayparticles.Inafloc-culated state, the clays are prevented from migrationfromAtoBhorizons.Mostoftheclaysarethenaccu-mulatedintheAhorizons,whichisthereasonforthedecreasingclaycontentwithdepthintheprofile.Thisisdirectlyoppositetothetrendfoundinlatosolsandinpodzolicsoils.Especiallyinthelatter,podzolization
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
facilitatesmobilizationofclays fromAtoBhorizons,givingrisetoformationofargillicorBthorizons.
Thehighorganicmattercontents,especiallyintheAhorizonsofthesoilsoftheArjunaandLawuvolcanoes,givethesoilthedarkcolors,usuallyseeninandosols.Thisisthenthereason,asstatedbefore,whythesoilsareoftenconfusedforandosols.
�.�.�.� ClaymineralogyAccording toVanSchuylenborgh (1958), theclay frac-tionsofbrownforestsoilsarecomposedofamorphousminerals,todaycalledparacrystallineclays(forexample,allophane), with admixtures of kaolinite, some smec-tite, hydrargillite, and α-crystoballite. Hydrargilliteis theEuropeannameforgibbsite,anditsoccurrenceisusuallyusedtoindicatethepresenceofhighlyoxi-dizedsoilsorpedogeneticallyoldersoils.Ontheotherhand,thepresenceofα-crystoballiteisusedtoindicatethepresenceofsoilsofrelativelyyoungageandvolca-nicoforigin.VanSchuylenborghalsoreportedthatthehydrargillitecontentincreasedwithdepthinthesoilsathigheraltitudesascomparedwiththesoils locatedatlowerelevations.However,themineralogicaldataofthesoilsandfractions,aspresentedinTable7.1,showadifferenttrendinthehydrargilliteconcentrations.Itistruethatthepresenceofclayminerals(particles<2mm) does not necessarily need to correlate with theiroccurrenceinthesandfractions(particles>50mm),butitisinterestingtonotethecontrastingdifferences.Themineral countsof the sand fractions indicate that thebrownforestsoilsinEastandCentralJava,bothlocatedat1200mabovesealevel,donotcontainhydrargillite.
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The hydrargillite concentrations of the sand fractionsarezerofromAtoChorizons.Thisisincontrastwiththeacidbrown forest soil locatedat600mabovesealevel, which exhibits fair amounts of hydrargillite. Itsconcentration appears to increase with depth in theprofile. Results of differential thermal analysis (DTA)ofabrownforestsoilatPasirMadang(WestJava),alsolocatedatapproximately600mabovesea level, seemtosupporttheabove.TheDTAthermogram(Figure7.1)exhibits a strong endothermic peak at 300°C, indica-tive of the presence of large amounts of gibbsite orhydrargillite. The very strong endothermic peaks at200and550°Carepresumablycausedbythepresenceofhalloysite,a“relative”ofkaolinite(MacKenzie,1956).Alltheaboveconfirmtheideathatoxidation,andhencelaterization, ismoreprevalent inbrownforestsoilsatlower(PasirMadang)thanathigheraltitudes.
�.�.� Landuseandevaluation
�.�.�.� EvaluationofanalyticalpropertiesTheslightlyacidtoneutralreactionsexhibitedbymostofthebrownforestsoilsarewellwithinsuitablelimitsforgrowingavarietyofcrops.Judgingfromtheimmo-bilityoftheclayfractions,thebasesaturationofthesoilsisexpectedtobehigh,asexplainedearlier.InviewofthepHrangefrom5.7to7.2,thebasesaremorelikelytobecalciumandmagnesium.Onlytheacidbrownfor-est soil variety is characterized by strongly acid con-ditions,whichmaysuggestthepresenceofsubstantialamounts of aluminum ions, saturating the clay com-plex. The soils are extremely high in organic matter,
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whichisexpectedtoaffectfavorablythephysicalandchemicalconditions forplantgrowth.Thevegetation,which is the tropicalbroad-leafrain forest,composedoftrees,suchastheQuercussp.(oak)andCastaneasp.(chestnut), is the main source for the bases.As is thecase with a broad-leaf deciduous forest of temperate
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900 °C
(2)
(1)
Figure 7.1 Differential thermal analyses (DTA) curves ofclayfractionsfrom(1)B1horizonofanacidbrownforestsoil,PasirMadang,andA1horizonofagray-brownpodzolicsoil,TangkubanPrahuVolcano,WestJava.
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regions,thelitteraccumulatedunderthistropicalfor-est isnotasacidicas thatunderaconifer forest. It isrichinbasesthatwillbereleasedintothesoilbytheconstantdecompositionprocesses.As longasaforestcoverispresent, thetreeswillmaintainthethicknessofthelittercoveringtheground.Thislitterisalsoanimportantfactorfornutrientcyclingthatcanmaintainthefertilitylevelofthesesoilsforyearstocome.
�.�.�.� SignificanceofbasicsoilpropertiesThe analytical properties show the soils to exhibit awiderangeoffertilitylevels.Theyaregenerallyfertilesoils,butinsomeinstancestheycanbeverypoorsoils,asisthecasewiththeacidbrownforestsoils.Duetotheirlocationintheuplands,characterizedoftenbyastrongreliefandclimaticconditionsfavorableforcreat-ingheavyshowers, thepoorer soilsaremoresuscep-tibletoerosionthanarethemorefertilesoils.Forgoodcropproduction,theacidbrownforestsoilsneedtobelimedheavilyinadditiontotreatmentswithfertilizers(Masseyetal.,1963).However,thestronglyacidicreac-tionmayprovetobebeneficialforgrowingpotatocrops,because acid conditions are known to control potato-scabdisease,increasingthequalityofthecrops.Whenlimingisnecessary,dolomiticlimestone,CaMg(CO3)2,orgypsum,CaSO4,shouldbeused,whichareneutrallim-ingmaterialsandexpectednottoraisesoilpH.Judgingfrom the pH levels, the other brown forest soils withslightlyacidtoneutralreactionsmaynotneedlimingatall,butincaselimeisneeded,similarneutrallimingmaterialsshouldalsobeapplied,assuggestedfortheacid brown forest soils. The pH of these more fertile
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
soils isalreadyin theproperrangeforgrowingmostcrops.Thehighorganicmattercontentsfavordevelop-mentofbulkdensity,soilconsistence,andpermeabil-ityofwaterandairsuitableforplantgrowth.Thesoilis generally porous and very friable, factors ensuringexcellentconditionsforgoodrootgrowth.
Theclimateinwhichthesoilsoccurisalsocoolerthaninthelowlands.Suchaconditionenablesthecultivationoftropicalaswellastemperateregioncrops,henceprovid-ingfarmerswithalargerchoiceinthevarietyofcrops.
�.�.�.� AgriculturaloperationsWhenever possible and where water is available forirrigation, farmers in Indonesia prefer using the landfor cultivation of lowland rice in inundated fields,calledsawahs.Becausethishasbeendiscussedinpre-vious sections on oxisols, ultisols, red Mediterraneansoils, and vertisols, paddy-rice cultivation will not beaddressed here, rather attention will be given belowonotherequallyimportantcrops,suchashorticulturalcropsandfruittrees,thoughthelatterareoftenplantedinbackyardorchards.Tea(Theasinensis)alsostartstogrowinuplandconditions,thoughthelargerandbestteaplantationsareusuallylocatedathigherelevationsinthemountainregionsofIndonesia.Anotherimpor-tantcropdoingwellontheseuplandsoils is thenut-megtree,producingtheimportantnutmegandmace,spicessoughtaftersince1500andbeforebyPortugueseandDutchmerchants.Theseregionswithbrownfor-estsoilsalsosupportmanystandsofforest,exploitedbycivilandgovernmentalenterprises for timberandfirewoodproduction.InWestJava,attentionhasbeen
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Chapterseven: SoilsintheUplandsofIndonesia ���
giventogrowingAlbizia trees,afast-growinglegumetreewithrathersoftwoodforlumberandasafuelcrop.Thetreesareproventobeveryvaluableforsoilconser-vationpracticesofuplandsoilswiththeirstrongrelief(Agus,2001).Finally,conditionsintheuplandscanbefavorable for dairy farming; however, the best dairyfarmsarestilllocatedinthemorecoolerhighlandsormountainregions.
�.�.�.�.� Horticultural crops. The upland is theregion for the startofgrowing temperate regionveg-etables. Because of a cooler climate, mountain crops,such as cabbages (Brassica oleracea), potatoes (Solanumtuberosum),lettuce(Lactucasativa),greenonions(Alliumfistulosum), carrots (Daucus carota), tomatoes (Solanumlycopersicum),andothercoolregioncropsstarttoflour-ish. Because they bring in top prices, the crops arefavorednexttogrowingrice.
�.�.�.�.�.� Cabbages Inthepast,mostcabbagesweregrowninmountainregions,oftenatadistancetoofarfrombigtownswherethemajormarketplaceswerelocated. Today, new improved hybrid varieties havebeen developed that will produce at lower altitudes,suchasintheuplandsofIndonesia,whichareclosertoavailablemarkets.Pestsanddiseasesthatmayincreaseat lower elevations are controlled by the Indonesianprogramcalledintegratedpestcontrol.Thismethodhasallegedlyreducedtheuseofinsecticidesby30to50%,which means a substantial savings for the farmersconsideringthehighcostofthesechemicals.Atloweraltitudes, cabbages seem to be prone to the club-root
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disease by Plasmodiaphora brassicae that can decreasecabbageyieldsallegedlyby80%oralmosttotally.For-tunately, the disease can be controlled effectively bytreatingthesoilwiththefungicidebenomyle-50%andbysterilizingthenurserysoil.
ThecabbageyieldsinWestJavavaryfrom23to20tons/haperyear,asreportedbytheBadanPusatStatistikorBureauofStatisticsofIndonesiafortheperiodof2000to2004.Sellingat1000to1500rupiahs/kg(=$0.10to$0.15perkg),thewholesalepriceofferedbythemiddleman,itisprovidingfarmerswithahandsomeincomebyIndo-nesian standards. The retail price housewives have topayataJakartamarketplaceis,however,Rp.6000/kg.
Forlong-distancetransportofthecabbagestomarket-places,properpostharvesthandling,suchasapplyingsilica-gelpasteora30%alumsolutiontothecabbagebase, has proven to cut substantially the amount ofdamagesandlossesduetobase-rotandleaf-trimmingsduringstorageandshipping(AARD,1986).Suchpost-harvesttreatmentisoftenappliedfortheexportofcab-bagesoverseas,whenshippingbyairfreightisrequiredtoreach,forexample,marketplacesinSingapore.Thishappenswhencabbages,growninBrastagiontheslopeof Mount Sibayak, are transported to Medan, NorthSumatra,tocatchtheplaneforSingapore.However,inlocal transportation from the mountainside to majorpopulationcentersonthefootofthemountains,farm-ersseldompayattentiontothesetreatments.Thepro-duceistransportedintheweehoursofthemorningbysmalltrucks,oftendangerouslyoverloaded,toarelaystationclose to thebordersof towns,wherea secondtierofmiddlemenandvendorsarevyingat5:00a.m.
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tobringthefreshproducetotheirfinaldestinationsatseveralmarketplacesintown.
�.�.�.�.�.� Potatoes The cultivation of pota-toes is traditionally conducted only higher up in themountain regions. However, with the cooperation oftheSoutheastAsianProgramforPotatoResearchandDevelopment(SAPPRAD)andtheCentroInternacionaldelaPapa(CIP),potato-growingareasaremovedfromthehighlandstotheuplandregions.Properselectionofpotatoeshasproducedvarietiesthatarewelladaptedforgrowingreadilyatlowerelevationsandproducinggood yields. Due to the extremely high organic mat-tercontent,theensuingfriablesoilcondition,lowbulkdensity, and other favorable soil physical propertieslendthemselvesverywelltopropertubergrowthanddevelopment.Bygrowingthepotatoesatlowereleva-tions, intercropping with sugarcane was made possi-ble(AARD,1986).Athigherelevations,theweatheristoocoldforsugarcane.Suchanintercroppingmethodproves to be a great success by providing a welcomeadditional benefit to the farmer’s income. The potatoyieldisreportedtobe22tons/ha,inadditiontoayieldincrease of 13 tons/ha of sugarcane when grown asintercrops(AARD,1986).Apparently,thefertilizerappli-cationstothepotatoplantsalsobenefitthesugarcanecrops.Thepotatoyieldaboveisonthehighsidewhencomparedtoyieldsof16to20tons/ha,asrecordedinWestJavabytheIndonesianBureauofStatisticsfortheperiodof2000to2004.Nevertheless,judgingfromtheyieldandthemiddlemanwholesalepriceofRp.4000to5000/kg,thesepotatoesarebringinginarespectable
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incomeformanyfarmers.Theretailpriceatlocalmar-ketplaces in Jakarta is 7000 rupiahs/kg (or $0.70/kg),whichdiffersslightlyfrompricesatU.S.supermarkets,whereIdahoRussetpotatoesaresellingatpresentfor$1.00to$2.00/kg.
�.�.�.�.�.� Tomatoes Theclimateof theuplandis apparently just right for the cultivation of tomatoplants,thoughtheamountsofrainarereportedlycre-ating problems. The weather is not too cold, but cooland still warm enough for growing tomatoes. Culti-vationbydirectseedingoflocalvarieties(e.g.,berlian)in the field results in plants producing 15 tons/ha oftomato fruits (AARD, 1986). By germinating seeds innurseries and transplanting 20-day-old seedlings, theyieldoftomatoeswasreportedtoincreaseto20tons/ha.Apparently,yieldsoftomatoeshavebeenimprovedsincethen,becausetheIndonesianBureauofStatisticsrecordedtomatoyieldsof21to28tons/hainWestJavafortheperiodof2000to2004.
Whentomatoesareplantedduringtherainyseason,mostoftheplantsseemtobeaffectedbyfailureinset-tingfruitsandbyprematurelyabortingtheirfruits.Inadditiontobreedingnewresistantvarietiesforcontrol-lingtheharmfuleffectofheavyrains,plantsarenowsuggested to be grown in DIY (Do-It-Yourself) plas-tic greenhouses, the size of small tents. Not only arethe tomato yields increased, but the DIY greenhousemethod has practically controlled all fruit damage(AARD,1986).Byreusing theplasticgreenhouses thefollowing seasons, which relates to a substantial sav-ingsinproductioncost,farmersarereportedlyableto
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sell their products at relatively profitable prices. ThetomatoesarecurrentlysellingatRp.1700to3500/kg,asacceptedbymiddlemeninthefield.AtthemarketsinJakarta,consumersarepayingaround8000rupiahs/kgorapproximately$0.80/kg.ComparedtopricesatU.S.supermarkets,wheretomatoesaresellingnowfor$4.00to$6.00/kg,tomatoesareinexpensiveinIndonesia.
�.�.�.�.�.� Fruitcrops Amongthefruitsgrown,usually as backyard gardening, only those that canadapttothecoolerclimatewillthriveintheuplands.Forexample,coconuttreesaredoingpoorlyathighereleva-tionsasdootherlowlandfruitcrops,suchasmangoesandguavas.However,different typesofbananascanbegrownintheuplands.Thelowlandbananas,calledpisangambon,andanothervarietycalledpisangraja,tendtostrugglegrowinginthecoolerclimateoftheuplandsbutmayeventuallybecomeadaptedtothecoolercon-ditions. Nevertheless, they find strong competitionfromamountainvariety,knownlocallyaspisangambonlumut.Thisvarietyismostadaptedfortheuplandandmountainregionsandwillnotdowellinthelowlands.Thepisangambon(pisangmeans“banana”)istheslen-deryellowtypeofbanana,similartothatfoundinU.S.supermarkets. It isnotknownby theauthorwhetherthe name ambon has any relationship with the islandAmbon in the Moluccas. The pisang raja (raja means“king”)ismoreofa“chubby”-typebananawithorangeflesh,presumablyrichincarotine.Ontheotherhand,thepisangambonlumut(lumutmeans“mold,algae”)hasagreenskinthat,whenripe, isdottedbybrown-ish-blackspots.Thespotsareapparentlyagenetically
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inheritedcharacteristicofthebananaandarenotasignof being overripe. They give the illusion of molds oralgaegrowingontheskin,andhencethenamelumutisgivenby the localpeople.Thespotscouldperhapsbemoldsgrowingontheskinsurface,butnoinvesti-gationshavebeenconductedtoconfirmthis,becausetheyareharmlessandthepisangtastesasgoodasanybanana.
�.�.�.�.�.� Estate crops The estate crops culti-vatedonthebrownforestsoilsoftheuplandarethoseadaptedforgrowingwellincool,humidregionclimates.Tea(Theasinensis),traditionallyamountaincrop,isoneofthecropsthatstartstobecomeofimportanceattheelevationoftheupland.Itiscultivatedhereinrelativelysmallplantations,whereasamongtheindustrialcrops,albiziatrees(Albiziachinensisorfalcata)areplantedforfirewoodandcheaptimberorforsoilconservationonsteepterrain.Rubberandoilpalmwillnotgrowandproducepoorlyinuplandclimates.Theyarethecropsadapted to the warm humid lowlands. Another cropstated earlier as being ideal for cultivation in uplandconditionsisthenutmeg.
�.�.�.�.�.� Teacrops Mostofthelargeandbetterteaplantationsarestillfoundhigherupinthemoun-tainregions(Figure7.2).Intheuplands,theestatesarerelativelysmallerandarefrequentlyfoundintheformoflocallyownedsmallteafarms.Thesesmallholderteaestateswerecalledbevolkingsthee(forDutch:teagrownbythepeople)intheDutchcolonialtime.Itstartedin1880 in the regions of Cicurug and Cibadak, on the
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hillsof theGedeh-Pangrangovolcanoes inWest Java,wherethefewlargeteaplantationspresent,ownedbyDutchcompanies,wereprovidingfreeteaseedstosur-rounding local farmers. The conditions were that theteashootsproducedbythelocalfolksmustbesoldtotheDutchestatesthatgavethemtheseeds.Itappearedto be a great success, because these small tea enter-priseshavesincethenspreadoutoverthewholePrian-gantearegioninWestJava,andthemethodseemstobecopiedbyotherenterprises,suchasintheproduc-tionofoilpalm,coffee,andotherestatecrops.MostoftheteagrownonthesmallestatesisAssam-tea,orteathatoriginatedfromAssam,India.Manyoftheolderteaplantationsownedtodaybysmallholdersoriginate
Figure 7.2 OneofthebetterteaestatesinthePengalenganHighlands, often used to showcase a well-maintained teaplantation.
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from these old stock and are, therefore, composed ofveryoldteabushes.Thoughcross-breedingattheGam-bungTeaResearch Institute nearBandung inWest Javahasproducednewcloneswithhigheryieldpotentials,replantingisgenerallyaverybigchoreforlocalfarm-ers.Italsomeansadecreasedorlossofincomeforthesmallfarmersforatleastacoupleofyears.Theyieldsofreplantedteafarmsremainsmallforayearortwoandwillreachmaximumproductiononlyafter6to8years.OnelocallyownedteafarminSukanegara,southofCianjur,West Java,visited in2005and2007by thepresentauthor,stillregisteredsatisfactoryyieldsofteashootsfromhismorethan25-year-oldteabushes.Thetotalmonthlyyieldoffreshtealeavesamountingto937kg/ha,asreportedattheteafarmatSukanegara,givesanannualaverageyieldoffreshshootsof11,250kg/ha.Atasellingpriceof900rupiahsperkg,theaboveyieldprovidestheownerwithacoolannualincomeof10.125millionrupiahs,whichtranslatesonlyto$1,012.50(atarateof$1.00toRp.10,000).Thoughitseemslikeawholelotofmoney,amiddle-incomefamilyoffour(withtwochildren)needsapproximately40to50millionrupiahsforlivingcomfortablyinIndonesia.
The harvest of fresh young shoots is either sold tolargerestatesforprocessinginthefactoryintomainlyblacktea,orusedbythefarmersfortheproductionofgreentea.Ineithercase,thefreshleaveswillyieldontheaverage22to25%factory-processeddrytea.Blackteawasandtodaystillisproducedforexportonlyinthelargeteaestates,suchasthefamousorangepekoetea.Someofthishigh-qualityteahastodayfounditswayforsaleatlocalstoresforuseindomesticconsumption.
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On the other hand, green tea is produced mostly forlocaltradeandconsumption.Themethodofprocessingintogreenteahasbeencarriedover,allegedly,fromtheChinesepeople(VanHall,1950),sinceintheDutchpre-WorldWarIIperiod,norelationshipwasestablishedyetwithJapan,wheregreenteaisaveryimportantprod-uct. The Japanese influence started with the JapaneseoccupationofIndonesiaduringthestartofWorldWarII.Greenteaistraditionallymixedwithculanflowers(Aglaia odorata) or jasmine (Jasminum sambac or Garde-niaaugusta)togivethefinalproductthecharacteristicaromawhenmixedwithboilingwater.Itissoldunderthenameofjasmineteaatnearbymarketplaces.
�.�.�.�.�.� Albizia crops This is a tree crop ofthelegumeorMimosaceae family,knownscientificallyasAlbiziafalcataorA.falcataria.Thetermfalcata(mean-ing“sickle-like”)referstothecurvedleaflets.Thetreeis a native of the Moluccas and is often also calledAlbiziamoluccana.Locally, it is called jeungjing, albesia,kayu sengon, or jati putih. The latter means white teak,thoughitdoesnotcarrythestronghardwoodfeaturesofteak,ratheralbiziawoodismoreatypeofsoftwood.Theplantisgrownmoreonsmallholders’estatesandonlysporadicallyonestatesownedbythegovernmentor industries. In a move to stimulate the Indonesiangovernment’s Regreening and Reforestation progam, theBogorSoilResearchInstitutetriedtoencouragesmallfarmerstogrowalbizia.Thetreesaresuggestedtobeplantedonfarmswithsteepterrain,whereslopesare>40%(Agus,2001).
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AlbiziaisatfirstperhapstransplantedfromitsnativeenvironmentintheMoluccasandPapuaforuseasshadetrees and for several other soil conservation featuresintheDutchtea,coffee,andcacaoplantationsinJavaandSumatra.Becauseitisalegume,theDutchplantersbelievethatasnitrogenfixers,albiziatreesmayenrichthesoilswithnitrogentothebenefitoftheteaorcof-feebushes.Theyconsiderthetreesnottocompeteforthisandothernutrientswith the teaor coffeeplants,becauseoftheirabilitytodevelopdeeperrootsystems.The roots are nodulated by Rhizobia and Bradhirizobiabacteriaandreportedtohostatypeofvasicular-arbus-cularmycorrhizae(VAM).Therateofnitrogenfixedperyearisestimatedtoamountto65to140kg/ha(Reshetal.,2002).
Albiziatreesareplantedfromseeds,harvestedfromseedpodsgrowingonthetrees.Duetothehardshell,germinationoftheseedisoftenratherdifficult.How-ever, once germinated, the plants are well known fortheirveryrapidgrowth,reachingheightsof6m(18.3ft)andatrunkdiameterof±5to10cmatthebaseinjust1year.Leftundisturbed,theycangrowto25to30mtallandupto1mindiameteratthebasetrunk.Theplants have the capacity to coppice, and sporadically,they canbeharvested in4- to5-year cycles from theregrowthofsuckersornewshoots.Asindicatedabove,cultivation of albizia trees is conducted more on pri-vatelyownedlandsbysmallfarmersandoccasionallyin industry-owned tree estates. Government-ownedestates,ontheotherhand,aremoreinterestedingrow-ingvaluablehigh-pricedhardwoodtrees,suchasteak,whosegrowthislimitedtothemonsoonregionsofthe
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lowlands. In the local smallholderplantations,albiziaisalsopopularasan intercrop.Thealbizia farmsareconsidered by many Indonesians as well as Japanesescientists to be eco-friendly or environmentally friendly,because trees are harvested from planted farms andnotcutfromnaturalforeststands(Akihito,2003).Ifthisisthedefinitionofeco-friendly,thenplantationsculti-vatedwithpinetreesbythepulpandpapercompaniesintheUnitedStatesandEuropemustalsofallintothecategoryofbeingenvironmentalfriendly.
Thealbiziawoodiswhiteandsoftandbecamepopu-larbecauseofprovidingcheap,affordable lumber forbuilding huts in the villages, and all kinds of cheapfurniture,boxes,andlightconstructions.However,thewooddeterioratesrapidlyandisverysensitivetoinfes-tationbytermites.InHawaii,itisusedfortheproduc-tionofmatchesandmatchboxes(Duke,1983).Albiziahasalsoattractedworldwideattentionasa fuel crop.It isarenewableresourcefortheproductionofcheapcharcoal,thoughthelatterisonlyoflowcaloricvalue.Whenburned, itonlyprovidesenergy to theamountof5000 to7000kcal/kg.Today, thewood isalsocon-sideredusefulforthepaperandpulpindustryandhasthepotentialof replacingpinewoodas the source forpulp(Duke,1983).TheDepartmentofForestryinIndo-nesiatriedrecentlytopromoteplantingalbiziaontheeastcoastofSumatrainconnectionwithitsPamusiranproject(VandenEelaart,2004).Inanefforttointegratethisprojectwiththegovernmentreclamationprogramsof peat areas, reforestation of abandoned peat areaswithalbiziatreeswassuggested.AhugepulpfactorywasestablishedinJambi,capableofusingalotofraw
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materialfromalbiziatrees,plantedinthesurroundingareas of reclaimed peat lands that have deterioratedandbeenabandonedbythetransmigrationsettlers.
�.�.�.�.�.� Nutmeg Thisisoneofthecropsthathas made Indonesia famous in the past as the SpiceIslands. The nutmeg (Myristica fragans) trees, locallycalledpohonpala,arenativeoftheMoluccas.OriginallyfoundbyPortuguesesailorsandmerchantsin1511ontheBandaislandsgroup,theircultivationlaterspreadduring the time of the Dutch East Indian Companyinthe1600stoMenado,NorthMinehassa,Sangi,andTalaud islands, and Bengkulu, Southwest Sumatra.Many other nutmeg varieties have been reported togrowwildinotherpartsoftheMoluccasislands.Forexample,theMyristicaargenteaisfoundintheBirdHeadofWestPapua,whereitislocallyknownaspapua-nut,theMyristicasuccedaneaofHalmahera,calledhalmaheranutmeg,theMyristicaspeciosaofBacanIsland,southofHalmahera,locallycalledbacannut,andseveralothers.TodaythecropisalsogrowninMauritius,EastAfrica,andGrenada,intheCaribbeanIslands.
Thecropiscultivatedmainlybysmallholderestates,ownedbylocalfarmers,whichisconductedbyplant-ingseedlings.Itis,therefore,notatrueestatecrop,andIndonesianauthoritiesconsideritmoreasanindustrialcrop. Though the trees will grow in the lowlands totheuplands,theygrowapparentlybestonsoilsrichinhumusatelevationsbetween400and700mabovesealevel,wheretheclimateissomewhatcoolerbutstillsuf-ficientlyhumidthroughthewholeyear.Thetreewillmatureandstarttoyieldat6to7yearsofage,andwill
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reachmaximumproductionwhenitis25yearsold(Dei-num,1950a).Withpropermaintenanceitmaycontinuetogivehighyieldsforatleast50moreyears.In1930to1940,yieldsof300nuts(=2to3kgdry)andanaddi-tional600gmacepertreewereconsideredhigh,thoughtodayyieldsof20to30timesthatmucharecalledhigh.Withthenewgenerationofpalatrees,yieldsof6000to7000nuts/tree/yearareperhapsmorecommontoday.
Theplantsaredioecious, requiring thecultivationofmaletreesforproperfruitsettingbythefemaleplants.Inthepastitwascustomarytoalsoplantwindbreak-ersforcontrollingprematurefruitfallsbythefrequentstormsoccurringduringthechangeofwettoslightlydry seasons, especially on the Banda islands. TheDutchscientistssuggestedtheuseofthetall-growingCanariumtrees(Canariumcommuneorindicum),knownlocally as pohon kenari, because albizia trees, used inteaestates,provide toomuchshade,whichshouldbeavoidedinnutmegfarms.Someshadeisstillnecessary,whichisprovidedbythekenaritreesthatcangrow40to50mtallandproduce,asasidebenefit,edible,deli-ciouskenarinuts.Thoughthehullsofthenutsarestonehard,thesoftwhitenutsinsideareconsumednotonlybyhumansbutallegedlyalsobylemursintheMada-gascarrainforest.
Thepalaornutmegfruitsareovaloroblonginshape,likea small lemon.When ripe, theyhaveayellowishcolor and will split open naturally, exposing a brownnutinside,thenutmeg,covered(coated)byared-coloredaril-likemembrane,calledmace(Figure7.3).Thenutmeg,called locallybijipala,andthemaceor fuli (inDutch),locally known as kembang pala, are the most valuable
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partsasspices.Themeatofthefruit(pericarp)isverysourand tangyandconsumedby localpeople in theformofcandy,calledmanisanpala(candiednutmeg).
The nutmeg farms are surprisingly less subject toattack by plant pests and diseases than are the otherestatecrops,perhapsduetoavarietyofnaturalchemi-calscontainedby theplants.Nutmegoil isknowntohave hallucinogenic properties and is also used eventoday for the treatment of toothaches and rheumaticpain. The only serious disease, known locally as theclamdiseaseorwhite-splitdisease,istheprematuresplit-tingoffruitpodsthatcanruintheyieldby50%ormore,becauseofseriousdamagetothenutsandmace.
�.�.�.�.�.� Dairyfarming Thiskindofoperationstarts to become important in the upland, due to theclimate becoming favorable for dairy farming. Somedairy farms can, however, be occasionally found in
A B
Figure 7.3 (A) Ripe nutmeg fruit at almost actual size. (B)Openednutmegfruitshowingtheseed(thenutmeg),coveredbyred-coloredmace.
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thelowlands.Inthiscase,theyarelocatedclosetotheproximityoflargetowns,wheremarketsandconsum-ers are available for milk and dairy products. How-ever,thebetterandmoreproductivefarmsarelocatedathigheraltitudes,especiallyinthemountains,whereconditionsarethemostsuitableforthiskindofopera-tion. Milk production is generally lowest in lowlandfarms,somewhathigher inuplandfarms,buthighestin highland farms. The cows, mostly imported fromtheNetherlands,havebeenreportedtoyield3098kgofmilk(perlactationandperheadofcattle)onmountainfarms, almost twice that produced on upland farms(AARD, 1986). More details on dairy farming will begiveninthesectiononthesoilsofthemountains.
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chaptereight
SoilsinthemountainsofIndonesia
�.� IntroductionThe discussion in this chapter focuses on the soilslocatedinthehighlandsormountainregionsofIndone-siaatelevationsof≥1000mabovesealevel.Thisregionextends to an altitude of approximately 2400 m or tothesummitofavolcanoandincludesahigh-mountainregion(seeChapter3,Table3.3).Theycoverasubstan-tialpartof thesurfaceof the Indonesianarchipelago.In Javaalone, theyareestimated tocover21,950km2,or17%oftheentireareaoftheisland.Thetopographyin themountainregions issteepandveryroughandwill obviously promote erosion, whereas the cool cli-mate may slow rapid weathering processes. The con-ditions are very favorable for humification, and thehigh amounts of humic substances accumulating inthesoilsplayadominantroleinsoilformation.Hence,podzolization is more prominent, bringing about thecharacteristic pattern of mobilization of aluminum,
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iron, and clays due to chelation by humic and fulvicacids. The processes are called cheluviation and chillu-viation for mobilization of aluminum and iron in theformofhumometalchelates.Cheluviationreplacestheterm eluviation, whereas chilluviation is used for theprocessof illuviationor thesubsequentaccumulationof humo-Al and humo-Fe chelates in spodic horizons.Thesoilsalsoexhibitcharacteristicstructures formedbymountaingranulation,atermusedbyMohr(1944),fortheirpeculiarattributes.Itdifferssomewhatfromthegranular structures of the soils in the lowlands (viz.,oxisols), though some similarities with respect to theeffectofironcanalsobenoticed.Thestructuralunitsareveryresistanttotheimpactofraindropsandhavebeen designated as pseudosand (Mohr andVanBaren,1960).Mostprobablythehighcontentoforganicmat-terissuspectedtoplayanimportantroleascementingmaterialintheformationofthesestablestructures,inadditiontopeptizedironsubstances.Theinteractionoforganic matter in particular with paracrystalline clayandotherinorganicsoilmaterialsisthebigdifferenceherefromformationofsoilstructuresexhibitedbyoxi-sols.Anexampleofmountaingranulationisshownbymicropedological studies in Figure8.1. The soil thinsectionalsoindicatesthepresenceofabraunlehmforma-tion,similartothatdefinedbyKubiena(1962)inmostofthesesoils.
Theregionscoveredbythemountainsoilshaveveryimportant economic and social functions, becausemostofthemountainestatesorplantationsarelocatedhere. Tea, coffee, cinchona (quinine), and other cropsaregrownwithsuccess,bringinginthedesiredcash.
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Despite this fact, relatively little is known about thesoils, and they were formerly grouped together onlyundertheverybroadandmeaninglessnameMountainSoils.Inaddition,severalofthesesoilswereinthe1960s
Figure 8.1 Soil thin section of an A horizon of a tropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoilattheslopeofthePangrango-Gedevolcanoescomplex(1100m),showingaloose,friable,darkyel-lowish-brown(10YR4/4)matrix,duetothepresenceofamor-phous ironoxides.Largeamountsofprimarymineralscanalsobeseenimbeddedinthesoilfabricasuncoatedgrains.
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mistakenlyrecognizedasandosolsbyDudalandSupra-ptohardjo(1961).
Themountainsoilswereknownandinvestigatedinpre-WorldWarIItimeperhapsonlybySenstius(1930).The investigations by Senstius were limited to a fewsoil profiles only, of the Lawu volcano, East Java, theMalabar volcano, West Java, and that of the Banahaomountain in Luzon, the Philippines. The soil profileswere all located at elevations of more than 2000 mabove sea level, and Senstius arrived at a conclusionthatthesoilswereaffectedbyatypeofpodzolicweath-eringprocess;inotherwords,podzolizationisinvolvedin the formation of these soils. However, in the post-World War II period, several Dutch scientists startedreinvestigating the mountain soils in more detail,andmanydifferentsoilgroupswererecognized.VanSchuylenborghandVanRummelen(1955),TanandVanSchuylenborgh (1961a), and Tan (1965) have been ableto distinguish andosols, gray-brown podzolic soils,brownpodzolicsoils,andpodzols.TheandosolswerelaternotedtoalsooccurintheuplandsandlowlandsofIndonesia.Thebrownpodzolicsoilswereconsideredby the authors above as a transitional group, formedjustabovethezonesofgray-brownpodzolicsoilsandextendingtothezonesofpodzolslocatedathigherele-vations.AsdiscussedinChapter7,theirexistenceasadistinctsoilgrouphasbeenquestionedinsomepartsof the world. The soils are not well known by manyscientistsinWesternEurope,ortheyareperhapscon-sideredasabrownforesttypeofsoil.Thischapterwilldiscussthegray-brownpodzolicsoils,brownpodzolicsoils,andpodzols, thesoilsaffectedbypodzolization
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processes. The andosols will be addressed separatelyinChapter9becauseoftheirdifferenttypeofforma-tionandbecausetheymayoccurintheuplandsaswellasinthelowlands.Mostoftheandosols,however,arelocatedinthemountainregionsofIndonesia.
�.� HighlandalfisolsHighlandalfisolswerewidelyrecognizedinthepastasthegray-brownpodzolicsoilsofNorthAmericaandEurope(Cline, 1949; Tavernier and Mückenhausen, 1960), buttheyarenowcalledalfisolsforreasonsdescribedbelow.Theyareapparently importantsoilsunderdeciduousandmixed forestsof coolhumidregionsandbyU.S.foresters still identified as gray-brown podzolic soils(Stearns, 1997). The soils are rather weakly podzol-ized and in the United States are generally found tothe south of the podzols and brown podzolic zones.TheyaregenerallycharacterizedbydistinctA,B,andCprofiles, inwhichtheAhorizonsshowthedistincteffectofcheluviation,whereastheBhorizonscontainmoreclaythaneitherAorChorizons.Theseeffectsofcheluviationandchilluviationseemtobetheoutstand-ingcharacteristicsofthisgroupofsoils.Basedontheseprocesses,thesoilsarealsoknownasgrayluvisolicorgray-brownluvisolicsoilinCanada(Arocenaetal.,2006)andassoil brun lessivé in theFrench-speakingpartofWesternEurope.IntheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,thesoilsareplacedinthealfisolsorder,asindicatedearlier,becauseofthepresenceofargillic-Bhorizonsandbasesatura-tions of ≥35% in the control zones (Soil Survey Staff,1960, 1975), features resulting from the soil-forming
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processesstatedabove.Thebasesaturationof≥35%wasadiagnosticcriteriontodistinguishalfisolsfromulti-sols,untilthiswaschangedinthecurrentU.S.versions(SoilSurveyStaff,1990,2006a).InIndonesia,thegray-brownpodzolicsoilsaretypicalmountainorhighlandsoils.Todistinguishthisgroupofzonalsoilsfromthemorelithologicallylowlandalfisols,discussedinChap-ter6,thenamehighlandalfisolsisusedinthetitleabove.Amoredetailedreasoningwillbeprovidedinthesec-tionsbelow.
�.�.� Parentmaterials
InNorthAmerica,gray-brownpodzolicsoilsarederivedfromcalcareousparentmaterials(Cline,1949).However,in Indonesia they are foundon intermediate volcanicmaterials.ThemineralogicaldatainTable8.1showtheparent materials to vary somewhat from andesitic tobasalto-andesiticvolcanictuff.ThematerialsfromtheKendengmountain,WestJava,lackquartzand,hence,aremorebasicthantheothertwoandmayqualifytobecalledbasalto-andesitictuffwithahyperstheneassocia-tion.IthasmoderateamountsofgibbsiteindicatingtheeffectofoxidationprocessesincontrasttotheothertwomaterialsfromtheWayangandLawuvolcanoes.Thisrelativelymoreintenseweatheringistobeexpectedinviewof its locationat lowerelevations thantheothertwo.Thematerials fromtheWayangvolcanopossesssmallamountsofquartzandcanbeconsideredandes-iticwithanolivineassociation.Largeamountsofironconcretionsweredetected,butnogibbsitewasfoundinAandBhorizons.TheparentmaterialfromtheLawu
69071.indb 338 4/25/08 10:43:08 AM
Chaptereight: SoilsintheMountainsofIndonesia ���Ta
ble
.8.1
.M
iner
alog
ical
Com
posi
tion
ofG
ray-
Bro
wn
Pod
zolic
Soi
lsC
omp
osit
ion
.in.T
otal
.San
d.F
ract
ion
Hea
vy.F
ract
ion
Hor
izon
Qu
artz
An
des
ine.
Lab
rad
orit
e
Gre
en.
Hor
n-.
ble
nd
eH
yper
-.st
hen
eA
ugi
teO
livi
ne
Vol
can
ic.
.Gla
ssG
ibb
-.si
te
Iron
.C
oncr
e-.
tion
s
Roc
k.
.Fra
gmen
ts.
.Op
aqu
e
Gre
en.
.Hor
n- .
ble
nd
e
Bro
wn
..H
orn
- .b
len
de
Hyp
er-.
sth
ene
Au
gite
Ken
den
g.M
oun
tain
,.Leu
wil
ian
g,.W
est.J
ava,
.100
0.m
A1
—31
—14
1—
145
—52
53
8210
A2
—35
—14
2—
127
—31
53
857
B1
—38
—16
1—
155
—35
2—
917
B2
—47
—14
1—
145
—25
31
951
C—
48—
12–
—12
13—
461
—96
3
Way
ang.
Vol
can
o,.P
enga
len
gan
,.Wes
t.Jav
a,.1
620.
m
A—
20tr
tr6
11
—23
5413
—26
33
A2
218
21
52
tr—
2955
8—
3434
B1
113
77
113
1—
2549
14—
1733
B2
tr6
59
3—
1—
6831
32—
5117
Law
u.V
olca
no,
.Eas
t.Jav
a,.1
600.
m
A1
tr27
36
2—
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821
14—
5927
A2
—23
33
1—
43—
521
13—
6225
B1
tr26
33
2—
22—
1923
23—
4927
B2
119
37
4—
9—
3421
-20
—56
24
Sour
ces:
Van
Sch
uyle
nbor
gh,J
.and
Van
Rum
mel
en,F
.F.F
.(19
55);
Van
Sch
uyle
nbor
gh,J
.(19
58);
Tan,
K.H
.and
Van
Sch
uyle
nbor
gh,J
.(19
60).
69071.indb 339 4/25/08 10:43:09 AM
��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
volcanoisalsoandesitictuffwithahypersthene-augiteassociation.Nogibbsitewasdetected,andtheamountsof iron concretions were substantially smaller thanthoseoftheWayangvolcano.
�.�.� Climate
Gray-brownpodzolicsoilsare,ingeneral,soilsbelong-ing to the cool humid regions of the United States,normallyundera forestcoverconsistingofhemlock–northernhardwoodsassociation.Theyaremajorforestsoils and extend south to the forests of the SouthernPiedmont and Blue Ridge Mountains in Georgia. InMaryland, the trees are oaks, maples, hickories, andsometimessouthernwhitepinesmixedwithbeeches.
InIndonesia,theclimaticregionsofgray-brownpod-zolicsoilsvaryaccordingtolocalconditions.Thedatain Table8.2 indicate that in West Java, characterizedby a continuously humid condition (f), gray-brownpodzolicsoilsaremainlydevelopedinthetemperatetocoolmountainclimates(C),butinveryfewexcep-tionsthesoil’soccurrencemayextendtotherelativelywarmerAfclimatetypesofKöppen’ssystem.Ontheotherhand,inthemonsoonregions(m)ofCentralandEastJava, thesoilsareusuallyformedathigheralti-tudesascomparedtothosefoundinWestJava.Inthemonsoonregions,thegray-brownpodzolicsoilsoccurmoreinthecoolmountainCficlimates,andtheyhavenot been detected in Köppen’s Af or Am types ofclimates.
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Chaptereight: SoilsintheMountainsofIndonesia ���
�.�.� Soilmorphology
Cline(1949)definesgray-brownpodzolicsoilsofNewYorkashavingthinAhorizonsoverlyingEhorizons.Inalmostallcases,thisEhorizoncanbedividedintotwosections:anupperpartthatisyellowish-brownincolor and an underlying part usually pale brown orgrayish-brownincolor.TheBhorizonspossessdefinitehigherclaycontentsthantheAorChorizon,andarecalledtodayargillic,textural,orBthorizons.Inregions
Rainfall Altitude
<60 mm >100 mm
Mean Annual Rainfall
Type ofClimatea
West Java (Humid)
Cigombong
Podok Gedeh
Cipanas
Salak Volcano
307
900
1070
2211
1.6
0.4
0.9
0.0
9.0
10.1
9.3
11.1
2417
3644
2817
5467
Afa
Afa
Af
Cfi
B
A
A
A
Latosol
Podz. Latosol
Gray Br. Podz.
Gray Br. Podz.
East–Central Java (Monsoon)
Karangpandan
Tawangmanggu
Sarangan
Tamansari
307
900
1290
2480
3.7
3.1
3.4
—
7.6
8.0
7.7
—
2776
3194
2533
—
Ama
Am
Cfhi
Cs
C
C
C
—
Latosol
Brown Forest
Gray Br. Podz.
Location
m Months mm Köppen
Soil
S&F
Table.8.2. TheClimateofGray-BrownPodzolicSoilsinIndonesia
a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols: A = coldestmonth >18°C; a = warmest month >22°C; f = humid; i = hotsummer;m=monsoon;C=warmestmonth>10°Candcoldestmonthbetween18°Cand−3°C;h=coldestmonth>0°C;s=drysummer.
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
farthertothesouth,Cline(1949)noticedthatthesecondEhorizonismissing,verythin,orcompletelymaskedby organic matter, which is supported by Krebs andTedrow (1957), who also reported the occurrence ofgray-brownpodzolicsoilsinNewJerseywithonlyonebrownEhorizon.
InIndonesia,gray-brownpodzolicsoilshavesimilarmorphological characteristics as indicated above. Thefollowingsoilprofileispresentedasanexample:
Gray-brown podzolic soil, Lawu vol-cano,Central–EastJava,atanelevationof1600mabovesealevel(TanandVanSchuylenborgh, 1959). The forest veg-etationiscomposedofAcaciadecurrens,andtheparentmaterialisandesitictuff.Drainageisnoticedtobeperfect.Colornotations below refer to air-dry andfield-moistconditions,respectively.
Horizon Depth.(cm) Description
O 3–0 Litter,mulltype.
A1 3–16 2.5Y4/2to10YR2/1,darkgrayish-brown toblack, strong fine suban-gularblockytogranular,loam,veryfriable,abundanceofroots.
E 16–34 10YR6/3to10YR3/4,palebrowntoverydarkgray-brown, irregularplaty,siltloam,friable,manyroots.
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DuetolocalconditionsinIndonesia,variationsoccurfromthesoilprofileabove.Theorganicmattercontentisveryhighinmostgray-brownpodzolicsoilsinIndo-nesia,ascanbenoticedfromtheblackcolornotationabove for the A horizon. The name humic gray-brownpodzolicsoil isproposedforthismountainsoilvarietytodistinguishitfromthatlocatedatlowerelevations.This is the soil that is also frequently confused forandosols.TheAhorizonsofgray-brownpodzolicsoilslocatedatloweraltitudesareonlydarkbrowntodarkgrayish-brownincolor,thoughitsorganicmattercon-tentremainsrelativelyonthehighside.TheEhorizonsarealsonoticednottoexhibitplatystructures,whereastheir colors may vary from light to dark yellowish-brown. Van Schuylenborgh (1959) suggests using thenameoftropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoilforthisvarietyformedatlowerelevations.
Bt1 34–50 10YR5/4 to7.5YR3/2,yellowish-dark brown to dark brown, weak,fine subangular blocky, loam, fria-ble,manyroots.
Bt2 50–91 10YR6/4to5YR4/4,lightyellow-ish-browntoreddish-brown,weak,mediumsubangularblocktocrumb,silt loam, very friable, very fewroots.
C +91 10YR 5/8 to 6/8, brownish-yellowandesitictuff.
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
�.�.� Soilclassification
Aspreviouslydiscussed, thesoilswerewidelyrecog-nized in the world as gray-brown podzolic soils andmapped as such in the Food and Agriculture Orga-nization–United Nations Educational, Scientific, andCultural Organization (FAO-UNESCO) soils map ofWesternEurope(TavernierandMückenhausen,1960).InFrench-speakingcountries,thesoilsareadditionallyknownunderthenamesolbrunlessivé,whereasintheGermanliteraturethetermsparabraunerdeandgebleichteparabraunerde can be found (Altemüller, 1962; Manil,1962). In Russia, the soils are recognized under quitedifferentnames.Heretheyareclassifiedassod-podzolicsoilsandderno-palepodzolicsoils(Tiurinetal.,1960).Itisapparentfromthevariousnamesabovethat thesoilsareconsideredinEuropeasweaklypodzolizedsoils.
IntheUnitedStates,theclassificationofsoilsonthebasis of soil-formation processes has unfortunatelybeenabandoned.With the introductionofanewU.S.soilclassificationsystem(SoilSurveyStaff,1960,1975),soilsareclassifiedmainlyontheirmorphologicalfea-tures.Becauseofthepresenceofprimarilyargillichori-zonsandabasesaturationof≥35%inthecontrolzone,gray-brown podzolic soils were grouped at that timetogetherwithothersoils(forexample,graywoodedsoilsandnoncalcicbrownsoils)intoonegroupandwellintothealfisolsorder.Graywoodedsoilsarethenorthernequivalentsofgray-brownpodzolicsoils,anameoftenusedintheCanadiansoilclassificationsystems.Intheirmore recent system, the names of gray luvisolic andgray-brownluvisolicsoilshaveapparentlyreplacedthe
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namegraywoodedsoils(Arocenaetal.,2006).InthemorerecentversionsoftheU.S.SoilTaxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff,1990,2006a),therequirementforbasesaturationofalfisolsabovehasbeendeletedandmakesonewon-derwhetherthiswasamisprintorwhetheronehastoread between the lines in using the criterion of basesaturationforultisolsinthisrespect?Forexample,allothersoilswithargillichorizonsthatdonotmeettherequirementofabasesaturationof≥35%arenotulti-solsbutalfisols?Thisisveryconfusingforscientistsinsoilphysics,soilmicrobiology,soilchemistry,andespe-cially professionals in agricultural sciences, who areinneedofsoilclassification.Theymaynotbeaswell-versedasasoiltaxonomistandwillnotseethiskindofreasoninginthewordytextwithitsmanyifs,eithers,andors.Ittookeventheauthor,asapedologist,reread-ingthetextseveraltimestorealizethecontextofbasesaturationbetweenultisolsandalfisolsabove,thoughheisstillnotsureyetwhetheritisrightornotbecauseofthefollowingissue.Theprovisionofarequirementforbasesaturationhasapparentlybeenmovedforuseas a key at the kandic great group level (Soil SurveyStaff,1990,2006a).However,thetexthasbeenchangedandasitreadsnow,“haveaCECof16cmol(+)orlessper kg clay,” and similarly valid for both the ultisolsandalfisolsorders, it is insharpcontrasttotheorigi-nalversionofabasesaturation≥35%foralfisols.Itwillcontributetoevenmoreconfusionbecausethekandicgreatgroupsofboththeultisolsandalfisolsordersareidentifiedbyanexactlysimilardiagnosticfeature.
Judging from the exploratory soil map of Indone-sia (Chapter 1, Section 1.2.8), alfisols are apparently
69071.indb 345 4/25/08 10:43:11 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
unknownandhardlyrecognizedinIndonesia.Withanestimatedacreageof52,134km2(2.77%ofthetotalacre-age),thesoilsrankverylowinimportance.TheBogorSoil Research Institute may have included soils otherthan gray-brown podzolic soils in the alfisols order.Fromthedistributiononthesoilmap,severalofthelow-landsoilsmayhavebeenidentifiedasalfisols,whichisapparentlybasedmerelyonthemeritsofhavingargillichorizonsandbasesaturations≥35%.ThepresentauthorhasalsomadereferenceinthisrespecttothepresenceoflowlandalfisolsinChapter6.However,theresultsoftheDutchandauthor’sownresearchindicatetheexten-siveoccurrenceofalfisolsathigherelevations,inacre-agesfarinexcessfromthatoutlinedinthesoil’smap.Thesesoilsaremajorsoilsandareconsideredtypicalhighland or mountain soils, affected by cheluviationandchilluviation.Therefore,gray-brownpodzolicsoilsoralfisolshavebeenformedbydistinctpodzolizationprocesses, which is contrary to the lowland alfisols.Therefore, the present author suggests naming themmountainorhighlandalfisolstodifferentiatethemfromthelowlandalfisols.Themountainsoilscanperhapsbecorrelatedwiththeudalfs,withfurtherplacementpref-erably as tropudalfs, because they still differ in someaspectsfromtheirsoils’counterpartintheUnitedStatesandothertemperateregions.Theuseoftrop(fortropics)prefixeswascommonintheolderU.S.systemsofsoiltaxonomy, but has unfortunately been deleted in thecurrentversions.Thesoilsmayperhapsbefitted intothekandiudalfgreatgroup.However,suchaplacementis less likely to be correct because of the presence ofrelativelyhighpHvaluesandoftheircontentsofmore
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Chaptereight: SoilsintheMountainsofIndonesia ���
2:1latticethan1:1latticetypeofclayminerals,aswillbediscussedbelow.Thecoloroftheargillichorizonsisnotoftherequiredhueof2.5YRorredder,butinsteadismoretowardtheyellower5YRand10YR;hence,thesoilswillnotqualifyasrhodicgreatgroupsofalfisolseither.
�.�.� Physicochemicalcharacteristics
�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionThedatainTable8.3indicatethatthegray-brownpod-zolicsoilsofIndonesiaaremedium-texturedsoils.TheAhorizonsofthetropicalgray-brownpodzolicaswellasthehumicgray-brownpodzolicsoilsareallcharac-terizedbyasiltloamtexture.Theclaycontentincreasesfrom A to B horizons, which is ascribed to mobiliza-tionofclayintheformofhumo–claycomplexes.Thesubsequent formation of argillic or Bt horizons is inconformity of prevailing concepts for placement ofthesesoilsinthealfisolsorder.
�.�.�.� ChemicalcharacteristicsThepHvaluessuggestthesoilstobemoderatelyacidto slightly acid in reaction. A slight tendency can benoticedthatthetropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoils,themountain soils at lower elevations, are slightly moreacidicthanthehumicgray-brownpodzolics,thesoilslocated at higher elevations in the mountains. The Ahorizonofthetropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoilhasapH=4.8,whichplacesthesoilinthecategoryofstronglyacidsoils(pH4to5)(Tan,2005).Cline(1949)madetheobservationsoftheexistenceofacorrelationbetween
69071.indb 347 4/25/08 10:43:11 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Particle Size Distribution (%)
Org. C %
N %
Profile Horizon
50–2 <2 µ
pHH2O
A
E
B1
Bt
C
23.0
24.4
25.6
34.7
62.0
65.3
63.6
67.5
44.1
25.3
11.7
12.0
16.9
21.2
12.7
4.80
5.26
5.48
5.80
6.24
16.6
10.1
5.4
2.0
0.7
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
A1
E
Bt1
Bt2
B3
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
6.8
18.6
23.4
28.4
34.6
6.80
6.44
6.48
6.36
6.18
14.6
7.1
4.6
3.3
3.5
1.2
0.8
0.5
0.4
0.4
12.2
10.1
9.2
8.3
8.8
>50 µ
C N
Tropical Gray-Brown Podzolic Soil, West Java
Humic Gray-Brown Podzolic Soil, West Java
A1
E
Bt
B2
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
11.3
11.4
15.1
13.1
5.69
5.99
6.23
6.36
9.5
7.2
5.5
2.7
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.4
12.0
10.2
7.9
6.8
Humic Gray-Brown Podzolic Soil, Central–East Java
Table.8.3. PhysicochemcialCharacteristicsofGray-BrownPodzolicSoils
Sources:VanSchuylenborgh,J.andVanRummelen(1955);VanSchuylenborgh,J.(1958);Tan,K.H.andVanSchuylen-borgh,J.(1959,1960).
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Chaptereight: SoilsintheMountainsofIndonesia ���
thethicknessofEhorizonsandacidityofgray-brownpodzolicsoilsinuplandNewYork.HestatedthatverythinEhorizonswerenoticedingray-brownpodzolicswithalmostneutralreactions(pH=7to6),whereasthemorestronglyacidicmembers(pH<6)werecharacter-izedwiththickEhorizons.SuchanobservationcannotbesupportedpresentlyinIndonesia,whereonthecon-trarythereversemaybetrue.Inthisrespect,theauthorhas noticed that thick E horizons were found in thehumicgray-brownpodzolicsoils,withalmostneutralreactions(pH=6.8to6.1)ascomparedtothinEhori-zons of the tropical gray-brown podzolic soils wherepHinthesolumisintherangeof4.8to5.8.Thefactsabove tend tosuggest that thesoilpH isnotactuallythe reason for mobilization of clay particles, but thathumicacidsaremorelikelytobetheforcesinthepod-zolizationprocess.AscanbenoticedfromTable8.3,theorganicmattercontentisquitehighfromAtoBhori-zons,and inparticular in theAhorizonswherecon-tentsbetween9.5and17%Corgaredetected.Oftenthetropical gray-brown podzolic variety exhibits lightercolors than the humic gray-brown podzolic soils, butas shown inTable8.3, theorganicmatter contentsdonotdiffermuchbetweenthetwovarieties.Inthispar-ticular example, the lighter-colored A horizon of thetropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoilhaseventhehighestorganicmattercontent.
�.�.�.� ClaymineralogyIntheolderliterature,“mountainsoils”werereportedtobecharacterizedbyhalloysiteclayminerals(Hardon,
69071.indb 349 4/25/08 10:43:12 AM
��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
1936b),whichfindssomesupportinthemorecurrentliterature. Due to more advanced techniques and theavailability of more sophisticated instruments, moredetails have been collected in the post-World War IIperiods. The clay fractions of gray-brown podzolicsoilsappeartoalsocontainsubstantialamountsoffreeironoxidesandamorphousorparacrystallinemateri-alsmixedwithvaryingamountsofgibbsite,2:1and1:1typesofclays,andα-crystoballite.Insomecases,hallo-ysitemaybeabsentandseemstobereplacedbykaolin-ite.Anexampleof suchacomposition isprovided inTable8.4foratropicalgraybrownpodzolicsoiloftheKendeng mountain in West Java. As can be noticed,theamountofgibbsitetendstodominatetheclayfrac-tion.Thisisfollowedbynontronite,a2:1latticetypeofclaymineral,whereaskaoliniteranksthirdinamounts.Alpha-crystoballiteandlabradoriteareprimaryminer-als.Theyarealsodetectedintheclayfractionbecauseof theirsizesat<2 mm,thesizeofclayminerals.Theoccurrenceofα-cristoballiteisoftenusedasanindica-tionofthesoil’soriginfromvolcanicmaterial.Theclaymineralogy of the humic gray-brown podzolic soilsofWestandCentral–EastJava(notshown)donotdif-fermuchfromtheabove.Inafewcases,theclayfrac-tionsofgray-brownpodzolicsoilsmaybedominatedbyhalloysite,asisthecasewithatropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoilofPujon,EastJava.Becauseofthisuniqueclay fraction, composed of 90% halloysites, the claymineralcomposition isprovidedinTable8.4 forcom-parative purposes. Such a composition lends supporttoHardon’s(1936)findingsofhalloysitebeingthechar-acterizingmineralofmountainsoils,asstatedearlier.
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Chaptereight: SoilsintheMountainsofIndonesia ���
Thepresentauthordeterminedbydifferentialthermalanalysis (DTA) thepresenceofhalloysite,mixedwithamorphous or paracrystalline materials and some 2:1layertypesofclaysinagray-brownpodzolicsoiloftheTangkuban-Prahu volcano, West Java (see Chapter 7,Figure7.1).
Table.8.4. EstimatedMineralComposition(in%)oftheClayFractionsofGray-BrownPodzolicSoilsinIndonesia
Sources:VanSchuylenborgh,J.andVanRummelen(1955);Tan,K.H.andVanSchuylenborgh,J.(1959,1960).
A1
E
B
Bt
C
—
—
—
—
—
10
20
15
10
1
25
30
45
55
35
25
10
5
5
1
30
20
15
15
25
10
20
20
15
40
A1
A2
E
Bt
C
95
90
90
90
60
5
10
10
10
40
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Kendeng Mountain, West Java
Pujon, East Java
Horizon Halloy-site
Gibbsite α-Crystob-allite
Kaolin- ite
Nontron- ite
Labrador- ite
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
�.�.� Landuseandevaluation
�.�.�.� EvaluationofanalyticalpropertiesThepHvaluesarewithinasuitablerangeofthegrowthrequirementsofmostcrops.Attheslightlytomoderatelyacidicconditions,thebasesaturationswereexpectedtobeabovethe35%limit,butresultsofanalysessuggestthe exchange complex to be saturated with less than10%calcium(TanandMassey,1964).Theexchangeablepotassiumcontents(100ppmK)areusuallywithintherangenormallyfoundinproductiveagriculturalsoils.Availablephosphorus(3ppmP)isinthelowrangeofstandards applied to the Bray test. However, this testhasbeencalibratedfortemperateregionsoftheUnitedStatesandissuggestedbytheauthortoberecalibratedifusedforthemountainsoilsofIndonesia.Themoreacidicvarietymayperhapshavesomealuminumaccu-mulatedintheBthorizon,butjudgingfromthesoilpHrangeof5to6,thechancesforsubsoilacidityoralumi-numtoxicityarelesslikelytohappen.
�.�.�.� SignificanceofbasicsoilpropertiesIngeneral, thisgroupofsoils isfertileandmayformgoodagriculturalandforestlands.Mostofthesoilsareyoungvolcanicashsoils,andseveraloftheplantnutri-ents are still locked up in the primary minerals (seeTable8.1). This perhaps explains the presence of rela-tivelylowlevelsofcalciumandotherplantnutrientsinsolubleforms.Mostofthemareexpectedtobesuppliedby the decomposition of the litter covering the forestfloor.Themountainvegetation,responsibleforproduc-tionofthelitter,iscomposedmostlyofhardwoodtrees
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(e.g.,Quercussp.oroak,Castaneasp.,chestnutorlocallycalledsaninten).TheAcaciatrees,mentionedinthesoilmorphologysection,arefromreforestationefforts.Theassociationofbroad-leaftreesaboveisknowntopro-duce base-rich litter. At higher altitudes, close to thetimberline, the hardwood forest may be mixed withsomeindigenousconiferoustrees,thoughthelitterhereisstillnotasacidicasthatknownforconiferousforestsoftemperateregions.
Thelitterlayerisalsoresponsiblefornutrientcyclingand is also the source for the relatively high nitrogencontentsandextremelyhighorganicmattercontentsinthesurfacesoil.Inthecoolmountainclimate,decompo-sitionofthelitterproduceslargeamountsofhumicandfulvic acids, which make the A horizons notoriouslyblack todarkbrown incolor.This is thenwhy, in thepast,thegray-brownpodzolicsoilswereoftenconfusedforandosols.Duetothehighhumuscontents,bringingabout the mountain granulation, the soils exhibit stablesoilstructuresandotherexcellentphysicalpropertiesforagriculturalandforestactivities.Theymayneedproperfertilizationtooffsetsomeofthelownutrientcontents.
When liming is needed, the use of dolomitic limeorgypsumissuggested inordernot toraisesoilpH,becausethisisalreadyinthesuitablerangeformostofthecrops.
�.�.�.� AgriculturaloperationsAsindicatedearlier,lowlandricecultivationisalwaysofprimaryconcernalloverIndonesia,andthisalsoseemstobe true in themountain regions.However, ricewasdiscussed earlier, and its cultivation practices using
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inundatedfields,calledsawahs,are thesamefromthelowlands to the mountain regions. Hence, more atten-tionwillbegivenbelowtosomeofthevegetable,fruit,andestate crops,whichareveryprofitable formostofthe farmers and bring in the needed revenues for thecountry.
The mountain climate, where the soils are located,isfavorableforgrowingagreatvarietyofcoolregioncrops.ThisistheplacewhereEuropeanvegetablesarebest cultivated, whereas at limited locations apples,pears,grapes,andwheatarealsogrown.Theclimateattheseelevationsisusuallytoocoolfortropicalfruitcrops,suchaspapaya,citrus,andcoconutpalms.Theupperlimitsfortheirpropercultivationaretheuplandclimate. The citrus, grown on mountain soils, oftenyields sour-tasting oranges. The lowland bananas,calledpisangambon,arealsooutgrownbythemoun-tain variety that was called pisang ambon-lumut, asdiscussedintheagriculturaloperationsofbrownforestsoils(Chapter7,Section7.3.6.3).Evenfishculture,whichisextensivelyconductedinthelowlandsanduplandswithavarietyofcarp,barbers,andtilapia,cannotbepracticedhereaswellasitcanbeinthelowlands.Thewaterisapparentlytoocold,butimportedfishvariet-ies,suchastrout,areseeminglydoingwell.Themoun-tain regions are also the places where dairy farmingispracticedmostlywithimporteddairycows.Thisisalsotheplacewherethebestteaestatesandcinchonaandarabicacoffeeplantationsarelocated.ThelatterisinternationallyknownasthefamousJavacoffee.
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�.�.�.�.� Horticultural crops The same types ofvegetablesgrownonuplandsoilsarealsogrownhere(e.g.,cabbages,potatoes,beans,carrots,andtomatoes).However,becauseofacoolerclimate,providingbettergrowing conditions, the yields may often be slightlyhigher, whereas the quality of the produce from themountainsoilstendstobebetter.Lettuce(Lactucasativaor Lactuca indica) and the locally called sawi (Brassicarugosa),alsoaleafygreenproduce,arefavoredbymanyrestaurantsandsupermarketsintownbecauseoftheirmountain-grown quality. Stable manure was custom-arilyusedinthepastforstimulatingandraisingcropyields, but today artificial NPK fertilizers seem to bemorecommonincombinationwithstablemanure.
�.�.�.�.�.� Apples and grapes These fruit treeshavebeengrownfora fewdecadeswith limitedsuc-cess.Oftenthefruitsaretoosmallortheirtasteistootangyorsour.Throughbreedingandselection,suitableapplesandgrapesareproducedtodayinthehighlandsofMalang,EastJava,meetingmarketrequirements.
Appleplantsarenormallygrownbyusingbuddings,which isapparentlyamorerapidmethodofplantingthanusingseedlings.Thelatterusuallyrequireapprox-imately6monthsofstayinginthenurseriesbeforetheyarereadyfortransplantinginthefield.Sprayingappleflowerswithgrowthstimulatorstoincreasefruityieldsis often suggested by researchers of the Agency forAgriculturalResearchandDevelopment(AARD,1986).Theyieldincreasesof10to17%areperhapstoosmalltooutweighhealthhazards,andthismethodmayper-hapsnotmeetU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency
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(EPA)standards forconsumptionof theapples in theUnitedStates.
Grapes,calledangurinIndonesia,aretheotherfruitcrops that are gaining in importance. Today they aremostlygrowninMalang,EastJava,astablegrapes,usingvarietiesfromhomegrowneffortsinbreedingandselec-tion.Thequalityof thegrape fruits seems todependontheperiodoftimeallowedforgrowingandtimeofharvest. According to AARD (1986) research reports,toproducegrapesatmarketstandards,thegrapevinevarieties,developedunderIndonesianconditions,need105daysforgrowthafterpruning.However,theculti-vationofgrapesstillmeetsanumberofdifficultiesduetothehumidclimateofIndonesia.ThisisalsothemainreasonforplantinggrapesinthemountainsofEastJavawhereadryermonsoonclimate,KöppensAmclimate,ispresentratherthanthecontinuouslywetAfaorAfclimate in the West Java mountains. The grape vinesareverysusceptibletoattackbydownymildewfungus,especiallyduringtherainyseason,whichmayresultinatotalloss.Today,sprayingwithafungicide,propineb,hasbeensuggestedtoreducethedamage.Postharvesthandlingneedsalsoincreasedattentionduetotherapidenzymatic fermentation of the fruits during long-dis-tance hauling to reach marketplaces in Surabaya andespeciallyJakartaorotherdistanttowns.
�.�.�.�.�.� Wheat crops Wheat, known locallyasgandum,isanagriculturalcropthathasbeengrownin Indonesia with mixed results since the early daysof the pre-World War II period (Table8.5). The drivefor wheat cultivation in Indonesia has been revived
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today,presumablyoutofnecessity,bybusinesspeopleand thewheatflourmillingcompanies. In Indonesia,as is thecase inmostotherpartsofAsia,wheatasafood crop is not even second to rice. The estimate isthat only 5% of the total wheat flour consumption inIndonesiaisattributedtohouseholduse.Theindustryuses 30% of all the wheat flour primarily for noodle,bread,cake,somecrackers,andpastryproduction.TheaverageIndonesianfamilyneedsitforthepreparationoffriedfood,asadditivesincooking,andformakingcookies, some snacks, and cake. Because wheat flour
Table.8.5. MountainAreasWhereWheatCultivationinIndonesiaHasBeenReportedYear Location
1790 WestJava1828 DiengPlateau,CentralJava;Tengger,EastJava1849 Timor1855 MerbabuVolcanoComplex1925 PengalenganHighlands,WestJava1925 KaroHighlands,NorthSumatra1966 PengalenganHighlands,WestJava
DiengPlateau,CentralJavaLawang,Malang,EastJava
1982 HighlandsofKuninganandTlekung,EastJava2000 Bogor,WestJava;
MojosariInstitutPertanianBogor(IPB)ExperimentalFields
Boyolali,Salatiga,UniversityofSurakartaExperimentalFields
Sources:AARD(1981–1986);Bogosari,Berita(2007).
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consumptionbyanaveragehouseholdfamilywaslessthan10kg/capita,theneedforwheatflourhasinthepast been satisfied by imports from mostly Australiaand countries around the Pacific. This consumptionisbelievedtohaveincreasedtoanestimated15kgormore per capita in 2002, and seems to increase fur-ther with the years. Due to the considerable rise inconsumption, wheat imports have increased, thoughslowly at first, to 1.5 million tons in 1983, more thantwice the 600,000 tons imported in 1973. Wheat flourimportin1997wasreportedtohavegrowntoawhop-ping5milliontons(BeritaBogasari,2007).Withthesehugeamountsofimports,anotherissueiscroppingup.Duetothelongshippingperiodsfromoverseas,mostof the imported wheat flour seemsafter arrival tobeinfectedbyinsectsandalsoexhibitsunwantedmustyodors,badlydecreasingitsquality.AlltheabovewerereasonscontributingtoanewdriveforgrowingwheatinIndonesiaandprocessingandmillingitdomesticallyinthecountry.Inthisway,wheatflourofhighqualityandnutritionalvaluecanbeproduced. Inaddition, itmayaidinimprovingandbalancingthenation’secon-omy.Thecoolmountainclimateisapparentlysuitablefor cultivationofwheat crops.Thegrowthperiod forwheat in Indonesia is 3 to 4 months from seeding toharvesttime,andhence,atleasttwocropsarepossible.Solarradiationandamountsofrainfallarenotlimitingfactors,asisthecaseintemperateregions,andwillbearound in Indonesia year-long. Several good-yieldingwheatvarietieshavebeenimported,suchasR-164fromCIMMYT, HI-784 from India, Lyallpur-73 from Paki-stan, and UPLW from the Philippines. Test results at
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severallocationsintheuplandsandmountainregionsshowyieldsfrom4.8to1.8tons/ha(AARD,1986).
�.�.�.�.� Dairy farming Dairy farming startedin theearlydaysof thepre-WorldWarIIperioddur-ing the Dutch colonial time to fill the need for dairyproductsfortheDutchpeoplesettlinginIndonesia.Itwasprimarilyformilkfordrinking,andonlyaminorfraction isused forprocessing intocheese. In theolddays,therewereonlyafewfarms,whichwerelocatedmostly near centers of populationwhere the demandfor dairy products is the highest. Some were estab-lishedatthebordersofJakartaandSurabaya,thoughtheclimateisnotcompatiblewiththedairycattle,com-posedmostlyofimportedHolstein-Frisiancows,bredandraisedinthecoolclimateoftheNetherlands.Fewothersweremoreconvenientlylocatedinthemountainregions,suchasinLembangontheslopeoftheTang-kubanPrahuvolcano,WestJava,orintheMalanghigh-land,EastJava,andBrastagi,attheslopeoftheSibayakmountain in North Sumatra. By European standards,theherdswererelativelysmall,andmostoftheseDutchfarmshavebeenliquidatedwiththe independenceofIndonesia.Veryfewremaindersarestillpresent,likealocallywell-knowndairyfarm,namedDeFriescheTerpin Lembang, West Java, on the slope of the Tangku-banPrahuvolcano.However,theoldDutchboerderijen(meaning “dairy farms” in the Dutch language) havesince thenbeen replacedbymanynewsmallerdairyfarms.Ownedbylocalpeople,thesesmallfarms,oper-atingwithonly30to40cows,havebeencroppingupwithincitybordersaswellasinthecountryside.When
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the Indonesiangovernment started launching itsfirst5-yeardevelopmentplanfortheperiodof1969to1974andcontinuedthereafterwithsecondandthird5-yearplans, a system was created to allow participation ofevensmallerfarmsthantheonesdescribedabove.Thissystem involves only two to three cows, owned andraisedbyanindividualfarmernotonlyformilkpro-duction,butalsoforproductionofstablemanure(UotilaandDhanapala,2007).Dairycooperativeswereestab-lishedforcollectingandprocessingthemilkproducedbytheseverysmallfarms.TheNationalUnionofDairyCooperativesandseveralprivate-sectordairy-process-ingfactorieslatertookontheresponsibilityofadsorb-ing thegradually increasedmilkproduction.Thoughbothdairy farmingsystemsexist today, therelativelybigger farms with 30 to 40 cows are more effectivethanthesmallerindividualfarmsowning2to3cows.Thelatteristobeexpectedbecauseitisverydifficultto maintain milk production, for example, with only2 cows. In this respect,one canevenhardly considerthem as real dairy farms. The lactation period is notendless;hence,milkproductionbythesesmallfarmsissomewhat lessreliable.Thedairycowsarecustomar-ily raised in confinement and fed with a daily rationof rice bran and corn, supplemented generously withfreshgreenery,cutfromthesurroundingfieldsandfor-est.Theyareseldomallowedtoroamandgrazeinthefield,exceptperhapswheretheindividualsmallfarmerhasoneortwocows.Inthelattercase,thefarmermayherdthecowsdaily,grazingtheshrubberyandgrassesonempty lots.Foranadequatedailysupplyofgreenfodder, the bigger farms usually have a farmhand or
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two,whoseresponsibilitiesaretocut,earlyinthemorn-ings,freshgreeneriesfromsurroundingforestedlands.Theinformationrelatedaboveisbasedmostlyonthecurrentauthor’spersonalexperiencefromhispastandrecentconnectionswithdairyfarmsownedbyfriendsandrelatives.
MilkproductionisreportedalwaystobehigherfromfarmslocatedinthemountainsofIndonesiathanthoseinthelowlands.Asindicatedearlier,theclimateinthemountains is more compatible with the Frisian cows,whowereimportedfromthecoolregionsofFriesland,Holland,orfromtheUnitedStatesasdonetoday.Milkproduction at a farm in the Bogor uplands, at 250 mabove sea level, is reported to be 1811 kg/lactation/head,ascomparedto3098kgatfarmslocatedateleva-tionsof1200to1400mabovesealevel,intheLembangand Pengalengan highlands, West Java (AARD, 1986).Themilkisusedbytheindustryprimarilyforprocess-ingintopowderedmilk,skimmilk,infantandchildrenformulas, and sweetened condensed milk. However,someofthefreshmilkfromthelocalfarmsisalsosoldfordirectconsumption, thoughquitea fewpeople inIndonesiaareapparentlynotusedtomilk.Mildstom-achdisordersoftenoccurafterdrinkingmilk.Forsolv-ingthisproblem,dairygoat farming isslowlyontherise—thereisonelocatedinBanjar,WestJava.
The domestic cow milk production by the smallfarms and cooperatives above can only supply 30%ofthecountry’stotaldairyconsumption,whereasthedemandfordairyproductsinIndonesiahasgraduallyincreased by 10%. This situation necessitates import-ingdairyproducts fromAustraliaandNewZealand.
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Their locations in closer proximity to Indonesia thanthe Netherlands, Denmark, or the United States havea distinct freight advantage. Most of the cheeses areimported fromthesecountriesoverseasandwith theavailabilityofrefrigerationinfreighttoday,evenavari-etyofimportedcottagecheeseandDannonandYoplaityogurtarefoundcurrentlyfillingtheshelvesofmajorsupermarketsinlargecities,likeJakarta.
�.�.�.�.� Estatecrops Teaisoneofthemajorestatecrops in Indonesia. In most of the Western literature,itisknownbytheLatinnameTheasinensis.However,intheDutchliteratureandtheDutchestatesitisalsocalledCamelliatheiferaorCamelliasinensis.Thebotanicaldifferencebetweenthetwofamilies,TheaandCamelia,isconsideredsosmallthatforallpracticalpurposesitisofnousetodividetheteaplantintotwofamilies(VanEmdenandDeijs,1950).TheteaplantisnotindigenousinIndonesiaandhasbeenimportedmostlyfromIndia,Japan,andChina.ItscultivationinIndonesiahasdevel-opedalongtwosystems:plantationorestatecultivationandsmallholderteafarmssystems.ThelargeDutchteaestatesweredevelopedfirstandwerefollowedlaterbythe smaller tea farms. The latter were established, infact,assupportfarmsforsupplyingthelarger“mother”estateswithmoreneededtealeaves.Anotherdifferenceisalsothatteaproductionatthelargeestatesisgener-ally for export in the form of black tea, whereas thatfromthesmallholder farms ismore thegreen tea fordomestic consumption offered at local markets. Thiscultivationofteabythesmallholderfarms,calledear-lierbevolkingstheeintheDutchliterature,wasdiscussed
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inChapter7,hencethischapterwillrelateteacultiva-tionbythelargeplantations.
Although early in the 1700s, tea seeds of the BoheavarietyhadalreadybeenimportedtoJavafromJapan,the Dutch reports first mentioned germination trialsafewyearslaterin1728.Thefirstrealteaplantationsweredevelopedalmostahundredyearslater,in1826,closetoBogorandinGarut,WestJava,andayearlaterteaplantationswerespreadallovertheislandofJava.Theteaplantsweregrownfromseedlings,germinatedfrom seed presumably imported from China. At thattime,theplantationswerenotonlyverysmall,buttheirteaproductionwasalsoverysmall.Thefirstshipmentof tea from Java to Amsterdam in 1835 was reportedto consist of only 200 cases of black tea (Van EmdenandDeijs,1950).Intheearly1900s,teacultivationalsospreadoverSumatrawithplants fromseed importedfromAssam,India.MostoftheteaplantstodayinJavaand Sumatra originate either from the Indian AssamvarietyortheolderChineseBoheavariety,andsponta-neousnaturalcrossingbetweenthetwoovertheyearshasmadethedistinctionatpresentbetweenBoheaandAssamteaveryconfusing.
By origin, tea plants came from humid temperateregions. For example, Assam, one of the countries oforigin,islocatedonthehillsoftheHimalayamountainrangeinIndia.Forthisreason,teaplantationsarelim-itedinIndonesiatothecoolhumidmountainregionsofWestJavaandSumatraandareseldomfoundinEastJava.ThemonsoonclimateintheeasternpartofIndo-nesia,characterizedbyalongsharpdryseason,islesssuitable for tea cultivation. Where rainfall pattern is
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suitable, tea will grow in the lowlands. However, theplants require so much shade for protection againstsunburnthattheproductionoftealeavesisdrasticallyreduced.Ontheotherhand,regionstoohighabovesealevelmayalsoberiskyforgrowingteaduetothesud-dendevelopmentoffrostandoftenloweramountsofsunlight.Asometimesintenseradiationofheatintotheairduringthedaymaycausethedevelopmentoffrostduringthenight.Dependingontheintensityoffrost,thedamageto teaplantscanbesmall toverysevere.Plantsmayrecoverfullyduetodamagebylightfrost,but may totally be destroyed, requiring replanting,withtheoccurrenceofseverefrost.Athighelevations,themountainareasinWestJavaalsotendtobecoveredearlyduringthedaybyrainclouds,whichofcoursehasa deleterious effect on shoot growth. The productionandqualityofteaarereportedtodecreasedrasticallyin plantations receiving less than 3 hours of sunlightduringtheday.Thebestteaplantationsarenoticedtobe located between 1000 and 1200 m above sea level,suchasthePengalenganhighlandssouthofBandunginWestJava.
TeaisgrownintheDutchestatesbyplantingteaseed-lingsinpredugpitsorholessuppliedusuallywithsul-fur.Likeazaleas,camelias,towhichteaisrelated,teaplantsareacid-lovingplants,andthesulfur isappar-entlyneededtoensureaverystrongacidsoilreactionfor proper growth and leaf production. During theirfurther growth, they receive adequate NPK fertiliza-tion.Leftalone,theseedlingstendtogrowinto15-m-talltrees,makingtheharvestingofleavesverydifficult;hence,pruningisnecessarytotransformthemintothe
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1.5-m-tallbusheswithovalorflat-topcrownsforeaseof harvesting. Tea bushes, shaped into flat-table tops,aremorecommon.Thefirstpruning,calledthemother-prune,isconductedbycuttingtheseedlingstoheightsof 20 to 30 cm. The plants are then allowed to growfor1.5 to2.5years,afterwhich time theyareprunedagain and allowed to grow further into the requiredshape. This second pruning is, therefore, called bythe Dutch vorm–snoei (vorm means “shape,” and snoeimeans“pruning”).Manyother typesofpruningsys-temsarepresent,andformoredetail,referenceismadeto Van Emden and Deijs (1950). For protection of theplants,controlofshootgrowth,andsoilconservationpurposes,mostoftheestateshaveappliedinthepastasystemofshadingbyplantingpreferablylegumetrees(e.g., Leucena glauca, locally called pete cina or lamtoro,andAlbiziafalcataorjeungjing),spacedproperlybetweentherowsofteaplants.Theseshadetreesareknowntohavedeeprootsystems,sothattheywillnotinterferewiththedevelopmentoftearootsorcompetewiththemfornutrients.However,currentlythispracticeofusingshadehasbeendiscontinueddue tochanges inculti-vation concepts using an array of agrochemicals andalso because of many socioeconomic changes in thelastcentury.Thisissue,includingthelossofecologicaladvantages,willbediscussedmoreindetailinthenextchapteroncoffeecultivation.
Theteaplantsaretodaystillharvestedmanuallybyhand-pluckingtheyoungshoots,usingmostlyfemalelabor (Figure8.2). For the production of high-qualitytea,youngshoottipsareselectedandcollectedbyhand.This iscalled imperial-pluckasopposedtoroughpluck,
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bywhicholderleavesareincludedintheharvest,yield-ing,ofcourse,lower-qualitytea.Severalothertypesofpicking, in between imperial and rough plucks, arealsopracticed,yieldinggradualdifferencesinteaqual-ity.However,whenscissorsareused,asoftenappliedtoday,bothshootsandtwigs,youngorold,arebeingharvested indiscriminately, which, of course, pro-duces lower-quality teaandcausesmorestress to theteabushes.Inthefactory,thetwigsareremovedfromthefinalproductbyacombinationofelectromagnetic,air-fan,andmanualsorting.Dependingonthemethodofharvest, thedegreeof inflicteddamage,andspeed
Figure 8.2 Femaleworkersinacool16°Cmorning,readyforharvestingtealeaves.Theyoungshootsarecollectedinthebasketsfortransporttoweighingstationsinthefield,wheretheyaretransportedfartherbytruckstotheteafactory.
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ofregrowth,thebushescanbeharvestedonetothreetimesamonth.
Inthepre-WorldWarIIperiod,ayieldof≤1000kgdryblackteaperhectareayearwasconsideredverylow,whereasyields in the rangeof2000kg/ha/yearwerevery high. Tea yields have since then been improvedconsiderably, and new tea clones, developed throughselectionandbreedingprogramsattheGambungTeaResearchInstitute,nearBandung,WestJava,havebeenreportedtoyieldanaverageof3000to4000kg/ha/year(AARD,1986).Thesehighyieldsareapparentlyachievedattheexperimentstations,becauseinpracticethenormofproductioncapacitytodayisaround2000to3000kg/haintermsofprocessedfactorytea.Thepluckingsys-temhasalsoadefiniteeffectonyields,with imperialpluck resulting in lower yields, whereas rough pluckwill, of course, give higher yields. The highest yieldsareobtainedbyharvestingtealeaveswiththescissor.
�.� BrownpodzolicsoilsThenamebrownpodzolicsoilisusedherebecausetherearenoothernamespresentintheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,Food and Agriculture Organization of the UnitedNations (FAO-UN), or World Reference Base for SoilResources (WRB) systems to describe the soils ade-quately. The term podzolic is used to indicate that thesoilsshowfeaturesduetopodzolization,buttheyarenotthetruepodzolsorspodosols.InChapter7,(Section7.2),thesignificanceofapplyingthetermpodzolicasaprefixtonamesofsoilswasaddressed.
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Thebrownpodzolicsoilsareanothergroupofsoilswhoserecognitionasadistinctgroupofsoilshasraisedalotofmixedfeelingsamongmanysoilscientists.Atonetimetheywererecognizedtooccurinthenortheast-ernpartoftheUnitedStates(Baldwinetal.,1938;Cline,1949, 1953; Lyford, 1946; Tamura and Swanson, 1954),andevenrecentlythesoilswereconsideredimportantsoilsandidentifiedstillasbrownpodzolicsoilsbytheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)ForestService(Stearns,1997).Thesoilshavebeennoticedasatransi-torygroupofsoils,betweenthezonalregionsofgray-brown podzolic soils and podzols in New England,NewJersey,andNewYork.TheyweredescribedbytheauthorsabovetolackdistinctEhorizons,andtherewaslittleevidenceofclaymovementandaccumulationintheBhorizons.KrebsandTedrow(1957)alsoindicatedthat these soils, identified as brown podzolic soils,could well be acid brown forest soils. To many othersoil scientists, the featuresasdescribedabove for thesoils in thenortheasternUnitedStatesarenotreflect-ing true podzolization, but show characteristics of apseudo-podzolizationor lessivageprocess,aprocesssug-gestedforbrownearthformation(Zonn,1966,1968).
IntheWestEuropeanliterature,brownpodzolicsoilsareseldommentioned.ThesoilsarenotincludedintheFAO-UNESCOsoilmapofWesternEurope,draftedbyTavernierandMückenhausen (1960),perhapsbecausethey are unknown in Western Europe. It is also pos-siblethattheyareconsideredasbrownforestsoilsandmappedassuchinWesternEurope.
In Indonesia, brown podzolic soils occur from theuplandthroughthemountainareas.Theyaredistinct
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zonalsoilsofthemountainregionsaffectedbypodzol-izationprocessesandhavebeendiscoveredinJavaandSumatraataltitudesof500 to2000mabovesea level(TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1959;VanSchuylenborghandVanRummelen,1955;).Generally,theyaretypicalmountainsoils,butdependingonthenatureofparentmaterials and climate, their occurrence may move orstretch to locations at lower altitudes. The climate inwhichthesoilsareformedmayrangefromthecoolCmountainclimatetotherelativelywarmerhumidtrop-icalrainforestorAfaclimate.OnintermediateparentmaterialsinJava,thesoilsarefoundathighelevationswithCsclimates,whereasonthemoreacidicliparitictuffsofSumatra,theareasofbrownpodzolicsoilsmaystretch to within the limits of the uplands. However,because these are the only available data, the authoris trying his best to convince other scientists of theconcretepresenceofbrownpodzolicsoilsinthehigh-landsofIndonesia.
�.�.� Parentmaterials
IntheUnitedStates,brownpodzolicsoilsareconfinedtoacidparentmaterialsorparentmaterialsthatdonotcontainorarelowincarbonates.Whencalcareousmate-rialsarepresent,Cline(1949) indicates that theymustlieatconsiderabledepthsintheprofileandbeyondthereachofmostplantroots(seealsoKrebsandTedrow,1957).InEngland,Robinson(1951)notedabrownpod-zolicsoildevelopedonporphyriticrhyolite.InIndone-sia, this group of soils is also found limited to acidicparentmaterials.Incaseofalessacidparentmaterial,
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thelocationoftheoccurrenceofbrownpodzolicsoilsisshiftedtohigheraltitudes(Table8.6).Thebrownpod-zolic soilsare found inTapanuli at 1300mabove sealevel.ThemineralogicaldataoftheparentmaterialsofthesoilsinIndonesia,asprovidedinTable8.6,showthelipariticvolcanictuffinTapanuli,NorthSumatra,tocon-tainsubstantialamountsofquartz,indicatingitsacidicnature.Ontheotherhand,theparentmaterialderivedfromtheLawuvolcanoinCentralJavadoesnotcontainquartz.Itisidentifiedasandesitictuff,anintermediateparentmaterial,withahypersthene-augiteassociation(TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1959).Inthepresenceofsuch less acidic parent materials, the brown podzolicsoilsdevelopatlocationsof3000mabovesealevel.
�.�.� Climate
Inthetemperateregions,brownpodzolicsoilsarecon-sideredzonalsoilsofhumidcool-temperateareas,inter-mediatebetweentheclimaticregionofpodzolstothenorthandthatofthegray-brownpodzolicsoilstothesouth.InIndonesiatheclimateinwhichthesoilsoccurmayvaryfromthecoolmountainclimatetothewarmerhumid tropical rain forest climate of the upland. Thedata inTable8.7 indicatethat inSumatra,where lipa-ritictuffsarefound,thebrownpodzolicsoilsoccurinAfaandAm(Köppen)typesofclimates.However, inJavawheretheparentmaterialislessacidic(e.g.,andes-itictuff),thesoilsarelimitedtolocationsathigheleva-tionswithCsclimatetypes.
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Tabl
e.8.
6.M
iner
alog
ical
Com
posi
tion
ofB
row
nPo
dzol
icS
oils
Pro
file
Pri
mar
y.M
iner
als.
in.P
erce
nt.(
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69071.indb 371 4/25/08 10:43:18 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
�.�.� Soilmorphology
BrownpodzolicsoilsweredefinedbyCline(1949,1953)to be podzols in the incipient stage. Morphologicallythey are, therefore, more closely related to podzolsthantogray-brownpodzolicsoils.Generally,thepro-fileischaracterizedbyalayerofhumus,unmixedwithmineralsoil,onthesurface.ThisisunderlainbyaverythinAhorizonandnobleachedEhorizonoccurs.Cline
Table.8.7. TheClimateofBrownPodzolicSoilsinIndonesia
a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols:A = coldestmonth>18°C;a=warmestmonth>22°C;f=humid;m=mon-soon; C = warmest month >10°C and coldest month between18°Cand−3°C;h=coldestmonth>0°C;i=hotsummer;s=drysummer.
Rainfall Altitude
<60 mm >100 mm
Mean Annual Rainfall
Type ofClimatea
Sumatra
Pematang
Siantar
Sipirok
400
898
920
0.2
2.4
2.2
11.0
7.8
8.4
3130
1786
1921
Afa
Am
Afa
A
B
B
RY Podzolic
Brown Podz.
Parapat
Aek na Uli Si-Borongborong
1160
1320
1.0
1.4
11.0
9.0
2609
2088
—
Cshi
—
B Podzols
Java
Sarangan
Taman Sari
Summit Lawu
1290
2480
3200
3.4
—
—
7.7
—
—
2533
—
—
Cfhi
Cs
Cs
C
—
—
Gray Brown
Brown Podz.
Volcano
Location
m Months mm Köppen
Soil
S&F
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(1949)indicateshavingobservedevidenceofanincipi-entbleicherdeinthebrownpodzolicsoilsofNewYork.ThiscanbenoticedintheformoflightgrayspecksormottlesintheAhorizon.SuchakindofAhorizonisallegedlyconspicuouslythickunderhardwoodforest.The B horizon is strong brown to yellowish-brown,andnoevidenceofthepresenceofclayaccumulationispresent.ThebrownpodzolicsoilsofIndonesiafollowasimilardescription.Anexampleisprovidedbelow:
Brownpodzolicsoil,Tapanuli,AekNaUli,NorthSumatra,locatedataneleva-tionof1300mabovesealevel.Thepro-filewasontheflat topofamountain.Vegetationwascomposedofpinetrees,whereas the parent material was lipa-riticvolcanictuff.Colornotationsrefertoair-dryandfield-wetconditions.
Horizon Depth.(cm) Description
O 5–0 Stratifiedpineneedleliter.
A1 0–10 10YR3/1to10YR2/1,darkgraytoblack,clayloam,granular,fria-ble,manyroots.
A2 10–20 10YR 5/3 to 5YR 3/4, brown todark reddish-brown, clay loam,granular,friable,manyroots.
B 20–75 7.5YR 8/6 to 5YR 6/8, reddish-yellow, clay loam, subangularblocky,friable,fewroots.
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
The solum is thus composed of a thick A horizon,divided into a dark gray/black surface (A1) horizonandasubsurface(A2)horizon,underlainbyareddish-yellowtodarkyellowish-brownBhorizon.BecausenoindicationofbleachingcanbedetectedintheA2hori-zon,thishorizoncannotqualifyforanE(albic)horizon,usuallycharacterizingpodzolprofiles.Thesoiltexturedoesnotdifferdownwardintheprofile.Thecomposi-tionoftheclayfractions,however,showsevidencethatpodzolizationisinvolvedhere,whichwillbediscussedinmoredetailbelow.
�.�.� Soilclassification
Most prominent soil scientists in the United Stateswereoftheopinionthatthesoilswereweakpodzolsorpodzolsintheincipientstage.However,agreatmanyotherU.S.scientistswerealsoskepticalaboutthesoilsbeing podzols, young podzols, or acid brown forestsoilsorwhethertheyexistedatallasadistinctgroupofsoils.Becauseofsuchconfusion,theexistenceofbrownpodzolic soils seems to have been recalled with theintroductionofanewU.S.soilclassificationsystem.IntheSeventhApproximationoftheComprehensiveSys-temofSoilClassification (SoilSurveyStaff, 1960), the
C1 75–90 10YR8/3to10YR6/4,palebrownto light yellowish-brown, sandyloam,granular,friable.
C2 +90 10YR 8/2 to 10YR 6/3, white topalebrown,sandyloam,granular,lipariticvolcanictuff.
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forerunner of the current U.S. Soil Taxonomy, brownpodzolicsoilsweregroupedtogetherwiththepodzolsinthespodosolsorder.Thishasremainedunchangedin thenewestversion of the U.S. SoilTaxonomy (SoilSurveyStaff,2006b).
In the German literature the name Podzol-braunerdecan be found, which can be interpreted as an inter-gradebetweenapodzolandbrownforest soil. It canalso mean podzolized or podzolic brown forest soil,which in essence is then a brown podzolic soil. Thedescription of this podzol-braunerde, as provided byAltemüller(1962),fitstheconceptofabrownpodzolicsoil. However, in Russia, podzol-braunerde soils areconsideredtobedwarf-podzols(Tiurinetal.,1960).IntheWRBsystem,thesoilsarecalledumbrisols,whichispresumablybasedonIndonesianresearchfindings.
In Indonesia, the brown podzolic soils were discov-eredin1955byVanSchuylenborghandVanRummelen(1955), and since then have been recognized as a dis-tinctzonalgroupofmountainsoilsbetweenthezonesof gray-brown podzolic soils and podzols. The BogorSoilResearch Institutehasalso recognizedagroupofsoils called podzolik coklat (coklat means “brown”). Thenamewasmeantforabrownvarietyofred-yellowpod-zolicsoilsinthelowland(personalcommunication),andhenceshouldnotbeconfusedforbrownpodzolicsoils.
�.�.� Physicochemicalcharacteristics
�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionThesoilsarealllightintexture(Table8.8).Nomarkedclay movement can be noticed, except perhaps for a
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
veryslightgradualincreaseinclaycontentwithdepthintheSumatransoilprofile.ThisabsenceofadistinctlyclayincreaseinBhorizonsisconsideredearlierasthebigdifferencefrompodzolsorotherspodosols.
�.�.�.� ChemicalcharacteristicsThesoilpHisratherlowintheSumatranbrownpod-zolicsoils,showingvaluesintherangeofstronglyacidsoils(Table8.8).ThebrownpodzolicsoilsofJava,formedon lessacidicparentmaterial,are lessacidic.ThepHvaluesaround6.0showthesoilstobemoderatelyacid
Table.8.8. PhysicochemicalCharacteristicsofBrownPodzolicSoilsinIndonesia
Particle Size Distribution (%)
Org. C %
N %
Profile Horizon
50–2 <2 µ
pHH2O
A1
A2
B
C1
C2
32.6
32.6
33.5
62.3
74.0
42.5
38.6
35.6
25.8
16.7
24.9
28.8
30.9
11.9
9.3
4.98
4.96
4.82
5.04
4.42
8.7
3.5
0.9
0.3
0.2
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
>50 µ
C N
Tapanuli, North Sumatra, 1300 m
A1
B1
B2
C
29.4
34.3
38.1
67.0
64.1
59.5
56.5
27.8
6.5
6.2
5.4
5.2
5.84
6.05
6.08
5.83
10.5
6.14
5.20
3.05
0.53
0.33
0.26
0.09
19.8
17.7
20.7
33.9
Lawu Volcano, Central Java, 3000 m
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inreaction,whichalsosuggeststhepresenceofamod-eratelyhighbasestatus.Hence,theclayfractionismorelikelysaturatedwithbases,resultinginflocculationofclays.Thisisthenoneofthereasonsfortheimmobili-zationofclays,preventingtheclayparticlesfrommov-ingfromAtoBhorizons.TheorganicmattercontentisperhapsthesourceforthehighamountofbasesinthebrownpodzolicsoilsofJava.
Generally,organicmattercontentinallcasesisexcep-tionallyhighinthesurfacehorizons,exceedingcontentsreportedformollisols(Brady,1990).However,abigdif-ferencecanbenoticedinthenatureandcontentdowntheprofileoftheorganicmatterbetweenthetwosoilslistedinTable8.8.ThebrownforestsoilinSumatraislocated in a coniferous forest, and hence, the organicmatterismoreacidic,duetoitsoriginmostlyfrompineneedles.TheamountsofCorg,rangingfrom8.7to3.5%,inAhorizonsareveryhighanddecreasedsharplyinBandChorizons.Incontrast,thebrownforestsoilofJavaisfoundunderabroad-leafsemideciduousforest.Therefore,itsorganicmatterismorerichinbasesandlessacidicinnaturethanthelitterofthesoilsinSuma-tra.This isonereasonthesoils inJavaare lessacidicinreaction.ThoughtheamountsintermsofCorgalsodecreasesubstantiallyfromAtoBandChorizons,val-uesintherangeof6.14to3.05%Corgmuststillbecon-sideredveryhigh.
�.�.�.� ClaymineralogyTheonlypublisheddatainthisrespectarepresentedbyVanSchuylenborghandVanRummelen(1955)andTanandVanSchuylenborgh(1959).Asummaryofthedata
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
forthebrownpodzolicsoilinSumatraispresentedinTable8.9asabasisfordiscussions.ItcanbenoticedthattheclayfractionofthebrownpodzolicsoilsinSuma-traisdominatedbythepresenceofkaolinite.Substan-tialamountsofα-crystoballitehavealsobeendetected,indicatingthevolcanicoriginofthesoils.Thepresenceofquartzsuggeststheacidicnatureoftheparentmate-rial,whereasgibbsitereflectsalateriticweatheringpro-cessinclayformation.
Thekaoliniticnatureoftheclayfractionissupportedbyelementalanalyses,whichexpressedintermsofsil-ica/sesquioxideratios(orSiO2/R2O3ratios;R2O3=Al2O3+Fe2O3)areintherangeof1.86to1.81fortheSuma-tranbrownpodzolicsoils.Aratiobetween1.0and2.0isindicativeforthepresenceofkaoliniteor1:1typeofminerals,whereasaratioof3.0to4.0suggeststhepres-enceofsmectiteor2:1latticetypeofclays.Thebrownforest soil of Java has clay fractions exhibiting silica/sesquioxideratiosfromAtoBhorizonsintherangeof3.16to2.37.Therefore,theymaycontain,inadditiontokaolinite,smectitesorother2:1typesofclays(Tanand
Table.8.9. EstimatedMineralCompositionofClayFractionsinBrownPodzolicSoilsofSumatra(in%)
Horizon Kaolinite Gibbsiteα.
Crystoballite Quartz Biotite
A1 55 — 45 — — A2 52 15 25 1 8 B 64 18 14 4 1 C1 66 16 13 5 1 C2 67 1 7 20 6
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Van Schuylenborgh, 1959). The conditions in Java areverydifferentthanthoseinSumatra.IntheregionsofthebrownpodzolicsoilsofJava,theparentmaterialislessacidicandtheclimatelesshumidbutmoremon-soon-like.Theseconditionsarebelievedtopromotelessleaching, resulting in the development of a basic soilmediumessentialfortheformationofsmectites.
�.�.� Landuseandevaluation
Thesoilscontainveryhighamountsoforganicmatter;hence, soilnitrogencontentsareexpected tobehigh.Thoughderivedfromliparitictuff,anacidtypeofpar-entmaterial,thebrownpodzolicsoilsofSumatramaystillbehighinpotassiumandsomeoftheotherplantnutrientsinviewofthepresenceofweatherableminer-alsinitssandfraction(e.g.,biotite,sanidine,andfeld-spar).ThesoilsinJavaareevenricherbecauseoftheirhighcontentsofplagioclaseandferromagnesianminer-als(e.g.,sanidine,labradorite,hypersthene,andaugite)(Table8.6).Theseprimarymineralscanbeconsideredasthemineralreserveofsoils.Inthecourseofweathering,theprimarymineralsaresubjectedtodecomposition,resultinginagradualreleaseoftheelementsthatthencanbecomeavailableforplantgrowth.Perennialcropsandpinetreescantakeadvantageofthesoil’smineralreserve.Becausemineralweatheringisusuallyaveryslowprocess,annualcropsorshort-growingcropsmayneedsomefertilizerswhengrownonthebrownpod-zolicsoils.
Agricultural operations on brown podzolic soilsare inbetween thoseof thehighlandalfisolsand the
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��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
spodosols.Atthebordersofthezonesofthehighlandalfisols, an almost similar type of agricultural opera-tionispracticed,butwithemphasismoreoncultivationofthecoolertemperateregioncrops.Closertobordersof the spodosols, these areas at higher elevations aremostly still under native mountain vegetations or inSumatrausedforpinetreescultivatedinlargeestates,usuallyownedbytheIndonesianForestService.Pinusmerkusiiisanindigenouspinespeciesfrequentlygrownforlumber,cheapfuel-wood,andtodayalsoforpulp-wood. Some of the higher areas here are often tooruggedand theclimateoften toocold that forpracti-calreasonsmostofthefolkspreferfarmingthebrownpodzolicsoilsatthelowerelevations.Becausemostofthe crops for cultivation have already been presented(seeSection8.1),theywillnotbediscussedagainheretoavoidrepetition.
�.� SpodosolsSpodosols were formerly called podzols in the UnitedStates,andtodaythenamepodzolisstillusedandrec-ognized by many other countries outside the UnitedStates,inparticularinGermanyandRussia.AccordingtoJoffe(1949)andRobinson(1951),alsoquotedrecentlybyFAO-UNESCO(2007b),thenamepodzolhasitsrootsfrom the Russian words pod (“beneath” or “under”)and zola (“ash,” referring to the ash-gray or whitishcolorof theEhorizon). It isgenerallyagreedthat thesoilsareformedbypodzolization,aprocessresultinginthedepletionofalkaliandalkalineearthsfromtheAhorizonwithamaximumexpressionintheEhorizon.
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Thisdifferenceismadepossiblebythehigherorganicmattercontentof thesurfaceAhorizon,possessingahighercation-exchangecapacity.Withthedepletionofbases,clayparticlesandsesquioxidesarereadilypep-tizedandmovedownwardtoaccumulateintheBhori-zon.Bymoremodernconcepts,themobilizationofclayandsesquioxidesisascribedtotheirinteractionswithhumicacidsformingclay-humusandhumo-sesquiox-idechelates.Theprocessofmobilizationandimmobi-lizationofthesechelatesaretodaycalledcheluviationandchilluviation,respectively,byFAOandWRBscien-tists,asdiscussedinChapter5.
Thepodzol-BhorizonhasrecentlybeenconsideredasmorediagnosticinpropertyforidentificationthanthebleachedeluvialEoralbichorizonbytheU.S.soilclas-sification system. It was defined by the U.S. Soil Tax-onomy(SoilSurveyStaff,1960,2006)asaspodichorizon,composedofanilluvialaccumulationoffreesesquiox-ides,accompaniedbyappreciableamountsoforganicmatter.Becauseofitsdominantimportance,thenamespodosols is coined from it and used for replacing thenamepodzolsintheUnitedStates.Thespodichorizon,or horizon of sesquioxides and humus accumulation,maybefoundinalldegreesofdevelopment.
Podzolsaregenerallywidelyfoundintheforestedregions of the northern hemisphere under a humidtemperatetocoolclimate.Theyareprobablythebest-knownsoilsinWesternEuropeandinRussiaandarefrequently found associated with forest vegetationthatproducesacidhumusofthemortype(forexam-ple,coniferousforestorheathvegetation).Suchtypeoforganicmatterisconsideredessentialforacidleaching
69071.indb 381 4/25/08 10:43:21 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
ofthepedons.InIndonesia,thesoilsarealsofoundasazonalgroup,limitedtohighelevationsinthemoun-tainsofSumatra(KielandRachmat,1948;Mohr,1944;TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1961a).Thetropicalrainforestatthesehighaltitudesiscomposedofbroad-leafmountaintreesmixedwithindigenousconifers,pro-vidingtheacidhumusneededforacidicleaching.ThesoilshavealsobeenlocatedinthehighlandsofPapuabetween the lakes of Angi Gita and Angi Gigi. TheKubremountain,whichseparatesthetwolakes,is2400mhigh,anditssummitandsurroundingsbelowareentirely covered by podzols (Hardon, 1936b). Excep-tionstothiszonaloccurrencealwaysexistinnature,becausepodzolshavealsobeendiscoveredatlowalti-tudesinIndonesia.Theselowlandpodzolshavebeenreported to occur under very specific conditions inthe lowlands of Kalimantan and the Bangka islandsgroup (Hardon, 1937), where they are known underthelocalnameoftanahpadang(tanahmeans“soil,”andpadang means “plain, meadow”). A heath vegetationwasrecentlydiscoveredontheislandsofBangkaandBelitung,consideredtobeassociatedwiththeSunda-landheatherforestsystem(WorldWildLife,2004).Mohr(1949)alsoreported thepossibilityof theoccurrenceofpodzolsinthePalembanglowlandsofSouthSuma-tra,asamoreorlessdrownedsoil inconnectionwiththegreatpost-Pliocenetransgressionofthesea.Theselowlandpodzolsareperhapstheintrazonaltropicalpod-zols,asreferredtobyFAOandWRBscientists.
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�.�.� Parentmaterials
Theparentmaterialsofthemountainpodzolsarelim-itedtotheacidictypesofvolcanicejecta,andnoreportsare available in Indonesia, where they have beenformedonintermediate,basic,orcalcareousmaterials.InSumatra, theparentmaterialsare lipariticvolcanictuffs.Theirmineralogicaldata,asshowninTable8.10,indicatethepresenceofalotofquartzandsanidineinthesandfraction,withgreenhornblende,hypersthene,zircon,andorthitemakinguptheheavymineralfrac-tion.Ingeneral,liparitictuffsarecharacterizedbytheircontentsofalotofquartzandorthite.Thetwomineralsareoftenusedasindicationsoftheacidicnatureofthematerialsandareabsentintheintermediateandbasicvolcanicash.Whenpresentinthelatter,theyareonlydetected in very small amounts, like for example theminoramountsofquartzinsomeoftheandesitictuffs.Thepresenceofzirconandsanidineissometimesalsoused as an indicator of the acidic nature of the tuffs,suchastheliparites.However,thesetwomineralsareoftenalsodetectedinintermediateandbasicvolcanicash, though in relatively smaller amounts (Mohr andVan Baren, 1960). In contrast to Sumatra, the parentmaterials on the other islands, where podzols occur,arenotvolcanicash,butareinsteadsedimentaryandmetamorphicrocks.Forexample,intheKubremoun-tain of West Papua, the soils originate from shales,quartzites, and fine quartz sandstone, as reported byHardon(1936b).Shaleandsandstoneareknowntobesedimentaryrocks,whereasquartziteisanacidicmet-amorphic rock. The lowland podzols of Kalimantan
69071.indb 383 4/25/08 10:43:22 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Tab
le.8
.10.
Min
eral
ogic
alC
ompo
siti
ono
fPod
zols
Hor
izon
Com
pos
itio
n.in
.Tot
al.S
and
.Fra
ctio
nH
eavy
.Fra
ctio
n
Qu
artz
Oli
go-.
clas
eS
anid
ine
Vol
can
ic.
Gla
ssB
ioti
teM
isc.
Op
aqu
e
Gre
en.
Hor
n-.
ble
nd
eH
yper
-.st
hen
eO
rth
ite
Gre
en.
Hor
n-.
ble
nd
e
Bro
wn
..H
orn
- .b
len
de
Hyp
er-.
sth
ene
Zir
con
Dai
ri.L
and
s,.S
um
atra
Aa
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
E65
1015
10—
—62
——
172
—1
71
B1
4417
136
—20
55—
—12
14—
663
B2
3017
1116
—25
11
—1
76—
203
C19
267
2213
133
——
1538
—34
13
Mou
nt.S
ibar
ton
g,.T
apan
uli
,.Nor
th.S
um
atra
O/
A33
322
231
5–
trtr
——
——
—
E36
1720
251
tr33
trtr
556
126
11
Bh
208
1216
240
122
tr1
74tr
25tr
Bir
915
645
185
6tr
tr7
76tr
142
C7
84
5223
344
1tr
—75
—15
8
aA
llm
iner
als
are
hum
us-l
ike
conc
reti
ons.
Sour
ces:
Kie
l,H
.and
Rac
hmat
,H.,
(194
8);T
an,K
.H.a
ndV
anS
chuy
lenb
orgh
,J.(
1961
);M
ohr,
E.C
.J.a
ndV
anB
aren
,F.A
.(19
60).
69071.indb 384 4/25/08 10:43:22 AM
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havealsobeenformedfromquartz-schists,sandstone,andoldslates,whereastheparentmaterialsforpodzolsintheBangkaislandsaremorevariedintypes.Theyrangeallegedly fromgranite tosandstone,quartzites,andclayschists(Mohr,1944),whichbelongtothecat-egories of plutonic, sedimentary, and metamorphicrocks, respectively. Podzol formation on the Bangkaislands seems to be related to the presence of sandymaterials,whichissubstantiatedbyscientistsinothercountries, who have noticed podzols to also occur inlowland areas. In Brazil, these lowland podzols werereportedtodevelopintheAmazonbasinonlyonthemore sandy materials of river terraces (Klinge, 1965).ThesoilswerefoundbyKlingetooccurnearBelémonoldcoastaldunes,whereasintheregionsoftheupperRioNegro,fluviaticbleachedquartzsandswereidenti-fiedasthematerialsfortheoriginofpodzols.Similarlithologicconditionsintheformationoflowlandpod-zolshavealsobeenreportedbySchulz(1960),whohasdescribed podzol formation in central Suriname onmaterialspoorinbasesandclays.
�.�.� Climate
TheclimateinwhichmountainpodzolsusuallydevelopinIndonesiaislimitedtothecoolhumidmountaincli-mate,rangingfromKöppen’sCfhitoCshiclimatictypes(Table8.11).Dependingonspecificconditions,thesoilsseemalsotooccurinAfaclimates,asisthecasewiththelowlandpodzolsofBangkaandKalimantan.How-ever, these are the only exceptions, because nowhere
69071.indb 385 4/25/08 10:43:22 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
elseinIndonesiahavepodzolsbeenreportedtooccurinthelowlands.TheclimateintheKubremountainofWestPapua,wherethemountainpodzolsoccur,isbelievedtobeaCfhitype.Noweatherstationsareavailableinthoseremotejungleareastoconfirmthis.PodzolshavenotbeenfoundinthemountainsofJava.Atelevationsbetween400and900mabovesealevel,red-yellowpodzolicandbrownforestsoilsarethemajorzonalsoils intheAfaandAmclimaticregions,asdiscussedinChapter7.
Based on the observations above, it seems possibleto distinguish in Indonesia two groups of podzols:thehighlandormountainpodzolsand lowlandpod-zols.Themountainpodzolsarezonalorclimaticsoils,
Table.8.11. TheClimateofPodzolsinIndonesia
Rainfall Altitude
<60 mm >100 mm
Mean Annual Rainfall
Type ofClimatea
Sumatra
Pematang
Siantar
Sipirok
Aek na Uli
400
898
1160
1320
0.2
2.4
1.0
1.4
11.0
7.8
11.0
9.0
3130
1786
2609
2088
Afa
Am
—
Cshi
A
B
—
B
RY Podzolic
Podzols Si-Borongborong
Bangka
Pangkal Pinang 5 0.0 12.0 2496 Afa A
Location
m Months mm Köppen
Soil
S&F
a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols: A = coldestmonth>18°C;a=warmestmonth>22°C;f=humid;m=mon-soon; C = warmest month >10°C and coldest month between18°Cand−3°C;h=coldestmonth>0°C;i=hotsummer;s=drysummer.
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whereasthelowlandpodzolscanbeconsideredasacli-maticpodzols,becauselithologicandtopographicfac-torsareplayingadecisiveroleintheirformation.
�.�.� Soilmorphology
ThemorphologyofIndonesianmountainpodzolsdoesnotdiffermuchfrompodzolsoftemperateregions.Anexampleofasoilprofiledescriptionisgivenbelow:
Humus-iron podzol (Tan and VanSchuylenborgh, 1961a). Profile locatedinLaspondom,Tapanuli,MountSibar-tong, North Sumatra, at an elevationof1600mabovesealevel.Thevegeta-tion is a primeval tropical rain forest,composed of hardwood mixed withindigenousconiferous trees.Thecolornotations below refer to air-dry andfield-moistsamples,respectively.
Horizon Depth.(cm) Description
Oe/Oa 0–20 5YR3/4–3/3,darkreddish-brownraw humus, partly decomposedhemic and rotten sapric organiclayer; when dry it can only bemoistenedwithgreatdifficulties.
E 20–30 5YR 5/1–4/1, gray to dark gray,weak fine crumb, sandy loam,very friable, abundance of roots;difficulttomoisten.
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TheAhorizonsinIndonesianpodzolsareoftenverythin or absent, as shown in the above profile exam-ple. This observation is substantiated by results ofotherinvestigators.KielandRachmat(1948)havealsodescribed a humus iron podzol of the Dairi lands inTapanuli,locatedat1600mabovesealevel,witha30-cm-thickbrownspongyraw-humus layer (Ohorizon)lyingdirectlyontopofalightgrayoftheEhorizon.
The podzols of the Kubre mountain in West Papuaare found under a shrub vegetation with scatteredconiferoustreesandexhibitasomewhatdifferentmor-phology.AccordingtoHardon(1936b),thesesoilshaveunderanundecomposedlitterlayeroftwigsandrootsrather thick,fine sandy,firm,humic,gray tograyish-brownAhorizons,overlyinggrayish-whiteEhorizons.ThemorphologicaldescriptiongivenbyHardonindi-catesthatthesoilisperhapsaniron-podzol,becauseno
Bh 30–50 10YR 5/3–3/2, brown to verydark grayish-brown, moderatelydeveloped coarse platy, sandyloam,firm,fewroots;difficulttomoisten; few dark reddish-gray(5YR4/2)mottles.
BirorBs 50–55 10YR7.5/6–7.5YR6/8,yellowtoreddish-yellow, irregular platy,loam,veryfirm;noroots.
C +55 10YR 8/1–2.5YR 7/4, white topaleyellow,massive,sandyloam,friable; yellowish-red (5YR 5/8)and yellow (10YR) 7/8) mottles;fewpumicestones.
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Bhhorizonispresent.MohrandVanBaren(1960)arguethatsoilswiththeaboveprofilecharacteristicsareper-hapsnotgenuinepodzols.However,Wilde(1957)isoftheopinionthatthesearethetypicalpodzolsoftropi-calregions.Thefeaturesof theKubremountainpod-zolsseemtoshowcloseresemblancetothesoilsinNewZealand,identifiedaskauripodzols,orlocallyalsocalledegg-cuppodzols.
During the international soil science conference inNew Zealand in November 1962, the present authorhadthechancetostudykauripodzolsonthespot.ThesoilsmaysometimesdevelopundertheinfluenceofasingleKauritree(Agathisaustralis).Thesetrees,consid-eredasprimitivepine treesdatingback fromtheeraof thedinosaurs,are foundlimitedtoNewZealand’snorthern tropical rain forest,where theyaregrowingintohuge,giant,talltrees,rivalingthesizesofthegiantredoaksofCalifornia.TheKauritreeisbelievedtopro-duceveryacidiclitter,whichleadstostronglocalpod-zolizationunderneaththetree(Bloomfield,1954;TaylorandPohlen,1962),withthesubsequentdevelopmentofableachedEhorizonaswideasthetreecrownandinthe formof anegg-cup.Someof the soil scientists inNewZealandinclinetorelatethekauripodzoltored-yellowpodzolicsoils.
The lowland podzol of Bangka differs in morphol-ogy from the mountain podzol. It has a rather thick,loosegrayish-blackhumusrich,quartz-sandyAhori-zon,overlyingableached E layer,whereas the solumbeneathissimilartothatofthemountainspecies(Har-don,1937).Asmentionedbefore, theBangka lowlandpodzolsareintrazonalsoils.
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��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
�.�.� Soilclassification
Theclassificationofthesesoils,thoughwelldefinedintheliterature,issomewhatintriguingduetoadifferentconceptinidentificationdevelopedbytheUSDAdur-ingthe1960s.Aspointedoutbefore,internationallythesoilsaredistinguishedbytheirash-coloredEhorizonandhencearecalledpodzols,derivedfromtheRussianwordspodandzola.However,incontrasttotheabove,theU.S.SoilTaxonomypreferstheuseofthepodzol-Bhorizonastheidentifyingfeature,whichiscalledspodichorizon,andthenamespodosoliscoinedfromthis.
InIndonesia,thenameofspodosolsisused.However,the soils appear to be of minor importance, becauseaccordingtotheSoilResearchInstitute(seeChapter1,Figure1.2,page16), theyoccupyonlyamere1.16%ofthetotalsoilacreageinIndonesia.Mostofthesoilsaregenerallylocatedinremoteareashighinthemountainsandperhapshaveescapedtheattentionofsoilsurvey-ors. Therefore, the author believes that more of thesekindsof soilswillbediscovered in timewhen inten-sivesoilsurveyswillbeextendedintothefarcornersofthemountainregions.Asdiscussedpreviously,thesoils can be classified into two kinds of podzols: thehighland or mountain podzols and the lowland pod-zols.Ofthesetwo,themountainpodzolsarethemostprevalent,becausethelowlandpodzolshavebeendis-coveredonlyonthesmall islandsof theBangka-Beli-tunggroup,locatedontheeastcoastofNorthSumatra.Locally, these lowland podzols are called padang soil(Hardon,1937),whichsomebelievetobecloselyrelatedtoredyellowpodzolicsoilsorultisols.Theauthorhas
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nothadtheopportunitytoinvestigateandconfirmsucha contention. Most of the lowland areas in Indonesiaarealreadydenselypopulatedandcultivatedandsur-veyedthoroughly,andtheSoilResearchInstitutehasnotreportedtheoccurrenceoftheseintrazonallowlandpod-zolsanywhereelseinthelowlandsareaofIndonesia.
The highland or mountain podzol can be distin-guishedintoahumus-ironpodzolofSumatraandtheiron-podzol of West Papua. These soils may possiblybe placed in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy as Humods andFerrods, respectively (Soil SurveyStaff, 2006a, 2006b).Thehumodsare then the spodosols thathave spodichorizonsenrichedwithhumusorwithhumusandAl-oxides.ThisdefinitionfitsthefeaturesoftheSumatranmountain podzols, because not iron but aluminumhas accumulated in the Bhs horizon. The Fe2O3 con-tentsof theEandBhshorizonsare2.35%and2.30%,respectively, as determined by the author in his soilslaboratoryinIndonesia.Ontheotherhand,theAl2O3contentsoftheEandBhshorizonsare18.1and33.85%,respectively.Theferrodsaredefinedas themountainspodosolswithBshorizonsonly,andwithoutcompa-rableaccumulationofhumus.SuchfeaturespertaintothespodosolsoftheKubreMountainsinWestPapua.
Perhaps the use of tropical as a prefix is warrantedtounderlinethedifferenceinformationofIndonesianspodosolsundertheinfluenceofatropicalcoolclimatefromthatoftemperateregionspodosolsofthenorthernhemisphere.Itshouldberealizedthatthecoolclimateofthetemperateregionpodzolsincludesawintercli-matewithiceandsnow.ThisisinsharpcontrastwiththecoolmountainclimateofIndonesia,classifiedasa
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Köppen’sCclimate,definedashavingtemperaturesinthecoldestmonthof>0°C.Theseasonisonlyalternatedbyrainyandrelativelylessrainyperiods,whereastem-peraturesareusuallygettinglowerduringthewettermonths. Snow and ice are only present in the SnowMountainrange(Nassau-Oranjerange)ofPapua,wheretheIdenburgtop(PuncakTrikora)andtheCartensztop(PuncakJaya)mountainsummitsreach4900and5040m,respectively(seeChapter4).
�.�.� Physicochemicalcharacteristics
�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionThe data in Table8.12 indicate that, as a whole, thepodzols in Indonesia are coarse- tomedium-texturedsoils.Theclaycontents,rangingfrom1to15%,areverylowandshowatrendofeluviationfromtheEtoaccu-mulateintheBhorizons.Thisisatypicalfeatureinapodzolizationprocess.Intruepodzolsofthetemperateregions, it is awell-established fact that claycontentsdecreasesharply inEhorizonsto increaseagainsub-stantiallyintheBhorizons.Inthisrespect,theBangkapodzol shows this genuine characteristic for podzol-ization.PerhapsitcanbeaddedthatinNewZealand,theclayfractionofEhorizonsofthekauripodzolsarereported to contain large amounts of secondary silica(TaylorandPohlen,1962).
�.�.�.� ChemicalcharacteristicsThe soils exhibit invariably very strongly acidic (pH= 4 to 3) to strongly acidic (pH = 5 to 4) reactions inespecially their topsoils.SoilpHvaluesof3 to4are
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mostlycommonintheAhorizons.Inthetruepodzolsofthetemperateregions,asharpdecreaseinsoilpHisnoticedfromAtoEhorizons,toincreaseagainintheB
Table.8.12. PhysicochemicalCharacteristicsofTropicalPodzols
Particle Size Distribution (%)
Org. C %
N %
Profile Horizon
50–2 <2 µ
pHH2O
O
E
Bh
Bs
C
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
8.3
10.6
10.3
10.9
3.42
4.95
5.30
5.73
5.81
47.8
7.4
11.6
1.9
0.2
2.1
0.3
0.3
0.04
—
22.7
24.6
38.6
47.5
—
A
E
Bs
BC
64.0
29.0
26.0
39.0
32.0
61.0
59.0
48.0
4.0
10.0
15.0
13.0
4.3
3.9
4.3
5.0
6.2
0.6
1.7
0.6
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
31.0
6.0
17.0
6.0
>50 µ
CN
Mountain Podzols, Sumatra
Mountain Podzols, West Papua
A
E
Bh
Bs
97.8
98.4
91.5
93.9
1.0
1.3
2.0
1.1
1.2
0.3
6.5
5.0
3.9
6.1
3.9
4.6
1.2
0.1
5.2
—
—
—
0.1
—
—
—
52.0
—
Lowland Podzols, Banka
Sources:Tan,K.H.andVanSchuylenborgh,J.(1960,1961);Hardon(1936);Kiel,H.andRachmat,H.(1948).
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
horizons.SuchatrendinsoilreactionisobservedonlyintheKubremountainpodzolsofWestPapua.IntheSumatran mountain podzol and the Bangka lowlandpodzol,soilpHtendstoincreasegraduallywithdepthinthesoilprofile.
Soilorganicmattercontentsarecommonlyveryhighin the surface soils of the mountain podzols, exceptin the Bangka podzols. The latter is to be expectedbecause oxidation and mineralization processes arehighandrapidinlowlandareasofIndonesia.Thedatain Table8.12 also show that the humus of these pod-zolsischaracterizedbywidevaluesinC/Nratios.Innoothersoilsstudiedbytheauthorsofar inIndone-sia,havesuchwideC/Nratiosbeenobserved.Thisisanoutstandingfeature thatcanperhapsbeusedasadiagnosticpropertyfordifferentiatingthetypeofsoilorganicmatterinthepodzolpedon.Asindicatedfromthe data of the Sumatran podzol, the composition oftheorganicmatter,asexpressedintermsofC/Nratios,differsintheeluvialfromthatintheilluvialhorizon.TheBhandBshorizonscontainorganicmatterexhibit-ingthewidestC/Nratiosof37.3and42.9,respectively,suggesting that this typeofhumus is low inmolecu-larweightorintheearlyphasesofhumification(Tan,2003a).
�.�.�.� ClaymineralogyUnfortunately, not much is known about the exactnatureandcompositionoftheclaymineralsinpodzolsof Indonesia. However, from the low silica/sesquiox-ideratios,indicationsarethattheclayfractionisprob-ablycomposedof1:1latticetypeofclays.Thedatain
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Table8.13showtheSiO2/R2O3andSiO2/Al2O3ratiostorangefrom2.45to1.07andfrom2.6to1.2,respectively,indicatingthesialliticnature.Thisisincontrasttopod-zolsoftemperateregionsoreventhekauripodzolsofNewZealand.Thelatterhaveaclayfractiondominatedby2:1latticetypeofclayminerals,generallyreflectedbySiO2/R2O3andSiO2/Al2O3ratiovaluesof≥3(TaylorandPohlen,1962).
ThenormaltrendintemperateregionpodzolsisalsoforSiO2/R2O3andSiO2/Al2O3ratiostoincreasesharplyfromAtoEhorizonsbecauseof theaccumulationofsecondarysilicaintheEhorizon.ThevaluesoftheseratiosthendecreaseagainsharplyintheBhandBshori-zons,duetoilluviationandaccumulationofsesquiox-ides.SuchatrendcanonlybenoticedintheSumatran
Table.8.13. Silica/SesquioxideRatiosoftheClayFractionsofPodzolsinIndonesiaHorizon SiO2/R2O3 SiO2/Al2O3 SiO2/Fe2O3 Al2O3/Fe2O3
Mountain.Podzol,.Sumatra O — — — — E 2.45 2.66 32.3 12.2 Bh 0.45 0.56 14.8 26.5 Bs 1.07 1.21 8.84 7.32 C 1.21 1.30 17.9 13.8
Mountain.Podzol,.West.Papua A 2.28 2.40 — — E 1.96 2.05 — — B 1.35 1.97 — — BC 1.27 2.43 — —
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
podzol. The West Papua podzol exhibits a gradualdecreaseinsilica/sesquioxideratioswithdepthintheprofile,acharacteristiccommonlydetectedinred-yel-lowpodzolicsoils.
�.�.� Landuseandevaluation
�.�.�.� Soilpropertiesandagriculturaloperations
NotmuchisknownabouttheuseofpodzolsinIndone-sia foragriculturaloperations.Their remote locationshighinthemountainareaswithroughterrainandcoolclimatehaveapparentlydiscouragedmanypeoplefrominhabitingtheseregionspermanently.TheuplandsandespeciallythelowlandsarethemostdenselypopulatedareasofIndonesia.
Thesoiltexturefavorsthedevelopmentofrapidairmovement.However,theverystronglyacidicreactionsmay impose drastic measures for cultivation of thesoils.AccumulationofaluminumintheBhorizonwillperhapscauseproblemsbycreatingsubsoilacidityandphosphatefixation.Theorganicmattercontentisveryhigh,butbecauseitisofthemortype,itmaycontrib-utetoacidleaching.Nevertheless,thelitterlayerseemstocontributetonutrientcycling,becausethevegetationcover showssignsofa lushandhealthy cool tropicalregionforest.Atthesummitofthemountains,podzolsaregenerallystillundertheoriginalvegetation.Fromenvironmentalorecologicalstandpoints, it isperhapsbettertoleavethismontaneorhighlandregionofpod-zolsunderforest.Atthelowerlimits,wheretheclimatic
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conditionsaremorereasonableforthepeopleofIndo-nesia,thesoilscanpossiblybeusedfordairyfarming,whereasgoatfarmingisanotherpossibility.Indonesiaalsoseemsnottobeusedyetinsheepfarming,likeinNewZealand.
�.�.�.� TreefarmingOccasionally,limitedareasofthepodzolregionshavebeen used for shifting cultivation, or used by for-estryand industry forplanting tree crops for timber,firewood,andtodayforpulpwoodproduction.Oneofthetreecropsespeciallysuitableforgrowinginthesepoorandacidicconditionsistheindigenouspinetree,calledPinusmerkusii.KnownalsobythenameofPinussumatranaandthelocalnamesofdamarbatuandtusamtapanuli, it was in the past a dominant species of theSumatranTropicalPineforest,anecoregionstretchingoriginallyfromAcehinthenorthtotheBukitBarisanmountain range in the south near Lake Toba, NorthSumatra. Repeated burning for shifting cultivation atespecially the lower limitsof themountainareashasendangeredtheexistenceofthispinespecies,theonlypineallegedlygrowingsouthoftheequator.Itcangrowto70mtallandisconsideredthetallestpinetreeintheOldWorld.Itswoodisclassifiedassoftwoodandcanbeusedforlightconstruction,matches,andtodayforthemuchneededpulpinthepaperandrayonindustry.Thetreescanalsobecultivatedforproductionofres-ins,atarateof3to5kg/year.Thisresinappearstobeveryusefulasrawmaterialintheperfumeindustry,formakingpaintsandmedicines,andinprintingandthepaintindustry.
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���
chapternine
AndosolsofIndonesia
�.� IntroductionForreasonsexplainedbelow,thisgroupofsoilsisdis-cussed as a separate chapter. Compared to the othersoilsaddressedintheprecedingchapters,andosolshavebeenrecognizedonlyveryrecentlyasamajorgroupofsoils.TheywerefirstbelievedtooccurmainlyinJapan,butwerelateralsodiscoveredinNewZealand(Taylorand Cox, 1956). Since then, research attention on thisgroupof soils increased rapidly inmanyother coun-tries.Thesoilsappeartooccurmorewidespreadintheworld than expected and of the estimated 50 millionhaavailable,morethanhalfarelocatedinthetropicalregions.Manydifferentconceptshavebeencreatedonthisgroupofsoils,usingavarietyofsoilnames.ThiswasthenoneofthereasonsfortheFoodandAgricul-turalOrganization(FAO)tocallforaspecialconferencein 1964 held in Tokyo, attended by representatives ofmostnationspossessingvolcanicashsoils,andinpar-ticularthosearoundthePacificbasin.AsreportedbyDudal(1964),theTokyomeetingabovetriedtocorrelatetheconceptsofthisgroupofsoilsinthevariouscoun-triesandbringsomeorderinthesoil’snomenclature.ThenameAndosolwasselectedastheofficialnameat
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�00 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
thattimeforuseinidentification,becauseitrecallsthecountryoforigin.EventodaytheFAOandWorldRef-erenceBaseforSoilResources(WRB)systemsidentifythisgroupofsoilsasandosols.
Thoughthesoilsappeartobefoundinawiderangeof climatic conditions, from subalpine regions to thehumidtropics,theyseemtoconstituteagroupofsoilswithsimilarmorphological,physical,andmineralogi-calcharacteristics(Shojietal.,1994;Tan,1964).Conspic-uousamong these is thecommon thickblacksurfacehorizon,richinhumusanddominatedbyamorphous,noncrystalline, or paracrystalline clays. The latter areconsideredtobeallophaneandimogolite,weatheringproductsofvolcanicglass.Thesoilcolloidal fractionsmay also contain hydrated silica andalumina, whichtogetherwithallophanereflectthesoil’shighlyreactivesurfaces.TheblackcolorwasthereasonwhyU.S.soilscientistspreviouslycalledthesoilsandosoils(Simon-son,1979;ThorpandSmith,1949).InJapaneseanmeans“dark”or“black”anddomeans“soil.”ManyJapanesescientists are also referring to them as kuroboku (kuromeans“black”andbokumeans“friable”)soils,whereasothersusethenamehumicallophanesoils(Kanno,1962;Wright,1964).
However,withtheintroductionofanewsoilclassifi-cationsystemintheUnitedStates,thesoilswereplacedas an obscure suborder of the inceptisols, the andepts(SoilSurveyStaff,1960,1975).Sincethen,theywereforalongtimenotconsideredanimportantormajorgroupofsoils,andthesoilswerestillreferredtoasandeptsbyFlachetal.(1980)atthe1980InternationalSocietyofSoilScience,CommissionsIV–V–VI–VII,meetings,held
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Chapternine: AndosolsofIndonesia �0�
atLowerHutt,NewZealand,todiscusssoilswithvari-ablechargesand,inparticular,andosols.Becauseoftheworldwiderecognitiongainedbythesoilsinthemean-time,theU.S.conceptwasapparentlyamendedinthe1990sbyplacingthesoilsattheorderslevel,butunderthenameofandisols(SoilSurveyStaff,1990,2006).Thelatterisbasedontheallegedassumptionthatthevowel“i” is more appropriate in the English language than“o”as inandosol,andforreasonsofbeingconsistentinnomenclaturewiththeotherorders(e.g.,alfisols,ari-disols,inceptisols,mollisols,oxisols,ultisols,andverti-sols).Ifitisbasedonuniformityofnomenclature,thequestionariseswhyitisthennotwarrantedtochangethenamesspodosolsandhistosolsalsointospodisolsandhistisols,respectively?Theidentifyingfeaturesarealsospodichorizonsandhisticepipedonsanyway.
In Indonesia, andosols are spread over the archi-pelago,fromSumatrainthewest(Druif,1939a;Mohrand Van Baren, 1960; Tan and Van Schuylenborgh,1961a)overJava(Tan,1963;TanandMassey,1964)totheLesserSundaIslandsintheeast(MohrandVanBaren,1960). They are associated with intermediate to basicvolcanicparentmaterialsandaremostlyfoundinthemountainsofthehumidtropicsandmonsoonregions.Recently,andosolswerediscoveredinthelowlandsofSumatra. However, their occurrence in lowland areasisratherlimitedandalsoappearstobeconditionedbyspecific factors (for example, topography and parentmaterials).Thesoilsseemtodeveloponlyontheandes-iticvolcanicmaterial,flowingdowninafan-likeformfrom the Sibayak volcano in the coastal plain area ofNorthSumatra(Tan,1963;TanandVanSchuylenborgh,
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�0� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
1961a).Theacidicmaterials(forexample,liparitictuffs)surroundingtheandesiticfanabovehavegivenrisetothedevelopmentofultisols.Forreasonsnotknownbytheauthor,andosolsarenotlistedintheSoilsMapofIndonesia,asshowninChapter1,Figure1.2.TheyareveryimportantvolcanicashsoilsandareboundtobepresentinthemountainregionsofIndonesiawhencon-ditionsarefavorablefortheirformation.Brownforestsoilsandgray-brownpodzolicsoilsmaybefoundcom-petinginoccurrence,butthesesoilsareformedbydif-ferentsoil-formingprocessesasdiscussedinChapters7and8,respectively.Thelatteristhenthereasonwhythe current author believes that processes of soil for-mationandmorphologyshouldbeconsideredofequalimportance.Basedonsoilmorphologyalone,andosolsin themountainsof Indonesiaareoftenconfused forbrownforestorgray-brownpodzolicsoils,aspointedoutearlier.
�.� ParentmaterialsTheandosolsinIndonesiaaredevelopedfromslightlyacidic, intermediate to slightly basic volcanic ash. Allthese materials are young in age and originate fromrecent Pleistocene eruptions. The soils have not beennotedtoformfromotherkindsofparentmaterials,likeliparitic and rhyolitic ash, as reported in Japan, NewZealand,andChile.Theyhavealsonotbeenfoundonplutonic,metamorphic,orsedimentaryrocks.
InNorthSumatra,theandosolshavebeenformedpri-marilyondacito-andesiticmaterials,withahornblendeassociation (Table9.1). The materials originated from
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Chapternine: AndosolsofIndonesia �0�Ta
ble
.9.1
.M
iner
alog
ical
Com
posi
tion
ofA
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Pro
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Com
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orth
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218
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eng.
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teau
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tral
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-An
des
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.Tu
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ds,
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——
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—8
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——
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99
22—
2014
9—
4441
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�0� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
eruptionsoftheSibayakvolcano,whichweredepositedonthemountainslopesandatthefootofthemountain.In the lattercase, the laharflowsweredeposited inafan-likeshape,coveringthelowestpartsinthecoastalplainareaofDeli,inthevicinityofMedan.AndosolsarealsolocatedinthesurroundingsofPadang,inWestSumatra,ontheslopeoftheOphirvolcano,andintheregionsofLakeManinjau.TheparentmaterialhereisbelievedtobealmostsimilartothatofNorthSumatra,thoughthematerialoftheOphirvolcanoisnotedtobemoreandesiticinnature.
InWestJava,theparentmaterialsvaryfrombasalto-andesitictuff intheLembangareatoandesitictuffatCiapusandthePengalenganhighlands.ThematerialsatLembangcamefromtheTangkuban-Prahuvolcano,locatednorthofBandung,andarecharacterizedbyahornblendeassociation,whereasthatoftheCiapusareawasfromtheSalakvolcano,westofBogor.The latterhasahypersthene-augiteassociation.Theparentmate-rialsofthePengalenganhighlandswereejectafromtheWayang-Papandayanvolcanocomplex,locatedsouthofBandung,exhibitinganaugiteassociation.
InCentralandEastJava,thematerialsbelongtothecat-egoryofandesiticorbasalto-andesitictuffs,witheitherahypersthene-augiteoraugite-hyperstheneassociation.
Thefactsabovesupportedtheopinionoftheauthorthattheparentmaterialsforformationofandosolsaremostly intermediatetoslightlybasicvolcanicash.Thesoilshavenotbeenfoundonliparitictuffsorrhyoliticmaterials, as indicated earlier. But, they may possiblydevelop from basaltic ash, the most basic material ofvolcanicejectas.Basalticmaterialsareexpectedtoyield
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a base-rich soil solution, which favors carbonization oforganicmatter.Thisprocessisbelievedtoimmobilizetheorganicfraction,inducingitsaccumulationinsoilsandformationofintenseblackcolors,asnotedintheando-solsoftheDiengplateauandtheMalangHighlands.
�.� ClimateAndosolsarenoticedtohavebeenformedworldwideinawidevarietyofclimatetypes.TheyhavebeenfoundinthetemperatemaritimeclimateofJapan,inthecoolAndeanclimateofChile,inthewarmtemperateregionsofNewZealand,inthesubarcticclimateofIceland,insub-MediterraneanclimatesoftheAzores,Spain,Italy,andGreece,andalsointhewarmtropicalclimatesofIndonesiaandSouthAmerica.InthetemperatezonesofSouthAmerica,thesoilsmaydevelopinsuperhumidclimatesaswellasindrysubhumidenvironmentswithaccentuateddryseasons.Formoredetails,referenceismadetoWright(1964).
In Indonesia, the andosols occur mostly in a tropi-calcoolhumidmountainclimatewithorwithoutpro-nounced dry seasons. However, the soils have alsobeenfoundtoalimitedextentinthehothumidclimateof lowland areas (Table9.2). The lowland andosols inNorthSumatraarerestrictedtothelaharandtufffansintheplainsatthefootoftheSibayakvolcano.AscanbenoticedfromthedatainTable9.2,theclimatehereisclassifiedasahumidtropicalrainforestclimate(Köp-pen’sAfa)typicalforlowlandareasofIndonesia.InJava,thesoilsaremostlylocatedathigherelevationsabovesealevel.InWestJava,theyarefoundatCiapus,eastof
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Bogor,ontheslopeoftheSalakVolcano,at540to600maltitudesandhigher.HereintheBogorarea,thesoilsarealsopresentattheupperslopesoftheGedehVol-canointhesurroundingsofPasirSaronggeatapproxi-mately1200morhigher.NorthofBandung,andosolsoccurontheupperslopesoftheTangkubanPrahuVol-canointheareaofLembangat1250mandhigher.Thesoilsarealsomajorsoils,occupyingtheMalabar-Pen-galenganmontaneplateau,southofBandung,at1500mandhigher.TheclimateintheaboveregionsrangesfromtheuplandAfa(Köppen)tothemountainAfandCfhiorCf(Köppen)typesofclimate.
Table.9.2. TheClimateofAndosolsinIndonesia
Rainfall Altitude
<60 mm >100 mm
Mean Annual Rainfall
Type ofClimatea
North Sumatra
Timbanglangkat
Padangbrahrang
29
49
0.7
0.4
9.7
10.9
2522
2847
Afa
Afa
A
A
Andosol
Andosol
Ciapus/Bogor
Pasir Sarongge
Lembang
Malabar-Pengal.
540
1230
1247
1550
0.1
1.0
2.6
2.7
11.8
9.4
8.0
8.1
4880
3125
2915
2564
Afa
Af
Cfhi
Cf
A
A
B
C
Andosol
Andosol
Andosol
Andosol
Andosol
Central Java
West Java
Dieng Plateau 2093 4.0 8.0 2290 Cf C
Andosol
East Java
Malang 1250 5.0 7.0 2117 Cs D
Location
m Months mm Köppen
Soil
S&F
a S&F=SchmidtandFerguson;Köppen’ssymbols:A=coldestmonths>18°C;a=warmestmonth>22°C;f=humid;i=hotsummer;m=mon-soon;s=summerdry;C=coldestmonthbetween18°Cand–3°C.
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AndosolsalsooccurinthemonsoonareasofCentraland East Java, where they are mostly situated in themountainsat≥1000maltitude.For instance, the soilsexistat2093maltitudeintheDiengplateau,closetotheareasofWonosobo.LargeareasofandosolshavealsobeennoticedinthesurroundingsoftheMalang-Pujonhighlandsat1250mabovesealevel.TheclimateoftheseareasisclassifiedasthetropicalmountainCfandCsitypesofclimates.ACsiclimate isa typicalmonsoonclimateforthemountainregionsinEastJava(s=sum-merdry). It isusuallycharacterizedbyapronounceddryseasonfromthemonthsofMaytoOctober,butthetotal annual rainfall is still quite high (see Table9.2).As mentioned earlier, Wright (1964) also reported theoccurrenceofandosolsinSouthAmericainsubhumidclimateswithadryseason.
�.� SoilmorphologyAndosolsarecommonlydistinguishedbytheircharac-teristicmorphological features.InJapan,Kanno(1961,1962)andOhmasa(1964)reportedthesoilstopossessthick pitch-black surface layers rich in humus; hence,thenamekurobokuwasassigned.ThisAhorizonvariesusuallyinthicknessfrom30to50cmandisveryloose,soft,andmellow.Butwhenthesoilsaredevelopedindepressions,thisAhorizonmayoftenbemorethan1mthick. Inthiscase,differentiationintotwoormorelayersispossible.Insomecases,thepresenceofburiedAhorizons,resultingfromdepositionofnewashlay-ers,isalsopossible.
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Thehorizondifferentiation inandosolprofilesmayvaryfromplacetoplace.Wright(1964)noticedinSouthAmerica the occurrence of andosols with AC, A(B)C,orABCprofiles,rangingfrom50cmtomorethan100cmindepth.TheverydarkAhorizon issharplydif-ferentiatedfromtheyellowish-brownBorChorizons.ThelayerimmediatelybelowtheAhorizonisreportedtobe themost friablepartof theprofile,whereas thewholeprofileexhibitslowbulkdensityvalues.Segrega-tionofaluminumintheformofsoft,waxynodulesofgibbsitewasnoticedbyWright(1964)inBandChori-zons.Oneormorehardpansmayalsobepresent,buttheyareusuallyinheriteddepositionalfeatures,whoseintrinsicpropertiescanbecomereducedoraccentuatedbysoil-formingprocesses.
In Indonesia, andosols have similar morphologicalproperties as discussed above. Notwithstanding thehumid tropical climate, the soils still possess a blacksurface layer, rich inhumus.Anexample isprovidedbelowassampledbytheauthor(TanandVanSchuylen-borgh,1961a):
Andosol at Glugur (Medan, NorthSumatra),atanelevationof50mabovesea level. The topography is undulat-ing,andthevegetation isasecondaryforest with Eupatorium sp. and grassas underbrush. The parent material isdacito-andesitictuff(seeTable9.1).Itisawell-drainedprofile.Colornotationsrefertoair-dryandfield-moistsamples,respectively.
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ThecoloroftheAhorizonmayvaryfromblacktodark brown and, consequently, one may tend to dif-ferentiatethesoilsintoabrownandablackvariety.Theblack variety of andosols tends to be limited moreto thehigherslopesof theSibayakvolcano,whereasthe brown variety is associated more with the low-land areas. In Java, both varieties of andosols havealsobeenobserved,buttherearenoindicationsthatthelighter-colored(brown)soilsarelimitedtolowerelevations.Onthecontrary,theblackvarietyisfoundat Ciapus-Bogor at approximately 600 m altitude aswellasinCentralandEastJavaatelevationsof≥1000m.Thebrownandosolsareveryspecificfortheareasof Lembang and the Malabar-Pengalengan montane
Horizon Depth.(cm) DescriptionA1 0–18 10YR 4/2-10YR2/1, dark gray-
brown to black, weak fine crumb,silt loam, loose, friable and soft,manyfineroots.
A2 18–20 10YR 4.5/2–10YR2/2, gray-browntoverydarkbrown,moderatefinecrumb, silt loam, friable and soft,manyfineroots.
B 20–31 10YR5/3–10YR3/4,browntodarkyellowish-brown,weakfinegranu-lar,loam,friable.
BC 31–76 10YR7/4–10YR4/4, very palebrown to dark yellowish-brown,weak medium granular to blocky,loamslightlysticky,fewsmallstonefragments.
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plateau.Intheseareas,thesoilhasinadditionabur-ied profile underneath. The buried soil is usuallycharacterizedbyanintenseblackAhorizon(TanandMassey,1964).ItispossiblethattheblackcoloroftheburiedAhorizonhasbeenaccentuatedafterdeposi-tionofnewashlayersontop,duetosubsequentdevel-opment of poor aeration and drainage conditionsbelow. This may be substantiated by results of thin-section studies. Whereas usually the A horizons ofmountainandosolsexhibitacrumbtogranularstruc-ture,similartothestructureshowninFigure8.1,theburiedAhorizonseemstoexhibitarelativelymassivestructurewithlittleornomicropores,builtupmostlybypeptizedblackcolloidalorganicmatter(Figure9.1).Little inorganic material has taken part in its struc-turalformation,andwhateveraluminumandironarepresent,theyareprobablyalsoinpeptizedforms.Thethinsectionsfailtoshowanychangesinrefractionorcolorswhenviewedinordinarylightaswellasundercrossednicols.Itisbelievedthatperhapssomekindofinternalpeatformationmayhavetakenplace.
The soil in the surroundings of Lake Maninjau,Padang,WestSumatra,hasanACprofileandaburiedAhorizonbelow.Thisandosolisofthebrownvarietyandhasapronouncedwaxyappearance,comparabletoseveraloftheLatinAmericanandosols,asdiscussedbyWright(1964).TheburiedAisespeciallyextremelywaxyandpossessesaveryhighwatercontent.Whensqueezed,waterisflowingthroughthefingers.Asoilprofiledescriptionisgivenbelowforcomparison.
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ThephotographsinFigure9.2andFigure9.3provideadditionalexamples,showingblackandbrownandosolsin Sumatra and an andosol with a buried A horizoninWest Java.A thinsectionof thisburiedhorizon isshowninFigure9.1.
�.� SoilclassificationAsstatedbefore,avarietyofnameswereusedworldwideforthisgroupofsoils.InJapan,theywerealsoformerlyknown under different names, and at one time, theywerecalledkuroboku soils,whereasSeki (1934)wasoftheopinionthatitseemedmorereasonabletocallthemalliticsoilsbecauseoftheirhighaluminumcontents.Butthe soils are affected by neither laterization nor pod-zolization processes (Kanno, 1961). The classificationashumicallophanesoils,asproposedbyKanno(1961),appears tohave receivedprovisionalacceptanceonly,becausemanyscientistsinJapandisagreeonthebasis
Horizon Depth.(cm) Description
A 0–30 10YR3/3,(field-moist)darkbrown,strongfinegranulartoweakcrumb,siltloam,friable,waxy,fineroots.
C 30–50 10YR 5/6, yellowish-brown, weakfine granular, sandy loam, mixedwithabundantfinegrainsofbrown-ish-yellow(10YR6/6)volcanictuff.
Ab +50 7.5YR 4/4, brown, strong fine sub-angular blocky to blocky, silty clayloam,friable,verywaxy.
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thatotherclaymineralscanbefoundinlargeamountsin addition to allophane (Egawa and Watanabe, 1964;Ohmasa,1964).
Efforts to place the importance of the type of claymineral in the classification of these soils have beenapparentfromthebeginning.It isespeciallynotedinthe older New Zealand system of soil classification.The clays in question are known in New Zealand as
Figure 9.1 ThinsectionofaburiedAhorizonofanando-solattheslope(1300maltitude)oftheTangkuban-Prahuvol-cano,WestJava.Theverydarkgray(10YR3/1)densefabricisdottedwith reddish-yellow (7.5YR6/6) ironoxides.A largeplagioclasemineral isembeddednear thecenterof thecol-loidalmass.(Originalmagnification×100.)
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amorphicclays,claysthatareamorphoustox-raydiffrac-tion.Todaythesetypesofclaysarecallednoncrystalline,paracrystalline,variable-chargedclays,orshort-range-orderclays,dependingonthepreferenceoftheauthors(Tan,2003b). It isbelieved thatnotonlywill these typesofclaysimparttothesoilssomeofthehighlydistinctivephysical and chemical properties, but they will alsoendowthesoilswithunusualfarmingpropertiesandproblems (Birrell and Fieldes, 1952; Taylor, 1964). Thesoils are, therefore, classified at that time as amorphicsoils (Taylor and Pohlen, 1962) and today as allophanicsoilsinNewZealand(Hewitt,2003).InLatinAmerica,asimilartendencycanbenoticedwithregardstotheimportanceoftheclaymineralsintheclassificationofthesoils.Wright(1964)andBesoain(1964)usethename
A B
Figure 9.2 (A)Blackandosoland(B)brownandosol,Talangvolcano,WestSumatra.
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allophanicsoils.InChileandArgentina,theyarelocallycalledtrumaosoils,whereasinNicaraguathesoilsareknown as talpetate soils. The distinctive status of allo-phaneintheclassificationofthisgroupofsoilscanalsobenoticedintheearlyversionoftheU.S.soilclassifi-cationsystem,calledtheSeventhApproximation(SoilSurveyStaff,1960).Itlistedasonetherequirementsofandeptsthepresenceofanx-rayamorphousexchangecomplex or one dominated by allophane. In the newcurrentversionoftheU.S.SoilTaxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff,2006),thisemphasisonallophanicclayshasbeen
Figure 9.3 Andosol with a buried A horizon, Tangkuban-Prahuvolcano,WestJava.
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Chapternine: AndosolsofIndonesia ���
deleted in favorofacid-oxalateextractablealuminumcontents, a major requirement for the newly createddiagnosticandichorizon.However,amorphousmateri-alsarestillmaintainedtodayasanimportantfeatureinclassificationofandosolsbytheFoodandAgricultureOrganization–United Nations Educational, Scientific,andCulturalOrganization(FAO-UNESCO)systemandespeciallybythesystemoftheinternationallyacceptedWRB(FAO-UNESCO,2007b;Shojietal.,1996).Asindi-catedearlier,thenameandosol,selectedatthe1964FAOconferenceoncorrelationofvolcanicashsoils,remainsrecognizedtodayastheofficialnamebytheFAOandWRB systems. According to their original definition,andosolsaresoilswithmollic,umbric,orochricAhori-zonsoverlyingcambicBhorizonsandatadepthof≥35cmhaveoneorbothofthefollowing:
1. Bulk densities of ≤0.85 g/cm3 (at one-third barwater retention) in the ≤2-mm soil fraction andan exchange complex dominated by amorphousmaterials.
2. Vitricvolcanicash,cinders,orothervitricpyroclas-ticmaterialsof≥60%inthesilt,sand,andgravelfractions.
Basedonthepropertiesabove,theandosolsareclas-sifiedintothefollowing:
I. Mollicandosols.AndosolswithmollicAhorizons.ThesesoilsthencorrelatewiththeblackandosolvarietyofIndonesia.
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II. Humic andosols. Andosols with umbric Ahorizons.
III. Ochricandosols.AndosolswithochricAhorizons,aresiltloamintextureandsmearyinconsistence.Thesecanperhapsbecorrelatedwith thebrownandosolvarietiesofIndonesia.
IV. Vitricandosols.Andosolswithlotsofvitricvolca-nicash.
Theaboveconceptofclassificationwaslateramendedsomewhat to underline the importance of vitric andandicasthemajordiagnosticcriteriaforandosolsandto include in addition to mollic, umbric, and ochric,also histic, fulvic, melanic, and duric horizons (FAO-UNESCO,2007b).
As explained earlier, in the United States, the soilswerefirstclassifiedasandosoils(Simonson,1979;ThorpandSmith,1949),butwerelaterplacedasasubgroupoftheinceptisols(forexample,andepts),withtheintro-ductionofanewsystemofsoilclassification,knownatfirstas theSeventhApproximation (SoilSurveyStaff,1960,1975).ThiswaslateramendedinthenewestU.S.system,calledSoilTaxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff,2006),byupgradingitsclassificationtotheorders’levelunderthe name of andisols. Though several Japanese scien-tistsseemtoagreeinadoptingthenameandisols(Shojietal.,1994),thenameandosolisbyfarpreferred.Thelatter is noticed in a subsequent paper by Shoji et al.(1996),whereheandhisAmericancoworkersrefer toandosolswhiletryingtobringtotheattentionthenew-estWRBsuggestionsinsubdividingtheandichorizoninto a vitric-andic, aluminum-andic, and silica-andic
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horizon.Theyalsowanttounderlinetheimportanceofformationofnoncrystallinematerialsandorganicmat-teraccumulationasdominantpedogeneticprocessesinformationofandosols.
InIndonesia,thesesoilswereknownsincetheearlydaysoftheDutchcolonialtime.TheywerecalledinthepastblackdustsoilsbyDutchsoilscientistsbecauseofthehugeblackdustbowlsstirredupbythewindwhenthesoilsweredry(Druif,1939a,1939b;Mohr,1922,1938,1944). In thepost-WorldWar IIperiod, the soilswererenamed andosols (Dudal and Supraptohardjo, 1961;Tan, 1964). However, at a later date after its indepen-dence, Indonesia apparently adopted the use of thenameandisols,thoughthesoilshavenotbeenlistedintheofficialSoilMapofIndonesia,asstatedearlier.
�.� Physicochemicalcharacteristics�.�.� Physicalproperties
�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionTheanalysisofparticlesizedistributionisfraughtwithmanydifficulties,andevenatthepresent,someofthesehavenotbeensolvedsatisfactorily.AccordingtoBirrell(1964), thesedifficultiesarecausedbythepresenceofamorphouscolloidswithisoelectricpointshigherthanthoseoftheusualcrystallineclaymineralsandhydrousoxides,whichinducemutualcoprecipitation.
InIndonesia,itwasobservedbyVanSchuylenborghandVanRummelen(1955)thatairdryingsoilsamplesbeforeanalysiswouldresultinverypronouncedchangesintheirphysicalconditions.Wheneverpossible,thesoil
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samplesareanalyzedinfield-moistconditions.Dryingmanifests itself in the so-called mountain granulation.Thesoilthenhasadustyappearanceandisverydif-ficulttomoistenagain.Becauseoftheseeffects,thesoilisusuallyeasilydisturbedbywindactionwhichtendstostirupbigblackdustbowls;hence, thenameblackdustsoilwasgivenbyDutchsoilscientiststothesoils.Insuchadrystate,thesoilisgenerallyverysensitivetoerosion.Intheanalysisforparticlesizedistribution,peptizationordispersionoftheclayfractionisnotassimple indry (oxidized)samplesofandosolsascom-paredto, forexample, latosols.Samplesofoxisolsareusuallydispersedsatisfactorilywithsodiumpyrophos-phate solutions, but this is not the case with andosolsamples.Itisevennecessarytofindadifferentagent,suitableforpeptizingthesamples,foralmosteachindi-vidualhorizon.VanSchuylenborghandVanRummelen(1955)havefoundthatinmostcasesasolutionof0.005NHClwassufficientinachievingcompletepeptizationof andosols samples. Today dispersion or peptizationcanbeachievedbyultrasonicmeans.
Another problem is the fact that volcanic ash soilscontain a mixture of particles which are very unsta-bleinparticlesizes.Itisperhapscommonknowledgethatpumice,thoughitstillhastheappearanceofbeingin its original form, will be very easily broken downintosmallerparticlesbyweakpressureorimpactdur-ingparticlesizeanalysis.This isdueto itsweakenedcohesion as a result of weathering. When weatheringprocessesareallowedtocontinuefurther,pumicewilleventuallyloseitsowncharacteristicshapeandformalayerofmixedcoloredmaterials,calledimogolayersin
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Japan,fromwhichtheterm imogolite iscoined(Yoshi-nagaandAomine,1962a).
Therefore, the results of particle size analysis(Table9.3),carriedoutbythepipettemethod,shouldbereadinlightoftheissuesabove.Theandosolsanalyzedsofarareallmedium-texturedsoils.Theclaycontentisgenerallylow,andmechanicalclayeluviationisseldomnoticed.Anexceptionisnoticedinthecaseoftheblack
Table.9.3. PhysicochemicalCharacteristicsofAndosols
Particle Size Distribution (%)
Org. C %
N %
Horizon
50–2 <2 µ
pH (H2O)
A1
A2
B
BC
20.55
18.47
18.49
29.59
58.65
59.33
41.41
30.41
20.80
22.20
40.10
40.00
5.80
5.70
5.85
6.20
6.93
6.08
2.77
1.38
0.66
0.57
0.37
0.21
10.5
10.7
7.5
6.6
A
A2
B
BC
15.56
13.03
14.78
11.97
62.59
68.44
66.22
72.82
21.85
18.53
19.00
15.21
4.93
4.86
4.82
5.04
15.19
13.56
9.01
4.07
1.25
1.24
0.78
0.41
12.2
10.9
11.6
9.9
>50 µ
C N
Black Andosol, Deli, North Sumatra, 50 m
Black Andosol, Ciapus-Bogor, West Java, 600 m
Ap
B
Ab
26.34
21.23
11.09
60.11
70.36
78.68
13.55
8.41
10.23
5.04
5.69
5.85
6.08
2.39
6.00
0.76
0.37
0.45
8.0
6.5
13.3
Brown Andosol, Lembang, West Java, 1300 m
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andosolsofDeli,locatedinthelowlandsofNorthSuma-traat50mabovesealevel.Here,notonlyarethesoilscomparativelyheavierintexture,butasharpincreaseinclaycontentcanalsobenoticedintheBhorizon.
�.�.�.� SoilreactionThe data indicate that the soils are generally moder-ately acid in reaction (in the pH range of 6 to 5) andonly the black andosol at Ciapus exhibits a stronglyacidsoilreaction,registeringapHrangeof5to4.Thelatter may suggest the presence of umbric propertiesandperhapscanbecorrelatedtotheFAO-WRBumbricandosols.Yatno(2006)reportedvolcanicashsoilsfromtheTangkuban-Prahu,WestJava,toexhibitpHvalues~3.0,whichisunbelievablystronglyacidicandmaybeharmfultosoilsandplants.
�.�.�.� BulkdensityandporosityOtheroutstandingpropertiesofandosolsare the lowbulkdensity,theveryhighmoisturecontentthrough-out the profile, the high uniform total porosity, andaggregate stability. Unfortunately, only general dataandnotmuchresearchinformationareavailableaboutthesephysicalfeatures.TheFAO-UNESCO(2007b)listsasarequirementabulkdensityof≤0.85Mg/m3(=g/cc),whichconformswithresultsofthefewresearchanaly-sesofandosols,reportingbulkdensitiesrangingfrom0.78 to 0.85 Mg/m3 (Leamy et al., 1980). In Indonesia,bulkdensityvalues ranging from0.38 to0.79Mg/m3havealsobeenreportedfromanalysesofvolcanicashsoilssampledattheslopeoftheTangkuban-Prahuvol-cano,WestJava(Yatno,2006).
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Themoisturecontentsarealsoexceptionallyhigh,buttheyarenotcausingthedevelopmentofreducedcondi-tions,becauseandosolsareknowntobewellaerated.Birrell(1964)reportedthatthesubsoilsofandosolsinNewZealandmayhavemoisturecontentscomparabletothoseofpeatsoils.This isalsotrueforIndonesianandosols,whereH2Ocontentsof≥50%havefrequentlybeennoticed.
�.�.� Chemicalcharacteristics
�.�.�.� HumuscontentandcompositionAndosolsarecharacterizedbyveryhighorganicmat-ter contents. The organic carbon contents may evenbe as high as 15% in the surface horizons (Table9.3),exceedingvaluesreportedbyBrady(1990)formollisolsintheUnitedStates.However,thegeneraltrendofCorgcontentisintherangeof5to6%,withthelowervaluesnotedincultivatedandosols.ThedatainTable9.3alsoshowasharpdecreaseinCorgcontentsfromAtoBorChorizons.ThegeneralopinioninJapanisthatgrasses,especially Miscanthus sp., a solfatara plant, and bam-boograss,arethesourcesforaccumulationofhumus.Foresttreesarenotconsideredimportantfortheaccu-mulationoforganicmatter inAhorizonsofandosols(Kanno,1961).ThelatterisincontrastwithIndonesia,whereandosolsarelocatedunderatropicalmountainrainforest.
JudgingfromthevaluesofC/Nratios(Table9.3),thenature of the organic fraction seems to be somewhatdifferentfromthatreportedintheliterature.Theaver-ageC/NratioinAhorizonsofandosolsinJapanis13.8
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(Shojietal.,1994),whereasinIndonesianandosolsvaluesofC/Nratiosequalto8to13havebeennoticed.Italsoappearsthatthehumicfractionsofandosolsaregener-allyhighinfulvicacids.Thehumicfractionsoflowlandandosolstendtobedominatedbyhighamountsofful-vicacids.AsshownbythedatainTable9.4,thehumicfractionsof lowlandandosolsofDeli,NorthSumatra,arecomposedof80to100%fulvicacids,yieldinghumicacid/fulvicacidratiosequalto0.2to0.0.Thisisincon-trast to those of the mountain andosols of West Java,
Table.9.4. HumicCompositionofAndosolsofIndonesia
Composition (%) Horizon Humic
Fulvic Humic Acid
A
A2
81.4
100.0
18.6
0.0
0.2
0.0
Ciapus/Bogor A
A2
65.9
55.9
34.1
44.1
0.5
0.8
Lembang A
B
42.9
52.5
57.1
47.5
1.3
0.9
Pengalengan A
B
67.7
69.9
32.3
30.1
0.5
0.4
Fulvic Acid
Lowland Andosol, Deli, North Sumatra
Highland or Mountain Andosols, West Java
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Chapternine: AndosolsofIndonesia ���
wherethehumicfractionsarecharacterizedbyhumicacid/fulvicacidratiosrangingfrom0.4to1.3.Aratioof0.4meansahumicfractioncomposedoffourpartsofhumicacidsandtenpartsoffulvicacid,asnotedforexampleinthePengalenganandosol(Table9.4).Ontheotherhandaratioequalto1.3indicatesthatthehumicfractioniscomposedofslightlymorehumicacidsthanfulvicacids,ascanbenoticedintheLembangandosol.Thedifferencesaboveinfulvicacidandhumicacidcon-tentsbetweenlowlandandmountainandosolsaretobeexpected.Inthelowlands,theclimaticconditionsfavorrapiddecompositionandmineralizationofsoilorganicmatter.Undersuchconditions,fulvicacidsarethemostpossiblehumiccompoundtobeformed.Humicacids,whenformed,tendtodecomposeintosmallerfractions,the fulvic acids. However, as discussed in precedingsections, theclimate in themountainsof Indonesia iscoolerandmoreconducive tohumificationprocesses,resultinginformationofbothhumicandfulvicacids,butwithatendencytoyieldmorehumicacids.Becausefulvicacidsarethemostsolublehumicfractions,theirhighercontentssuggesttheirbiggerroleinmobilizationofclaysandcationsthroughtheprocessesofchelation.
From the data above, a tentative conclusion can bedrawnforadivisionoftheandosolsinIndonesiabasedonthecompositionoftheirhumicandfulvicacidscon-tentsintothefollowing(Tan,1964,1965):
1. Lowlandandosolswithhumic/fulvicacidsratiosequalto0.2orlower.
2. Highlandandosolswithhumic/fulvicacidsratiosequalto0.5orhigher.
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�.�.�.� NitrogencontentTheandosolsofIndonesiaareallinvariablyveryhighinnitrogencontent.ThedatainTable9.3showtheper-centofnitrogen(%N)rangingfrom0.2to1.3%,valuesfarexceedingthosereportedformollisolsoftheUnitedStates(Brady,1990).Theexceptionallyhighnitrogencon-tentsof1%orhigher,noticedfortheAhorizons,arecom-parablewiththoseofsomeoftheorganicmanures.
�.�.� Claymineralogy
Aspreviouslydiscussed,emphasishasbeenplacedontheclaymineralogyforidentificationofandosols.Themost importantareallophaneand imogolite. Inaddi-tion to these,1:1 lattice-typeminerals,gibbsite,amor-phous silica, and alumina, and some 14 Å mineralshavealsobeendetectedintheclayfractionsofandosols(Kanno, 1961, 1962, 1964). The 1:1 lattice types of claymineralsaremainlykaolinitemixedwithhalloysiteasanundeterminedrandommixture.Theyarebelievedtobe formedbyenrichmentwithsilicaofagingallo-phane.Intheprocessofcrystallization,theamorphousallophane changes first into globular particles, whicheventually may grow into an onion-like mass thatfinallywillburstintotubularkaolin-likeparticles.Evi-denceforthehypothesisabovewaspresentedbyYoshi-nagaandAomine(1962a,1962b),whoshowedelectronmicrographsofcrystallineclaymineralsinametastablestateresultingfromtheweatheringofallophane.Thiskindofallophane,exhibitingthread-likeparticles,per-ceivedtobethefirststepindevelopmentofcrystallinestructures,iscalledimogolite.Sincethen,imogolitehas
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Chapternine: AndosolsofIndonesia ���
alsobeenfoundinandosolsinChileandothercoun-triesintheworld(Besoain,1968;Eswaran,1972).Basedonclaymineralogicalfeatures,Kanno(1964)suggestsadivisionofandosolsasfollows:
1. Soils,characterizedbyadominantcontentofallo-phane.Thesearetheyoungandosols.
2. Soils,characterizedbyamixtureofallophaneandhalloysite.Thesearetherelativelyolderandosols.
3. Soils, rich in allophane, kaolinite, and gibbsite.Theseandosolsareconsideredtobecomparativelytheoldestage.
InIndonesia,thecurrentauthorhasfoundbydiffer-entialthermalanalysis(DTA)thatmostoftheandosolsinSumatraandWestJavacontainlargeamountsofallo-phane with comparatively minor amounts of gibbsite(Figure9.4).Theendothermalpeaksaround300°Caretoo small to account for the presence of substantialamountsofgibbsite.KaolinitehasbeendetectedonlyintheclayfractionsofandosolsofEastJava.TheandosolsoftheDiengPlateau,CentralJava,possessratherdiffer-entthermograms.Here,noexothermalpeaksarepres-entat temperaturesof800 to900°Corhigher.OneofthethermogramsisprovidedasevidenceinFigure9.4.SuchaDTAthermogramsuggeststhepresenceofallo-phane-B or β-allophane, as proposed by Fieldes (1955).However,AomineandcoworkersinJapan(Yoshinagaand Aomine, 1962b) are skeptical about the theory inNewZealandonthedivisionintoallophane-Bandallo-phane-A. Large amounts of imogolite have also beendetectedintheCiapusandosolbytransmissionelectron
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microscopy.Ascanbenoticedfromtheelectronmicro-graph (Figure9.5), the hairlike or cylinder-like struc-turesclearlydominatethepicture.Theaccompanyingx-rayimagebyelectronmicrobeamanalysisorEDAX(Energy Dispersive Analysis by X-rays) supports thepresenceofimogolite.
300 500 °C
5
4
3
2
1
700 900
Figure 9.4 Differentialthermalanalysis(DTA)curvesofclayfractionsofandosols in Indonesia: (1)LakeManinjau,WestSumatra;(2)Ciapus-Bogor,WestJava;(3)Lembang,WestJava;(4)Deli,NorthSumatra;and(5)DiengPlateau,CentralJava.
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Al Cl
EDAX
Liat CiapusSi
Figure 9.5 Transmission electron micrographs of the clayfraction of the Ciapus Andosol, showing the characteristichairlikeorcylinder-likestructuresofimogolite.TheEnergyDispersive Analysis by X-rays (EDAX) image supports thepresenceofclay,composedofsiliconandaluminum.
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�.�.� Chargecharacteristics
Andosolsare considered tobevariable-charged soils.Withoutaddressingtheissueonvariablecharges,adis-cussiononandosolsisincomplete.Asexplainedbefore,the electrical charges, stimulated by inorganic andorganiccolloidalmaterials,areresponsibleforthesoils’chemicalactivitiesandcanbepermanentorvariable innature.Thepermanentchargesoriginateusuallyfrompermanent-chargedclaysandaremostlydevelopedbyisomorphous substitutions in the clay structures. Forexample, the negative charges of expanding 2:1 layertypesofsilicateclaysoriginatefromisomorphoussub-stitution.Ontheotherhand,variablechargesarecreatedbydissociationofexposedOHgroups.Becausetherateof such dissociation depends on soil pH, the chargeswill go up and down with corresponding fluctuationinsoilpH.Thechargesoforganicsubstancesandsomeof the clays (e.g., humic acids, amino acids, hematite,gibbsite) are pH dependent. This group of soil mate-rials is thencalledvariable-chargeclays (ororganics).Kaolinitehasasmallpermanentchargebuthasahighvariable charge, causing the cation-exchange capacity(CEC)alsotofluctuatewithsoilpH(Tan,2003b).Thesecharges of andosols, expressed in terms of CECv, aresummarized inTable9.5.Thedata show thatmostofthesoilsarecharacterizedbyhighCECvvalues, indi-catingthepresenceofhighvariablecharges.Theando-solsatCiapusandLembang,WestJava,areveryhighinthesepH-dependentcharges.OnthebasisoftheCECvvalues,threegroupsofandosolscanberecognized:
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Table.9.5. ChargeCharacteristicsandKCl-ExtractableAlConcentrationsofAndosolsofIndonesia(inme/100g)
Horizon AEC CECp CECv CEC8.2
N. SumatraPadang BulanA
A2
0.22
0.10
29.9
21.1
35.6
22.3
W. SumatraLake ManinjauA
C
0.11
0.14
15.4
34.3
26.5
41.2
Ophir VolcanoA
A2
0.36
0.17
23.6
22.1
5.7
1.2
11.1
6.9
5.3
3.3
28.9
25.4
14.0
20.2
11.5
22.8
West JavaCiapus-BogorA
A2
4.7
1.5
62.3
64.3
70.4
72.7
8.1
8.4
23.9
29.1
Central JavaDieng PlateauAp
A2
17.3
7.0
13.2
13.6
22.2
21.5
9.0
7.9
5.0
18.6
East JavaPujon-MalangAp 0.37 15.7 24.9 9.2 9.7
18.0
21.6
LembangA
B
0.78
0.78
39.0
36.2
4.8
5.5
43.8
41.7
24.5
24.5
PengalenganA
B
0.21
0.13
19.4
20.6
5.0
2.8
24.4
23.4
14.9
18.2
Al3+
Notes: CEC,cation-exchangecapacity;AEC,anion-exchangecapacity.
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1. CECv≤30me/100g.Andosolswithcomparativelylow variable charges (e.g., andosols of Sumatra,CentralandEastJava).
2. CECv=30to50me/100g.Andosolswithinterme-diatevariablecharges(e.g.,andosolsatLembang,WestJava).
3. CECv ≥50 me/100 g. Andosols with high vari-ablecharges(e.g.,andosolsatCiapus-Bogor,WestJava).
TheaboveresultsseemtobeinagreementwiththoseobservedinNewZealand.Althoughtheanalyseswereconductedwithquitedifferentmethods,Fieldes(1962)reported that allophane developed an increasinglyhighernegativechargeas thepHincreasesabovepH=5.
Concerningtheamountofpositivecharges,itcanbenoticedthatandosolswithlowCECvhavelowanion-exchange capacities (AEC), whereas andosols withintermediate and high CECv exhibit medium to highAEC values. The data in Table9.5 also show that theAECvaluesofmostoftheandosolsappeartobelargerforthesubsurfacethanforthesurfaceAhorizons.ThismaybereflectedintheP-fixationcapacity,ifany.Hence,P-fixationmayoccur insomebutnotallof theando-sols in Indonesia,andwillmore likelybean issue inthesubsurfacelayers.Phosphatefixationhasbeencon-sideredbyseveralFAOandJapanesesoilscientistsasoneofthedetrimentalfeaturesoftheotherwisefertileandosols.InIndonesia,noreportsarepresentyetabouttheharmfuleffectofP-fixationofandosols.Asfarasit
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isknownbytheauthor,theandosolsarethebestsoilsforagricultureinIndonesia.
The data in Table9.5 also show that the soluble orexchangeableAl3+concentrationsareveryhighintheCiapus and Dieng andosols, which are also reflectedinthesoilreactionsoftherespectivesoils.AsnotedinTable9.3,theCiapusandosolsarethemostacidicinsoilreactionsascomparedtotheothers.ThehighlevelsoffreeAl3+mayhaveaneffectonincreasingthechancesofP-fixation.However,themechanismofthisfixationaccordingtoaligand-exchangeprocess,asproposedbyJapanesescientists(Shojietal.,1998),isharmfulfortheexistenceofandosols.Ligandexchangemayreleasethehumic molecules from the aluminum exchange sites,andintheformoffreemolecules,thehumicandfulvicacidsaresubjecttorapidattackbydecompositionpro-cesses, normally occurring under tropical conditions.Therefore,theauthorbelievesthataluminumbridgingisabetterexplanationfortheretentionofphosphates,asillustratedbelow:
HumicAcid–Al–HPO4orHumicAcid–Al–PO4 (9.1)
Suchabridginginteractionisnotharmfulfortheexis-tence of andosols, because it will preserve the humicmolecules.Theinteractionbetweenallophaneandimo-golite (through their structuralaluminum layers)andhumicacidsisthemostimportantprocessinthegen-esisofandosols.FreeAl3+isconsideredtoalsoplayaroleintheaccumulatingprocessofhumicsubstances.Additionally, in chelated form, the phosphate mole-culeisstillavailablebyexchangeforplantuse.Thisis
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thenthereasonwhytheauthorhasstatedabovethatinIndonesia,noseriousproblemsinfixationofphos-phates have so far been reported, like in andosols ofJapan.
�.� Landuseandevaluation�.�.� Evaluationofanalyticalproperties
Asdiscussedabove,theandosolsinIndonesiaarechar-acterized by very high organic matter contents, withhumuscontentsexceedingthosereportedformollisolsintheUnitedStates.Asawhole,theyaremedium-tex-tured and friable soils, with low bulk densities, highwater contents, good porosity, and stable aggrega-tion.Theycontainhighamountsofnitrogenandhavemediumlevelsofpotassiumandphosphates(TanandMassey, 1964). The latter are presumably due to theirintermittent enrichment with volcanic ash, supplyingthepotassium-andphosphorus-bearingminerals.
�.�.� Significanceofbasicsoilproperties
The physical and chemical properties, summarizedabove,indicatethattheandosolsofIndonesiaareper-hapsthemostfertilesoilsintheworld,nexttothemol-lisols.Thenitrogencontentsoftheandosolsof≥1%canbematchedonlybygreenandstablemanures,andnoothersoilsintheworldhavebeenreportedtocontainthose high nitrogen contents. However, a disadvan-tage isperhaps thatmuchof theareasofandosols inIndonesiaarelocatedinruggedterrain,highupinthe
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mountains,unliketherollinggreatplains,wheremostoftheextensiveareasofmollisolsarefoundintheUnitedStatesandCanada.Anotherstrikingdifferenceisthatthechemicalcharacteristicsarealsocontrolledbyvari-ablechargesgeneratedbythepeculiaramorphoustypeofclaysandbythehighamountsofhumicsubstances.Hence,asvariable-chargedsoils,theandosolsofIndo-nesiamustbehandledverydifferentlywhenused inagricultural operations than the mollisols. Mollisolsare known to be permanent-charged soils due to thepresenceofcrystallineclays,suchassmectitesormont-morillonites,withlotsofisomorphoussubstitutionsintheircrystal structure.Lime isperhapsnotneeded intoolargeamountsintheandosols,duetothesoil’spHrange,whichismostlybetween5and6.Inthemoreacidictypesofandosols(umbricandosols)andwhenrequiredtooffset lossesbyplantuptakeandleaching,perhapsapplicationsofdolomiticlimestoneorgypsumaremorewarrantedthantheuseofcalciticlimestone.IncontrasttotheoxisolsandultisolsofIndonesia,whicharealsovariable-chargedsoils,thenegativechargesinandosolsarealreadysufficientlyhighformaintainingtheproperCECvalues,andthereisnoneedtoincreasethemfur-therwithlargeapplicationsoflimingmaterials.
�.�.� Agriculturaloperations
Becauseofthefavorablesoilpropertiesabove,theando-solsinIndonesiaarefavoredforavarietyofagriculturaloperationswhenevertheareasaresuitableforinhabita-tion.Thelowlandandosols inNorthSumatrawere inthepre-WorldWarIIperiodusedforcultivationofthe
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famous Deli-tobacco wrappers, which formerly foundtheirmarketsinHolland.Grownontheandosols, thetobaccoplantsusuallyreceiveadequatephosphatefertil-ization,littlepotassium,andsmallamountsofnitrogenfertilizers.Tocontrolthebacterialwiltdisease,theareaiscultivatedwithtobaccoonlyonceeveryfouryears.
InLembang,WestJava,theandosolsareoftenconsid-eredthemainfactorforasuccessfulhorticulturalopera-tion.Duetothelocationinacooltropicalclimate,thesoilsarefavoredforgrowingcabbage,tomatoes,carrots,potatoes,greenonions,andothertemperateregionveg-etablesandcutflowers.Althoughthesoilscontainhighamounts of organic matter, the farmers often fertilizethesecropsagainwithtonsoforganicmanure,probablytocounteractanytoxiceffectduetothehighAl3+con-tentsofthesoil.InthePengalenganhighlands,thebestteaplantationsarefoundonandosols.Theproductionofapproximately3000kgtea/haperyearisconsideredquitehigh,asdiscussedinChapter8.Thequalityofthishighlandteaisallegedlyfarbetterthanthelowlandteathatisgrownatlowerelevationsondifferentkindsofuplandsoils. The cultivation of these crops was addressed inChapter8onuplandsoils;therefore,thefollowingwilladdresstheothercropsalsofavoredforcultivationonmountainandosols(e.g.,coffeeandclove).
�.�.�.� EstatecropsCoffeeandcloveareformerlythetwootherimportantestatecropsofIndonesia.
�.�.�.�.� Coffee Egyptians were recorded ashavingusedcoffeebeans formakingbeveragessince
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biblical times.Coffee, locally calledkopi, isnotnativetoIndonesia,andtheplantshavetheiroriginperhapsintheAbyssinianhighlandsofEthiopia,wherecultiva-tion of coffee allegedly started in 600 AD. From hereitwascarriedovertheworldbyArabmerchants,whoimported some of the plants for cultivation in theirhomeland,theArabianPeninsula.ThiswasthereasonforassigningitlatertheLatinnameCoffeaarabica.Ironi-cally,muchofthecoffeeintheworldisnowproducedinLatinandSouthAmerica,farfromitscountryoforigin.RenownedintheUnitedStatesis,forexample,Colom-biancoffee,thoughthelatterisnotpurearabicacoffeebutmaycontainothervarieties,discussedbelow.
In Indonesia, coffee was planted during the Dutchcolonialtimeinlargeestates,atfirstasagovernment-enforced (Dutch: verplichte) cultivation in Java andSumatra. In the wet tropical climate of Sumatra andWest Java, the coffee plants are easily subject to thedreadfulleafdiseasebyHemileiavastatrix(Ultée,1950).Thisdiseasewasfirstnotedin1969inSriLanka,andsincethenhasspreadquicklytothecoffeeplantationsofthePadangHighlands(BukitTinggiandsurround-ings) inWestSumatra,where ithaswipedoutwholeplantations.Thisisthereasonwhytoday,coffeeplan-tations are primarily concentrated in the mountainsofEastJava,wherethemonsoonclimateismoresuit-ableforitscultivation.Itneeds3monthsofsharpdryseasons for proper berry-setting, ripening, and easyharvesting.Usually,arabicacoffeegrowswellataver-age annual temperatures between 16 and 20°C, andatelevationsbetween800and1500mabovesealevel.In the coffee-growing areas of East Java, the lower
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altitudinallimitforcultivationofarabicaissetbythehemileiadisease,whichbelow800m is still adevas-tatingfactor.Thehigheraltitudinal limitat1500misdetermined by the possible occurrence of night frost.Coffee stillgrowswellat1700mabovesea level,buttheplantsarethenfrequentlydamagedbynightfrost.Duetothediseaseabove,newtypesofcoffee,presum-ablyresistant to thehemileia,havebeen importedbytheDutchpeople(e.g.,theLibericaandRobustacoffees).The liberica coffee (Coffea liberica) has been importedfrom Liberia, Africa, whereas the robusta coffee (Cof-fea canephora) originated from the Congo. Both coffeevarietiesappear toalsogrowwell in the lowlandsofIndonesia.Theysoonbecamethesourcesforthedevel-opmentofsmallholdercoffee farmsoperatedby localpeopleinlowlandareasbelow800m,fromwhichthefamousLampungcoffeeoriginated(Lampungisaprov-inceatthesoutherntipofSumatra).InSumatra,Java,Bali,Timor,Menado(Sulawesi),andWestPapua,mostofthelowlandcoffeeisnowreplacedbyeitherrobustaorlibericacoffee.SomearabicacoffeeisstillgrownatlocalsmallfarmsinthemountainsofBengkulu,South-westSumatra,ataltitudesof1000m,whereasarabusta,acrossingbetweenarabicaandrobusta,iscultivatedinTimor(AARD,1986).
Traditionally,coffeeinIndonesiawasplantedfirstasseedlings. Used to growing as an undergrowth bushinitsoriginalforestsettinginAfrica,theverticalstemof the seedling soon produces lateral branches thatbecomeprogressivelylonger,givingtheshrubapyra-midalshapewhenlefttogrow.Inpractice,formationofacrowncomposedoflateralbrancheswasencouraged
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bytheformerDutchCoffeeResearchInstitute,atJem-ber,EastJava,bygraftingontopofthestemseedlingyoungshoots,takenfromthelateralbranchesofoldertrees.Themoreoftheselateralbranches,thebiggerwillbe theyield,because coffeeflowersdevelop themostonthesebranches.Floweringstartsusuallyattheendof the rainy season, when stem elongation and shootgrowth have stabilized somewhat. In the presence ofaprolongedrainyseason,theflowerswillbeaborted.Thisisthenthereasonwhyamonsoonclimatewithacouplemonthsofdryseason is essential forgrowingcoffee.Thefruit,calledaberryordrupe,turnsredoryellow,dependingonvariety,whenreadyforharvest.A1-year-oldplantwillalreadygiveasmallyield,andthisyieldcontinuestogrowandeven-upinplantsatagesof3to4years.Today,theyieldofathird-yearplantationisaround2000to3000kg(beans)/ha(AARD,1986).
IntheDutchcoffeeplantations,itwascustomarytogrow the coffee plants below shade trees, preferablytall, nitrogen-fixing legume trees (e.g., Albizia sp. andGliricidiaspp.).Asimilaruseofsuchashademethod,applied in cultivation of tea, was discussed in Chap-ter8.Suchasystemoftalltreesdoesnotonlyprovideshadeforprotectionofthecoffeecropsagainstsunburn,butitalsoprovidestheestatewithaseriesofecologicaladvantages. The canopy of the shade trees interceptstherainfall,whichisusuallyratherheavyinthemoun-tains,decreasingsubstantially the impactof the rain-drops on the andosols beneath. The dead leaves andtwigsproducea litter layer,mulchingthesoilandbydecompositionrecyclingthenutrientscontainedbytheplantremains.Aspointedoutearlier,theseshadetrees
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generallydevelopdeeprootsystemsthatdrawnutrientsfromthedeepersoillayers,contributingtowhatwecallnutrientcycling.Inaddition,thealbiziatreescanprovideprecious firewood and cheap timber. Unfortunately,theuseofshadetreesinestatecropshasbeenreducedor discontinued recently. New cultivation methods,includingapplicationsofabatteryofagrochemicalsandhigher-yielding crop varieties, have brought changesintheconceptsofgrowingestatecrops.Thedangerofthehemilieadiseasethatcanbecomeseriousinshadyareas,dueperhapstoincreasedrelativehumidity,isanadditional factor for encouraging the use of a shade-less system. Nevertheless, experimental results of theIndonesiangovernmentresearchstationssuggestonlytheuseoflesseramountsofshadetrees,butnotelimi-natingthemtotally.Estatesthatgrowcoffeewithzero(0)shadetreesproduceanaverageof2000kgbeans/haas compared to a substantially lower average of 1300kg/hafromestatesusing1322shadetreesperhectare(AARD,1986).Thisistobeexpected,becausethedensityofshadewillcontrolbothgrowthandyieldofplants.Themostsuitabledensityofshadetrees,forprofitablebeanproduction,hastobefoundforeachestate,andaspresentedbytheAgencyforAgriculturalResearchandDevelopment(AARD,1986),highercoffeeyieldsaver-aging2200kg/hawereobtainedinestatesusingeither331or147shadetreesperhectare.
By growing these cover trees, a forest-like settingisalsocreated,playingan important role in issuesofconservationandbiodiversity,similarlyasthoseoccur-ringinatropicalrainforest.Thestructuraldiversityoftheestatecrops,producedbythedifferentvarietiesof
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plantsandlayersandheightsofcanopies,canbecomeanimportantrefuge,harboringadiversepopulationofbirds.Itiswithoutquestionthatalltheseecologicalben-efitsaffordedtothelandsinIndonesiaarelostforeverbytheeliminationofshadetrees.Theauthorhasnoticedlately that thewildchickenor jungle fowl,numerousinthepast,havenowbecomeextinctorendangeredinmanyoftheestatesbecauseoflossofhabitats.Theyarelocally calledayam hutan (ayammeans“chicken,”andhutan means “wild” or “forest”) or in West Java alsonamedkasintu,butnotmanukasoftenstatedinEnglishbooks.ManukisaSundanesedialectreferringtobirdsingeneral.Inthepast,Indonesiarecognizedatleasttwotypesofayamhutan,thered(Gallusgallus)andgreenjunglefowl(Gallusvarius).Theredvariety,fromwhichIndonesia’s domestic chickens have descended, hasbeenconsideredextinctforalongtime,butthegreenjunglefowlhasapparentlybeenabletoexistforawhilein thehugeexpansesofmountain forestsettingscre-atedinthetea,coffee,andotherplantations.DuringtheDutchtime,nohuntingwaspermittedontheestates,butthesewildbirdshaveapparentlyalsodisappearedrapidlyinnumbersbecauseofhabitatlossesinrecentyears.
�.�.�.�.� Clove This is another plant that hasmade Indonesia famous as the Spice Islands. Cloveplants (Figure9.6), known during the Dutch time bytheLatinnameEugeniacaryophyllatabutintheEnglishliteraturecalledEugeniaaromaticum,arenativetoIndo-nesia.Locallyknownascengkeh,theplantsarereportedtooriginatefromtheislandsgroupofTernate,Tidore,
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Ceram,Halmahera,andAmbonintheMoluccas.It ispresumablyalsofoundinTimor(Deinum,1950b).Clove,as a spice, was known already in 547 a.d. in Egypt,presumably imported fromChinaandCeylon. Itwasaverypreciouscommodity,andevenafterthePortu-guesefoundtheirwaytotheMoluccasin1511,theclovewas still scarce and expensive in European markets.FromTimor,Frenchsailorssucceededtosmugglecloveplantsin1753toRéunionisland,andthecrophassincethenspreadtoMadagascar,SainteMarie,andZanzibar,Africa,wheretodayextensivecloveplantationscanbefound.Asisthecasewithnutmeg,cultivationofcloves
CA
B
Figure 9.6 (A)Youngcengkehorclove tree. (B)Freshgreencloves.(CourtesyofP.T.CenkehLanriber.Photo(B)providedbyJanuarDarmawan.)(C)Driedcloveshowingtheformofanailorscrew.
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in Indonesia is mostly done by smallholder farms, intheearlydaysunderaforced(Dutch:verplichtecultuur)cultivation system. The latter was abolished in 1863(Deinum,1950b).Theplantswere, in1798,duringthebriefBritishoccupationofIndonesia,broughttoSuma-tra,whereclovehasbeencultivatedsincetheninmanysmall plantations in Bengkulu, Southwest Sumatra,PayahKumbuh,andotherareasinWestSumatra.
Theplantsarepropagatedbygerminatingseedsandallowedtogrowfor8to12monthsinseedbedsorpotsbefore they are ready for transplanting in the fields.Somefarmerskeepthemfor2yearsinthepotsbeforetransplanting.Theplantswillgrowinthelowlandsaswell as in the uplands. In West Java, they have beencultivatedonlowlandultisols,buttheywillgrowbet-teronsoilsatelevationsof600to800mabovesealevelwithanaverageannualrainfallof±3000mm(TanandHadiwidjaja,1959).
Priortoflowering,aperiodof2to3monthsofdryweather,wherethemonthlyrainfallisaround80to90mm,appearstobeofadvantage.Thoughthisisnotareallydryseasoncharacteristicofamonsoonclimate,this semidry period usually results in prolific forma-tion of flower buds, which should then receive againadequate amounts of rains for proper development(Deinum, 1950b). A really dry season with 3 monthsof<60mmrain isunsuitable,whereasaclimatewithtoohighannual rainfalls (≥4000mm),as exhibited intheCiapusandPasirMadangareas,WestJava,isalsoveryharmful.Thehighhumidityseemstoencouragetheappearanceofthetwomostdreadfulclovediseases:dieback, locally known as the mati bujang disease, and
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a fungal blister-blight disease, called by farmers CDC(cacardauncengkeh;cacarmeans“pox,blister,”anddaunmeans “leaf”). The dieback disease, noted already intheearlyPadangandBengkuluplantations (Deinum,1950b), has destroyed most of the clove plantationsat Ciapus and Pasir Madang. No satisfactory reasonshave been presented so far for this cengkeh diebackdisease.Deinum(1950b)hasquotedJ.Reitsma,profes-sorofplantpathologyat InstitutPertanianBogor (IPB),Bogor, about Phytophthora sp. isolated from roots ofsick plants. In contrast, AARD (1986) has pointed toan infestation by the xylem limited bacteria (XLB). Themycoplasma-likeorganismsareallegedlycloggingthexylemvessels,blockingtheflowandsupplyofwatertoleavesandtwigs.Inasense,itislikecloggingthearter-iesofhumanheartpatientsbycholesterolsludge.Thisthenresultsinyellowingoftheleavesfollowedbypre-maturedyingofleavesandtwigs,alltoowell-knownsymptomsofthecengkehdiebackthathasdevastatedthe clove plantations in Ciapus, Pasir Madang, andother areas in West Java, and also in Sumatra whereannualrainfallishigh(TanandHadiwidjaja,1959).Theblister-leaf-blightdiseaseorCDC,firstnoticedin1975inLampung,SouthSumatra,has spread rapidlyovertheothercloveareasinSumatraandJava.Thisdisease,caused by the fungus Phyllostica sp., is allegedly alsoveryserious inareaswithhighrainfall.AccordingtoAARD(1986),ithasdevastated74%ofthecloveplanta-tionsintheLampungsalone.However,itappearstobeeasier to control than thediebackdisease,by theuseoffungicidesincombinationwithpropercultureman-agementandsanitationpractices.
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Becauseofthetwodiseasesabove,lowlandareasofSumatraandWestJava,characterizedusuallybycontin-uouslyhumidconditions,arelesssuitableforgrowingcloves.Theplantationsare,therefore,morerestrictedtotheuplandregions,wheretheconditionsarerelativelydryer,limitingtheappearanceofthediebackandleaf-blister-blightdiseases.Theuplandsoilsarealsolighterintexture(e.g.,andosolsaresandyloams,withgoodairand water percolation, factors favoring the growth ofclovetrees)(TanandHadiwidjaja,1959).Stagnantwaterconditions appear to be harmful for the somewhatdelicate root system. Some shade is required for thefirstfewmonthsofgrowth,whichisusuallyprovidedbygrowingsmallbushes,likeTephrosiacandida.
Cloveisanevergreentreethatcangrowtoa15-to20-m-talltree,andallegedlyhasalifespanof130yearsormore(Deinum,1950b).At4yearsofagethetreestartstoflower,and2.5to3monthslaterthefirstfreshclovescanbeharvested.Harvesttimediffersfromregiontoregion. For example, in South Sumatra trees are har-vestedinMarchthroughApril,whereasintheMoluc-casharvesttimeisusuallyinOctoberthroughJanuary.The fresh cloves harvested are, in fact, the unopenedflowerbudsthataregreenincolor(Figure9.6),whichassumeadarkbrown,rustycolorafterdryinginthesununtilthemoisturecontentis≤4%.Thisdryclovehastheshapeofanailorscrewandisthereasonforthenameclove(fromFrenchclou,meaning“nail”).Ayieldinthepastof1.5to4kg/tree(drycloves)wasconsideredlow,becauseyieldsof12to15kgdryclovespertreehavebeenreportedfrom10-to15-year-oldtreesinMenadoand South Sumatra (Deinum, 1950b). Apparently, the
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yield isnotmuchdifferent today.Currently theyieldoffreshclovesfromyoungtreesgrowninuplandsoilsofJavaisaround1to2kg/tree(=±700gdry).Thisis,ofcourse,small,butitwillincreasetomaximumyieldsof±10kgfreshcloves(=6.5kgdry)pertreeattheageof10to12years(JanuarDarmawan,P.T.CengkehZan-zibarCompany,personal communication,2007).With144to150plantsperhectare,thismeansayieldof504to525kg/haintermsofdrycloves.Loweryieldsof400kg/hahavealsobeenreportedfromcloveplantationsinGorontalo,Minahassa,NorthSulawesi.SellingatapriceofRp.30,000.00toRp.50,000.00perkilogram(Rp.10,000.00=U.S.$1.00),clovesarestillbringinginasiz-ableincometofarmers.
�.�.�.�.� Kretek industry The aroma of cloves,producedbytheirmajorchemicalcomponent,eugenol,hasfoundapplicationinthepreparationoffooddishesall over the world. When extracted as oil, eugenol issaid to have antiseptic and anesthetic properties andiseventodayusedbysomedentistsinrootcanalsandtreatmentoftoothaches.DryclovesareoftenusedforenhancingtheflavorofAsianaswellasEuropeanandAmerican food. Especially in India, it is ground andmixedwithotherspicesandisthenusedinalmostanyIndiandish.Beriyani,afamouslocalIndianricepilaf,isusuallyflavoredwithwholecloves.InIndonesia,clovesareusedinflavoringandincreasingthearomaofcook-iesandcakes.Themainapplication,however,isintheproduction of kretek-cigarette, an Indonesian brand ofcigarettespicedwithchoppedcloves.Thenamekretekcomesfromthecracklingsoundoftheburningcloves
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when smoking the cigarette. In Indonesia, the storygoesthatkretekwasproducedin1880byHajiJamhariofEastJava,whocreateditfortreatmentofhisasthma.Ascustomaryinthepast,manyIndonesiansgobyonenameonly,andHajiisatitle,earnedbyMuslims,aftertheir sacred pilgrimage to Mecca. His kretek caughton locallyandtoday isoneof themostpopularciga-rettes in the market of Indonesia. It isnow producedandmarketedbyanumberofcompanies.Someofthewell-knownbrandsareSampoerna,GoedangGaram,Djarum, Bentoel, and Dji Sam Soe. Recently, kretekhasalsofounditswaytoEuropeanandU.S.markets.Strongoppositionwasapparentlylaunched,especiallyintheUnitedStates,forfearoflosingthecigarettemar-ketbypromotingadversehealtheffectsfromsmokingkreteks.Theyhavebeenthesourceforpoliticaldebates,highlightedbythenewsmediaintheUnitedStates.AU.S.Senate2004billwasallegedlyproposedthatwouldhaveplacedlegalrestrictionsonimportsofkreteks.ThecoupdegraceforthekretekmarketintheUnitedStatesis perhaps the purchase of P.T. Sampoerna by PhilipMorris International Tobacco Company on March 14,2005.
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69071.indb 474 4/25/08 10:43:50 AM
���
IndexAAARD(AgencyforAgricultural
ResearchandDevelopment),18–19
ABChorizons,lowlandoxisols,143
Acacia,79,353Acehregion,35,65,194,196,250,
252,397Achraszapota(sawo),172,246Acidbrownearths,311Acid-brownforestsoils,13,303,
307–308,313,314,374 associationwithpodzolic
latosols,294–295 brownforestsoilclasses,308,
309 physicochemical
characteristics,310 properties,315Acidhumus highlandpodzols/spodosols,
382 podzolization,74–75 podzols/spodosols,381–382Acidleaching,highland
podzols/spodosols,381–382
Acidparentmaterial,369Acidrain,271Acidreactions,soilsequencein
hillycountry,215Acidsulfatesoils,272Acidic(carboxyl)group,clay
peptidization,105
Acidicmaterials andosols,402 brownpodzolicsoils,369–370,
371 inceptisols,299 lowlandultisols,180,181 podzoliclatosols,295–296 volcanic,34Acidicvertisols,238Acidity;SeealsopH,soil andosols,420 argillic(Bt)horizons,187–188 brownforestsoils,377 brownpodzolicsoils,376–377,
379 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,347,349,352
highlandpodzols/spodosols,383,392–393,396
inceptisols/brownforestsoils,315
lowlandalfisols,218 lowlandoxisols,154,155,163 lowlandultisols,179,192,198 andlowlandvertisolcolor,239 mineralleachingand,73 peatsoils/histosols,256,257,
270–273,283,288–289 formationof,255,272 water,270–271 podzolization,98 precipitation/evapotranspiration
ratiosandsoilformation,119
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
soilsequenceinhillycountry,215
spodichorizonformation,108 tropicalconiferforestlitter,
353 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolics,
182 andvertisol/grumusol
formation,228 volcanicmaterials,38Aclimaticsoils,387 brownforestsoils,304 lowlandpodzols,387Acreages/areasofdistributionof
soils,124 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,345–346 lowlandoxisols,161 lowlandultisols,178,197 mountainsoils,333 peatsoils/histosols,124,
256–258 spodosols,390Acreagesofmajorfoodcrops,
125Acrisols,187;SeealsoRed-yellow
podzolicsoils(ultisols);Ultisols,lowland(red-yellowpodzolicsoils)
AEC(anionexchangecapacity),193–194
Aeolianorigin,lowlandalfisols,210
Aeration carbondioxideexchange,112 inlowlandvertisols,243Aerobicmicobialprocesses,peat
formation,261Aerophotogrammetry,21Afaclimates,86,139
andosols,405,406 brownpodzolicsoils,370 lowlandoxisols,139,141 lowlandultisols,182,183 lowlandvertisols,230–231 peatsoils/histosols,263 podzols/spodosols,385 zonalsoils,386Afclimates,65 andosols,406 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,340 inceptisols,302 teaandcoffeerequirements,
126–127Agathisaustralis(kauritree),389Agathisrainforest,80Agaveangustifolia(cantala),174,
206Agavesisalana(sisal),174,206Age,soil andosols,402,425 brownpodzolicsoils,374 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,352 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
312 IndonesianversusU.S.,116 lowlandoxisols andclaymineralogy,161 andcolor,156 modalprofiles,143 parentmaterials,137 particlesizedistribution,
153 U.S.versusIndonesia,152 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,180,192
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Index ���
AgencyforAgriculturalResearchandDevelopment(AARD),18–19,126
Aggregation,lowlandultisolparticles,199–200
Aglaiaodorata(culanflowers),325AgriculturalEnvironment
ResearchInstitute,19Agriculturaloperations andosols,128,434–445 clove,439–444 coffee,434–439 kretekindustry,444–445 brownpodzolicsoils,379–380 highlandalfisols,353–367 applesandgrapes,355–356 dairyfarming,359–362 estatecrops,362–367 wheatcrops(gandum),
356–359 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoiland,353 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
315–316 lowlandalfisols,222–227 estatecrops,223–227 kapok,224–225 teak,225–227 lowlandoxisols,163,165–177 estatecrops,173–177 fruitcrops,171–174 nonricecultivation,169–177 ricecultivation,165–169 vegetablecrops,170,171 lowlandultisols,200–209 estatecrops,206–209 ricecultivation,204–206 shiftingcultivation,
200–204
soilqualityand,198,199 lowlandvertisols,244–253 coconut,249–253 estatecrops,246–249 smalllandholdersor
farmers’crops,245–246 mountainregions,334–335 peatsoils/histosols,126,
286–291 estatecrops,289–291 ricecultivation,288–289,
290 spodosols,396–397 temperateregioncropsat
higheraltitudes,75 transmigrationprogram,23 uplandsoils,inceptisols,
316–331 albizia,325–328 cabbages,317–319 dairyfarming,330–331 estatecrops,322–330 fruits,321–322 horticulturalcrops,317–322 nutmeg,328–330 potatoes,319–320 tea,322–325 tomatoes,320–321Agroforestry;SeealsoRubber
(Hevea);Teak(Tectonagrandis,jati);Treefarming
rubber,23 teak,225–226Agrogeology,13Ahorizons andosols,407,408,409,410,
412,414,415,421–422,423 brownpodzolicsoils,372,373,
374 claymigration,105
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��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
highlandalfisols/gray-brownpodzolicsoils,347,353
highlandspodosols,380–381 humusironpodzol,388 ironandaluminumcomplex
formation,108 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicmorphology,184
lowlandultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoils,182
Air/aeration,soil,112,243,396,410,420
Alang-alang(Cochongrass,Imperatacylindrica),20,21,201,260
Alaskapeat,288Albic(E)horizons brownforestsoils,304 brownpodzolicsoils,368 formationof,75,102,106,113 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,341,342,343,349
highlandpodzols/spodosols,380,381,392
humusironpodzol,388 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,182 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolics,
188Albite,180Albizia(jeungjing),316–317,322,
325–328,364,437Albiziafalcata,364Alfisols,344 aluminumoxide/ironoxide
ratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,119,120
brownforestsoilsas,307
highland(gray-brownpodzolicsoils),337–367;SeealsoGray-brownpodzolicsoils(alfisols)
climate,340–341 landuseandevaluation,
352–367;SeealsoLanduse,highlandalfisols
parentmaterialsof,338–340 physicochemical
characteristics,347–351 soilmorphology,341–343 kandicgreatgroupdiagnostic
features,345 lowland classificationissues,338,
346–347 vertisolsinassociation
with,233–234 vertisolsintoposequence
with,227–228 lowland(redMediterranean
soils),99,123,130,209–227
climate,212–213 landuseandevaluation,
221–227;SeealsoLanduse,lowlandalfisols
parentmaterialsof,210–212 physicochemical
characteristics,218–221 soilclassification,215–218 soilmorphology,213–215 Miamisiltloam,119 percentoftotalarea,124 soilformation,98 terminology/taxonomy,95–96
69071.indb 478 4/25/08 10:43:52 AM
Index ���
AlgemeneVereenigingvoorRubberOnderzoekterOostkustvanSumatra(AVROS),3–4,18,176
Alisols,306Alkalicontent;SeeBases/base
status,soilAlkalisoils(aridisols),99,100Alkalineearthelements,131,
210,380Alkalinity;SeepH,soilAlkalinization,100Alkalis,soil;SeeBases/base
status,soilAlliticsoils,149,220,411Alliticweathering,149Allitization,97Alliumcepa(shallots,bawang
merah),170Alliumfistulosum(greenonions),
170,317Allophane,312,400,423,424Allophanicclays,414–415Allophanicsoils,413–414Alluvialsoils/sediments classificationsystem,123 coconutgrowthin,250 lowlandoxisols,132 lowlandpodzols,383 lowlandvertisol/grumusol
formation,229,230 NusaTenggara,47 Sumatra,37–38Alor,46Alpineconditions,91Alpinegrassland,81Alternativeenergysources,18Altitude/elevation andagriculturalactivity cabbages,317–318
dairyfarming,361 nutmegcultivation,328 teacultivation,364 andosols,405,408,409 andclimate,67–72 inceptisols,299 rainfall,68 temperature,68–69 ultisols/red-yellow
podzolics,182,183 zonaldivisionsinto
lowland,upland,mountain,andhigh-mountainland,69–72,73
highland/mountainsoils,333,336
alfisols/gray-brownpodzolicsoils,340,341,343,346
brownpodzolicsoils,368–369,370,371,372
podzols/spodosols,382,386,392
zonalsoils,386 lowlandalfisols,213 lowlandoxisols,138,140,141 classificationand
nomenclature,148–149 versushighland,145–146 ironcontent,137 andweathering,156 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,189,197 lowlandvertisols,231 peatsoils/histosols,263 soilformationprocesses,114,
117 climate,110 organicmatteroxidationat
higherelevations,113
69071.indb 479 4/25/08 10:43:52 AM
��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
transitionzones;SeeUplandsoils
uplandinceptisols/brownforestsoils,299,303,308,309–311,313
vegetationzones,84–91 cloud-beltforest,89–90 coastalflora,84–88 rainforestandmountain
rainforest,88–89 subalpine,90–91 zonaldistributionofsoils,
13–14Alum,lowlandultisols/red-
yellowpodzolicsoils,190Alumina andosols,423 desilicification,102–103 podzolization,98Aluminum aluminumoxide/ironoxide
ratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,119
andosols,411,415,428,429,431 chelates,74,113 highland/mountainsoils,333,
334 alfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,352 humusironpodzols,391 podzols/spodosols,396 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
313–314 lowlandoxisols,131,157 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,193,196 peatsoils/histosols,275,282 soilformation allitization,97 clayformation,75–76
laterization,97 leaching,76 translocationof,106–108,
120 Sumatranbauxitedeposits,37Aluminumbridging,431Aluminumoxide(Al2O3),97Aluminumoxide(Al2O3)/iron
oxide(Fe2O3)ratios,119–120,241
Amclimate,oxisols,141Amclimates,65 brownpodzolicsoils,370 coffeerequirements,127 grapecultivation,356 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
302–303,308 lowlandoxisols,139 zonalsoils,386Amaclimates lowlandsoils,130 alfisols,212 oxisols,139 peatsoils/histosols,263 vertisols,231 sugarcanegrowth,127Amaranthusspp.(spinach,
bayem),170Ambon,44,45–46,440 monsoons,60Ambonites,46AmericanSystem,7;Seealso
U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)classificationandtaxonomycategories
issueswith,5 terminology,74–75Ammonia,205
69071.indb 480 4/25/08 10:43:52 AM
Index ���
Ammoniumnitrogen,redoxconditionsand,109–110
Ammoniumsulfatefertilizer,176–177
Amorphicsoils,413Amorphousclays,413;Seealso
Noncrystallineclays andosols,400,433 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,350,351 lowlandalfisols,220Amorphoussilica,andosols,423Anacardiumoccidentale(cashew
nut),203Anaerobicprocesses gleyization,101 peatformation,271 peatsoils/histosols,282,
288–289 soilphysicochemical
characteristics,278Analyticalproperties andosols,432 highlandalfisols,352 inceptisols,313–315 lowlandalfisols,221 lowlandoxisols,161–164 lowlandultisols,197–199 lowlandvertisols,242 peatsoils/histosols,282–283Anaphalisjavanica(edelweiss
plant),91Andalusite,211Andepts,400,414;Seealso
AndosolsAndesine brownpodzolicsoils,371 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,339 inceptisols,299
lowlandultisolacidictuffs,180
Andesites/andesitictuffs Ambon,46 andosols,401,403 brownpodzolicsoils,370,371 highlandalfisols,338 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,340 inceptisols,299,301 lowlandoxisolformation,156 lowlandoxisols,132,133,137 lowlandvertisol/grumusol
formation,229 podzols/spodosols,383 soilformationfrom,116 Sulawesi,44 Sumatranvolcanicmaterials,
38 volcanic,34Andesito-basalticvolcanic
materials,34,179Andesito-dacitictuffs,179,180Andichorizon,416–417Andisols,terminology,236,270,
401,416Andosoils,400Andosols,399–445 brownforestsoilsmistaken
for,306 chemicalcharacteristics,
421–432 humuscontentand
composition,421–423 nitrogencontent,424 classificationand
nomenclature,123,399–402
claymineralogy,424–427 climate,405–407
69071.indb 481 4/25/08 10:43:53 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
highlandalfisols/gray-brownpodzolicsoiland,353
landuseandevaluation,432–445
agriculturaloperations,128,434–445
analyticalproperties,evaluationof,432
basicsoilpropertiesand,432–433
latosol/oxisolco-occurrence,142
mountainsoilclassificationbySoilResearchInstitute,309
mountainsoils,336 nomenclature,399–400 parentmaterialsof,402–405 physicalproperties bulkdensityandporosity,
420–421 chargecharacteristics,
428–432 particlesizedistribution,
417–420 soilreaction,420 physicochemical
characteristics,417–432 silica/sesquioxideratiosof
clayfractions,241 soilclassification,411–417 soilmorphology,407–411,412,
413,414Andriesseclassificationscheme,
256,261,262,268–269Anerobicmicrobialprocesses,
peatformation,261,262Anggur(grapes),354,356AngiGigi,382AngiGita,382
Anionexchangecapacity(AEC),193–194,429,430
Apatite,180Apples,354,355–356Aquasuborder,101Aquaculture,354Aquox,151,152–153Aquults,189Arabicacoffee,354Arablelandarea,28Arabustacoffee,436Areaofarableland,28Areaoflandcontainingsoil
typesacreage;SeeAcreages/areasofdistributionofsoils
Arecacatechu(Pinangpalm,betelpalm),85,86
Arenpalm(Arengasaccharifera),249
Arenosols,306Arfakmountains,48Argillaceouslimestone,228Argillans,106Argillic-Bhorizons,337Argillic(Bt)horizons,101,
104–105,341–342 chromosols,188 Davidsonsoils,154 formationof,102,107 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,344,345,347,352
inceptisols/brownforestsoils,306–307
kurosols,187 lowlandalfisols,216,218 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,182,184–188,190,192–193,196
69071.indb 482 4/25/08 10:43:53 AM
Index ���
podzolicsoils,312Argillization,97,101Aridicregimes lowlandoxisols,141 ustoxsoils,141Aridisols(salinesoils,
solonchaks,whitealkalisoils,solods,sodicsoils,blackalkalisoils),99,100
percentoftotalarea,124Arjunatuff,301Arjunavolcano,299,300,301,
310,312Artocarpasintegra(jackfruit,
nangka),203,246AruIslands,48Asclimates,lowlandoxisols,139Asaclimates,lowlandalfisols,
212AsianSoilConference,20Assamtea,324,363Assarting,202Association minerals hornblende,402,404 hypersthene,338 hypersthene-augite,301,
340,370,404 olivine,338 soils alfisols,209,215 grumusols-terrarosa,233 grumusols-vertisols,230 oxisol-alfisol,209 oxisol-andosol,142 podzols-brownforestsoils,
294,298 vegetation broad-leaftrees,340,353 climax,77
forest,79–80Atmosphericpressure monsoons,55–58 subalpinezone,91Augite andosols,403,404 brownforestsoils,300,301 brownpodzolicsoils,371,379 falseredlimestonesand
fraction,211 gray-brownpodzolicsoils,
339,340,370 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,339 inceptisols,300,301 lowlandoxisols,133,134–135,
136,137Australiansoilclassification
system,215–216 kurosolsandchromosols,
187–188 peatsoils/histosols,268Availablewater,peat,281–282Avicenniaspp.(kayuapi),85AVROS;SeeAlgemene
VereenigingvoorRubberOnderzoekterOostkustvanSumatra
Awclimates,139Awaclimates lowlandultisols,182 lowlandvertisols,230,231 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolic
soils,189Ayamhutan(junglefowl),439
BBhorizons,104–105
69071.indb 483 4/25/08 10:43:53 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
aluminumaccumulation,396 andosols,408 brownforestsoils,304 brownpodzolicsoils,368,373 clayaccumulationin,154 claymigration,105,106 ironandmanaganese,109 lowlandoxisols,143,154 podolization,392 podzol-Bhorizon,381,389 podzolization,98 spodichorizonformation,74Bacannut(nutmeg,Myristica
speciosa),328Bako-bako/bakau(Rhizophora),
84BalaiBesarPenelitandan
PengembanganSumberdayaLahanPertanian,19
BalaiPenelitanBioteknologiPerkebunan,17
BalaiPerguruanTinggiPertanian,8
Bali acreagesofmajorIndonesian
foodcrops,125 geography,29 geomorphology,30 lowlandalfisols,210 monsoons,59Baluranvolcano,211,219Bamboo,246Bamboograss,421Bananas(Musaspp.,pisang),163,
174,202,203,321–322,354BandaAceh,204BandaIslands,30,45BandaSea,29,45,60Bandah-Aceh,204
Bandaneira,45Bandung,34,54,75,228,324,367Bangil,228Bangka,29,37,127,382,385,386,
389,390,393Bangkapodzols(lowland
podzols,tanahpadang,padangsoils),382,390,392,394
Banjarmasin,39,41Banjirs(floods),166Bantam,179,181,183,185–186,
191,196,197BaritoRiver,39BaritoRiverbasin,41Basalticashdeposits,211,239,
404Basalto-andesitictuffs,137,299,
301,338,404Basalts,34,44,301,404–405Basesaturation andosols,405 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,337,338,344,345,346,352
highlandbrownpodzolicsoils,377
inceptisols/brownforestsoils,298,311,313,314,315
lowlandalfisols(redMediterraneansoils),215,216,218,219,221,222
lowlandoxisols,155,156,163 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,184,187,188,191,192,198
peatsoils/histosols,256,270,273
redlateriticsoils,215
69071.indb 484 4/25/08 10:43:53 AM
Index ���
soilsequenceinhillycountry,215
spodosols,381,385 U.S.soiltaxonomyand,184Bases/basestatus,soil andosols,404–405 brownpodzolicsoils,377 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
381 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
311 laterization,97 leaching,73 lowlandalfisols,210,218,219,
220 lowlandoxisolformation,131 lowlandvertisol/grumusol
formation,229 lowlandvertisols,229,238 podzolization,98 tropicalbroad-leafrainforest,
314–315Basicparentmaterial inceptisols,299,301 lowlandoxisols,137 lowlandultisols,179 podzols/spodosols,383 precipitation/
evapotranspirationratiosandsoilformation,119
volcanicmaterials,34,137Basicrocks,lowlandultisols,228Basinpeat,255Batak,36,37BatangKampar,205BatangSamo,205Batavia,2,6BatuagungRange,229Bauxite,37Bauxitesoils,149
Bayem(Amaranthusspp.,spinach),170
Beachforest,87Beachvegetation,87–88Beechforest,304BekasiRiver,168Belitung,29,127,382,390Bengkulu,7,205,263,328,436,
441,442BengkuluMountains,13,18Beras,168Bermudahighs,58Betel(Piperbetel),223Betelpalm(Arecacatechu,pinang
palm),85,86Betelnuts,85,86,223Bevolkingsthee,322,362Bhhorizon humusironpodzol,389 Sumatranpodzol,394Bhshorizons,formationof,106,
108Biak,48BibliothecaBogoriensis,20Bijipala(nutmeg),128,329Biodiesel,206Biotechnology,estatecrops,
17–18Biotite,107,180,199,371,378,384,
403Birdshead(Vogelkop),45,48,53Blackalkalisoils(aridisols),100Blackandosols,409,411,413,415,
419Blackcottonsoil,227,235Blackdustsoil,417,418Blacklatosols,142Blackmargaliticsoils,215,231,
235,240
69071.indb 485 4/25/08 10:43:54 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Blackself-mulchingsoils,227;SeealsoVertisols,lowland
Blackturfsoil,227,235Blanketpeat,255Blastdisease,206Bleicherde,373Boehmite,149Boerderijen,359Bogor,4,6,241,357,361 annualprecipitation,54 experimentstation
establishment,4 FacultyofAgricultureat,8–9 latosol/oxisols climateareas,140 particlesizedistribution,
136,137BogorInstituteofAgricultural
Sciences,9BogorResearchInstitute;See
SoilResearchInstituteBogorResearchStationCenter,
17BogorSoilResearchInstitute;See
SoilResearchInstituteBog-typepeats,268Boheatea,363Bojonegoro,231BoneMountains,44Bonthain,44Borassusflabellifer(lontarpalm),
249Borealforest(taiga),298Borneo;SeeKalimantan(Borneo)BougainvilleMountains,49Boylolali,357Braakformula,68–69Brassicaoleracea(cabbage),75,
170,317–319
Brassicarugosa(sawi),170,317,355
Braunerde(brownearth),294,297,298,304,306,307,368;SeealsoInceptisols(brownforestsoils,cambisols)
Braunerde(brownearth),podzol,375
Braunlehm,334Braymethod,271,274,282,352Breeding,plants;SeePlant
breeding/hybridsBroad-leafrainforest,tropical,
314–315Brownandosols,409,411,413,
419Brownearth(braunerde),
inceptisol,294,297,298,304,306,307,368;SeealsoInceptisols(brownforestsoils,cambisols)
Brownearth(braunerde),podzol,375
Brownforestsoils(inceptisols);SeeInceptisols(brownforestsoils,cambisols)
Brownforestsoils(brownpodzolicsoils)
andosolsand,402 classificationand
nomenclature,368,375 claymineralogy,378 vegetation,377 zonalsoils,386Brownhornblende,180Brownlatosols/oxisols chargecharacteristics,157–158 clayandsandcontent,153 claymineralogy,160–161,162
69071.indb 486 4/25/08 10:43:54 AM
Index ���
lowlandoxisolprofiles,143 mineralogicalcompositionof
sandfraction,134 nitrogencontent,156 organicmatter,Ncontent,
CEC,basesaturationandpH,155
particlesizedistribution,136 profiledescription,146–147Brownmargalites,235BrownMediterraneansoils,214,
218,219Brownpodzolicsoils,98,182,
367–380 brownforestsoilsas,307 carbon/nitrogenratio,depth
ofprofileand,114 classificationand
nomenclature,368 climate,115,183,370,372 geographic/topographic
distribution,368–369 landuseandevaluation,
379–380 mountainsoils,13,336,
367–380 organicCandC/Nratios,115 parentmaterialsof,369–370,
371 physicochemical
characteristics,375–379 soilclassification,374–375 soilmorphology,372–374Brownsoil,noncalcic,123Brownsoils,297Brunisols,308Brunizem,297,308Bthorizons;SeeArgillic(Bt)
horizonsBukitAsam,37
BukitBarisanMountains,25,32,35,36,38,52,397
BukitTinggi,25,37,38,53,435Bulkdensity andosols,415,420–421 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
316 peatsoils/histosols,277,
278–280,286,291Bunchgrass,91Buriedprofile,andosol,410,411,
412,414Burning,forest,24Buru,44,45Bushvegetation,186
CCabbage(Brassicaoleracea),75,
170,317–319Cacao(Theobromacacao),224,250,
326Cacaoplantations,soil
conservationprograms,326
Cacatuas,85Calapogoniumspp.,176Calcareousmaterials brownpodzolicsoils,369 inceptisols,304 lowlandalfisols,211 lowlandultisols,179,181,228 podzols/spodosols,383Calcification,94,99 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
308 withlaterization,114 lowlandalfisols,210,220Calciticlimestone,284
69071.indb 487 4/25/08 10:43:54 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Calcium basalts,34 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,352 inceptisolformation,304 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
313 lowlandultisols,198 lowlandvertisol/grumusol
formation,229 lowlandvertisols,238,242,
244 peatsoils/histosols exchangeablebases,273 limingeffects,284 soilsequenceinhillycountry,
215Calciumcarbonate,232Calciumconcretions,210,234,
242Calciumfertilizer,rice,167Calophyllumsp.,260Camara(trees),88Cambiare(Latin),307Cambichorizon,298,415Cambisols,307Camelliasinensis;SeeTea
(Camelliasinensis/theifera,Theasinensis)
Campnospermamicrophyllum/auriculatum,265
Canadiansystemsofsoiltaxonomy,101,268
brownforestsoils,308 graywoodedsoils,344–345 highlandalfisols(luvisols),
337 andred-yellowpodzolicsoils,
188
CanadianWetlandClassificationCenter,275
Canariumcommune/Canariumindicum(pohonkenari),329
Canopies,rainforest,78Cantala(Agaveangustifolia),174,
206CapeDatuk,39CapeSambar,39Capillarywater,281,283Capsicumannuum,Capsicum
frutescens(hotpepper),202–203,245–246
Carboncontent;SeealsoOrganicmatter,soil
andosols,421–422 lowlandalfisols,219 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,191 peatsoils/histosols,275–277Carbondioxide dissolved andchemicalweathering,
111 andleaching,120 mineralizationoforganic
matter,111–112Carbon/nitrogen(C/N)ratio,
102 andosols,419,421–422 brownpodzolicsoils,376 comparisonoftemperateand
tropicalsoils,115 gray-brownpodzolicsoils,114 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,348 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
394
69071.indb 488 4/25/08 10:43:55 AM
Index ���
inceptisols/brownforestsoils,310
lowlandalfisols,219 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,191 lowlandvertisols,237 peatsoils/histosols,270,
275–277Carbonicacid,112Carbonization,organicmatter,
405Carboxylgroup,clay
peptidization,105Caribbeankapok,224Caricapapaya(papaya,papaya
semangka),172,173,174,203,354
Carrots(Daucuscarota),75,170Cartensztop,50,392Cashewnut(Anacardium
occidentale),203Cassava(Manihotutilissima,
yucca),125,156,163,169,202,203,222–223,245,284,288
Castaneaargentea(saninten),89Castaneajavanica(kihiyur),89Castaneasp.(chestnut,saninten),
314–315,353Castanozems,297,306Castoroilcrops,245Casuarinaequisetofolia,88Casuarinaforest,82Catclays,272Cationconcentration,subsoil,
108Cationexchangecapacity(CEC) alkalinization,100 andosols,428,430
highlandalfisols/gray-brownpodzolicsoils,345
highlandpodzols/spodosols,381
andironandaluminummobility,107
lowlandoxisols,154,156–157,161,164
claymineralogy,162 reddish-brown,brown,and
redlatosols,155 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,193,200 lowlandvertisols,238,240 mineralnutrition,75 peatsoils/histosols,271 percolatingwater,112–113 podzolization,98 soilmoisture,dissolved
carbondioxideand,112 soilsequenceinhillycountry,
215 volcanicmaterials,34Cationexchangecapacity,
effective(ECEC),95,157Cattle dairyfarming,317,330–331,
354,359–362,397 fallowlands(tegalans),222Cauliflower,75Cauliflowersoilstructure,
grumusols,232Ceibapentandra(kapok,tani,
petani),174,203,213,223,224–225,246
Cementation,lowlandoxisols,147,154
Cengkeh,128;SeealsoClove(s)(EugeniacaryphyllataandE.aromatica)
69071.indb 489 4/25/08 10:43:55 AM
��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
CenterforAgriculturalLandResourcesandDevelopment,19
CenterofResearchandDevelopmentofEstateCrops,18
CenterofResearchandDevelopmentofSoilsandAgroclimate,4
CentraleProefstationsVereeniging(CPV),4
CentralJava climate,67,72,140 geomorphology,34 inceptisols,303 latosols,140 lowlandalfisols,210 lowlandultisols,179 lowlandvertisols,227 mountainflora,89 sugarcanegrowth,247Centrallakeplain,49Centrosema,176Ceram,44,45,46,86Cfclimates andosols,406,407 lowlandoxisols,139 lowlandvertisols,230Cfhiclimate andosols,406 podzols/spodosols,385Cficlimates,highlandalfisols/
gray-brownpodzolicsoils,340
Chargecharacteristics andosols,428–432 claypeptidization,105 lowlandoxisols,157–159,161
lowlandultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoils,193–194,200
lowlandvertisols,240Chargedistributionanalysis,
lowlandoxisols,157–158Chelates/complexformation altitudinalvariationsinsoil
formationandfertility,74 aluminumandiron
translocation,120 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
381 andironandaluminum
mobility,107–108 andmicronutrientavailability,
75 mountainsoils,334 podzolization,98 redoxconditionsand,109 withsilica,103,104 soilformation,113Cheluviation(eluviation),98,
334,337,346,381,392,394Chemicalcharacteristics andosols,421–432 humuscontentand
composition,421–423 nitrogencontent,424 highlandalfisols,347–349 highlandspodosols,392–394 inceptisols,311–312 lowlandalfisols,218–220 lowlandoxisols,154–157 lowlandultisols,192–193 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,190 lowlandvertisols,238–239 mineralizationversus
humification,110–112
69071.indb 490 4/25/08 10:43:55 AM
Index ���
Chemicalweathering ferralization,97 percolatingwaterand,112–113 soilsolutionstrengthand,
117–118 temperatureand,116–117Chemicallyboundwater,peats,
281Cheribon,247Chernozems(mollisols),99,124,
377;SeealsoVertisols,lowland
Chestnut(Castaneaargentea,Castaneasp.),89,314–315,353
Chficlimates,mountainpodzols,386
Chilipepper(Capsicum),202–203,245–246
Chilluviation(illuviation),98,334,337,346,381,394,395–396
Chromosols,215;SeealsoAlfisols,lowland
Cianjur,167,228,324Ciapus,303,403,404,405,406,
409,410,420,422,425,426,427,428,429,430,431,441,442
Ciasam,168Ciawi,19,160Cibadak,322Cibinong,136,137,145,173,241Cicurug,322Cigombong,341Cikampek,168Ciluarprofile,133,136,137Cimanggu,Bogor,6CimanukRiver,228Cinchona(quinine),334,354
Cipanas,341CircumAustraliaMountain
system,30CircumSundaMountain
system,29,30,43CitarumRiver,166Citruscrops,354Citrusnobilis(jeruksiam/jeruk
paseh),173–174Citrusveinphloem
degeneration,174Clamdisease,330Classificationofsoils andosols,123,399–402,
411–417 brownpodzolicsoils,368,
374–375 inceptisols,306–309 inIndonesia,121–125 lowlandalfisols,215–218 lowlandoxisols,148–153 lowlandultisols,186–189 lowlandvertisols,235–236 methodologicalissues,7–8 peatsoils/histosols,267–270 publications,14 spodosols,390–392 systemsof FAO-UN,121,122;Seealso
FoodandAgriculturalOrganization(FAO)classificationsystemandterminology
inIndonesia,14 USDA;SeeU.S.Department
ofAgriculture(USDA)classificationandtaxonomycategories
69071.indb 491 4/25/08 10:43:55 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
WRB,98,130;SeealsoWorldReferenceBase(WRB)forSoilResources
Clayloam,Davidsonsoils,154Claymobilization/movement/
translocation,75 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,347,349 highlandbrownpodzolic
soils,368 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
381,392 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
311–312,313 lowlandoxisols,154 lowlandultisols,190 mountainsoils,334 soilformation,98,102,104–106 humicacidsand,113 illimerization,101Clayschists,385Clayskins,106Clays/claymineralogy;Seealso
specificminerals andosols,412–415,417–420,
424–427 formationof,75–76 argillization,101 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,190 highlandsoils,334 alfisols,347,349–351 brownpodzolicsoils,376,
377 podzols/spodosols,381,392 spodosols,394–396 lowlandsoils alfisols,218,220–221,222 peatsoils/histosols,278 ultisols,194–197
ultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoils,190–191,200
vertisols,227,232,237–238,239–241
lowlandsoils,oxisols,138,148,151–152,153,159–161,162
cationexchangecapacity,157,158–159
classificationandnomenclature,149,154
particlesizedistribution,137
organiccomplexes humo-complexformation,
105,106,381 translocationof,106,113 podzolization,98 uplandbrownforestsoils/
inceptisols,304,309–311,312–313,314
Claystone,229Cleanweeding,176Climate,51–76 andagriculturaloperations
cloves,441–442 grapecultivation,356 nutmegcultivation,328–329 sugarcane,246,247–248,250 teaandcoffee
requirements,126–127 altitudinalvariations,67–72 andrainfall,68 andtemperature,68 zonaldivisionsinto
lowland,upland,mountain,andhigh-mountainland,67–72
divisionsbasedonlengthofwet/dryseasons,61–67
69071.indb 492 4/25/08 10:43:56 AM
Index ���
Mohrsystem,62–65 SchmidtandFerguson
system,65–67 equatorialclimateconcept,
52–54 monsoon(s) conceptof,55–59 andpedogenesis,72–76 westandeast,59–61 NusaTenggara,47 andpedogenesis/soil
formation,72–76,110–115 altitudinalvariations,74–76 mineralizationversus
humification,110–115 precipitation/evaporation
effectsindifferentclimatictypes,73
andweatheringinmountainregions,333
tropical conceptof,54–55 andpedogenesis,72–76Climateeffectsonsoilformation
andproperties andosols,400,405–407,423 highlandsoils brownpodzolicsoils,369,
379 podzols/spodosols,386 lowlandsoils,130 alfisols,212–213,215–216,
219 histosols,262–264 oxisols,138–142 peatsoils/histosols,262–264 ultisols/red-yellow
podzolics,181–182,183 vertisols,230–231,246 mountainsoils
alfisols(gray-brownpodzolicsoils),340–341
brownpodzolicsoils,370,372
spodosols,385–387 uplandsoils inceptisols/brownforest
soils,296,297,299,302–304,308,316
podzoliclatosols,295–296Climatic(zonal)soils brownforestsoils,304 mountainpodzols,386–387Climaxassociation,77Climaxvegetation,77–79 monsoonfloraasindicationof
monsoonclimate,61 tropicalmonsoonforest,78–79 tropicalrainforest,77–78 tropicalsavannahforest,79Cloud-beltforest,84,89–90Clove(s)(Eugeniacaryphyllata
andE.aromatica),2,15,127–128,223,439–444
C/Nratio;SeeCarbon/nitrogen(C/N)ratio
Coaldeposits,37,41Coastalflora,84Coastalplains,47,255,401–402Cochongrass(alang-alang,
Imperatacylindrica),20,21,201,260
Cocoa,126Coconut(Cocosnucifera,kelapa
gading),23,71,88,126,286,321,354;SeealsoCopra
highlandalfisols/gray-brownpodzolicsoils,354
lowlandultisols,203
69071.indb 493 4/25/08 10:43:56 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
lowlandvertisols,233,246,249–253
transmigrationprogram,23Coconut,dwarf(Cocosnucifera,
kelapapuyuh),250,252Coconut,varietyof(Cocos
nuciferavar.pultaria,kelapakopiyor),253
Coffeacanephora(robusta),436Coffealiberica,436Coffee(Coffeaarabica),2,126,174 andosols,434–439 experimentstation
establishment,4 highlandalfisols,354 soilconservationprograms,
326Colombiancoffee,435Colonialism,2Color,soil andosols,400,407,408 brownpodzolicsoils,373 gleyization,101 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoiland,353 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,342–343,347,349
inceptisols/brownforestsoils,297,298,304–306,312
lowlandalfisols,210,214 lowlandoxisols,137,138,
141–142 claymineralogy,161 organicmatterand,156 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolics,178–179 altitudeand,182 classificationand
nomenclature,188–189
lowlandvertisols,234–235,239
melanization,102 rubification,101 soilformationterminology,97Color-Bhorizon,298Combretocarpussp.,260Compaction,peat,279,280Complexformation;See
Chelates/complexformation
Concretions calcium,210,234,242 iron;SeeIronconcretions lowlandoxisols,144–145,147Conductivity,electrical(EC),100Conferences,national,19–20Conglomerates,44Conifers,89,90,353 brownforestsoils,304 brownforestsoils,podzolic,
377 brownpodzolicsoils,379 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
382,387–389 mountaintrees,71–72Conservationpractices,20–21Constantcharge,240Coolfronts,58Coolmonsoonclimate,coffee
requirements,127Copra,126,249–250,252;Seealso
Coconut(Cocosnucifera,kelapagading)
Coralreefs,27,32,45,47Coralsands,250,251Corn,17,202 acreagesofmajorIndonesian
foodcrops,125 lowlandalfisols,223
69071.indb 494 4/25/08 10:43:56 AM
Index ���
lowlandoxisols,169–170 lowlandvertisols,244,245,246 peatsoils/histosols,284,288Cotton(Gossypium),174,223,245CPV(CentraleProefstations
Vereeniging),4Cracking;SeePlasticity/shrink–
swellpropertes/crackingCratoxylonglaucum,260Criticallands,21Cromosol,148Cropproduction;See
AgriculturaloperationsCrotalariaspp.,176Crusttirs,235Crystallineclays andosols,423,433 lowlandalfisols,220–221 lowlandoxisols,159 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,195Crystallinekaolinite,160Crystallineschists,49Crystoballite,44,312,351Csclimates andosols,406 brownpodzolicsoils,370 lowlandvertisols,230 red-yellowpodzolics,181,182Cshiclimate,podzols/spodosols,
385Csiclimate,407C-typeclimates,lowland
ultisols,182Cucumbers(Cucumissativis,
ketimun),170Cucumissativis(cucumbers,
ketimun),170Culanflowers(Aglaiaodorata),
325
Cultivation,andpeatbulkdensity,279–280
Cwclimates,red-yellowpodzolics,181–182
Cyperaceaesp.(sedges),255,257Cyrtostachyslakka,260
DDacites/daciticparentmaterials,
34 Ambon,46 andosols,402 lowlandultisols,179,180,181,
186,192 soilformationfrom,116 Sumatranvolcanicmaterials,
38Dacito-andesiticvolcanic
materials,34,38,137 andosols,402,403 inceptisols,301 lowlandoxisols,133,137 lowlandredoxisols,156Dacito-liparitictuffs,180Dahatteak,225Dairilands(Tapanuli),384,388Dairyfarming,317,354,397 highlandalfisols,354,359–362 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
397 uplandsoils,inceptisols,
330–331Dairygoats,361Damconstruction,21–22Damarbatu(Pinusmerkusii),17,
71–72,89,380,397Dams,166DanauVolcano,181
69071.indb 495 4/25/08 10:43:56 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Darkgraymargalites,235Daucuscarota(carrot),75,170,317Davidsonsoil,152,154,159Davidsonsoils,295Decomposition,mineral irontranslocation,107 laterization,97 andsoilfertility,74 soilformation,101 watermovementinsoil,110Decomposition,organicmatter andosols,423 gray-brownpodzolicsoil
humification,114 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,352,353 litter,peatformation,261–262 lowlandsversushighlands,75 mineralizationversus
humification,110–111 nitrogencontent,274 andpeatbulkdensity,279 peatformation,258–259,
261–262 shadesystem,437 tropicalbroad-leafrainforest,
315 tropicalrainforestlitterlayer,
78Deepweathering,lowland
ultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoils,191
Deforestation,20,24,25,130 lowlandultisolexhaustion
after,199 shiftingcultivationand,201,
202 transmigrationprogramand,
23 andvegetationcover,82
Degradedlateriticsoils,189,295Degradedsoils cleanweedingand,176 deforestationand,24 peatsoils/histosols,289 rubbercultivationand,176 soilformation
processes;SeeSoilformation/pedogenesis
Dehydration,lowlandoxisols,161
Deli,241,404,420DeliTobaccoExperiment
Station,3Demakplain,227,230,245Depok,140Depthofprofile;See
Horizons/profiles/pedonDerno-palepodzolicsoils,344Desertclimate,55Desilicification,75–76 aquoxlatosolformation,152 climateand,110 soilformation,102–103,104Diagnosticfeatures,95 alfisols,338,345 andosols,415–416 histosols,254,268 kandicgreatgroups,345 oxisols,142–143 peatsoils/histosols,254 podzols/spodosols,108,381,
394 ultisols alfisolsversus,338 uplandversuslowland,296Diebackdisease,15Dieng,357,425,429Differentialthermalanalysis
(DTA)
69071.indb 496 4/25/08 10:43:57 AM
Index ���
andosols,425,426 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,351 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
313 lowlandalfisols,220 lowlandoxisols,159–160,161 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,194–195,196
lowlandvertisols,239–240Digul,250Digul-Frydepression,50Dioecious,329Diplaziumspp.,186Dipterocarpaceae,80,81,89,
259–260Disorderedkaolinite,159,
160–161Dolomiticlimestone,284,315,
353,433Dome,swampforest,259Drainage raisedbedcrops,245 andsoilformation,110 aquoxlatosolformation,152 ironmobilization,107 lowlandoxisols,152 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,192–193 lowlandvertisol/grumusol,
229 andredoxreactions,108,
109 silicification,103–104 soilproperties andosols,408 highlandalfisols/gray-
brownpodzolicsoils,342
andlowlandalfisolproductivity,221–222
lowlandalfisols,218 lowlandoxisols,132,162 ultisols/red-yellow
podzolics,182,186,188 soilsequenceinhillycountry,
188,215Drainageprojects peatlands,Indonesia,287 peatlands,U.S.,284–285 peatsoils/histosols,289Drought Mohrsystem,63,64 vegetationadaptedtoin
monsoonclimates,89Drownedsoil,382Dryclimate lowlandoxisols,taxonomic
complications,139,141 soilformation,99 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolic
soils,189Dryseasons,65;SeealsoWet/dry
seasons lengthof,andsoilforming
processes,113–114 lowlandalfisols,212,223–224 lowlandoxisols,139 Mohrsystem,63,64 mountainsummits,68 NusaTenggara,47 weak,55 WestJava,55Dryingeffects,lowlandalfisols,
222DTA;SeeDifferentialthermal
analysis(DTA)Dumpy,207Duras,207
69071.indb 497 4/25/08 10:43:57 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Dutchcolonialism,2–6 nationalizationofcolonial
plantations,17 post-WorldWarIIperiod,6–7 transmigrationprogram,
34–35Dutchsoilclassificationsystem,
14,121,150,154 andosols,417Dwarfcoconut(Elaeisguineensis,
kelapapuyuh),250,252Dwarfhybrids,oilpalm,207–209Dwarfpodzols,375
EEhorizons;SeeAlbic(E)
horizonsEast–CentralJava,soilmaps,14EastIndonesianvegetation
province,80–81EastJava climate,67,72,140 coffeeplantations,127 evapotranspirationrates,118 geomorphology,34 inceptisols,303 lowlandalfisols,210,213 lowlandoxisols/latosols,140 lowlandultisols,179 lowlandvertisols,227,231 mountainflora,89 sugarcanegrowth,127Eastmonsoon,60EC(electricalconductivity);See
ElectricalconductivityECEC;SeeEffectivecation
exchangecapacityEco-friendlycrops,327
Ecologicaldamage;SeealsoDegradedsoils
peatsoils/histosols,279,280 shiftingcultivationand,201EDAX;SeeEnergydispersive
analysisbyx-raysEdelweiss(Anaphalisjavanicaor
Leontopodiumalpinium),91Education,Indonesia,6,8–9,10Effectivecationexchange
capacity(ECEC),95,152,157
Egg-cuppodzol,389Eggplants(Solanummelongea,
terong),170EilandenRiver,50Elaeisguineensis(oilpalm,kelapa
sawit),126,176,199,206–209,246,250,288,290,291,322,323
Elaeismelanococca,�0�Electricalconductivity(EC),100Electrochemicalpotential,
276–277Electrokineticpotential,105Electrolytes,peatformation,255Electronegativity,lowland
ultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoils,195–196
Electronmicrobeamanalysis,426,427
Elevation;SeeAltitude/elevationEluvialBhorizons,98Eluviation(cheluviation),98,334,
337,346,381,392,394Eminentdomain,35Endertclimatesystem,62Energydispersiveanalysisby
x-rays(EDAX),426,427
69071.indb 498 4/25/08 10:43:57 AM
Index ���
Energyresources(oil,naturalgas)
Kalimantan,41 Sumatra,37Energysources,alternative,18Entisols,124,126Environmentalfriendlycrops,
327Epidote,211Epiphytes,88Equator,52–53Equatorialclimate,59 conceptof,52–54 terminology,51–52Erosion conservationissues,21 lowlandultisols,198,199,200 lowlandvertisols,243 mountainregions,333 rubbercultivationand,176Erythrinatrees,87ESP;SeeExchangeablesodium
percentageEstatecrops andosols,434–445 clove,439–444 coffee,434–439 kretekindustry,444–445 biotechnologyfocusofnew
experimentstations,17–18
classificationandnomenclature,126,250
earlyexperimentstationfocus,5–6
highlandalfisols,362–367 lowlandalfisols,223–227 kapok,224–225 teak,225–227 lowlandoxisols,169,173–177
lowlandvertisols,206–209,246–249
mountainregions,334–335 peatsoils/histosols,289–291 researchinstitutes establishmentof,3 new,18 uplandsoils,inceptisols,
322–330 albizia,325–328 nutmeg,328–330 tea,322–325Eucalyptus,79EugeniacaryphyllataandE.
aromatica(cloves),2,15,127–128,223,439–444
Eugenol,444Eupatoriumsp.,408Eusideroxylonzwageri(ironwood),
80Eutrophicprocesses,peat
formation,256,262,268,274
Evaporation rainwater,64 andsoilformationindifferent
climatetypes,73Evapotranspiration,118,261Exchangeablesodium
percentage(ESP),100–101Exhaustion,lowlandultisols,199Exocarpuslatifolia(sandalwood),
82Experimentstationsin
Indonesia,3 AlgemeneVereenigingvoor
RubberOnderzoekterOostkustvanSumatra(AVROS),176
69071.indb 499 4/25/08 10:43:57 AM
�00 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
historicaldevelopmentofIndonesiansoilscience,17–19
wheatcrops(gandum),357ExploratorySoilMapof
Indonesia,14–15,16,124,132
FFabric andosol,412 gray-brownpodzolic,335 rotlehm,101 soilformation,106FaculteitderDiergeneeskunde,6Faculties,6,8FacultiesofAgricultureandSoil
Science,9FacultiesofAgricultureand
VeterinaryScience,11–12FacultyofAgriculturalSciences,
6,9FacultyofVeterinaryScienceat
Bogor,9Fallowlands(tegalans),222,224Falseredlimestonesoils,211Falseterrarossasoils,221Farmers’crops highlandstemperatecrops,75 lowlandvertisols,245–246Feldspar,199Fentypes,peat,268Ferraliticsoils,220Ferralitization/laterization,
76,97,101,103,210;SeealsoLaterization(ferralitization)
Ferralsols,98,149;SeealsoOxisols(latosols),lowland
Ferrods,391Ferromagnesianminerals,107,
379Ferruginoushumiclatosol,
148–149Fertility,soil altitudinalvariationsin,74–76 chelatesand,75 earlyexperimentstation
focus,4 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,352 historicaldevelopmentof
Indonesiansoilscience,15,17
lowlandoxisols,156,164 lowlandultisols,198 micronutrientmassflow,75 andplantnutrition,historical
developmentofIndonesiansoilscience,15,17
Sulawesi,44 tropicalbroad-leafrainforest,
315 vertisols/margaliticsoils,
uplandversuslowland,231
volcanicmaterialand,34,38Fertilizerapplication,22 andosols,434 brownpodzolicsoils,379 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoil,353 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
315 lowlandoxisols,164,169
69071.indb 500 4/25/08 10:43:58 AM
Index �0�
lowlandultisols estatecrops,206 uplandricecultivation,
205–206 lowlandvertisols,245 mineralnutritionstudies,15 paddy-sawah,166–167,245 redoxconditionsand,109–110 rubber,176–177 teacultivation,364 teak,226–227 vegetablecrops,170Fibercrops,174,206,250Fibrists,269Ficusspp.,175Fieldcapacity,243Filmwater,281Fishculture,354Fisheries,18–19Flocculation,clay,106,377Flooding,20,22,24–25,166,262Flora;SeeVegetationFlores,29,46Fluviaticsands,383Folichorizon,254Folists,269FoodandAgricultural
Organization(FAO)classificationsystemandterminology,8,121,122
acrisols,187 andosols,399,415,420 brownpodzolicsoils,367,368 cheluviation/chilluviation,
381 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
380 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
296,307 lowlandoxisols,151
lowlandpodzolsasintrazonaltropicalpodzols,382
lowlandsoilcategories,129–130
peat/histosols,257,268 soilformationterminology,
98,101 vertisols,236Foodcrops;SeealsoAgricultural
operations acreagesinIndonesia,125 earlyexperimentstation
focus,5–6Foodimports dairyproducts,361–362 rice,126Forestfires,260;SeealsoSlash/
burn(ladang,shiftingcultivation)system
Forestpeat,261Forestry brownpodzolicsoils,380 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoiland,353 rubber;SeeRubber(Hevea) teak;SeeTeak(Tectonagrandis,
jati)Forests altitudinalzones beach,87 cloud-beltforest,89–90 rainforestandmountain
rainforest,88–89 andosols,408 brownforestsoils,99;See
alsoBrownforestsoils(brownpodzolicsoils)
inceptisols/cambisols,298,304
podzolic,377
69071.indb 501 4/25/08 10:43:58 AM
�0� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
clearingforcropcultivation,22
climaxvegetation,77–79 tropicalmonsoonforest,
78–79 tropicalrainforest,77–78 tropicalsavannahforest,79 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,342,352–353
highlandpodzols/spodosols,382
inceptisolformation,296 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
314 peatswamp,254–255,259–260,
265–266,267 podzols/spodosols,381–382 reforestation,21 slash/burnsystem,20 uplandsoils,inceptisols/
brownforestsoils,316Formationofsoil;SeeSoil
formation/pedogenesisFragipanhorizon,184Frenchsoilclassificationsystem,
149Freshfruitbunches(FFBs),208Frontalborders,58Frontalsystems,atmospheric
pressure,58Fruitcrops highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoil,354 lowlandalfisols,223 lowlandoxisols,163,169,
171–174 lowlandultisols,202 lowlandvertisols,246 transmigrationprogram,23
uplandsoils,inceptisols,321–322
Fuli(mace),329Fulvicacids,334,353,422–423,
431
GGabah(unhulledrice),166,167,
168GajahMadaUniversity,8GambungTeaResearch
Institute,324,367Gandum(wheatcrops),356–359Garciniamangostana
(mangosteen),172Gardeniaaugusta,325Gebleichteparabraunerde,344Gede-Pangrangovolcano
complex,25,54,133,323,335,406
GeelvinkBay,48Gelamvegetation,260–261GeneralAgriculturalResearch
Station,5–6Genesisofsoils;SeeSoil
formation/pedogenesisGeochemicalweathering,191Geographicdistribution brownearthformation,
worldwide,297 brownpodzolicsoils,368 peatsoils/histosols,254–255Geography,27–30Geomorphology,27–50 Ambon,45–46 Ceram,46 geography,27–30 Java,31–35
69071.indb 502 4/25/08 10:43:58 AM
Index �0�
Kalimantan,38–41 Maluku,44–46 NusaTenggara,46–47 Papua(WestIrian),47–50 Sulawesi,41–44 Sumatra,35–38Gibbsite(hydrargillite),104,105,
134–135,149,159,161,162,194,300,351,371,378,408,424,425,428
andosols,423 brownpodzolicsoils,371,378 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,338,339,350,351
inceptisols/brownforestsoils,300,312–313
Gilgai,234Glagah(Saccharumspontaneum),
247Glass,volcanic,180,300,301,339,
371,384,403Gleyhorizonformation,108,123Gleysoils,123Gleytirs,234,235Gleying,101,108Gleyization,94,101,234,239Gleysols,101Gliciridiaspp.,437Glugur,408Gneiss,43,228Goats,222,361,397Goethite,138Golanmethod,244–245Gonystylusbancanus,260Gorontalo,65Gossypium(cotton),174,223,245Gossypiumbarbadense(cotton),
174Governmentpolicy
colonial,verplichte,435,441 dairyfarming,359–360 nationalizationofcolonial
plantations,17 peatreclamation,327–328 regreeningprograms,21,325 transmigrationprogram,
22–23,34–35,201Granites inceptisols,299 lowlandultisols,179,181,192,
193–194 Papua(WestIrian),49 parentmaterials,Kalimantan,
290 Sulawesi,43Granulation,mountain,334,353,
418Grapes(anggur),354,356Grasses,186 andosolhumussource,421 beach,88 gelamvegetation,260 lowlandalfisols,213 slash/burnsystemand,
203–204 subalpinezone,91Gray-brownluvisolicsoils,337,
344–345Gray-brownpodzolicsoils
(alfisols),182,341;SeealsoAlfisols,highland(gray-brownpodzolicsoils)
aluminumoxide/ironoxideratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,119,120
andosolsand,402 brownpodzolicsoils,375
69071.indb 503 4/25/08 10:43:58 AM
�0� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
brownpodzolicsoilsastransitionalsoils,368,370,372
carbon/nitrogenratioin,114 classificationasbraunerde,
298 mountainsoilcomposition,13 mountainsoils,336 soilformation,98 mineralizationversus
humification,U.S.soilsversushumidtropics,115
precipitation/evapotranspirationratiosand,118
thermography,314 ultisolclaycompositionas
distinguishingfeaturefrom,195
Gray-brownsoils,303Grayhydromorphicsoil,123Grayluvisolicsoil,337,344–345Graymargaliticsoils,229Graywoodedsoils,344–345Graywacke,43,46Greenbeans(Phaseolusradiatus),
245Greenhornblende,180Greenmanures,164,176,200,
244Greenonions(Alliumfistulosum),
170,317Greentea,325Groundwaterlaterite,123Groundwaterpodzol,123Groundwatertable,peatsoils/
histosols,283Grumus,235
Grumusols,123,130,215,227,235–236;SeealsoVertisols,lowland
Guava(Psidiumguajava,jambukelutuk),172
Gulaaren,249Gulamangkok,249,253Gulf(Teluk)Cenderawasih,48GunungMas,140Gypsum,315,353,433
HHalloysite,350 andosols,424,425 brownforestsoils,313 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,349–350,351
inceptisols/brownforestsoils,313
lowlandalfisols/redMediterraneansoils,220,221
lowlandoxisols,159,160–161,162
lowlandvertisols,240Halmaheranutmeg(Myristica
succedanea),44,328Hapludoxsoils,142Hardpans,408Hardwoodforest,353Heath,269,304,382Heatherforest,382Hematite,138,161Hemists,269Henry’slaw,111,112Hevea(rubber),175,176,246;See
alsoRubber(Hevea)
69071.indb 504 4/25/08 10:43:59 AM
Index �0�
Heveabrasiliensis,174–177Heveaguyanensis,175Hibiscus,87Highlands coolhumid,humificationin,
114 decompositionoforganic
matter,75 transitionalzone(uplands);
SeealsoUplandsoils simultaneouspodzolization
andlaterization,76,110,130
Highlandsoils;SeealsoMountainsoils
alfisols;SeealsoAlfisols,highland(gray-brownpodzolicsoils)
applesandgrapes,355–356 dairyfarming,359–362 estatecrops,362–367 wheatcrops(gandum),
356–359 andosols,407 estateandindustrialcrops,
126 humusformationand
accumulation,elevationand,141–142
oxisols,absenceofplinthiteinprofiles,145,146
podzolization,74–75,110 podzols;SeeSpodosols ultisols,lowlandred-yellow
podzolicsoilsversus,130 vegetation,80Highmoorpeats,256,262Highmountain(cloudbelt)
forest,89–90
Highmountains,altitudeandclimate,67–72
High-pressuresystems,57Hillytopography,lowland
alfisols,215Histicepipedon,254Historicaldevelopmentof
Indonesiansoilscience,1–25
post-WorldWarIIperiod,6–8 highereducation,
establishmentof,8–9,10 KentuckyContractTeam
(KCT)andMidwesternConsortiumforInternationalActivities(MUCIA)projects,11–12
landuseandsoilconservation,20–25
nationalconferencesandscientificsocieties,19–20
newexperimentstations,17–19
pedology,13–14 soilfertilityandplant
nutrition,15,17 soilsurvey,14–15,16 pre-WorldWarIIperiod,2–6Histosols/peat,130;SeealsoPeat
soils/histosols(tanahgambut)
Hole-in-holecultivation,286,291Holocenevolcanicdeposits,116Horizons/profiles/pedon andosols,407–411,412,413,
414,419 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
304–306,310,311–312 lowlandalfisols,213–214,219,
221–222
69071.indb 505 4/25/08 10:43:59 AM
�0� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
lowlandoxisols,134–135,142–146,161
brown,146–147 claymineralogy,162 particlesizedistribution,
153–154 lowlandpodzols,389 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,182,184–186,187,190
lowlandvertisols,232–234 mountainsoils alfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,337,339,341–343,347,348,349,353
brownpodzolicsoils,368,369,371,372–374,376
podzols/spodosols,380–382,387–389,391,392–396
tropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoil,335
peatsoils/histosols,254,264,265–266,270,279
soilclassificationsystems,121–122,123
soilformation,102 aluminumoxide/iron
oxideratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,119,120
comparisonoftemperateandtropicalsoils,114,115
gray-brownpodzolicsoils,carbon/nitrogenratioincreases,114
oxic,95 spodic,74 zonaldivisionsof,121–125 SoilResearchInstitute
classificationsystems,121–122
Hornblende andosols,402,403,404 brownforestsoils,300 falseredlimestonesand
fraction,211 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,339 highlandbrownpodzolic
soils,371 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
383,384 inceptisols,300 lowlandultisolacidictuffs,
180 oxisolsandfractions,134–135 podzols/spodosols,383Horticulturalcrops;Seealso
Agriculturaloperations highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,355–359 researchinstitutes,18–19 uplandsoils,inceptisols,
317–322 cabbages,317–319 fruits,321–322 potatoes,319–320 tomatoes,320–321Hotpepper(Capsicumannuum,
Capsicumfrutescens),202–203
Houstonclay,235Humasystem lowlandultisols,201,202–203 padi(uplandrice),289Humicacids/humicsubstances altitudeand,74 andosols,422–423 cationexchangecapacity,164 chelates,74;SeealsoChelates/
complexformation
69071.indb 506 4/25/08 10:43:59 AM
Index �0�
formationof;SeeHumusformation/humification
highlandalfisols/gray-brownpodzolicsoils,349,353
highlandpodzols/spodosols,381,394
humic/fulvicacidratios,422–423
andleaching,76 Miamisiltloam(alfisol),
120–121 mountainsoils,333,334 soilformation claycomplexformation,
105,106 athigheraltitudes,113 andironandaluminum
mobility,107–108 mineralizationversus
humification,110–111 podzolization,98 silicacomplexformation,
104Humicallophanesoil,400,411 classificationand
nomenclature,400Humicandosols,416Humic/fulvicacidratios,
422–423Humicgley,123Humicgray-brownpodzolic
soil,343,347,348,350Humiclatosols,142,148Humicrhodichapludox/
kandiudox,142Humidclimate grapecultivationproblems,
356 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,340,341
inceptisolformation,296 nonricecropsgrowninsawah
fields,169–170 andnutmegcultivation,
328–329Humidtemperateclimate,
altitudinalzones,299Humidtropics,130 gray-brownpodzolicsoils,
comparisonofCandC/NratioswithU.S.alfisols,115
lowlandoxisols/latosols,138–139,157
classification,149 climateareas,140 nitrogencontent,156 organicmatter,Ncontent,
CEC,basesaturation,andpH,155
lowlandultisols,182 peatformation,261,262 precipitation/evaporation
ratioandweatheringintensity,118
teaandcoffeerequirements,126–127
Humidity mobilizationandleachingof
micronutrientsinsoil,75–76,110
teaandcoffeerequirements,126–127
Humo-claycomplexes,highlandalfisols/gray-brownpodzolicsoils,347
Humods,391Humults,189,192Humus acid,74
69071.indb 507 4/25/08 10:43:59 AM
�0� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
brownpodzolicsoils,372Humuscontent andosols,400,407,408,
421–423 andlowlandoxisolCEC,157 andlowlandvertisolcolor,239Humusformation/humification andosols,423 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
381,394 lowlandoxisols elevationand,141–142 versusmineralization,
145–146 lowlandsoils,129 lowlandvertisols,239 mineralizationversus,110–111 strengthofsoilsolutionand,
120–121 uplandandhighlandoxisols,
146Humus-ironpodzol,387,388,391Hybridoilpalms,207–209Hybridricevarieties,167,205Hybridsugarcane,247Hydrargillite(gibbsite),104,105,
134–135,149,159,161,300,312–313,338,339,350
andosols,423 brownpodzolicsoils,371,378 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,351Hydroregime,oxisol/latosol
classification,149Hydrogensulfide,85,271–272,
282Hydrolhumiclatosols,149Hydrology,24,25Hydromorphicsoils,101
Hydromorphousprocess,alliticsoils,149
Hypersthene,180 andosols,404 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,338,339,340
highlandbrownpodzolicsoils,379
highlandpodzols/spodosols,383,384
inceptisols,300,301 lowlandoxisols,133,134–135,
136,137Hypersthene-augiteassociation,
133,301,340,370,404
IIceage,116ICRAF(InternationalCenter
forSoilResearchandAgroforestry),201
Idenburgtop,50,392Illimerization,97,101,104–105,
113Illites,104IlluvialBhorizons,98,298IlluvialBthorizon,304Illuviation(chilluviation),311,
334,337,346,381,394,395–396
Ilmenite,180Imogolayers,418Imogolite,400,419,423,424–427,
431Imperatacylindrica(Cochongrass,
alang-alang),20,21,260Imperatagrasses,186,201
69071.indb 508 4/25/08 10:44:00 AM
Index �0�
Imperialpluck,365Imports,food dairyproducts,361–362 rice,126Inceptisols(brownforestsoils,
cambisols),99,294,296–313,314,341
brownpodzolicsoilsastransitionalsoils,375
chemicalcharacteristics,311–312
classificationandnomenclature,123
claymineralogy,312–313,314 climate,302–304 landuseandevaluation,
313–331 agriculturaloperations,
316–331;SeealsoAgriculturaloperations
basicsoilpropertiesand,315–316
evaluationofanalyticalproperties,313–315
mountainsoilcomposition,13 paddy-sawah,126 parentmaterialsof,299–301 particlesizedistribution,
309–311 percentoftotalarea,124 physicochemical
characteristics,309,310 podzoliclatosolsas
transitionalsoils,294–295 soilclassification,306–309 soilmorphology,304–306 uplandsoils,294Indicakapok,224Indicarice,167IndicaxJaponicaricevariety,167
Indigenouspopulations,23,35,201
Indonesiansoilclassificationsystem,123,151
podzolikcoklat,375IndonesianSoilResearch
Institute;SeeSoilResearchInstitute
IndonesianStandingCommitteeonSoilandLandClassification,14
Industrialcrops,classificationandnomenclature,126,250
INIRO;SeeInstitutNederlandsIndieschRubberOenderzoek
InstituteforHigherEducationinAgriculturalSciences,8
InstitutNederlandsIndieschRubberOenderzoek(INIRO),18
InstitutPertanianBogor(IPB),9,11–12,357
Integratedpestcontrol,317Intercrops albizia,327 inceptisols,319,327 lowlandalfisols,222–223 kapokestates,224 teakestates,226 lowlandultisols,203 paddyricefieldrotation,
169–170,174,176,246 rubber,176Intergrades andosol-latosol,142 oxisols,147Intermediateparentmaterials,
116,299,369,370
69071.indb 509 4/25/08 10:44:00 AM
��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
InternationalCenterforSoilResearchandAgroforestry(ICRAF),201
InternationalPeatSociety(IPS),254
InternationalRiceResearchInstitute(IRRI),167
InternationalSoilReferenceandInformationCentre(ISRIC),268
InternationalUnionofSoilScience(IUSS),268
Intrazonalsoils,121,235,306 brownforestsoilsas,306 lowlandpodzols(padangsoil,
Bangkapodzols),382,389,390–391
tropicalpodzols,382Ionicforms,ironminerals,107IPB;SeeInstitutPertanianBogorIpomoeabatatis(sweetpotato),
169–170,203,245Ipomoeareptans(kangkung),170Iranmountains,39IrianJaya(WestNewGuinea),
47,48Iron Al/Feratios,119–120,241 basalts,34 chelates,74 humicacids,113 pHand,75 coastalswamps,85 falseredlimestonesand
fraction,211 leaching,76 lowlandalfisols,210 lowlandoxisols,134–135,138 classificationissues,154
elevationand,137 ferruginoushumiclatosols,
148–149 formationof,131 hematiteformation,138 mountainsoils,334 mountainsoils,podzols,391 peatsoils/histosols,288–289 pyrite,257,271,272 soilformation,131 ferralization,97 gleyization,101 laterization,97 podzolization,98 redoxconditionsand,109 translocationof,106–108,
120Iron-Bhorizon,109Ironconcretions,210,234,239 brownpodzolicsoils,371 highlandalfisols,338,339,340 inceptisols,300 lowlandoxisols,144–145,146,
147Ironcrustlayer,147Ironoxideminerals inceptisols,298 lowlandalfisolsandfraction,
211 lowlandoxisols,138,154 mountainsoils highlandalfisols/gray-
brownpodzolicsoils,350 tropicalgray-brown
podzolicsoil,335Ironpodzol,391Ironwood(Eusideroxylon
zwageri),80Irrigation lowlandalfisols,222
69071.indb 510 4/25/08 10:44:00 AM
Index ���
lowlandoxisols,163 lowlandvertisols,244,245 peatsoils/histosols,283,286 ricepaddyfields,165–166,170 teak,226–227Isoelectricpoint,417
JJacatra,2Jackfruit(Artocarpusintegra,
nangka),203,246Jakarta,6,54,55Jambi,205,263Jambukelutuk(Psidumguajava,
guava),172Japonicarice,167Jasmine(Jasminiumsambac),325Jasminetea,325Jati(Tectonagrandis,teak),79,82,
89,225–227,232JatiluhurDam,21,166Jatiputih(albizia),316–317,322,
325–328Java,2 agriculturaloperations acreagesofmajor
Indonesianfoodcrops,125
cloves,441–442 coconutplantations,250 sugarcaneproduction
method,248 teacultivation,363 wheatcrops(gandum),357 andosols,401,403,404,405–
406,409,419 climate,64,65,67 lowlandoxisols,140
monsoons,59,60 evapotranspirationrates,118 experimentstation
establishment,4 geography,28,29 geomorphology,30,31–35 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,348 highlandbrownpodzolic
soils,369,370,371,376,378,379
lowlandalfisols,210,222 lowlandoxisols,131,140 lowlandultisols,197 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,179,183,192,193
lowlandvertisol/grumusolformation,229
lowlandvertisols,227–228,231 soilmaps,14 universitieswithagriculture
andsoilsciencedepartments,9,10
uplandinceptisols/brownforestsoils,310
vegetation coastalflora,87 mountainflora,89 subalpine,91Javacoffee,127,354JavaSea,181Jember,4JeponKenek,223Jeruksiam/jerukpaseh(Citrus
nobilis),173–174Jetstream,57Jeungjing(albizia),316–317,322,
325–328,364,437Jonggol,158,228
69071.indb 511 4/25/08 10:44:00 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Junghuhn,70Junglefowl(ayamhutan),439
KKacangpanjang(Vignasinensis,
longbeans),170KaiIslands,48Kalimantan(Borneo),38–41,181 acreagesofmajorIndonesian
foodcrops,125 climate,59,61,64,72 equator,53 geography,28,29 geomorphology,30 graniteparentmaterials,228 lowlandoxisols,131 lowlandpodzols,382,383,385 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,179,183,191,192,193,196,197
ricecultivation,204,205 shiftingcultivation,200–
201,203–204 peatsoils/histosols,261,262,
263 bulkdensityanalysis,
278–279 peatswampforest,260 rubberandoilpalm
cultivation,246 transmigrationprogram,23,
35 universitieswithagriculture
andsoilsciencedepartments,9,10
vegetation,80,85Kalkroodaarde,217Kandicgreatgrouplevel,345
Kandichorizons,184,216Kandidiudults,190,295Kandiudalfs,346Kandiudoxsoils,142Kandiudults,190,295Kangkung(Ipomoeareptans),170Kaolinite,104,105,149 andosols,423,425 brownpodzolicsoils,378 crystalline,160 disordered,159,160–161 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,350,351 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
312 lowlandoxisols,157,158,
159–161 lowlandvertisols,240 ultisolsversusalfisols,
195–196Kapok(Ceibapentandra,tani,
petani),174,203,213,223,224–225,246
KapuasRiver,39Karangpandan,140,341KaroHighlands,357Karst,32Kastanozem,209,215–216Kauripodzol,389,392,395Kauritrees(Agathisaustralis),389Kayuapi(Avicenniaspp.),85Kayupasang(oak,Quercusspp.),
82,88,89,304,314Kayupuspa(Schimanoronhae),89Kayusengon(albizia),316–317,
322,325–328KCT;SeeKentuckyContract
TeamprojectKediri,228Kedondong(Spondiasdulcis),203
69071.indb 512 4/25/08 10:44:01 AM
Index ���
KeiIslands,48Kelapagading(coconut,Cocos
nucifera),23,71,88,126,203,233,246,249–253,286,321,354
Kelapakopiyor(coconut,Cocosnuciferavar.pultaria),253
Kelapapuyuh(dwarfkelapa,Elaeisguineensis),252
Kelapasawit(oilpalm,Elaeisguineensis),126,176,199,206–209,246,250,288,290,291,322,323
Kembangpala,128Kembangpala(mace),329–330KendengHills,229KendengMountain,338,339,
350,351KentuckyContractTeam(KCT)
project,11–12,122KerinciPeak,38Ketapangtree(Terminalia
catappa),87,88Ketimun(Cucumissativis,
cucumbers),170Kihiyur(Castaneiajavanica),89Kinabohutan,250KinibaluMountain,39Köppenclimatesystem,54,61,
62,64,69;Seealsospecificclimatezones,e.g.,Amaclimates
andosols,405,406 brownpodzolicsoils,370,372 grapecultivation,356 highlandalfisols,340,341 inceptisols,302,303 lowlandalfisols,212,213 lowlandoxisols,138–139,140,
141
lowlandultisols,181–182,183 lowlandvertisols,230,231 peatsoils/histosols,263 podzols/spodosols,385,386,
391–392Krakataueruption,117Krawang,169Kretekindustry,127,223,
444–445KubreMountain,382,383,386,
388–389,391,394KuninganHighlands,357Kupang,59,212,213Kuroboku,400,407,411Kurosols,187
LLabradorite,339,350,351,379Lactucaindica,Latucasativa
(lettuce),170Lada(pepper,processed),127Ladangrice;SeeRicecultivation,
uplandrice(ladangrice,padigogo,padihuma)
Ladang(slash/burn,shiftingcultivation)system,20,24,44,200–204,205
Lahar,34,132,405Lakedepletion,25Lampung,127,181,205,248 coconutplantations,250 lowlandoxisols,131 lowlandultisols,179Lampungcoffee,436Lamtoro(Leucenaglauca),364Landappropriation,35Landuse,125–128 andosols,432–445
69071.indb 513 4/25/08 10:44:01 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
agriculturaloperations,128,434–445
analyticalproperties,evaluationof,432
basicsoilpropertiesand,432–433
brownpodzolicsoils,379–380 highlandalfisols,352–367 agriculturaloperations,
353–367 analyticalproperties,
evaluationof,352 basicsoilpropertiesand,
352–353 inceptisols,313–331 agriculturaloperations,
316–331;SeealsoAgriculturaloperations,uplandsoils,inceptisols
basicsoilpropertiesand,315–316
evaluationofanalyticalproperties,313–315
lowlandalfisols agriculturaloperations,
222–227 evaluationofanalytical
properties,221 significanceofbasicsoil
properties,221–222 lowlandoxisols,161–177 agriculturaloperations,
165–177;SeealsoAgriculturaloperations,lowlandoxisols
analyticalproperties,evaluationof,161–164
significanceofbasicsoilproperties,164
lowlandultisols
agriculturaloperations,200–209
basicsoilpropertiesand,199–200
evaluationofanalyticalproperties,197–199
lowlandvertisols,242–253 peatsoils/histosols,282–291 agriculturaloperations,126,
286–291 analyticalproperties,
evaluationof,282–283 basicsoilpropertiesand,
283–286 spodosols,396–397LandUseBureau,22Landsatimagery,82Laspondom,387Laterietgroundvankalksteen,
217Lateritefromlimestone,217Laterites/lateriticsoils,97,131;
SeealsoOxisols(latosols),lowland
classificationandnomenclature,123
ironcrustlayersand,147 lowlandalfisols(terrarosa) classification,216–217 asstageinformation,210 lowlandoxisolclassification/
taxonomy,148,149–150 podzoliclatosolsand,295 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolic
soilsversus,188,189Laterization(ferralitization),13,
94,97–98,101,103 aluminumoxide/ironoxide
ratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,119
69071.indb 514 4/25/08 10:44:01 AM
Index ���
brownpodzolicsoils,378 climateand,110 definition,76 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
309–311,313 lowlandalfisols,210,216 lowlandoxisols,147 lowlandsoilformation,130 inmonsoonzones,113–114 podzoliclatosols,295 simultaneouspodzolization
andlaterization,76,110,130
terminology,105 uplandsoils,293Laterizationzone,13LatimojongMountains,43Latosolicbrownforestsoils,309,
310Latosols(oxisols),13,131,311,
341;SeealsoOxisols(latosols)
associationwithvertisols,230,231
black,142 brownforestsoilclimatesin
Indonesia,303 classification/taxonomy/
nomenclature,95,98,123,130,131,148,149–150,154
aluminumoxide/ironoxideratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,119
FAO-UNsystem,151 red-yellowpodzolicsoils
versus,188,190 soilformation,76,116Latucaindica,Latucasativa
(lettuce),170,317,355Laurantaceae,90
Lava/lavaflows,Java,32,34;SeealsoVolcanicmaterial
Lawofpolymerization,103Lawang,357LawuVolcano,229,300,301,310,
312,336,338,339,340,342,372,376
Layers,tropicalrainforest,78Leaching,73 brownpodzolicsoils,379 lowlandoxisols,156,162–163,
164 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,190,198,200
lowlandvertisols,244 monsoonclimateinfluence,
302–303 peatsoils/histosols,289 podzols/spodosols,381–382 soilformation lowlandoxisols,146 lowlands,76 podzolization,98 soilsolutionstrengthand,
118,119,120Leafblightdisease,176Legumetrees,364Lembang,359,361,409,422,423,
429Leontopodiumalpinium(Edelweiss
plant),91LesserSundaIslands(Nusa
Tenggara),30,43,46–47 andosols,401 climate,72 monsoons,59,60,61 weakdryseason,55Lessivage,101,104–105,107,294,
368
69071.indb 515 4/25/08 10:44:01 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Lettuce(Lactucaindica,Latucasativa),170,317,355
Leucenaglauca(petecina,lamtoro),365
Leuwilliang,339Lianas,78,88Libericacoffee,436Ligands;SeeChelates/complex
formationLimeapplication andosols,433 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoil,353 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
315 lowlandoxisols,164 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,199,200,205
lowlandvertisols,244 peatsoils/histosols,283–284,
289Limeconcretions,234Limecontent,lowlandvertisols,
235,239Limestoneformations,Ambon,
46Limestoneparentmaterials lowlandalfisols,210–211,
216–217,221 lowlandultisols,228 lowlandvertisol/grumusols,
229,242Limestoneplateinterbedding,
234Limestonereefs,32Limestonesoils,211–212Limestonetreatment,433 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
315
peatsoils,284Liparites/liparitictuffs,34,116 Ambon,46 andosols,402 brownpodzolicsoils,370,371,
373 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
383 inceptisols,299 lowlandultisols,179,199 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,192 soilformationfrom,116 Sumatra,38,228Litchi,171–172Lithologiceffect,191,387;Seealso
ParentmaterialsLithosol,123Litter highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,352 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
396 peatformation,258–259,
261–262 shadesystem,437 tropicalbroad-leafrainforest,
315 tropicalrainforest,78Litterlayer;SeeOhorizon(litter
layer)Livestock,222,361;SeealsoDairy
farmingLivistonahasseltii,260Lixiviation,97,101,150,210Lixivium,red,150Loams Davidsonsoils,154 redMediterraneansoils,209Lombok,210
69071.indb 516 4/25/08 10:44:02 AM
Index ���
geography,29 geomorphology,30LompobatangMountain,44Longbeans(Vignasinensis,
kacangpanjang),170Lontarpalm(Borassusflabellifer),
249Lowhumicgleysoil,123Lowhumiclatosols,148Lowmoorpeats,255–256,262Low-pressuresystems,57,58Lowlands altitudinalzones,70 cloveproduction,127–128 Kalimantan,41 soilformation,75–76 sugarcanegrowth,127 vegetation,80,81Lowlandsoils,129–291;Seealso
specificsoiltypes alfisols,209–227 climate,212–213 landuseandevaluation,
221–227;SeealsoLanduse,lowlandalfisols
parentmaterialsof,210–212 physicochemical
characteristics,218–221 soilclassification,215–218 soilmorphology,213–215 andosols,337,401–402,405,
422,423,433–434 decompositionoforganic
matter,75 histosols,253–291 climate,262–264 decompositionoflitter
andformationofpeat,261–262
landuseandevaluation,282–291;SeealsoPeatsoils/histosols(tanahgambut),landuseandevaluation
parentmaterialsof,258–262 physicochemical
characteristics,270–282;SeealsoPeatsoils/histosols(tanahgambut),physicochemicalcharacteristics
soilclassification,267–270 soilmorphology,264–267 mineralnutritionstudies,15 oxisols,130–177 climate,138–142 landuseandevaluation,
161–177;SeealsoLanduse,lowlandoxisols
parentmaterialsof,132–138 physicochemical
characteristics,153–161;SeealsoOxisols(latosols),lowland
soilclassification,148–153 soilmorphology,142–147 podzols/spodosols,386–387 Bangka,382,389,390 climate,385–386 formationof,382 padangsoils/tanahpadang,
382,389,390,394 parentmaterialsof,383,385 soilformation climateand,110,111 parentmaterial;SeeParent
materials teacultivation,363–364
69071.indb 517 4/25/08 10:44:02 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
transitionalzone(uplands);SeeUplandsoils
ultisols,177–209 climate,181–182 highlandred-yellow
podzolicsoilsversus,130 landuseandevaluation,
161–177;SeealsoLanduse,lowlandultisols
parentmaterialsof,179–181 physicochemical
characteristics,190–197;SeealsoPhysicochemicalcharacteristics,lowlandultisols
soilclassification,186–189 soilmorphology,182–186,
187 vertisols,227–253 climate,230–231 landuseandevaluation,
242–253;SeealsoLanduse,lowlandvertisols
parentmaterialsof,228–230 physicochemical
characteristics,237–241 soilclassification,235–236 soilmorphology,232–235LusiRivervalley,230,245Luvisols,306,337,344–345
MMace(kembangpala),2,128,316,
329–330Madiun,231Madura geography,28
lowlandalfisols,210,212,213,214,219,222,223
lowlandvertisols,227 monsoons,60 soilmaps,14 vegetation,87Maduratobacco,223Magnesium basalts,34 citruscropsoilapplications,
174 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
313 lowlandvertisols,238,242,
244 peat/histosolexchangeable
bases,273 peatsoils/histosols,284Magnetite,134–135,180,211MahakamRiver,39,41Maize;SeeCornMakassar,44MakassarStrait,28Malabar-Pengalenganhighland,
406,409MalabarVolcano,336Malang,355,356,357,359,403,
406Malanghighland,359,403,405Malang-Pujonhighlands,407,
429Maluku(Moluccas),2,246 agriculture acreagesofmajor
Indonesianfoodcrops,125
clovetrees,127 coconutplantations,250 ricecultivation,205 shiftingcultivation,204
69071.indb 518 4/25/08 10:44:02 AM
Index ���
climate,65 cloveorigins,440 geography,29,30 geomorphology,44–46 lowlandultisols,179,197,
198–199,204,205 monsoons,60 nutmegspecies,328 universitieswithagriculture
andsoilsciencedepartments,9,10
vegetation,81,85,86,87Manganese,109,174Manganese-Bhorizon,109Manganesechelates,75Manganesemottles,146Mangoes(Mangiferaindica),171,
172–173,246Mangosteen(Garcinia
mangostana),172Mangroveforests,84,85Mangroveswamps,254,257,271,
272Manihotglaziovii,175Manihotutilissima(cassava,
yucca),156 acreagesofmajorIndonesian
foodcrops,125 lowlandalfisols,222–223 lowlandoxisols,163,169 lowlandultisols,202,203 lowlandvertisols,245 peatsoils/histosols,284,288Manilahemp(Musatextilis),206ManinjauLake,410,429Manisanpala(candiednutmeg),
330Manokwari,60,263Manures
fertilizationpracticetrends,355
golanmethod,244 green,164,176,200,244 vegetablecrops,170Maps soil,5,14–15,16 lowlandoxisols,132 methodologicalissues,7 revisionof,124 uplandsoils,309 vegetation,82,83Marga,228Margalites,236Margaliticsoil,227,228;Seealso
Vertisols,lowland calciumandmagnesium
content,242 particlesizedistribution,237 silica/sesquioxideratiosof
clayfractions,241Marlsoil,227,228,236;Seealso
Vertisols,lowlandMassactionlaw,112Massflow,micronutrients,75Massmovement,lowland
vertisols,243Matricpotential,280Medan,204,205,263,264,404Mediterraneanclimate,215–216Mediterraneansoils,99,123,130;
SeealsoAlfisols,lowland(redMediterraneansoils)
Meervlakte,49Mehlichmethod,charge
distributionanalysis,157–158
Melaleucasp.,81,260Melanization,97,102Menado,60,328
69071.indb 519 4/25/08 10:44:02 AM
��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Menangkabau,36,38MerapiVolcano,32MeratusMountains,40,41Merauke,65,205,250,263,264MerbabuVolcanocomplex,357Mergelgrond,236Merica(pepper,processed),127Mesothermalclimate,139Mesotrophicprocesses,256Metal–organiccomplexes;
SeeChelates/complexformation
Metamorphicrocks,383,385Metroxylon(sagopalm),81,86,
87,289Miamisiltloam(alfisol),119Micaschists,46,199Microbialactivity andcarbondioxide
production,112 peatformation,261,271,272Micronutrients citrusgrownonsandysoil,
174 mobilizationofelementsin
soil,75Micropedology,335,410,411,412MidwesternConsortiumfor
InternationalActivities(MUCIA)projects,11–12,122
Migrationpolicy/transmigrationprogram,22–23,34–35
Mills,rice,168Mimosaspp.,176Minahasa,43,44,53,132MinehassaCoconutFoundation,
250Mineralnutritionofplants,5,
15,17
Mineralreserve,379Mineralresources,Sumatra,37Mineralsoil,123Mineralization,organicmaterial,
258,293,394,423 andosols,423 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
394 versushumification,110–115,
145–146 lowlandoxisols,141,145–146,
164 uplandsoils,293Mineralogy,clay;SeeClays/clay
mineralogyMinerals,soilandparent
materials accumulationof,98;Seealso
Chilluviation(illuviation) altitudinalvariationsinsoil
formationandfertility,74 associationsof;See
Association,minerals brownpodzolicsoils,370 clay;SeeClays/clay
mineralogy highlandpodzols/spodosols,
383 inceptisols,299,300 Kalimantan,40 lowlandalfisolsandfraction,
211 lowlandoxisolsandfraction
composition,134–135 lowlandultisols,199 mobilization/translocationof,
98 leaching,73 soilformation,106–108 mountainsoils,333–334
69071.indb 520 4/25/08 10:44:03 AM
Index ���
highlandalfisols/gray-brownpodzolicsoils,339
podzols/spodosols,383,384,385
tropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoil,335
salinization,99–100 volcanicmaterials,34Miscanthussp.(solfataragrass),
421Mobilizationofclayand
minerals,98;SeealsoClaymobilization/movement/translocation;Translocation
aquoxlatosolformation,152 leaching,73;SeealsoLeaching soilformation,102,106–108Modalprofiles inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
304–306 lowlandoxisols,143,146–147 redMediterraneansoils,218Mohrsystem,4–5,62–65,69,70,
71Moistmonth,62Moisturecontent;SeeWater,soilMoistureregimes lowlandoxisols,141 peatsoils/histosols,277 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolic
soilsuborders,188–189Moisturetension,280–281MojosariInstitutPertanian
Bogor,357Mollicandosols,415Mollichorizons,415Mollisols(chernozems),99,124,
377 brownforestsoilsas,307
nitrogencontent,274Moluccas;SeeMaluku
(Moluccas)Monosilicicacid,104Monsoon(s) conceptof,55–59 westandeast,59–61Monsoonclimate,302–303 altitudinalvegetationzones,
84 altitudinalzones,71 andosols,407 brownpodzolicsoils,115 coffeerequirements,127 evapotranspirationrates,118 globalapplicationofconcept,
57 grapecultivation,356 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,340,341 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
308 Köppenclimatesystem;
SeeAmclimates;Amaclimates
latosol/oxisolclimateareas,140
lowland,130 Mohrsystem,65–66 NorthAmerican,57–58 oxisolorganicmatter,N
content,CEC,basesaturation,andpH,155
peatformation,261,262 soilformation,73,115 teacultivation,363–364 terminology,51–52 usticmoistureregime,216 vegetationeffects,89
69071.indb 521 4/25/08 10:44:03 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
zonaldistributionofsoils,13–14
Monsoonforest climaxvegetation,78–79 vegetationprovinces,81–82Monsoonvegetation,60–61Monsoonzones,soilformation,
113–114Montanezone,70Montmorillonites;SeeSmectites/
montmorillonitesMorhumus,381Morphology,soil andosols,407–411,412,413,414 brownpodzolicsoils,372–374 classificationand
nomenclature,139 classificationonbasisof,344 classificationsystem,121–122 highlandalfisols,341–343 inceptisols,304–306 Indonesiansoilclassification
system,123,151 lowlandalfisols,213–215 lowlandoxisols,142–147 lowlandultisols,182–186,187,
188 lowlandvertisols,232–235 peatsoils/histosols,264–267 spodosols,387–389 USDAclassificationissues,
94–95Motherprune,364Mottledzone,144,146Mottling brownforestsoils,304 brownpodzolicsoils,373 mountainpodzols/spodosols,
388 oxisols,144,146
ultisols/red-yellowpodzolics,182,184,195
Mountainclimate highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,340 podzols/spodosolformation,
391–392 teaandcoffeeplantations,126Mountaincrops,126Mountainforest altitudinalvegetationzones,
84 clear-cutting,25 evapotranspirationrates,118 monsoonclimateinfluence,89Mountaingranulation,334,353,
418Mountainlands,tropical,70,71 mobilizationofelementsin
soil,74 podzolization,74–75 transitionalzone(uplands),76,
110,130;SeealsoUplandsoils
Mountainpeat,256–257Mountainrainforest,88–89,90,
421Mountainsoils,333–397 alfisols,337–367 climate,340–341 landuseandevaluation,
352–367 parentmaterialsof,338–340 physicochemical
characteristics,347–351 soilmorphology,341–343 andosols,402,407,422,423;
SeealsoAndosols brownpodzolicsoils,367–380 climate,370,372
69071.indb 522 4/25/08 10:44:03 AM
Index ���
landuseandevaluation,379–380
parentmaterialsof,369–370,371
physicochemicalcharacteristics,375–379
soilclassification,374–375 soilmorphology,372–374 claymineralogy,349–350 composition,13 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
308 podzols/spodosols,380–397 climate,385–387 landuseandevaluation,
296–297 parentmaterialsof,383–385 physicochemical
characteristics,392–396 soilclassification,390–392 soilmorphology,387–389 rainfall/evapotranspiration
ratiosandsoilformation,118
vegetation,80Mountains altitudeandclimate,67–72 geography,29–30 geomorphology,30MUCIA;SeeMidwestern
ConsortiumforInternationalActivities
MüllerMountains,39Mungbean(Phaseolusradiatus),
169,226,246MuriaVolcano,163Musaparadisiaca(banana),202Musaspp.(banana,pisang),163,
174,202,203,321–322,354Musatextilis(Manilahemp),206
Muscovite,199MusiRiver,37Myristicaargentea(papuanut),
328Myristicafragrans(nutmeg,pala,
pohonpala,bijipala),2,127,128,316,328–330
Myristicaspeciosa(bacannut),328Myristicasuccedanea(halmahera
nutmeg),44,328Myrtaceae,90
NNamlea,65Nangka(Artocarpasintegra,
jackfruit),203,246Nasi,168Nassau/Oranjemountains,48,
392Nationalconferences,19–20Nationalizationofcolonial
plantations,17NationalSoilScience
Conference,19NationalWatershed
DevelopmentProgramofIndonesia,21
Natrichorizons,216Naturalgas;SeeEnergy
resources(oil,naturalgas)
Nepheliumlappaceum(rambutans),171–172
NetherlandsEastIndies,2,3NewGuinea;SeePapua(West
Irian)NewZealandsoilclassification andosols,399,412–413
69071.indb 523 4/25/08 10:44:03 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
kauripodzols,389 yellow-brownearths,187NiasYellowDwarf,252Nipahpalm(Nipafructicans),84,
85Nitrification,redoxconditions
and,109–110Nitrogencontent andosols,419,424 brownpodzolicsoils,376,379 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,348,353 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
310 lowlandalfisols,219,221 lowlandoxisols,155,156 lowlandultisols,191,198 lowlandvertisols,237 peatsoils/histosols,270,282Nitrogenfertilization paddy-sawah,166–167 redoxconditionsand,109–110 ricecultivation,205 rubber,176–177Nitrogenfixation,albizia,326Nitrogen–phosphorus–
potassium(NPK)fertilizers
highlandalfisols,355 lowlandvertisols,245 teacultivation,364 teak,226–227Nitrogen–phosphorus–
potassium(NPK)ratios,15,17
Nomenclature;Seespecificsoilsandclassificationsystems
Noncalcicbrownsoil,123,344Noncrystallineclays
andosols,413 lowlandoxisols,159 lowlandultisols,194–195Nonricecultivation lowlandoxisols,169–177 lowlandvertisols,244,248Nonsalinealkalisoils,100Nontronite,351NorthAmericanMonsoon,58NorthCarolinavarietiesof
tobacco,223NorthMinehassa,328Numforrs,48NusaTenggara(LesserSunda
Islands),30,43,46–47,65,67,79,82,125,210,213
andosols,401Nutmeg(Myristicafragrans,pala,
pohonpala),2 landuse,127,128 uplandsoils,inceptisols/
brownforestsoils,316,328–330
Nutrientcycling,78,199,315,353,396,437,438
Nutrients,soil highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoil,353 lowlandoxisols,163 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,198 slash/burnsystemand,202,
204 soilamendmentsand,199,
200 lowlandvertisols,242,244,245 peatformation,255 peatsoils/histosols,256,271,
273–275Nutrition,plant,5,15,17,75
69071.indb 524 4/25/08 10:44:04 AM
Index ���
OOhorizon(litterlayer),111 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
388 humification,113 humusironpodzol,388 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolics,
182Oak(Quercus,Kayupasang),82,
88,89,304,314Ochricandosols,415,416Ochrichorizon,415Oilextractionrate(OER),oil
palm,208–209Oil(petroleum)fields;See
Energyresources(oil,naturalgas)
Oilpalm(Elaeisguineensis,kelapasawit),126,176,199,206–209,246,250,288,290,291,322,323
Oilpalm,dwarf(Elaeisguineensis,kelapapuyuh),252
OilPalmResearchCenter,18Oligoclase,180,299,300,384,403Oligotrophicpeat,256,268,270,
275Olivine,134–135,338,339Ombrogenouspeat,256,259,261,
272Ombrophilouspeat,256,261,270Onions,green(Alliumfistulosum),
170,317OphirMountain,23,38,404,428,
429Orangepekoetea,324Oranges,23Orchards,172–173
Organiccarbonsequestration,peatsoils/histosols,275–277
Organicfertilizers/soilamendments,176,244
lowlandoxisols,163–164 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,200 vegetablecrops,170Organicmatter,soil;Seealso
Humicacids/humicsubstances
altitudeand,74 andosols,405,410,417,419,
421–422 chelates;SeeChelates/complex
formation decomposition;See
Decomposition,organicmatter
highlandalfisols/gray-brownpodzolicsoils,348,349
highlandbrownpodzolicsoils,376,377,379
highlandinceptisols/brownforestsoils,310,312,313–314,316
highlandpodzols/spodosols,381–382,396
andleaching,76 lowlandalfisols,210,221 lowlandoxisols,156,162 elevationand,141 mineralizationof,164 reddish-brown,brown,and
redlatosols,155 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,192–193,198
limingeffects,200
69071.indb 525 4/25/08 10:44:04 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
soilsuborders,188–189 virginconditions,199 lowlandvertisols,237,239 melanization,102 Miamisiltloam(alfisol),
120–121 mineralization;See
Mineralization,organicmaterial
mountainsoils,334 andnitrogencontent,274 inoxisols,103 redoxconditionsand,109 soilformation oxidationathigher
elevation,113 temperateregionversus
highlandandmonsoonregionsofIndonesia,114
uplandsoils,293Organicsoils;SeealsoPeatsoils/
histosols(tanahgambut) definition,253–254 peatsoils/histosols,253–254,
258 soilclassificationsystems,123 tropicalpeats,257Organo–metalcomplexes;
SeeChelates/complexformation
Organomineralhorizons,182Organosols,123Orthite,383,384Orthox,153Osmoticpotential,280Overpopulation;SeePopulation/
overpopulationOwen-StanleyRange,48Oxichorizons,95 depthof,142–143
formationof,102 lowlandoxisols,151–152,157Oxidation;SeeRedox
state/oxidationOxisols(latosols),129;Seealso
Latosols(oxisols) aluminumoxide/ironoxide
ratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,119
associationwithvertisols,230,231
coconutgrowthin,250 lowlandalfisolcomparison
with,210 paddy-sawah,126 percentoftotalarea,124 soilformationprocesses,76,
103 laterizationsubprocesses,
97–98 parentmaterials,116 suborders,141,151 terminology,USDA
classificationand,95,98,123,130,131
x-raydiffraction(XRD)analysis,195,197
Oxisols(latosols),highland,145,146
Oxisols(latosols),lowland,130–177
climate,130,138–142 landuseandevaluation,
161–177 lowlandultisols,
distinguishingfrom,179 parentmaterials,132–138 mineralogicalcomposition
ofsandfraction,134–135 quartzcontent,132–133
69071.indb 526 4/25/08 10:44:04 AM
Index ���
physicochemicalcharacteristics,153–161
chargecharacteristics,157–159,240
chemicalcharacteristics,154–157
claymineralogy,159–161,162,240
lowlandultisols/redyellowpodzolicsoilsversus,190
particlesizedistribution,153–154
podzoliclatosolsastransitionalsoils,294–295
soilclassification,148–153 soilmorphology,142–147Oxygen,gleyization,101
PPaceklik,244PacificRingofFire,28Padang(towninWestSumatra),
9,10,23,31,38,53,131,186,187,204–205,263,265,269,290,382,404,410
PadangBulan,429Padangsoils(lowlandpodzols,
tanahpadang),382,389,390,394
Paddyricefields(sawah);SeeRicecultivation,paddyricefields(sawah)
Paddysawa,126Paddysoils iron-Bandmanaganese-B
horizonformation,109 productivitystudies,15,17 redoxconditions,110
Padigogo/padihuma,205–206,289,290;SeealsoRicecultivation,uplandrice(ladangrice,padigogo,padihuma)
Pala(nutmeg,Myristicafragrans,pohonpala,bijipala),2,127,128,316,328–330
Palajawa(nonrice)crops,244Palaquiumsp.,260Palawija(nonricecrops),169,244,
248;SeealsospecificcropsPalembang,36,37,202,263,264,
382Pallidzone,146Palms aren(Arengasaccharifera),249 coconut;SeeCoconut(Cocos
nucifera,kelapagading) lontar(Borassusflabellifer),249 oil;SeeOilpalm(Elaeis
guineensis,kelapasawit) peatswampforest,260 sago(Metroxylon),81,86,87,
289Palmsugar,248–249Palmwine,249Paluvalley,67Paludification,261Pamusiranproject,327–328Pandanusspp.,186Pangrango-GedehVolcano,133,
335Papaya/papayasemangka
(Caricapapaya),172,173,174,203,354
Papua(WestIrian) alpineconditions,91 climate,64,65,72 coconutplantations,250
69071.indb 527 4/25/08 10:44:04 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
geography,28,29 geomorphology,30,47–50 highlandpeats,256–257 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,179,197 ricecultivation,204,205 shiftingcultivation,200–201 lowlandvertisols,231 nutmegspecies,328 peatsoils/histosols,261,262,
263,264 podzols/spodosols,392 transmigrationprogram,23 vegetation,81Papuanut(Myristicaargentea),
328Parabraunerde,344Paracrystallineclays,220,312,
350,351 andosols,400,413Parastemonsp.,260Parentmaterials andosols,401,402–405,408 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,338–340,350
highlandbrownpodzolicsoils,369–370,371,373,378
highlandversuslowlandred-yellowpodzolicsoils,130
inceptisols,298,299–301 lowlandalfisols,209,210–212,
221 lowlandoxisols,132–138 andcolor,141,156 particlesizedistribution,
136,137–138 lowlandultisols,179–181,191,
199
andanionexchangecapacity,193–194
andbasesaturation,192 lowlandvertisols,228–230,
231,237–238,242 peatsoils/histosols,258–262,
265 podzoliclatosols,295–296 andsoilformation,115–117 spodosols,383–385Parinariumsumatranum,265Particleaggregation,lowland
ultisols,199–200Particlesizedistribution andosols,417–420 highlandalfisols,347 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,348 highlandspodosols,392 inceptisols,309–311 lixiviation,101 lowlandalfisols,218,219 lowlandoxisols,133,136,137,
153–154 lowlandultisols,190–192 lowlandvertisols,237–238 peatsoils/histosols,270 spodosols,392PasarMinggu,136,137,140PasirMadang,313,314,441,442PasirMuncang,136PasirSarongge,406Pasuruan,4,228,247PB-36,205–206Peanut,169,244,284PeatSoilResearchInstitute,19Peatsoils/histosols(tanah
gambut),253–291
69071.indb 528 4/25/08 10:44:05 AM
Index ���
acreageandgeographicdistributioninIndonesia,124,256–258
climate,262–264 decompositionoflitterand
formationofpeat,261–262
definitionoforganicsoils,253–254
geographicdistribution,254–255
Kalimantan,41 Papua(WestIrian),50 Sumatra,37 landuseandevaluation,
282–291 agriculturaloperations,126,
286–291 analyticalproperties,
evaluationof,282–283 basicsoilpropertiesand,
283–286 parentmaterialsof,258–262 percentoftotalarea,124 physicochemical
characteristics,270–282 acidityofpeat,270–273 aluminumcontents,275 carboncontentandorganic
carbonsequestration,275–277
nutrientstatus,273–275 physicalproperties,277–282 reclamationprograms,
327–328 soilclassification,267–270 soilmorphology,264–267 typesofpeats,255–256 wildfiresin,130,202
Peatswampforest,254–255,259–260,265–266,267
Pedochemicalweathering,191Pedogenesis;SeeSoil
formation/pedogenesisPedology,5,13–14Pedon(soilprofile),
62,73;SeealsoHorizons/profiles/pedon
Peds,claydeposition,106Pekalongan,247Pemanukan,168PemanukanRiver,168Pematang,372,386PeneplainofKalimantan,39Pengalenganhighlands,34,323,
339,357,361,364,403,404,422,423,429,434
Pepper,2,288 black(Pipernigrum),127 hot(Capsicumannuum,
Capsicumfrutescens),202–203
Peptidization,clay,105,381 andosols,418Percolation claymigration,105,106 lowlandalfisols,219–220 Miamisiltloam(alfisol),
120–121 inmonsoonzones,113–114 pHofwater,112–113 silicamovement,103 andweathering,117–118Perhumidclimate,231Peridotites,40,43,46Permanentchargedsoils,193,
240,244,428Permeability
69071.indb 529 4/25/08 10:44:05 AM
��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
inceptisols/brownforestsoils,316
lowlandoxisols,162 lowlandultisols,198,200 lowlandvertisols,243 silicification,103–104Perox,151Pestcontrol,integrated,317Pesticides,22Petani(Ceibapentandra,kapok,
tani),174,203,213,223,224–225,246
Petarice,167Petecina(Leucenaglauca),364Petrographicanalysis,lowland
oxisols,133Petroleumresources;SeeEnergy
resources(oil,naturalgas)
pH,soil aluminumandiron
translocation,120 andosols,419,420,428,433 calcificationand,114 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,346,347,348,349,352,353
highlandbrownpodzolicsoils,376–377
highlandpodzols/spodosols,392–393
inceptisols/brownforestsoils,310,313
classification,308–309,311 limingeffects,315–316 lowlandalfisols,210,218,219 lowlandoxisols limeapplicationand,164 reddish-brown,brown,and
redlatosols,155
lowlandultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoils,191,192,195–196,198,199
limeapplicationand,199,200
slash/burnsystemand,202 lowlandvertisols/grumusols,
229,237,238,240,242 peatsoils/histosols,282,
283–284 formationof,256,270–271 water,270–271Phaeozems,297,306Phaseolusradiatus(greenbean),
245Phaseolusradiatus(mungbean),
169,226,246Philippineteak,225Phosphatefixation,396,430–431,
432Phosphorus/phosphatecontent highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,352 lowlandalfisols,221 lowlandultisols,198 lowlandvertisols,239,242,244 peatsoils/histosols,271,273,
274,282,284Phosphorus/phosphatefertilizer andosols,434 paddy-sawah,166–167 ricecultivation,205 rubber,176–177Physicalproperties andosols bulkdensityandporosity,
420–421 chargecharacteristics,
428–432
69071.indb 530 4/25/08 10:44:05 AM
Index ���
particlesizedistribution,417–420
soilreaction,420 peatsoils/histosols,277–282 bulkdensity,278–280 waterretention,280–282Physicochemicalcharacteristics andosols,417–432 highlandalfisols,347–351 chemicalcharacteristics,
347–349 claymineralogy,349–351 particlesizedistribution,
347 highlandbrownpodzolic
soils,375–379 inceptisols,309 lowlandalfisols,218–221 chemicalcharacteristics,
218–220 claymineralogy,220–221 particlesizedistribution,
218,219 lowlandoxisols,153–161,162 lowlandultisols,190–197 chargecharacteristics,
193–194 chemicalcharacteristics,
192–193 claymineralogy,194–197 particlesizedistribution,
190–192 lowlandvertisols,237–241 peatsoils/histosols,270–282 acidityofpeat,270–273 aluminumcontents,275 carboncontentandorganic
carbonsequestration,275–277
nutrientstatus,273–275
physicalproperties,277–282 spodosols,392–396 chemicalcharacteristics,
392–394 claymineralogy,394–396 particlesizedistribution,
392Pinangpalm(Arecacatechu,
betelnuts),85,86Pineapple,284,288Pines brownpodzolicsoils,379,380 kauripodzols,389 vegetation,71–72Pinusforests,80Pinusmerkusii(damarbatu),17,
71–72,89,380Pinusmerkusii/sumatrana(damar
batu,tusamtapanuli),17,72,89,380,397
Piperbetel(betel),223Pipernigrum(pepper),127Piperspp.,186Pisang(Musaspp.,banana),163,
174,202,203,321–322,354Pisangraja/pisangambon/
pisangambon-lumut(bananavarieties),321–322,354
Plagioclasefeldspars,299Plagioclaseminerals,134–135,
299,379,403,412Plains,geomorphology,30Planosols,123,306Plantbreeding/hybrids arabustacoffee,436 oilpalm,207–209 rice,167,205 sugarcane,247 tea,324,367
69071.indb 531 4/25/08 10:44:05 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Plantnutrition,5,15,17Plantations,2;Seealsospecific
crops classificationand
nomenclature,126 colonial,nationalizationof,17 mountainregions,334–335 teacultivation,362–367Plasticity/shrink–swell
propertes/cracking lowlandalfisols,212 lowlandoxisols,162 lowlandvertisols,227,238,
242–243Plates,limestone,234Pleistoceneagedeposition,138,
181,402Pleistoceneterrarossa,216Plinthickandidiudults,thermic,
190Plinthite,108,144,145,146,158Plinthization,109Plorariumalternifolium,260Pluckingsystem,teaharvesting,
365–367Plutonicrocks,43Pod(Russian),380,390PodokGedeh,341Podzol-Bhorizon,381,389Podzol-braunerde,307,375Podzolic(prefix),294,367Podzoliclatosols,341 climate,140 lowlandoxisolclassification
issues,154 uplandsoils,294–296Podzolicsoilzones,118,297–298Podzolicsoils brown;SeeBrownpodzolic
soils
brownforestsoilsand,298,303
claymigration,311 gray-brown;SeeGray-brown
podzolicsoils(alfisols)Podzolikcoklat,375Podzolization,94,106–107,294 claymobilization,311–312 lowlandsoils,130 latosolswithclay
accumulationinBhorizons,154
ultisols,178 mountainsoils,333,336–337,
392 alfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,346,349 brownpodzolicsoils,369,
374,375 spodosols,380,392 simultaneouspodzolization
andlaterization,76,110,130
soilformationprocesses,98 terminology,74–75,105 inuplandsoils,76,293 inceptisols/brownforest
soils,297,304,308,309–310
podzoliclatosols,295Podzolizationzone,13Podzolizedlateriticsoil,189Podzols brownpodzolicsoilsas
transitionalsoils,368,370,372;SeealsoBrownpodzolicsoils
changeswithelevation/altitude,13
69071.indb 532 4/25/08 10:44:06 AM
Index ���
classificationandnomenclature,123
etymology,380,390 highland/mountain,336;See
alsoSpodosols gray-brown;SeeAlfisols,
highland(gray-brownpodzolicsoils)
humusironpodzolandironpodzols,391
lowland Bangka,382,390 climate,385–386 formationof,382 padangsoils/tanahpadang,
382,389,390,394 parentmaterialsof,383,385 red,191,288 red-yellow;SeeUltisols,
lowland(red-yellowpodzolicsoils)
soilformation;SeePodzolization
terminology/taxonomy,96,98,381
yellow,188,192–193Pohon(tree),swampforest
species,260,265Pohonkenari(Canarium
commune/Canariumindicum),329
Pohonpala(Myristicafragrans,pala,nutmeg,bijipala),2,127,128,316,328–330
Poleforest,259Polevegetation,286Pollengrass,91Polyathiaglauca,260Polymerization,lawof,103Pontianak,263
Population/overpopulation,24 Java,34–35 transmigrationprogram,
22–23,34–35Pores/porosity alfisols,218 andosols,420–421 claydeposition,106 inceptisols,316 ultisols,200Porphyticrhyolite,369Positivecharges,193–194PosoLake,43Potassium basalts,34 highlandalfisols,352 lowlandalfisols,221 lowlandultisols,198,199,200,
207 lowlandvertisols,239,242,244 peatsoils/histosols,271Potassiumfertilizer rice,167,205 rubber,176–177Potassiumnitrate,mangoflower
budtreatment,172–173Potato(Solanumtuberosa),17,75,
315,317,319–320PPN;SeePusatPerkebunan
NegaraPrecipitation;See
Rainfall/precipitationPrecipitation/evaporationratio,
117–121Pressurepotential,280Priangan,323Primaryminerals,97,101,148,
162,211,335,350,352,371,379
Productivity
69071.indb 533 4/25/08 10:44:06 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
lowlandoxisols,163 paddysoils,15,17ProefstationOostJava,247ProefstationWestJava,247Profiles,soil(pedon),
62,73;SeealsoHorizons/profiles/pedon
Properties,soil;SeeLanduseProvinces,vegetation,79–83 EastIndonesian,80–81 SouthIndonesian,81–83 WestIndonesian,80Pruning,teaplants,364Pseudo-gleyformation,109Pseudo-podzolization,368;See
alsoLessivagePseudosand,334Psidiumguajava(guava,jambu
kelutuk),172Pueraria,176Pujon,350,351Pujon-Malanghighlands,407,
429Pulp,397Pulp,albiziauses,327–328Pumica,418Puncakhighland,34PuncakJaya,50,392PuncakTrikora,50,392Pureredlimestonesoils,211–212Pureterrarossasoils,221PusatPenelitianBioteknologi
Bogor,17PusatPenelitiandan
PengembanganPerkebunan,18
PusatPenelitiandanPengembanganTanahdanAgroklimat,4
PusatPenelitianKelapaSawit,18
PusatPenelitianPerkebunanBogor,17
PusatPerkebunanNegara(PPN),17
Pyriculariaoryzae,206Pyrite,257,271,272,282
QQuartz-containinglaterite,189Quartzcontent andosols,403 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,338,339 highlandbrownpodzolic
soils,378 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
383,384 inceptisols,300,301 lowlandoxisols,132–133,134,
135,136–137 lowlandultisols,179,180 lowlandvertisols,229,237–238 podzoliclatosols,296 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolics
versuslaterites,188,189Quartzsandstone,383Quartz-schists,385Quartzite,383,385Quaternaryformations geomorphology,30 Kalimantan,41 lowlandoxisols,132 NusaTenggara,47Quaternaryvolcanicmaterials lowlandoxisols,133 lowlandvertisol/grumusol
formation,229
69071.indb 534 4/25/08 10:44:06 AM
Index ���
Quercusspp.(oak,kayupasang),82,88,89,304,314
Quinine(cinchona),334,354
RRadermacheragigantae,260Rainforest altitudinalvegetationzones,
84,88–89 brownpodzolicsoils,370 climaxvegetation,77–78 geography Java,32 Kalimantan,39 lowlandoxisols,138–139 lowlandultisols,182 monsoonclimateindicators,
61 mountain,88–89,90,421 secondarygrowth,201,203 tropical andosols,405,421 climaterequirements,
63–64,65 climaxvegetation,77–78 deforestation,shifting
cultivationand,201 Kauritrees(Agathis
australis),389 lowlandoxisols,138–139 lowlandultisols,182 mountainpodzols,387–389 terminology,72 tropicalbroad-leaf,314–315Rainfall/precipitation altitudeand,68 andosols,406,407 brownpodzolicsoils,372
climateclasses equatorialclimate,53 monsoons,57,58 precipitation/evaporation
effectsindifferentclimatictypes,73
tropicalclimate,54 climateclassesbasedonwet/
dryseasons,61–67 Mohrsystem,62–65 SchmidtandFerguson
system,65–67 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,341 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
386 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
296,303 andlowlandalfisol
productivity,221–222 lowlandoxisolareas,140 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,183 lowlandvertisol/grumusol
occurrence,230,231 oxisol/latosolclassification,
149 peatsoils/histosols acidityofpeat,270–271 formationof,256,262,263,
264 peatsystems,261–262 precipitation/evaporation
ratio,117–121 andsoilformation calcification,99 indifferentclimatetypes,
73 salinization,99–100 teacultivation,363–364
69071.indb 535 4/25/08 10:44:06 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Rainfallzones,68,69Rainwaterstorage,166Rainyseason;SeeWet/dry
seasonsRaisedbedcrops,245Rajamandala,228Rambutans(Nephelium
lappaceum),171–172RamsarConvention,254Randublatung,231Rangkasbitung,179,181Rattanplants,78,88Reclamation,peatsoils/
histosols,287Recyclingagriculturalwaste,18Redearth(roodeaarde),149,
217,297;SeealsoOxisols(latosols),lowland
Redearth(roodeaarde)formation
inceptisols,297 rubification,101Redearthstage,149Redearthsonlimestone,220Redlaterite,150Redlateriticlimestonesoils,217Redlateriticquartzsandsoil,
189Redlateriticquartzsoil,189Redlateriticsoils alfisol/redMediterraneansoil
names,217 oxisol/latosolnames,150 soilsequenceinhillycountry,
215 ultisol/red-yellowpodzolic
soilnames,189Redlatosols/oxisols acidityof,154,155 chargecharacteristics,157–159
claymineralogy,159–160,161,162
elevationand,141 lowlandoxisolprofiles,143,
145 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicmorphology,184
mineralogicalcompositionofsandfraction,135
nitrogencontent,156 orchards,173–174 organicmatter,Ncontent,
CEC,basesaturationandpH,155
parentmaterialsof,156 particlesizedistribution,136,
153 silica/sesquioxideratiosof
clayfractions,241Redlimestonesoil,211,217Redlixivium,150RedMediterraneansoils,
209,217,218;SeealsoAlfisols,lowland(redMediterraneansoils)
vertisolsinassociationwith,227–228
Reddish-brownlateriticsoils,295
Reddish-brownlatosols/oxisols,136
chargecharacteristics,157–158 claycontent,153 claymineralogy,160,161,162 elevationand,141 organicmatter,Ncontent,
CEC,basesaturationandpH,155
69071.indb 536 4/25/08 10:44:07 AM
Index ���
Reddish-yellowlatosols/oxisols,134
Redoxstate/oxidation andfoodcropproductionon
peatsoils,288–289 highlandalfisols,338 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
394 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
313 andnitrogenfertilization,
109–110 peatsoils/histosols,261,282,
287,288–289 redoxpotential,276–277 soilformation,271–272 soilformation,107,108–110Redpodzolicsoils,188,191Redquartzsoil,189Red-yellowlatosols/oxisols chargecharacteristics,157–158 claymineralogy,162 elevationand,141 particlesizedistribution,136 sandcontent,153Red-yellowMediterraneansoils
(alfisols),99,123,130;SeealsoAlfisols,lowland(redMediterraneansoils)
classificationandnomenclature,217–221
colordifferences,214Red-yellowpodzolicsoils
(ultisols),13,295;SeealsoUltisols,lowland(red-yellowpodzolicsoils)
aluminumoxide/ironoxideratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,119,120
Bantam,179
classificationandnomenclature,123
elevationinhillyrollingtopography,188
lateriticsoilclassification,150 lowlandpodzolsand,389,390 parentmaterialsof,181 physicochemical
characteristics,191 podzolikcoklat,375 soilformation highlandversuslowland,
130 parentmaterials,116 zonalsoils,386Reeflimestone,210–211,229Reforestationprograms,21,25,
353Regosol,123Regreeningprograms,21,325Regursoil,227,236Rejuvenation lowlandoxisols,147,152,163 lowlandultisols,182,184,192,
198,199Relativehumidity,71,91Relocation(transmigration)
policy,22–23,34–35Rembang,32,227Rembanghills,229Rembangplains,230,245Rembang-Tubanhills,215,220,
229,231,233Rendzina,123,215,233,234,235,
237,241Reophilous(temperateregion)
peats,256,257,258,269Research earlyexperimentstations,3–4,
5–6
69071.indb 537 4/25/08 10:44:07 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
InternationalRiceResearchInstitute(IRRI),167
newexperimentstations,17–19
ResearchInstituteforEstateCrops,3
ResearchInstituteofBiotechnologyforEstateCrops,169
ResearchInstituteofSumatraPlantersAssociation(RISPA),18
Reservoirs,166Resettlementprogram,22–23,
201Respiration,112Reynososystem,248Rheophilouspeat,256Rhizophora(bako-bako,bakau),
84,85Rhodichapludox/kandiudox,
142Rhodickandiudults,295Rhodustalfs,216Rhyolites/rhyolitictuffs,34 inceptisols,299 lowlandultisols,179,180 porphytic,369 Sumatra,38,228Riau,29,264Rice InternationalRiceResearch
Institute(IRRI),167 mineralnutritionstudies,15Ricecultivation acreagesofmajorIndonesian
foodcrops,125,126 earlyexperimentstation
focus,5–6 intensificationof,24
paddyricefields(sawah) gleyingin,108 highlandalfisols/gray-
brownpodzolicsoil,353–354
intensificationofcultivation,24
intercrops/rotationcrops,169–170,174,176,246–247
lowlandalfisols,222 lowlandhistosols/peat,
288–289 lowlandoxisols,165–169 lowlandultisols,204–205 lowlandvertisols,244,245 nonricecropsgrownin,
169–170 peatsoils/histosols,
288–289 soiltypes,126 sugarcanegrowth,246–247 waterresources,22 transmigrationprogram,23 uplandrice(ladangrice,padi
gogo,padihuma),126 lowlandalfisols,222–223 lowlandoxisols,169 lowlandultisols,202,203,
205–206 peatsoils/histosols,288,
289,290 uplandsoils,169 waterresources,22Ricemills,168RiceResearchStation,
Sukamandi,6Ricinuscommunis(castor),245RISPA;SeeResearchInstitute
ofSumatraPlantersAssociation
69071.indb 538 4/25/08 10:44:07 AM
Index ���
Riverdeposits;SeeAlluvialsoils/sediments
Robustacoffee,436Rockfragments brownpodzolicsoils,371 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,339 inceptisols,300 lowlandoxisols,147Rodekalkgrond,217Rodekwartsgronden,189Rodelateritischekwartz
zandgrond,189Roodeaarde(redearth),217,297Rootcrops,202Rootrespiration,112Rotationcrops(intercrops),
paddyricefields,169–170,174,176,246
Rotlehm,101Roughpluck,365Rubber(Hevea),2,23,126,199,
246,250 experimentstation
establishment,3 Heveabrasiliensis,174–177 Heveaguyanensis,175 lowlandultisols,203,206 peatsoils/histosols,288,
290–291 transmigrationprogram,23Rubification,97,101Rubrozem,149Rumputangin(Spinifexlittoreus),
88
SSabang,250
Saccharum(tebu);SeeSugarcane(Saccharum,tebu)
Saccharumofficinarum,247Saccharumspontaneum(glagah),
247Sagopalm(Metroxylonspp.),81,
86,87,289SahulShelfarea,29SalakVolcano,133,300,301,310,
341,404Saline-alkalisoils,100Salinesoils(aridisols),96,99,100Salinization,94,99–100Saltdamagetocrops,100–101Sand inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
299,312–313 lowlandalfisols,211 lowlandoxisols mineralogicalcomposition
of,134–135 particlesizedistribution,
137,153 lowlandsoilmapping,133 peatsoils/histosols,277 podzols/spodosols,383Sandalwood(Exocarpuslatifolia
andSantalumalbum),82Sandstone,46,181,383,385Sandyparentmaterials,lowland
podzols,385Sandysoils citrusmicronutrient
deficiency,174 loam,Davidsonsoils,154SangiIsland,328Sangihe,45Sanidine,180,300,301,371,379,
383,384
69071.indb 539 4/25/08 10:44:08 AM
��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Saninten(Castaneaargintea,Castaneasp.),89,314–315,353
Santalumalbum(sandalwood),82Saprists,269Sarangan,341,372Satelliteimagery,82Savannahclimate,139Savannahforest,79Savannahs climateclasses,65 NusaTenggara,47 vegetationprovinces,82Sawah,126,165–166;SeealsoRice
cultivation,paddyricefields(sawah)
nonricecropsgrownin,169–170
sugarcaneasintercrop,246Sawi(Brassicarugosa),170,317,
355Sawofruit(Achraszapota),172,
246Schimanoronhaetree(kayu
puspa),89Schists,40,43,46,49,199,385Schmidt-Fergusonquotient(Q),
65–67SchmidtandFergusonsystem,
65–67 altitudinalzones,69–70 brownpodzolicsoils,372 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,341 inceptisols,303 lowlandoxisolareas,140 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,183 lowlandvertisols,230 peatsoils/histosols,263
SchoutenIsland,48SchwanerMountains,39Scientificsocieties,19–20Secondaryforest andosols,408 shiftingcultivationand,201,
203Secondarysilica,392Sedges(Cyperaceaesp.),255,257,
269Sedimentarydeposits,30,383,
385Sediments alluvial;SeeAlluvial
soils/sediments peatformation,259Self-mulchingsoils,227,238Sequences,soil profile;See
Horizons/profiles/pedon topographic alfisols,215 vertisols,227–228Serang,179,181Serpong,181Sesquioxideratios;SeeSilica/
sesquioxideratiosSesquioxides highlandbrownforestsoils,
304 highlandbrownpodzolic
soils,381 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
381 highlandspodosols,395 lowlandalfisols,210,220 lowlandoxisols,157,158,159 soilformation,97,103Shadesystem,329,364,365,
437–439,443
69071.indb 540 4/25/08 10:44:08 AM
Index ���
Shadetrees/shadesystems,326Shales,46,181,383Shallots(Alliumcepa,bawang
merah),170Sharecropping,rice,167–168Shiftingcultivation(ladang,
slash/burnsystem),20,24,44,200–204,205,397
Shoreaspp.,260Short-range-orderclays,413Shrinkage;SeePlasticity/shrink–
swellpropertes/crackingShrubvegetation,388SiakRiver,166SibartongMountain,383,387SibayakMountain,3,25,38,206,
318,359,401,404,405,409Silautpeatarea,264–267,271–
272,275,285Silica aluminumsources,107 aquoxlatosolformation,152 desilicification,75–76,102–103 ferralization,97 laterization,97 lowlandalfisols,210 lowlandoxisols,131 lowlandultisols,190 lowlandvertisols,229 organic,lowlandoxisols,
134–135 secondary,392 silicification,103–104,105 solubility,lawof
polymerizationand,103 volcanicmaterials,34Silica/sesquioxideratios brownpodzolicsoils,378 highlandspodosols,394,395,
396
lowlandalfisols,220 lowlandoxisols,148 lowlandvertisols,240,241 soilformation,103Siliceousmaterial,volcanictuff,
133,136,137,299Silicification,103–104,105,152Silt,277Silt-loamtexture,347Singkarak,Lake,25Singkarakricevariety,205–206Singkep,29Sisal(Agavesisalana),174,206Skins,clay,106Slash/burn(ladang,shifting
cultivation)system,20,24,44,200–204,205,397
Slate,385Smallholders,126 clovecultivation,441 dairyfarming,359–360 peppergrowth,127 teacultivation,362Smalllandholders’crops albizia,327 classificationand
nomenclature,126 coconut,250 lowlandvertisols,245–246 nutmeg,328–329 peatsoils/histosols,289–290 tea,322,323–324Smectites/montmorillonites,104,
105 andosols,433 brownpodzolicsoils,378 cationexchangecapacity,157,
164 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
312
69071.indb 541 4/25/08 10:44:08 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
lowlandalfisols,221 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,195 lowlandvertisols,227,232,
234,239,240 ultisolsversusalfisols,
195–196Smonitza,235SnowMountainrange,81,91,
392Societies,scientific,19–20Sod-podzolicsoils,344Sodicsoils(aridisols),100Sodication,100Sodium,100–101,238,261,273Soilamendments,163–164,170,
176,200,244Soilclassification;See
ClassificationofsoilsSoilconservation,20–25Soilformation/pedogenesis,
94–121;SeealsoParentmaterials
altitudinalvariationsin,74–76 andosols,402 climateand,72–76 altitudinalvariations,74–76 mineralizationversus
humification,110–115 precipitation/evaporation
effectsindifferentclimatictypes,73
factorsin,93–94 FAOandWRBsystem
terminology,130 highlandsoils alfisols,337–338,346 brownpodzolicsoils,368,
369,374,375 mountainregions,333–334
lowlandsoils,129,130 alfisols,209–210 oxisols,131,145–146,147 peatsoils,255 parentmaterialsand,115–117 precipitation/evaporation
ratioandweatheringintensity,117–121
processes,contemporaryconcepts,102–110
aluminumandirontranslocation,106–108
claytranslocation,104–106 desilicification,102–103,104 redoxreactions,108–110 silicification,103–104,105 processes,previousconcepts,
96–102 publications,14 soilclassification,122 transitionalzones/upland
soils,293 inceptisols/brownforest
soils,308–311 podzoliclatosols,295–296Soilmaps;SeeMapsSoilmorphology;See
Morphology,soilSoilprofile(pedon),
62,73;SeealsoHorizons/profiles/pedon
Soilproperties;SeeProperties,soil
Soilreaction,242,420;SeealsopH,soil
SoilResearchInstitute,4,7,19,132,269
albiziagrowingprograms,325–326
69071.indb 542 4/25/08 10:44:08 AM
Index ���
conferencesandseminarssponsoredby,19,20
lowlandoxisolclassification/taxonomy,150–151
mountainsoilclassification,309
podzolikcoklat,375 spodosols,390 soilmaps;SeealsoMaps alfisolsonsoilmap,346 revisionof,124 soilsurveys,14SoilscienceinIndonesia;See
HistoricaldevelopmentofIndonesiansoilscience
Soilsolutionstrength,117–118,119
Solbrunacides(France),307,311Solbrunlessivé,306–307,337,
344Solbruns,296Soldurallitic,149Solanumlycopersicum(tomatoes),
317Solanummelongea,(eggplant,
terong),170Solanumtuberosa(potato),317Solfataragrass(Miscanthussp.),
421Solodization,99–100Solods(aridisols),100Solokrice,205Solonchaks(aridisols),99,123Solonetz,123Solonetzicsoils,238Solonization,99SouthIndonesianvegetation
province,81–83Soybean,125,169,244,245,246Sphagnum,257,269
Spicecrops,250SpiceIslands,127,328;Seealso
Maluku(Moluccas)Spicetrade,2Spices,126,246Spinach(Amaranthusspp.,
bayem),170Spinifexlittoreus(rumputangin),
88Spodichorizon,389 formationof,74,102,106,107,
108,113 mountainpodzols,381,390Spodosols brownpodzolicsoil
classification,375 brownpodzolicsoils;See
Brownpodzolicsoils classificationand
nomenclature,380–381 climate,385–387 landuseandevaluation,
296–297 mountainsoils,380–397 parentmaterialsof,383–385 percentoftotalarea,124 physicochemical
characteristics,392–396 soilclassification,390–392 soilformation,106–107,108 soilmorphology,387–389 terminology,74–75,381,390Spondiasdulcis(kedondong),203Stabilization,lowlandultisols,
200Stemonurussp.,260Steppes,NusaTenggara,47Stoniness,lowlandalfisols,221,
222Structure,soil
69071.indb 543 4/25/08 10:44:09 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
grumusols,232 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoiland,353 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,199–200 lowlandvertisols,243–244 mountainsoils,334Subalpinezone,70,72,84,90–91Subaridclimate,55Subhumidclimates,alfisols,216Submontanezone,70Subsidence,peatsoils/histosols,
277,285,287,289Subsoil cationconcentration,108 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,191 lowlandvertisols,234Sugar,palm(gulararen,gula
mangkok),248–249,253SugarExperimentStation,
Pasuruan,247Sugarcane(Saccharum,tebu) altitudinalzones,71 areasgrownin,127 classificationasestatecrop,
250 experimentstation
establishment,4 lowlandalfisols,222 lowlandvertisols,244,246–248 mineralnutritionstudies,15,
17SugarcaneExperimentStationof
WestJava,247SukamandiRiceResearch
Station,6Sulawesi acreagesofmajorIndonesian
foodcrops,125
climate,65,67,72 climateclasses,64 copraproduction,250 geography,28,29 geomorphology,41–44 lowlandoxisols,131–132 lowlandultisols,179,200–201,
204,205 monsoons,59 universitieswithagriculture
andsoilsciencedepartments,9,10
vegetation,81,91Sulfurbacteria,271,272Sulfur-richsoils,109,261Sumatra,2 acreagesofmajorIndonesian
foodcrops,125 agriculture coconutplantations,250 coffee,127 estatecrops,207 oilpalm,246 peppergrowth,127 rice,204 rubber,176,246 shiftingcultivation,200–
201,203–204 tea,127,363 wheatcrops(gandum),357 altitudinalzones,71–72 andosols,401,403,405,420,
429,433–434,435 climate,64,65,72 equator,53 evapotranspirationrates,118 experimentstation
establishment,3–4 geography,28,29 geomorphology,30,35–38
69071.indb 544 4/25/08 10:44:09 AM
Index ���
highlandbrownpodzolicsoils,369,370,371,376,377,378,379
highlandpodzols/spodosols,382,383,384,386,391,394,395–396
lipariticandrhyoliticparentmaterials,228
lowlandoxisols,131 lowlandpodzols(padang
soil),382,390 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,179,181,183,186,191,192,193,196,197,198–199
estatecrops,207 ricecultivation,204 shiftingcultivation,200–
201,203–204 monsoons,61 peatsoils/histosols,261,262,
263 peatswampforest,260 soilmaps,15 soilsurveys,5 transmigrationprogram,
22–23,35 universitieswithagriculture
andsoilsciencedepartments,9,10
vegetation,80,81 coastalflora,85 mountainflora,89SumatranTropicalPineForest,
397Sumba,46Sumbawa,29,46Sundalandmass,39SundaShelfarea,29,31,84SundaStrait,28,33,117,181
Sundalandheatherforestsystem,382
Superphosphate,205Surakarta,228Surfacearea,138Surfacehorizon,andosols,400Surfacepotential,105Surfacesoils andosols,407,408 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
394Sustainableagriculture,201Svedjebruk,202Swampforest,peat,254–255,
259–260,265–266,267Swamps coastalflora,85 Kalimantan,41 Papua(WestIrian),50 peatformation,256–257,271 peatswampforest,definition,
254–255 Sumatra,37Sweetpotato(Ipomoeabatatas),
169–170,203,245Swiddenagriculture,201–202
TTaiga(borealforest),298TalaudIsland,328Talisseestate,250Talpetatesoils,414TamanSari,341,372Tampanuli,370,383Tanahadat,35,201Tanahgambut;SeePeatsoils/
histosols(tanahgambut)
69071.indb 545 4/25/08 10:44:09 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Tanahpadang(padangsoils,lowlandpodzols),382,389,390,394
Tangerang,168,181TangkubanPrahuVolcano,351,
412,420Tani(Ceibapentandra,kapok,
petani),174,203,213,223,224–225,246
TanimbarIslands,48Tapanuli,376,387,388Taro,203Tasikmadu,140,231TawangManggu,305,341Taxonomy,soil;SeeClassification
ofsoilsTea(Camelliasinensis/theifera,
Theasinensis),2,126,174,250
andosols,434 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,354,362 lowlandultisols,206 mountainsoils,334 shadesystem,437 soilconservationprograms,
326 uplandsoils,inceptisols/
brownforestsoils,316,322–325
Teak(Tectonagrandis,jati),89 lowlandalfisols,225–227 lowlandvertisols,232,246 tropicalmonsoonforests,79 vegetationprovinces,82Tebu(sugarcane);SeeSugarcane
(Saccharum,tebu)Tectonagrandis;SeeTeak(Tectona
grandis,jati)Tectonahamiltoniana,225
Tectonaphilippiniensis,225Tegal,169Tegalans(fallowlands),222,224TelukCenderawasih,48Temperateclimates/temperate
regions alfisols,115,210 andosols,405 Braytestcalibration,352 brownpodzolicsoils,370 comparisonofCandC/N
ratioswithtropicalsoils,115
humificationin,114 peats,256 podzoliclatosolsand,295 podzols/spodosolformation,
391 podzols/spodosolshorizons,
394,395 precipitation/evaporation
ratioandweatheringintensity,118
red-yellowpodzolicsoils,181–182,188
subhumidclimates,216 ultisols,198Temperateregioncrops andosols,434 athigheraltitudes,75 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoil,354 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
316 uplandcultivation,170 uplandsoils,inceptisols/
brownforestsoils,317–321
Temperateregionforests,314–315
69071.indb 546 4/25/08 10:44:09 AM
Index ���
Temperateregion(reophilous)peat,256,257,258,269
Temperature altitudeand,68 andnutmegcultivation,
328–329 subalpinezone,91 brownpodzolicsoils,370 equatorialclimate,53 inceptisolformation,296,297 latosol/oxisolclimateareas,
140 lowlandoxisols,141 andsoilformation comparisonoftemperate
andtropicalsoils,116 ultisols/red-yellow
podzolics,182 uplandsoils,293 teaandcoffeerequirements,
126–127 tropicalclimate,54 uplandsoils,inceptisols/
brownforestsoils,316Tengger,357Tensionzones,178,179,293 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
309 lowlandultisols,197 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolic
soils,189Tephrosiaspp.,176Terminaliacatappa(Ketapang
tree),87,88Terminology;Seespecific
soilsandclassificationsystems
Ternate,45Terong(Solanummelongea,
eggplant),170
Terrarossasoils,209;SeealsoAlfisols,lowland(redMediterraneansoils)
Terraroxasoils,131,209Tertiaryformations geomorphology,30 Kalimantan,41 lowlandoxisols,132 lowlandultisols,181 lowlandvertisol/grumusol
formation,229 pleistocenevolcanicmaterials
mixedwith,181Tertiaryhills,lowlandvertisol/
grumusolformation,229Tertiaryorigin,lowlandultisol
parentmaterials,179TexturalBhorizons,123,188,
341,344;SeealsoArgillic(Bt)horizons
Texture brownpodzolicsoils,375–376 Davidsonsoils,154 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,347 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
396 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
316 lowlandalfisols,211–212,218 lowlandoxisols,137,153 lowlandultisols,190–192,198 lowlandvertisols,237–238 peatsoils/histosols,277–278 soilsequenceinhillycountry,
215Theasinensis;SeeTea(Camellia
sinensis/theifera,Theasinensis)
69071.indb 547 4/25/08 10:44:10 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Theobromacacao(cacao),224,250,326
ThermicplinthicKandidiudults,190
Thermicrhodickandidults,295Thermograms(DTA);See
Differentialthermalanalysis
Thinsections,335,410,411,412Thorp-Smithzonalsystem,13Tidallowlands,254Tidalswamps,257,272Tidore,45Tiftonsoil,190Timber,78,82,132,260 albizia,327,438 shiftingcultivation,202 teak,223,225–227 treefarming,397 uplandsoils,inceptisols/
brownforestsoils,316Timberline,72,90,91,353Timor,46,210,357 geography,29 monsoons,59 vegetationprovinces,82Tirs,234,235Tlekunghighlands,357TobaLake,37,397Tobacco,206,250 andosols,433–434 lowlandalfisols,222,223 lowlandvertisols,244Tomatoes(Solanumlycopersicum),
317Tomatoes,uplandsoils,
inceptisols,320–321Topogenouspeat,256Topography
lowlandalfisolparentmaterials,211
lowlandalfisols,215 lowlandpodzolformation,
387 lowlandvertisol/grumusol
formation,229 lowlandvertisols,231 peat/histosolclassification,
268–269 soilsequenceinhillycountry,
215Toposequence,lowlandvertisols,
227–228Topsoils inceptisols,298 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
306 margalitesversusrendzinas,
233–234Torrox,139,141,151,152Totalelementanalysis,lowland
alfisols,220Tourmaline,211TowutiLake,43Toxicity,peatsoils/histosols,
274–275Toxins,peatformation,255Tradewinds,52,59Transformation,silicification/
desilification,104Transitionzones,altitudinal lowlandoxisolsoilprofile,
144–145 simultaneouspodzolization
andlaterization,76,110,130
uplandsoils,293 podzoliclatosols,294–295Transitionalpeat,256
69071.indb 548 4/25/08 10:44:10 AM
Index ���
Transitionalsoils brownpodzolicsoils,368,375 podzoliclatosols,294–296Translocation aluminumandiron,102,
106–108,119,120 clays;SeeClaymobilization/
movement/translocation minerals,99 organicmatter,107 podzolization,98 soilcolloids,99Transmigrationprogram,22–23,
34–35,201,288Transport,parentmaterials,
137–138Treefarming albizia,325–328 peatsoils/histosols,283,286,
291 spodosols,397 uplandsoils,inceptisols/
brownforestsoils,316–317
Triassicformations,Ceram,46Triplesuperphosphate,205Tristianaobavata/sumatrana,260Trop-(prefix),346Tropaquents,142Tropi-(prefix),269–270Tropicalblacksoil,235Tropicalbrownearth,149Tropicalchernozem,227;Seealso
Vertisols,lowlandTropicalclimate,59 altitudinalvegetationzones,
84 conceptof,54–55 terminology,51–52
Tropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoil,343,347,348,349;SeealsoGray-brownpodzolicsoils(alfisols)
Tropicalhumidclimate terminology,72 watermovementinsoil,73Tropicalmonsoonclimate;See
alsoMonsoonclimate altitudinalvegetationzones,
84 altitudinalzones,71 soilformation,73Tropicalmonsoonforest climaterequirements,64 climaxvegetation,78–79Tropicalmonsoons,57Tropicalpeats,257,262,269Tropicalpodzols,intrazonal,382Tropicalrainforest;SeeRain
forestTropicalsavannah,65Tropicalsavannahforest,79Tropicalsoils,U.S.systemand,
142Tropicalspodosols,391Tropicalzone,70Tropofluvents,142Troporthents,142Troposaprist/tropisaprists,
269–270Tropudox/tropudults/
tropudalfs,142Trumaosoils,414Tuban,32,212,213,219,231,232,
233,237,241Tuffs;SeeVolcanicmaterialTumartapanuli(Pinusmerkusii),
17,72,89,380,397Turfsoil,227,235
69071.indb 549 4/25/08 10:44:10 AM
��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Tussockgrass,91Two:Onelayerclays,220–221 brownpodzolicsoils,378 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,346,350,351
lowlandvertisols,227,238,240
UUdox,139,151,152Udults,189Ultisols,highland/upland,130,
296 kandicgreatgroupdiagnostic
features,345 podzoliclatosols,296Ultisols,lowland(red-yellow
podzolicsoils),129,130,177–209
argillic(Bt)horizons,154 climate,130,181–182 cloveproduction,127–128 landuseandevaluation agriculturaloperations,
200–209 basicsoilpropertiesand,
199–200 evaluationofanalytical
properties,197–199 lowlandalfisolcomparison
with,210 lowlandoxisolclassification
issues,154 lowlandpodzolsand,389,390 parentmaterialsof,179–181 percentoftotalarea,124 physicochemical
characteristics,190–197
chargecharacteristics,193–194
chemicalcharacteristics,192–193
claymineralogy,194–197 particlesizedistribution,
190–192 quartzcontent,132–133 soilclassification,186–189 soilformation aluminumoxide/iron
oxideratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,119,120
parentmaterials,116 soilmorphology,182–186,187 USDAclassificationissues,
95–96Umbricandosols,433Umbrisols,375Universities cooperativeprogramswith
U.S.universities,11–12 post-WorldWarIIperiod,8UniversityofIndonesia,8,9Uplandrice;SeeRicecultivation,
uplandrice(ladangrice,padigogo,padihuma)
Uplandsoils,293–331 andosols,337 brownpodzolicsoils,368,370 inceptisols,296–313,314 agriculturaloperations,
316–331;SeealsoAgriculturaloperations,uplandsoils,inceptisols
analyticalproperties,313–315
basicsoilproperties;SeealsoLanduse,inceptisols
69071.indb 550 4/25/08 10:44:10 AM
Index ���
chemicalcharacteristics,311–312
claymineralogy,312–313,314
climate,302–304 landuseandevaluation,
313–331 parentmaterialsof,299–301 particlesizedistribution,
309–311 physicochemical
characteristics,309 soilclassification,306–309 soilmorphology,304–306 oxisols,absenceofplinthitein
profiles,145,146 podzoliclatosols,294–296 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolics,
130,179,296 vertisols/margalitic,231Uplands altitudeandclimate,67–72 altitudinalzones,70 estateandindustrialcrops,
126 ricecultivation(padihuma),
126,169,202,203,289 soilformation,76 humusformationand
accumulation,elevationand,141–142
simultaneouspodzolizationandlaterization,76,110,130
temperateregioncropsathigheraltitudes,170
transitionalzone,293,294–295 tropical,71Urbanization,25Urea,205
U.S.AgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID),11
U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)classificationandtaxonomycategories
andosols,400–401,414–415,416
brownpodzolicsoils,115,368,374–375
highlandalfisols/gray-brownpodzolicsoils,337–338,344,345
highlandpodzols/spodosols,381
inceptisols/brownforestsoils,298,304,307
limitationsof,122,124,139,141
lowlandalfisols/terrarosasoils,216
lowlandoxisols/latosols,130,131,141,142–143,150–151,152,153
lowlandultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoils,130,184–186,188–189
lowlandvertisols,236 methodologicalissues,7 peatsoils/histosols,130,254,
268,269–270 podzoliclatosols,115,296 revisionofoldersystem,
94–102,104–105 tropicalsoils,tropu-series,
142U.S.soils alfisols,115,119,120–121,216 brownforestsoils,307–308 brownpodzolicsoils,368,369 gray-brownpodzolic,340
69071.indb 551 4/25/08 10:44:11 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Miamisiltloam(alfisol),119,120–121
oxisols,157 peatsoils/histosols,284–285 soilformation,116,118–119 thermicrhodickandidults/
Davidsonsoils,295 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolics/
Tiftonsoil,190 vertisols,houstonclay,235U.S.taxonomicsystem latosols/oxisols,76 terminology,74–75USDA;SeeU.S.Departmentof
Agricultureclassificationandtaxonomycategories
Usox,139Ustalfs,216Usticmoistureregimes,141,216Ustox,141,151,152Ustults,189
VVanSteenissystem,70,72van’tHofflaw,116Variable-chargesoils,193,195,
240,428Vegetablecrops;Seealsospecific
vegetables andosols,434 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoil,354 lowlandoxisols,163,169,170,
171Vegetation,77–91 altitudinalzones,84–91 cloud-beltforest,89–90 coastalflora,84–88
rainforestandmountainrainforest,88–89
subalpine,90–91 andosols,408 climateclasses,64,65 climax,61,77–79 tropicalmonsoonforest,
78–79 tropicalrainforest,77–78 tropicalsavannahforest,79 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,342,352–353
highlandbrownforestsoils(inceptisols),314
highlandbrownpodzolicsoils,373,377,379
highlandpodzols/spodosols,381–382,387–389
humusironpodzol,388 lowlandalfisols,213 lowlandultisols,186 monsoon,60–61 provinces,79–83 EastIndonesian,80–81 SouthIndonesian,81–83 WestIndonesian,80 andsoilerosion,21Vegetationmaps;SeeMapsVereenigdeOostIndische
Company(VOC),2,28Vermiculite,164Verplichte,435Vertisols percentoftotalarea,124 upland,231Vertisols,lowland,227–253 climate,127,230–231 geographicdistribution,
227–228
69071.indb 552 4/25/08 10:44:11 AM
Index ���
grumusols,130 landuseandevaluation,
242–253 agriculturaloperations,
244–253;SeealsoAgriculturaloperations,lowlandvertisols
analyticalproperties,evaluationof,242
basicsoilpropertiesand,242–244
evaluationofanalyticalproperties,242
parentmaterialsof,228–230 physicochemical
characteristics,237–241 chemicalcharacteristics,
238–239 claymineralogy,239–241 particlesizedistribution,
237–238 soilclassification,235–236 soilmorphology,232–235 soilsequenceinhillycountry,
215 terminology,236Vignasinensis(longbeans,
kacangpanjang),170Virginconditions,lowland
ultisols,199Virginiatobacco,223,244Vitric,diagnosticcritierion,416Vitricandosols,416Vitricmaterials,415,416 andosols,415 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,339 inceptisols,299,300,301VOC;SeeVereenigdeOost
IndischeCompany
Volcanicglass,134–135,384,403 brownpodzolicsoils,371 highlandalfisols/gray-brown
podzolicsoils,339 inceptisols,299,300,301Volcanicmaterial andosols,400,401,402,403,
404,415,420 basaltictuffs,44 brownpodzolicsoils,370,371,
372,373,378 highlandalfisol/gray-brown
podzolicsoilparentmaterials,338,339,350
highlandpodzols/spodosols,383,384
liparitictuffs,38,116 lowlandalfisolparent
materials,210,211,221 lowlandoxisols,132,133,
135–137,147,163 rejuvenation,152 terminology,150 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,180,192,198,199
lowlandvertisol/grumusolformation,229,239,242
mineralogicalcompositionof;Seespecificmaterials
podzoliclatosols,295 soilformationfrom,117 lipariticversusdacitic,
116;SeealsoDacites/daciticparentmaterials;Liparites/liparitictuffsandsoilfertility,74
Volcanoes,27,30 Java,32,34 Maluku,45
69071.indb 553 4/25/08 10:44:11 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
NusaTenggara,47 Sulawesi,43,44 Sumatra,38Vorm–snoei,365
WWaduks,166Wallacea,29Wallaceline,29Warmfronts,58Wasterecycling,18Wasteland,slash/burnsystem
and,201Water peatformation,256 peatsoils/histosols,261–262,
277Water,soil andosols,420 carbondioxidedissolutionin,
111,112,120 lowlandoxisols,141 lowlandvertisols,242–243 movementof claymigration,105,106 micronutrientmassflow,75 monsoonareas,114 oxisol/latosolclassification,
149 peatsoils/histosols,270–271,
277,280–282 availablewater,281–282 andcropproduction,
282–283 moisturetension,280–281 andredoxreactions,109 soilformation inmonsoonzones,113–114
strengthofsoilsolutionandweathering,117–118
ultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoilsuborders,188–189
ustoxsoils,141Watermovement;Seealso
Leaching;Percolation;Translocation
inlowlandvertisols,243 andsoilformation,73–74Waterpotential,280Waterresourcesand
managementissues,20–22,25
Waterretention/wetness andosols,420 peatsoils/histosols,280–282 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolic
soilsuborders,188 USDAclassificationcriterion,
188Watertable,peatsoils/histosols,
283,284–286WayangVolcano,338,339,340Weakdryseason,55Weatheredclay,lowland
ultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoils,200
Weathering,102 allophane,423 aluminumoxide/ironoxide
ratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,120
andosols,418 highlandalfisols,338 highlandbrownpodzolic
soils,378,379 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
309–310 lowlandoxisols,131,156
69071.indb 554 4/25/08 10:44:11 AM
Index ���
classificationandnomenclature,149
andclaymineralogy,161 claymineralogy,161 andclaymineralogy,162 modalprofiles,143 parentmaterials,138 lowlandsoils,129 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolicsoils,191,198 mountainregions,333 pedochemical,191 percolatingwaterand,112–113 podzoliclatosols,295 soilformation,101,116–121 carbondioxideinsolution
and,111 desilicification,75–76 geochemical,191 precipitation/evaporation
ratiosandweatheringintensity,117–121
temperatureand,116Weatheringintensity,117,
118–121Weberline,29Weeding,clean,176WestIndonesianvegetation
province,80WestIrian;SeePapua(West
Irian)WestJava annualprecipitation,54,55 climate,72 inceptisols,303 lowlandoxisols,140 lowlandultisols,179,183,196 lowlandvertisols,230–231 sugarcanegrowth,247 teaandcoffeeplantations,127
teacultivation,363Westmonsoon,59WestNewGuinea(IrianJaya),
47,48WestPapua,7 acreagesofmajorIndonesian
foodcrops,125 geography,28 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
383,386,391,394,395,396 nutmegspecies,328 peatsoils/histosols,261,262,
263Wet/dryseasons;SeealsoDry
seasons altitudinalvariations,68,69 climateclassificationsbased
on,61–67 Mohrsystem,62–65 SchmidtandFerguson
system,65–67 equatorialclimate,53 lowlandalfisols,212,215–216,
223–224 lowlandvertisols,230,238 monsoons,60,61 peatsoils/histosols,262,263 red-yellowpodzolics,181–182 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolics,
181–182Wetlands,peatformation,257,
268Wetness;SeeWater
retention/wetnessWheatcrops(gandum),354,
356–359Whitealkalisoils(aridisols),99Whitepepper,127White-splitdisease,330
69071.indb 555 4/25/08 10:44:12 AM
��� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia
Wildfiresintropicalpeatlands,130,202,260,287
Wind cloud-beltforest,90 equatorialclimate,52 frontalborders,58 monsoons,55 subalpinezone,91WisconsinIceAge,116WisselLake,231WorldReferenceBase(WRB)for
SoilResources,98,129,130,267–268
andosols,400,415,416–417 brownforestsoils(cambisols),
296;SeealsoInceptisols(brownforestsoils,cambisols)
brownpodzolicsoils,367,375 cheluviation/chilluviation,
381 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,
306–307 lowlandpodzolsasintrazonal
tropicalpodzols,382WurmIceAge,116
XXerults,189X-raydiffraction(XRD)analysis lowlandoxisols/latosols,159 lowlandultisols/red-yellow
podzolics,197 lowlandvertisols,239
YYapen,48YayasanKelapaMinehassa,250Yellow-brownearths,187Yellowearth,149Yellowmargalites,235Yellowpodzolicsoils elevationinhillyrolling
topography,188 organiccarboncontent,
192–193Yellowish-redlatosols/oxisols,
160Yields,crop apples,355 coffee,437 lowlandoxisols,163–164 lowlandvertisols,244 mineralnutritionstudies,15,
17 oilpalm,207,208 rice,166–167,205 rubber,177 tea,367 uplandrice,205–206Yucca(Manihotutilissima,
cassava),125,156,163,169,202,203,222–223,245,284
ZZeolite,134–135Zetapotential,105Zincapplicationtocitruscrop,
174Zincchelates,75Zircon,180,211,383,384Zola(Russian),380,390
69071.indb 556 4/25/08 10:44:12 AM
Index ���
Zonaldistributionofsoils monsoonclimate,13–14 Thorp-Smithsystem,13Zonaldivisionsofsoilforming
processes,110,121–125Zonalgeography,Papua(West
Irian),48–49Zonalsoils brownforestsoilsas,306 brownpodzolicsoils,368–369,
370,375 elevationand,386 highlandpodzols/spodosols,
382
lowlandoxisols,148 podzoliclatosols,294–296Zones,climate,61–67 altitudinalvegetationzones,
67–72 Mohrsystem,62–65 SchmidtandFerguson
system,65–67 soilformation;SeeClimate
effectsonsoilformationandproperties
transitional,simultaneouspodzolizationandlaterization,76,110,130
69071.indb 557 4/25/08 10:44:12 AM
69071.indb 558 4/25/08 10:44:12 AM