soils and amendments revegetation methods for western...

SOILS AND AMENDMENTS

Revegetation Methodsfor

Western Canada

prepared by

Dr. David G. Walker, PAg, PBiol, CPESC

Applied Vegetative Reclamation Reference Material 13/66

Contents

................................................................Organic Matter Amendments! 3

...............................................................................................................Objective! 3

..........................................................................................................Background! 3

..............................................................................................................Treatment! 4

..........................................................................Fertilizer Amendments! 5

...............................................................................................................Objective! 5

..........................................................................................................Background! 5

..............................................................................................................Treatment! 6

..........................................................................................Fertilizer Precautions! 6

..........................................................................Tillage and Sub-soiling! 7

...............................................................................................................Objective! 7

..........................................................................................................Background! 7

..............................................................................................................Treatment! 8

...................................................................................Adjusting Soil pH! 9

...............................................................................................................Objective! 9

..........................................................................................................Background! 9

...........................................................................................Treatment for Acidity! 9

.....................................................................................Treatment for Alkalinity! 10


Organic Matter AmendmentsObjective

• Improve soil quality for growth of plants and microorganisms.

• Improve soil structure, soil porosity, and infiltration rate for maintaining surface and sub-surface water quality.

Background

Many sources of organic matter amendment are available such as straw, manure, peat, sawdust, wood chips and sewage sludge. Large quantities of organic matter are usually required for the amendment to be effective and the cost of transportation is frequently the main consideration. Where there is a choice of material for amendment, the following should be considered.

For heavy clay soils and drastically disturbed soils which have lost most or all of the topsoil, increasing the rate of water infiltration and air exchange by adding porosity (decreasing bulk density) is a major reason for amending organic matter. Fresh cereal grain straw is the best for this purpose particularly flax straw that is most resistant to breakdown. Both cattle manure and straw improve soil structure by supplying organic colloids (glues) that help form stable soil aggregates. Peat, manure, wood chips, sawdust, and sewage sludge are valuable amendments for reducing bulk density but somewhat less valuable than straw for “opening” the soil.

Other reasons for amending organic matter are to improve soil fertility and to increase water-holding capacity of the soil. The percent organic matter (%C) value from a soil analysis may be used to decide if an amendment is needed. Agricultural soils average about 4% organic matter, native grasslands about twice that at 8%, and forest soils may range as high as 30% if the duff layer is included in the 15 cm deep sample. Soils with less than 2% organic matter are very difficult to revegetate.

If poorly incorporated and left near the surface, organic matter may cause moisture stress on plants growing in an arid region. The organic matter layer intercepts rainfall and holds it at the surface where it can be quickly lost by evaporation. Moisture from a light rainfall may never reach the soil surface let alone the plant root zone. Organic matter must be tilled into the soil to effectively improve soil porosity. Amending too much organic matter is rarely a problem. Research has demonstrated that with adequate incorporation, there are no adverse effects of amending each year, for 10 consecutive years, as much as 90 t/ha (wet weight) of feedlot manure to a cultivated soil in an arid region. Cold climates (low soil temperatures) are an exception.

The initial stages of decomposition of fresh organic matter consume large amounts of nitrogen. Fertilizer nitrogen should be added in sufficient quantities that correspond with the type of organic matter. Organic matter amendments may need to be repeated many times to be effective. Most of the amended organic matter will be converted by soil microbes into

© David Walker & Associates Ltd Soils and Amendments


unavailable organic carbon or be lost as CO2. The increase in soil organic matter will be temporary, as will the benefits.

Organic matter amendments should not be confused with organic matter spread on the surface as mulch. Organic matter mulch may be applied as an erosion control measure, or to reduce evaporation and hence increase moisture levels, or to improve seedling establishment in an exposed location. In this application, organic matter is not tilled into the soil but rather spread over the surface for maximum ground cover.

On uncultivated lands, organic matter amendments should not be incorporated to avoid destroying rootstocks and the seedbank of native plants. These soils generally have a naturally high organic content.

Straw and manure amendments can carry unwanted weed seeds into agricultural cropland or undisturbed areas of native vegetation. In agricultural areas, obtain straw locally, preferably from the landowner. If time allows, inspect fields before harvest to ensure weed species are not present. Pedigreed seed farmers are an excellent source of clean grain straw and grass straw. Seed growers are paid much less for their crop if is contaminated by weed seeds. This is the cleanest possible source of weed-free straw.

Treatment

• Determine if mulch is required based on soil tests, erosion hazard and exposure to drying. Apply liberal quantities of organic matter and incorporate thoroughly into the soil.

• Raise the organic matter content by at least 1% as anything less is largely cosmetic and ineffectual because organic amendments decompose quickly. Check the organic matter content annually and repeat applications as necessary.

Amount Required to Raise Organic Matter by 1%Type Organic Matter (OM) OM ash water t/ha kg/m t/acPure OM (oven dry wt) 100% 0% 0% 22 2.2 10Cereal Grain Straw (fresh) 75% 15% 10% 30 3.0 13Manure (2 year old) 25% 10% 65% 90 9.0 40Peat Moss (dried, bagged) 25% 10% 65% 90 9.0 40

• The choice of type of organic matter amendment is a matter of cost, availability, and quality. Both straw and manure can carry weed seeds onto a site. Excess moisture in manure can add to the cost of hauling. Straw is more consistent than manure in moisture content and quality. Old and well-rotted manure and straw have lost much of the structure that adds the porosity needed to treat a compacted soil or sealed (crusted) soil surface. Fresh straw and aged manure (2 years old) is best.

• Spread organic matter amendments with machinery designed for even distribution. Manure spreaders, straw blowers, and straw spreaders for large-round or large-square bales are available. Incorporate organic matter amendments to a depth of 15-20 cm by rotary tiller or thorough tillage with a disc cultivator.



Fertilizer AmendmentsObjective

• To promote optimum growth of plants and microorganisms to provide adequate ground cover for erosion control and restoration of nutrient cycling.

Background

Fertilizers types are identified by a series of 3 or 4 numbers such as 20-15-15–5. This means:the nutrient order is: nitrogen - phosphorus - potassium - sulphurand the chemical analysis is: 20% N - 15% P2O5 - 15% K20 - 5% S

Fertilizer products are labeled on the elemental basis for nitrogen (N) and sulphur (S) and on the oxide compound basis for phosphorus (P2O5) and potassium (K2O). Soil nutrients are customarily reported on the fertilizer nutrient basis. This means that while some reports may list soil nutrients in units of kg-N/ha and kg-P/ha, the units refer to the fertilizer units of kg-N/ha for nitrogen and kg-P2O5/ha for phosphorus and conversion from P to P2O5 is NOT needed.

Elemental and Fertilizer Rates of ApplicationRecommended Means Fertilizer Rate100 kg-N 100 kg elemental nitrogen (N) 294 kg of 34-0-0, or 217 kg of 46-0-010 kg-P 10 kg phosphorus oxide (P2O5) 18 kg of 12-55-0

10 kg-K 10 kg potassium oxide (K2O) 16 kg of 0-0-62

The following table lists the more common types of fertilizers and characteristics. Most fertilizer formulations are blends of the various basic types.

Common Basic Types of FertilizersType Fertilizer Formula Applicationammonium nitrate 34-0-0 may be a fire hazard if mixed with hydrocarbons calcium nitrate 15.5-0-0 calcium source, treat of salt water spill on soil; also

a nitrogen sourceurea 46-0-0 nitrogen sourceurea ammonium sulphate 34-0-0-14 nitrogen/sulphur source for high pH soilsammonium sulphate 21-0-0-14 nitrogen & sulphur source for soils with high pHammonium phosphate 12-55-0

11-55-0phosphorus sourceplant starter fertilizer

muriate of potash 0-0-62 potassium sourceOsmocote, urea-formaldehyde,sulphur coated urea

28-8-038-0-032-0-0

slow release N fertilizerprovide a steady N supply;and minimal N leaching



Treatment

• Apply fertilizer just as plant growth begins in the early spring. Avoid applying nitrogen fertilizer after early August, as this may cause a flush of late plant growth and increase susceptibility to winterkill. Fall and winter applications can be effective but there is a risk of runoff loss on slopes during the spring melt..

• Follow the fertilizer recommendations included on soil test results. Indicate the crop (usually grass/legume) and that the application is for reclamation requiring minimum maintenance rather than for agriculture which strives for economic return.

• The maximum recommended rate of nitrogen for grass growth in the dry regions of Alberta is normally 100 kg-N/ha. Growth response can be obtained up to 200 kg-N/ha with some grass species in moist regions. No more than 50 kg-N/ha should be applied in the year of seeding to avoid damage to germinating seeds and to minimize weed growth.

• A normal application rate of phosphorus is 60 kg-P/ha. On soils very deficient in phosphorus, plants may require as much as 200 kg-P/ha. Large amounts of phosphorus are usually environmentally safe because of the low mobility in the soil. Under most circumstances, phosphorus fertilizer in the soil remains available to plants for 4-5 years.

• Recommendations for fertilizer from soil testing laboratories are usually for “placed” phosphorus, an agricultural term for its distribution in a band in the soil. This placement requires specialized agricultural equipment and may not feasible in reclamation. If the phosphorus fertilizer is distributed by the broadcast method and not incorporated into the soil, the recommended rate may need to be increased by 2-4 times to be effective. Phosphorus can be “placed” into the root zone if spread prior to topsoil replacement. “Nesting” or “laying” the phosphorus fertilizer in the soil in spots or strips is better for crop uptake than widely dispersing the fertilizer. Clear communication with the soil-testing laboratory will produce the best results.

• Requirements for other nutrients (K, S, and micro-nutrients) are variable and often specific to certain soils. Do a soil test before amending these other kinds of fertilizers.

Fertilizer Precautions

• Extreme care should be taken in handling nitrogen fertilizers near cattle. Spills from careless handling should be meticulously cleaned up. Small amounts of nitrogen fertilizer can be lethal.

Fertilizer Lethal to a 550 kg Cow.Type of Nitrogen Fertilizer AmountAmmonium nitrate (34-0-0) 1,100 gUrea (46-0-0) 250 gUrea Ammonium Sulphate (34-0-0-14) 40 g



• Be careful when using high rates of nitrogen fertilizer on sloping land. Runoff can carry poisonous fertilizer nitrates into low-lying ground or into a water source. Plants may take up nitrates as long as its is available and may becomes poisonous if eaten.

• Urea fertilizer stored or mixed with ammonium nitrate fertilizer (<1%) absorbs moisture and can become unusable slurry.

• Plants growing on soils high in nitrates may become suddenly toxic to grazing animals if the plants undergo some form of stress condition such as after hail damage or frost damage.

Tillage and Sub-soilingObjective

• Reduce soil compaction and improve infiltration of water.

• Improve soil aeration and growth of micro-organisms.

• Breakup soil surface crusts to improve seedling emergence.

• Reduce soil compaction and improve root penetration.

• Incorporate soil amendments.

Background

Soil compaction is an important parameter in the assessment of reclamation success. Wheel pressure from machinery, even from light trucks, can cause soil compaction that is serious enough to reduce plant growth and increase erosion caused by lower infiltration of water. Soil compaction is measured by bulk density, a measure of the pore space in the soil and is expressed in units of tons or Megagrams per cubic meter (t/m3, Mg/m3 ) or grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3).

The natural bulk density of soil varies with texture, organic matter content, pore space, and soil particle density. The same factors also affect the degree to which soil is compacted by vehicles but the most important is moisture content and secondarily, texture or clay content. Soil compaction from vehicle traffic is more likely on clay soils than sandy soils and higher on wet soils than dry. Poor plant growth or water ponding are good indicators that soil compaction is a problem. Also look for plant roots that grow horizontally when they reach a compacted layer.

Measure bulk density, if necessary, to determine the degree and depth of soil compaction in the topsoil and subsoil. Soil compaction can be determined by comparing the bulk density of sites with the same soil type. There are a number of devices and techniques for measuring bulk density. The cone penetrometer is a device that measures resistance to penetration into the soil.

Electronic equipment can measure density at various depths. Good soil sampling tools and techniques are capable of accurately extracting a soil core of known volume thereby providing



a means of calculating density from the oven-dry weight of the core. Following are typical density values.

Typical Density ValuesSubstrate Conditions Mg/m3

Water distilled, pure 1.00Topsoil Alberta-wide average range 0.85 - 0.95Topsoil sandy loam fair - poor 1.50 - 1.70 Loam fair - poor 1.40 - 1.60 clay loam fair - poor 1.30 - 1.50Topsoil growth limiting sewage sludge amendment

poorgood

1.270.88

Subsoil Alberta-wide average range 1.15 - 1.45Subsoil ripped ripped plus amended with ripped plus amended with

onlycattle manurepeat moss

1.000.970.84

Peat horticultural grade avg range 0.20 - 0.35

Treatment

• Till prior to broadcast seeding to create “safe sites” for seedlings and to break surface crusts. Avoid excessive tillage in dry regions as this removes soil moisture.

• Tillage depth for seedbed preparation is typically 100 mm (4 in). Implements used for this purpose include disc plow, cultivator, rotary tiller, chisel plow, and harrows.

• Sub-soiling relieves subsurface compaction to a depth of 600 mm (24 in). Implements used for sub-soiling include deep tiller, paraplow, or parabolic shank ripper.

• A disc cultivator can create a compacted layer (a shear plane) in the subsoil and is NOT a suitable for this purpose.

• A vertical shank ripper can sometimes mix subsoil with topsoil resulting in poor soil tilth.

• Sub-soiling results are best when the soil is fairly dry but not too hard. Make passes in several directions to ensure a good fracture of the subsurface hardpan.



Adjusting Soil pHObjective

• Adjust an alkaline or acidic soil to promote plant and micro-organism growth.

Background

A soil is alkaline when the pH value is above 7.3, neutral at 6.6 - 7.3, and acidic below 6.5. The pH of normal soil ranges from 4.0 to 9.0 with the optimum for growth of most plants between 5.5 and 7.8.

Some soil types are naturally acidic. Soil can also be made acidic from heavy applications of nitrogen fertilizer such as for the treatment of a hydrocarbon spill. Sulphur from a spill or from air emissions or from deposits wind-blown off from a storage block are other causes of acidic soils.

The application of lime (limestone, CaCO3) to improve yield on acidic soil is common practice in agriculture. Soil testing labs will calculate the amount of lime required to neutralize soil based on results of a soil analysis. Lime is available in a number of forms and grades. Lime should be tested to determine its Effective Neutralizing Value (ENV) based on purity (its calcium carbonate equivalent or CCE) and how finely it is ground (proportion of particles that pass various mesh sizes).

Fine particle sizes (smaller than 60 mesh size) are more effective but not as easy as coarse particles to handle and apply.

Alkaline soils, those with a high pH, originate from calcareous parent material and can be treated with sulphur or fertilizers containing sulphur and/or nitrogen. Alkaline soils donʼt usually have a pH greater than 8.4 unless it is also saline, if so treat for salinity first.

Treatment for Acidity

• Make a careful and detailed analysis of the soil to determine the magnitude and distribution of the problem.

• Ask the soil-testing laboratory to recommended a rate of application based on the analysis of the soil, the ENV of the lime, and the type of plant-life planned for the site.

• The amount of lime can range typically from 1-13 t/ha. A Dark Brown coarse-textured soil with a pH of 5.5 might require 2 t/ha of high quality lime to neutralize the soil to the optimum pH level of 6.5 that is needed for alfalfa production.

• Sulphur or nitrogen containing fertilizers can acidify soil especially at the high rates. The following table lists the amount of lime required to neutralize three types of nitrogen fertilizers.

• Spread the lime evenly and incorporate thoroughly into the top 15 cm of the soil by cultivation. Fall is the best time to amend lime.



To Neutralize N Fertilizers with LimeType of Fertilizer for every 1.0 kg fertilizer Lime (kg)Ammonium nitrate (34-0-0) 1.8 kgUrea (46-0-0) 1.8 kgUrea Ammonium sulphate (21-0-0-24S) 5.3 kg

Treatment for Alkalinity

• Acquire soil test recommendations for the most suitable amendment. Nitrogen and especially sulphur containing fertilizers can lower soil pH over a period of years.



Plant Material Selection


Western Canada

prepared by



Contents

..................................................................How to Buy The Right Seed! 3.........................................................................................................Graded Seed! 3........................................................................................................Seed Sources! 3

Wild-Harvest Seed! 3Cultivated Wild Harvest Seed! 4Unregistered Varieties (Cultivars)! 4Registered Varieties (Cultivars)! 5

.....................................................................................................Pedigreed Seed! 5Classes of Pedigreed Seed! 6Pedigreed Seed Requirements! 6The Certificate of Analysis! 6

...............................................................Criteria for Species Selection! 7Longevity! 7Nutrient Requirements! 8Plant Height! 8Palatability! 9Cold Tolerance! 9Tolerance to Moisture Extremes! 9Seedling Vigour! 10Forage Production! 10Salinity Tolerance! 10

...........................................How Many Species Should Go in a Mix?! 12Variable Site Conditions! 12Grazing Tolerance! 12Disease Resistance! 12Long-term Stability! 12Too Many Species in the Mix! 12

.....................................................................Seed Storage Guidelines! 12......................................................................How to Use Native Seed! 13

........................................................................................Provenance Specificity! 13...........................................................................Why Is Provenance Important?! 13

.................................................Is Provenance Specific Seed Always Required?! 13...................................................When Is Provenance Specific Seed Required?! 13

........Will Culitvars of Native Species Damage Local Populations?! 14...............................................................................................Competitive Ability! 14

...................................................................................Altered Gene Frequencies! 15................................................................................................................Ecovars! 15

...........................................................................................................Conclusion! 16


How to Buy The Right Seed

The Canada Seeds Act requires varieties designated for agricultural production to meet performance standards before approved for sale. Recent changes to the Canada Seeds Act have excluded seed designated for the purpose of ground cover (turf, lawn, reclamation). This change means that reclamation seed can be sold under a variety name but without the assurance of field testing. Seed may also be sold without a variety name as “common”. Most seed is grown in fields as agricultural crops but some available seed may have been harvested from native stands. Following is a description of four sources of seed that may be available.

Graded Seed

Seed grading is available from Seed Testing Laboratories located throughout Canada. Grading includes testing and grading to standards for weed content, purity and germination. A Certificate of Seed Analysis is issued by the authorized seed grader who must meet the accreditation standards set by Agriculture Canada, the Commercial Seed Analystsʼ Association of Canada and the Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies (international standards). Seed of weed species is listed but species may not reflect regional concerns. (i.e., Canada thistle is western Canada's worst perennial weed yet is only listed as a secondary noxious weed.) The Certificate of Seed Analysis provides the buyer with an assurance of quality and performance. By international agreement, seed certificates from other countries are acceptable as long as Canadian seed testing rules are followed.

Seed Sources

Wild-Harvest SeedWild-Harvest seed is harvested from plants in remnant areas of native prairie or in open marshlands using either conventional agricultural machinery (a combine) or specialty machinery (large vacuum systems or brush and trap systems). The seed may or may not be cleaned and graded for purity and germination.

Advantages DisadvantagesSeed is locally adapted (assuming similar conditions), genetically diverse, and maybe excellent for restoration of local plant communities.

• Seed supply from year to year is erratic, expensive and quality is unpredictable (sometimes low germination).

• The harvest site may not be disclosed and could be very dissimilar to the application site.

© David Walker & Associates Ltd Plant Material Selection


Cultivated Wild Harvest SeedThis seed originates from Wild-Harvest seed that was planted and grown under agricultural field conditions. The seed is harvested with agricultural machinery. There usually is some intentional or unintentional selection for plants that carry agriculturally preferred traits.

Advantages Disadvantages• The seed is genetically diverse although

not as much as the Wild-Harvest seed. • Seed may be excellent to restore of plant

communities.

• Seed supply from year to year may be erratic and moderately expensive.

• Sudden, unexplained crop failures may be common.

• Disclosure of source site and/or production site of the seed is not required and could be quite different from the destination site.

Unregistered Varieties (Cultivars)Unregistered varieties of native species have been developed by the same scientific methods used to develop varieties of agricultural crops. Plants are selected for agriculturally preferred traits. Performance testing is required but Canadian performance standards do not have to be met. Unregistered varieties of native species may not be adapted to all regions of its natural range. Unregistered varieties of alien species may also be sold in Canada.

Advantages Disadvantages• Seed supply from year to year is

predictable and moderately inexpensive. • Performance and quality is predictable. • Seed is acceptable for creating

ecologically compatible (not identical) plant communities.

• Performance may not be known or the results may not be published.



Registered Varieties (Cultivars)The Canada Seeds Act requires that all seed sold in Canada for the purpose of agricultural food production be a Registered Variety. Native and alien species are eligible for variety registration if performance standards are met through extensive field-testing.

Advantages Disadvantages• Seed supply from year to year is

predictable and inexpensive. • Performance and quality is predictable. • Performance has been tested and the

results published. • Seed of native species may be

acceptable for creating ecologically compatible (not identical) native plant communities.

• Some cultivars are not native species. • Some cultivars may have been developed

for aggressiveness and therefore may not be suitable for creating diverse plant communities.

Pedigreed Seed

The Canada Seeds Act grants authority to The Canadian Seed Growerʼs Association (CSGA) to administer a pedigree system to track and label specified types of seed. Pedigreed seed may be one of four Pedigree Classes (same as generations): Breeder Seed, Foundation (grown from Breeder), Registered and Certified.

Varieties that have been registered under the regulations of the Canada Seeds Act may be sold as pedigreed seed. Some unregistered varieties may also be sold as pedigreed seed if the variety is distinct enough to be identified when compared to other varieties. Labeling requirements include the name of the species, variety, and source (grower) of the seed.

Wild-Harvest seed and Cultivated Wild Harvest cannot be sold as Pedigreed Seed. The situation is confusing because seed imported from other countries can be sold in Canada still carrying the variety name authorized by the country of origin but the seed bag will not carry variety labels authorized under The Canada Seeds Act.

Without a Pedigreed seed label, there is no guarantee of the genetic background of the seed, nor is there a legal requirement to disclose the source of the seed. This is a case of buyer beware!



Classes of Pedigreed Seed

Breeder Seed• defined by plant breeder, must maintain original plants/seed• plant breeder decides the allowable number of generations the variety may be

multiplied based on genetic stability

Foundation Seed• one generation removed (grown in 0.5 ha sized field)

Registered Seed• one generation removed (grown in 10.0 ha or 100 ha sized field)• Common No. 1 and Common No. 2 Seed• Certified Canada 1 and 2 seed may be downgraded to Common because of

• age of stand, • weed content of producing field or seed lot, • other crop content (off-types or other non-weedy species), • other reasons (poorly defined variety, i.e., amount hair on the seed)

Pedigreed Seed Requirements• fields must be inspected for purity and weeds before harvest,• seed must be graded , and• seed must be minimum standards for germination and purity.

The Certificate of Analysis• A purchaser of any seed has the right to request from the seller, a copy of its purity

and analysis (seed grade). • The Pedigree status of the seed will be added to the Certificate if documentation of

field inspection accompanies the seed sample.



Criteria for Species Selection

Choose species for a revegetation mixture to match the site and the revegetation objective. Erosion control and soil building normally are the primary objectives of revegetation. When restoration of a natural plant community is the primary goal, choose species typical of the original plant community but not necessarily those that may dominant after years of heavy grazing or repeated disturbances. In most cases, revegetation must satisfy multiple objectives:

• control of wind or water erosion,• soil building to restore land capability,• forage and cover for wildlife,• forage for domestic animals,• protection for the integrity of a natural area, and• aesthetics.

Selection Criteria

LongevitySpecies vary in life expectancy and the characteristic is useful in manipulating the species composition in early and mid-successional stages.

annuals • Use for a grown-in-place mulch and for short-term cover.

biennials• Also useful as grown-in-place mulch and for short-term cover.• Example: sweet clover. Beware it may reseed and become weedy.

short-lived perennials (5-15 years)• slender wheatgrass• green needlegrass• Canada wildrye• not recommended for permanent pastures.

long-lived perennials (15+ years)• crested wheatgrass >40 years• smooth bromegrass > 40 years• Cicer milkvetch, the variety Oxley was selected from a

30 year stand in the foothills near Stavely, AB• some alfalfa varieties may be long-lived in some climates

stands older than 40 years reported in Utah and South Dakota;most alfalfa varieties typically die out in about 7 years or less.



disease sensitivity• red clover normally is short-lived because of root disease BUT may be

long-lived in some climates (eg. red clover is wild at subalpine elevations at Mountain Park and Miette Hot Springs, AB).

Nutrient RequirementsDepends on the genetic characteristics of the plant:

• ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen;• tolerance of infertile soils by slow growth or large root-shoot ratio;• capability of mycorrhizae associations which aides nutrient uptake;• grasses developed for maximum agricultural productivity may consume

excess soil nitrogen, if available, to poisonous levels.

high nutrient consumers include• smooth bromegrass• orchard grass• tall fescue

low• legumes• Canada bluegrass• hard fescue • sheep fescue• Rocky Mountain fescue

Plant HeightImportant because tall plants shade and outcompete short ones. Height varies with:

• genetic potential of the plant,• moisture supply,• nutrients,• light level.

tallMost grass varieties developed for agricultural production:

• bromegrass, timothy,reed canary, meadow foxtail, tall wheatgrass, intermediate wheatgrass, and sweetclover.

Some native grass species:• bluejoint or marsh reed grass (Calamagrostis canadensis)• prairie sand reed grass• basin wildrye

short• Anik alfalfa (Siberian strain)• fescues: hard, sheep, alpine, and Rocky Mountain



• bluegrasses: Nugget Kentucky, Canada, alpine • turf (dwarf) timothy

PalatabilityDepends on the individual animal, age of the plant, moisture content, fertilization, nutrient content, and season.

high palatability• forage varieties of bromegrass and timothy,• most turf grass varieties• creeping red fescue (fall and winter)

low palatability• streambank wheatgrass• crested wheatgrass after July 1• Canada bluegrass• most native wheatgrasses

Cold ToleranceThere are various forms of cold tolerance:• tolerance of cold winter temperatures, • tolerance of low temperatures during the growing season,• senescence (timing of fall dormancy) is a regional adaptation.

most hardy to winter• Alberta native species• Highlander slender wheatgrass• Arctared and Boreal creeping red fescue• Nugget, Banff, Park Kentucky bluegrass• Engmo timothy• Polar bromegrass• Anik alfalfa

NOT winter hardy• perennial ryegrass (1-3 years)• dwarf timothy needs snow cover to survive• red clover (1-3 years), used mostly as an annual in W Canada

Tolerance to Moisture ExtremesDepends on root structure, size/ number of root hairs, and genetic inheritance.

drought hardiness• most native prairie species• Russian wild ryegrass, Altai wild ryegrass• crested wheatgrass, standard as good as fairway types



• Durar hard fescue• Dormie Kentucky bluegrass• Reubens Canada bluegrass• creeping rooted alfalfa varieties (Rambler, Rangelander, Heinrichs)• sainfoin

flooding tolerance• tall wheatgrass (up to 6 weeks seasonal)• slender wheatgrass (up to 3 weeks seasonal)• reed canarygrass (constant)• meadow foxtail (constant)• Cicer milkvetch (some)

Seedling VigourThis refers to the rate of seedling growth during first season and reflects the ease of establishment and therefore risk of seeding failure. Poor seedling vigour can sometimes be offset by reducing competition from weeds, low seeding rates, and careful seedbed preparation.

excellent• perennial ryegrass; emerges in 3-6 days• crested wheatgrass• wheatgrass species in general• creeping red fescue• bromegrass• timothy• cereal grains

poor• sainfoin• Cicer milkvetch• Canada bluegrass• Russian wild ryegrass (newer varieties better)

Forage Production• important if end-land use is agricultural production• maybe needed for rapid soil building• useful for climate modification, wind barriers, snow trapping, and

mulch.

Salinity ToleranceTolerance to soil salinity is genetically determined. The following figure illustrates the relationship between the degree of soil salinity (as measured by electrical conductivity) and biomass production of various species:



How Many Species Should Go in a Mix?

Current practice is to use 4-6 species in a seed mix. There are several reasons for using a broad diverse mix of species in a mix.

Variable Site Conditions• pipelines or transmission lines over long distances• local, undulating terrain

Grazing Tolerance• some species may be useful as loss-leaders,

to divert grazing animals away from the desired plants.

Disease Resistance• Experience in agriculture has taught us that growing one variety can

sometimes lead to an epidemic of disease or pests.

Long-term Stability• plants die off at different stages; this promotes plant succession

Too Many Species in the MixMany species in a mix, the shotgun approach (10-20 species) usually results in a stand dominated by only 1 or two species. If you must seed many species, make several mixes. Apply the slower developing species first and the more aggressive species later or even the next year.

Seed Storage Guidelines

• Optimal, long-term storage is very cold (-18°C).

• Short-term storage cool (4°C) and dry (<15% R.H.).

• Frozen is better than hot and dry.

• Dry is better than moist.

• Shelf life varies with species, typically 2-7 years.

• Storage for 3-7 years can improve germination of highly dormant species such as native needlegrass



How to Use Native Seed

Provenance Specificity

Provenance-specificity is the degree to which a species is adapted to a geographical area. The size of the geographical area may vary from very small (several km2) to very large (North America). Species may vary widely with some having wide adaptability and others being narrowly adapted to local conditions. A species that is capable of growing along an elevational gradient from sea level to treeline is an example of site-specific adaptation and low tolerance for geographical movement.

Why Is Provenance Important?

There are documented examples of plants that are adapted to a specific geographical location. For example, bromegrass varieties from Colorado canʼt survive winters in Alaska and Alaskan varieties of bromegrass generally do poorly in Colorado. Experiments with reciprocal transplants of alpine bluegrass between Alaska and Colorado show poor survival of the non-indigenous strains. The light regime is very different between Alaska and Colorado and this has a significant impact on cueing plants to initiate fall dormancy.

Is Provenance Specific Seed Always Required?

Seeding failures involving native species are often blamed on the lack of seed obtained from the local region. Locally obtained seed is assumed to be better adapted than seed of the same species from a different region. Genetic differences do occur between regional populations but the differences may not be adaptive features. Seeding failures are common in nature. Seedling vigour of native species generally is low especially when compared to agricultural varieties.

For most native species, using provenance specific genotypes are not necessary. The majority of native species currently used for reclamation have not shown provenance-specific adaptations that would restrict their use to a small geographical area. Alaskan varieties of Nugget Kentucky bluegrass and Arctared creeping red fescue show excellent adaptability to Canadian conditions. The variety Revenue slender wheatgrass (Agropyron trachycaulum) originated from one plant collected near the Alberta-Saskatchewan border. Revenue has demonstrated a wide adaptability at sites ranging from Inuvik NWT to high elevations in Colorado.

When Is Provenance Specific Seed Required?

Winter hardiness is a problem with seed from southern sources. Restoration work that has as its goal, the re-establishment of a natural ecosystem, may benefit from locally collected seed that has a large genetic diversity.



Will Culitvars of Native Species Damage Local Populations?

A concern is occasionally raised that cultivars (varieties) of native plants could harm the natural ecosystem. An ecological imbalance, it is argued, could be created in two ways:

Native cultivars have been genetically improved and therefore could become “aggressive bullies” that out compete their less vigorous relatives as well as other native plants and this could alter the ecological balance of the native plant community. Using native cultivars means spreading a large number of genetically identical plants into the landscape where the same species may already present. This has the potential to alter the frequency of alleles (alternative forms of a gene) in the population and cause an artificial occurrence of a natural process termed “genetic drift”.

The consequence of genetic drift could be dilution or loss of genes necessary for survival under local environmental conditions that may be unique. Another consequence of genetic drift might be a loss of genetic diversity (because so many of the plants are now genetically the same). A loss of genetic diversity could, according to one argument, result in inbreeding depression (higher rates of genetic defects, seedling mortality, infertility, and disease susceptibility).

Another argument predicts a similar outcome but from outbreeding depression (incompatibility resulting from genes pairs at different chromosome locations that canʼt pair-up during reproduction).

A request may be made that only locally harvested, wild seed be used for revegetation of a disturbance. Or, another approach to resolving this concern is the development of ecovars (name trademarked by Ducks Unlimited), which are simply cultivars with a wider genetic base and therefore closer in genetic makeup to a local population.

Competitive Ability

Native cultivars are not necessarily botanical bullies. Through selection for higher yield, cultivars have been improved to make seed production economical. But high yield may not be an advantage in a natural ecosystem. Traits (gene combinations) that maximize seed production under agricultural conditions (high fertility, controlled pests, and adequate moisture) may be a disadvantage under natural conditions (low fertility, uncontrolled pests).

An upright growth habit is an advantage for seed harvesting but a disadvantage under natural conditions where a prostrate growth habit can help a plant avoid being grazed or desiccated by the wind. Uniform seed ripening is an absolute necessity for economical seed production but a serious disadvantage under natural conditions where indeterminate ripening might prevent seed predators from consuming an entire crop.

Low shattering (seeds retained on the plant when ripe) is a plus for agricultural production but not an adaptive feature under natural conditions where seeds are spread by wind. Heavy seed weight and high forage yield are preferred traits for agricultural productivity but these traits are detrimental if limited resources are directed away from



the root development necessary for drought tolerance. The aggressive species that invade natural ecosystems are non-native species that are genetically isolated, have no local relatives with which to cross-pollinate.

Altered Gene Frequencies

Genetically improved native cultivars are not developed from new genetic material nor are the gene combinations new. The same or very similar gene combinations very likely are present in numerous individual plants within a regional population. Most native cultivars are the result of simple genetic improvement methods such as mass selection, a method that involves simply removing unwanted traits. The genetic combinations of traits that define a cultivar segregate (lose the traits) within a couple of generations.

Each successive generation increasingly resembles that of the whole population. For example, pedigreed seed growers are allowed to produce a limited number of generations (typically 4) before the cultivar has lost the desirable traits through genetic segregation and the cultivar description (and the name) is no longer valid. Seed production fields have a specified life span before losing pedigreed status (typically 6 years).

The population size of common native plants is generally very large (i.e. gene pool is very large) compared to the population size of plants seeded onto a disturbance. The introduction of genetically improved plants will have an insignificant impact on gene frequencies in these types of populations.

Ecovars

In plant breeding terminology, ecovars are called “synthetics” which are simply cultivars composed of any number of genetically distinct individuals (clones). Usually, synthetic cultivars are groups of clones that have been combined together for the purpose of good performance and economical seed production. Whether a cultivar is a synthetic or a single clone depends on the species and the problems that must overcome for utilization.

For some species, a single plant may contain a large proportion of the genetic diversity present in the population. If so, this may be more than enough for use as a cultivar. For other species, a synthetic cultivar may be the best solution. By combining several clones, all traits are present for good performance and economical seed production.

Ecovars are synthetic cultivars that attempt to incorporate a very large amount genetic diversity (without knowing how much is really necessary) at the expense, usually, of sacrificing economical seed production. Some native grass cultivars currently on the market are synthetics, such as the northern wheatgrass cultivar Elbee (8 clones) and the western wheatgrass cultivar Walsh (20 clones). Some examples of cultivars developed from a single clone include the slender wheatgrass cultivars Adanac, Revenue, Highlander, and Mountaineer, and the alpine bluegrass cultivars Blueridge and Glacier. The cultivar Sodar of streambank wheatgrass is an example of a cultivar that started as a single plant (best of 11 accessions) and then genetically improved



through several generations of mass selection for economical seed production (although prices are still comparatively high because of low seed yields).

Conclusion

Native cultivars used for restoring ecosystems should not be judged on the basis of short-term evaluations. Results after one or two growing seasons are too early to draw conclusions. What is important is plant community composition after 5, 10, and 20 years and this means long-term monitoring to generate the information we need.



PLANT CHARACTERISTICS


Western Canada

prepared by



Bluegrass, Alkali (Big)

Scientific Name Poa juncifolia Scribn.! (formerly Poa ampla Merr.)Variety Recommended Sherman US public variety! imported,

also from Rangeland Seeds, Vulcan ABVariety Substitute noneOrigin and Natural Distribution

• Native to Pacific Northwest grasslands, andNorthern Great Plains

• Species is variable, some taxonomic confusion • Source: collected Sherman County OR• Variety released by Soil Conservation Service, Pullman WA

Species

Characteristics

• Good seedling vigour but needs shallow seeding• Tolerant of infertile soils• Long-lived perennial• Good quality grazing and hay,• Avoided by cattle in heading stage• Early spring growth, competes with winter weeds• Growth habit: bunch• Medium height,• Low competitive species, excellent for restoration• Seed size small (2,022 seeds/gram)

Bluegrass, Canada

Scientific Name Poa compressa L.Variety Recommended Reubens! US import, proprietary Jacklin Seeds

Variety Substitute Canon ! ! (Canadian variety from Guelph), ! ! less drought tolerant than Reubens

Origin and Natural Distribution

• Native to Europe• Naturalized in North America 200 years• Source: collected from wild Idaho (arid region)• Canadian unregistered variety released 1980• US Patent held by Jacklin Seeds Co. (Idaho)

Species

Characteristics

• Seedling vigour poor• Tolerates infertile soils• Tolerates acid soils• Drought hardy• Growth habit creeping• Low growing• Low maintenance in dry regions• Excellent as low competitive species• Seed size small (5,555 seeds/g)

© David Walker & Associates Ltd ! Plant Characteristics


Fescue, Hard (Hard Sheep)

Scientific Name Festuca trachyphylla (Hackel) Krajina (formerly ovina duriuscula) auct.Variety Recommended Durar! US public variety


• Source Europe (many varieties) (complex genus, many subspecies)• naturalized in North America• Durar naturalized in Oregon, 30 years; collected from 355 mm rainfall

area; variety developed by USDA SCA, Pullman WA• Aurora developed in eastern US early success in Alberta foothills;

Species

Characteristics

• Tolerates infertile soils• Slow to establish, long lived• Winter hardy• Tolerates some flooding• Low growing• Growth habit bunch• Seed size medium (1,245 seeds/g)• Grazing decreaser under moderate grazing pressure• May persist 15 plus years under low grazing pressure• Aurora Gold Roundup™ tolerant spp-variety

Fescue, Sheep

Scientific Name Festuca ovina L.

Variety Recommended Nakiska Sheep Fescue !(= US var. Bighorn) private variety, importedCovar Sheep Fescue! US public variety, imported


• Circumpolar distribution• Native? to North America (complex species, many subspecies)• Source Europe

Species

Characteristics

• Tolerates infertile soils• Slow to establish, long lived• Very drought hardy (better than Crested WG)• Winter hardy• Tolerates some flooding• Very Low growing• Growth habit bunch• Nakiska seed size medium (1,245 seeds/g)• Covar Sheep Fescue (1,498 seeds/g)



Grama Grass Blue

Scientific Name Bouteloua gracilis (HBK.) Lag.Variety Recommended common, no named Canadian varieties


• wild harvest sources available from:• Ron Wolfater, Eastend SK,wild harvest, mixed grass prairie, Maple Creek

area• Ted Harms, Brooks AB, cultivated wild harvest stand

Species

Characteristics

• Perennial• Warm season C4 grass • Tolerant of infertile soils• Drought tolerant• Growth habit: tufted, forming rhizomes, sod• Low growing species,• Low competitive species, excellent for restoration

Hairgrass, Tufted

Scientific Name Deschampsia caespitosa (L.) Beav.Variety Recommended Nortran from BrettYoung Seeds Inc.Origin and Natural Distribution

• Nortran from wild collection in Alaska• native to northwestern Canada

Species

Characteristics

• Tolerant of infertile soils• Common perimeter of wetlands• Growth habit: bunch• Low growing species,• Excellent for low-maintenance

Indian Ricegrass

Scientific Name Achnatherum hymenoides (Roem.&Schult.) Barkworthformerly Oryzopsis hymenoides (Roem and Schult) Ricker

Variety Recommendedcommon Canadian grower Rangeland Seeds, Vulcan AB Nezpar US variety, importedNew Variety: Rimrock US variety, imported


• Native to North America• Collected in 1935 at White Bird, Idaho• Variety released by USDA, Soil Conservation Service,

Species

Characteristics

• Good seedling vigour• Non-aggressive species• Used for prairie restoration• Excellent food for wildlife• Good winter hardiness in Alberta• Good drought tolerance• Growth habit bunch• Seed dormancy sometimes high• Seed size large (518 seeds/g)



June Grass

Scientific Name Koeleria macrantha Schultes formerly Koeleria cristata L.

Variety Recommended ARC Mountain View! BrettYoung Seeds

Variety to Avoid Barkoel (Barenbrug Co., Netherlands) common name Crested Hairgrass from Europe looks identical to Junegrass but has poor winter hardiness in Alberta


• Native to North America and Europe• circumpolar distribution• selections available from Canada and Europe• Mountain View from ARC Vegreville, synthetic or 6 lines, released 2001

Species

Characteristics

• European sources NOT winter hardy in Alberta• Good seedling vigour• Non-aggressive species• Slow to establish (2-4 years)• Used for prairie restoration• Good drought tolerance• Growth habit bunch• Seed size small (3,300 seeds/g)

Needle-and-thread (Spear Grass)

Scientific Name Hesperostipa comata (Trin.&Rupr.) Barkworth formerly Stipa comata Trin. & Rupr

Variety Recommended none, Canadian wild harvest and some US wild harvest availableOrigin and Natural Distribution

• Native to Western Canada• Source: wild harvest stands in southern AB, SK

Species

Characteristics

• Excellent drought tolerance• Acceptable forage production, Good grazing tolerance, decreaser, • Long lived, cool season grass• Deep root system, Growth habit bunch• Avoided by cattle from heading stage to seed-drop stage• Erratic seed production• Awns must be processed before seeding• Seed size large (555 seeds/g)



Needlegrass, Green

Scientific Name Nassella viridula (Trin.) Barkworth formerly Stipa viridula Trin.

Variety RecommendedLodorm US public variety, imported, Canadian grown sources: NewfieldsAC Mallard DU Ecovar, Proven Seed, Agricore Unitedwild harvest ! sometimes available


• Native to Western Canada• Lodorm Variety from Bismarck, North Dakota• AC Mallard, DU Ecovar, no data available

Species

Characteristics

• Good drought tolerance• Acceptable forage production• Short lived, 3-7 yrs• Lodorm developed for low seed dormancy; 50% seeds germinate 1st year • Poor grazing tolerance• Growth habit bunch• Seed size large (398 seeds/g)

Prairie Sandreed Grass

Scientific Name Calamovilfa longifolia (Gray) Hack.Variety Recommended1 Goshen! US public variety; Canadian producer Blight Seeds, MB


• Native to Northern Great Plains• Source SE Wyoming sandhills• Developed by Montana State University, University of Wyoming and

USDA, Soil Conservation Service (now NRCS)• Released 1979 by USDA, Bridger, Montana

Species

Characteristics

• Requires long growing season• Growth habit: rhizomatous, very tall• Long-lived species• Warm season grass• Pioneer species on sandy soils• Forage quality suitable, excellent in winter• Grazing tolerance excellent• Seed size medium (604 seeds/g)



Wheatgrass, Awned

Scientific Name Elymus trachycaulus ssp subsecundus (Link) Gould formerly. Agropyron subsecundum (Link) Hitch

Variety Recommended AEC Hillcrest! BrettYoung Seeds


• Native to North America• species now considered synonymous with slender wheatgrass• Source: single plant collected from Crowsnest Pass, Alberta

released 1994 by ARC Vegreville

Species

Characteristics

• Seedling vigour good• Short lived 5 to 10 years• Growth habit bunch• Short growing season• Mountains and foothills up to 1800 m elevation• Seed size large (350 seeds/g)

Wheatgrass, Slender

Scientific NameElymus trachycaulus (Link) Gould ex Shinners ssp. trachycaulussyn. Agropyron trachycaulum (Link) Maltesyn. Agropyron pauciflorum (Schwein.) Hitchcock

Variety Recommended Revenue! ! AgProAdanac! ! BrettYoung Seeds


• Native to North America• Highlander from one plant collected in Crowsnest Pass, Alberta,

released 1993 by ARC Vegreville • Revenue from one plant collected in west-central Saskatchewan,

released by Agriculture Canada, Saskatoon

Species

Characteristics

• Seedling vigour outstanding• Salt tolerance excellent• Moderate forage production• Short lived 5 to 10 years• Growth habit bunch• Seed size large (350 seeds/g)



Wheatgrass, CrestedScientific Name Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertner

Variety Recommended Kirk! SeCan public variety, Agricore, othersFairway! Canadian public variety released by Agriculture Canada


• Native to Siberia, Eastern Asia• Kirk released by Agriculture Canada, Saskatoon• new variety Goliath

Species

Characteristics

• Very low fire fuel load; useful for green stripping fire guards• Seedling vigour excellent• Very aggressive, long-lived • Not recommended for broad mixture species• Salt tolerance moderate• Drought tolerance excellent• Excellent early spring forage• Mid-, late season palatability low• Growth habit bunch• Seed size large (440 seeds/g)• Nordan and Summit de-registered varieties

Wheatgrass, Intermediate

Scientific Name Thinopyrum intermedium (Host) syn. Agropyron intermedium (Host) Beauvois)

Variety Recommended

Clarke! BrettYoung Seeds, AgProChief ! Newfield SeedsGreenleaf ! pubescent wheatgrass, Canadian public variety, Agricore, others


• Native to Central Asia• Released by Agriculture Canada

Swift Current, Saskatchewan

Species

Characteristics

• Used for weed control as choker species• Good drought tolerance• Excellent seedling vigour• Salt tolerance moderate• Growth habit creeping, tall• Palatability drops late season• Forage production excellent 1-3 years• Seed size large (220 seeds/g)• Greenleaf pubescent wheatgrass

(194 seeds/g)



Wheatgrass, Northern (or Thickspike, also Streambank)

Scientific NameElymus lanceolatus (Scribn. & Smith) Gouldsyn. Agropyron dasystachyum (Hook.) Scribnersyn. Agropyron riparium

Variety RecommendedElbee! BrettYoung SeedsCritana! US public variety, importedSodar ! Streambank wheatgrass (Import, US public)


• Native to North America• Elbee synthetic variety of 8 ecotypes collected in S Alberta & SW

Saskatchewan, released by Agriculture Canada, Lethbridge • Critana US public variety, collected near Havre, Montana, released 1972• Sodar collected near Canyon City, Oregon, rainfall 300 mm/annum

Species

Characteristics

• Drought tolerance excellent• Most common wheatgrass in Mixed Prairie• Good fall & winter forage • Salt tolerance good• Adapted to medium and heavy textured soils as well as sandy textured

soils.• Growth habit creeping• Palatability low• Forage quality good• Sodar has low biomass, low growing• Seed size large (340 seeds/g)

Wheatgrass, Western

Scientific Name Pascopyrum smithii (Rydb.) Love syn. Agropyron smithii Rydberg

Variety RecommendedWalsh! BrettYoung SeedsRosana! US public variety, importedRodan! US public variety, imported


• Native to North America• Source: collection of 468 plants from S Alberta and SW Saskatchewan• Breeding: synthetic variety of 20 clones• Released by Agriculture Canada, Lethbridge

Species

Characteristics

• Good seedling vigour• Poor on cold soils• Long (120+ days) growing season• Salt tolerant• Heavy clay, clay-loam soils• Moderate forage production• Tolerant to seasonal flooding• Winter hardy• Very drought tolerant• Growth habit creeping• Seed size large (242 seeds/g)



Alfalfa, CreepingScientific Name Medicago sativa

Variety Recommended

Heinrichs! UGGInoculum ! Strains NRG-43, NRG-185Roamer ! AgProRambler! Agri Core UnitedRangelander! Hannas SeedsSpredor 2 ! UGGAC Grazeland! new low-bloat risk variety, AgPro


• Native to Asia, introduced 1500ʼs• Heinrichs released by Swift Current, Saskatchewan• Grazeland has reduced potential to cause bloat in cattle

Species

Characteristics

• Growth habit creeping• Deep root system, 3-4 m• Excellent forage • Tolerant to low fertility• Drought tolerant• Causes bloat in cattle• Seed size small (440 seeds/g)

Cicer Milkvetch

Scientific Name Astragalus cicer

Variety RecommendedAC Oxley II! BrettYoung Seeds, Newfield SeedsOxley! BrettYoung SeedsLutana! US public variety


• Native to Europe• Oxley varieties from 30 year stand near Stavely, Alberta

released by Canada Agriculture, Lethbridge

Species

Characteristics

• Non-bloat legume• Growth habit creeping, not aggressive• Adapted to high water tables• Salt and acidity tolerance moderate• Alkalinity tolerance good• Erratic and slow seedling establishment• Adapted to Dark Brown & Black Soil Zone• and moist areas of Brown Soil Zone• Winter hardy, drought resistant • Seed size large (286 seeds/g)



Taxonomic Name Changes

The phylogenetic relationship, and by extension the nomenclature of plants and animals is under constant

scientific investigation and review. Taxonomic changes have been made to a number of common prairie

grass species described in "Alberta Flora of Alberta" (Moss 1983), the classic taxonomic reference for

identifying vegetation in Alberta. The name changes may affect the scientific names of plant products

tested by seed laboratories, which are in currently in the process of adopting the GRIN system of

nomenclature. The name changes and a brief explanation of the taxonomic systems is below.

Species Listed By GRIN Scientific Name, And Synonymous Scientific NameGenus and Species GRIN Nomenclature* Genus and Species Synonyms**Elymus lanceolatus (Scribn. & Smith) Gould Agropyron dasystachyum (Hook.) Scribn.Elymus trachycaulus subsecundus (Link) Gould Agropyron trachycaulum var. unilateraleElymus trachycaulus trachycaulus (Link) Gould Agropyron trachycaulum var. trachycaulumFestuca brevipila Tracey Festuca trachyphylla (Aiken) = ovina (Moss)Festuca saximontana Rydb. Festuca ovina saximontana Rydb.Koeleria macrantha (Lebed.) J.A. Schultes f. Koeleria cristataAchnatherum hymenoides (Roem.&Schult.) Barkworth

Oryzopsis hymenoides

Pascopyrum smithii (Rydb.) A. Love Agropyron smithii Rydb.Poa secunda J.Presl Poa juncifolia and Poa canbyiHesperostipa comata (Trin.&Rupr.) Barkworth Stipa comataNassella viridula (Trin.) Barkworth Stipa viridula

* Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN, www.ars-grin.gov), a branch of the United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service. The Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies (AOSCA 2000), an international organization comprised of agencies in Canada, United States, and several other countries that regularly trade seed products has adopted the GRIN nomenclature system for identifying plant materials. AOSCA regulates the seed testing laboratories that issue certificates of seed analysis used by the seed trade as required by federal law and international agreement (CFIA, 1999). GRIN differs somewhat from other major taxonomic authorities such as the Integrated Taxonomic Information System (http://res.agr.ca/itis/) and USDA PLANTS (http://plants.usda.gov/) but these databases list every applicable synonym including those used by GRIN.

**Synonymous names from Moss, E.H. 1983. Flora of Alberta. Second Edition. Revised by J.G. Packer University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ontario. 687 p. AND Aiken, S.G., Dallwitz, M.J., McJannet, C.L. and Consaul, L.L. 1996 onwards. Festuca of North America: Descriptions, Illustrations, Identification, and Information Retrieval Version 12th September 2000. Accessed January 2002. http://biodiversity.uno.edu/delta/



Selected Suppliers of Commercial Quantities

Proven SeedAgricore United Lethbridge: Forage Seed Outlet 403 330-7697Brooks: Gold Medal Seeds 403 362 3444 Ducks Unlimited Ecovars, www.provenseed.com

Prairie Seeds Inc. > now BrettYoung Seeds Ltd.RR4 Hwy60/Hwy39CALMAR AB T0C 0V0780 955-7906, 800 359 5503www.BrettYoung.ca

Rangeland SeedsWarden BuddBOX 928VULCAN AB ! T0L 2B0403 485-6448 Fax 485-6448

Pickseed Canada Inc.BOX 3230 21 Streambank Ave T8H 1N1SHERWOOD PARK AB T8H 2T2780 464-0350, 800 265 3925 www.pickseedwest.com

Kenneth C. Long Seeds Ltd.Lynn SchultzBox 100SPRING COULEE AB T0K 2C0403 653-4114

Miller SeedsKen MillerBox 87MILK RIVER AB403 647 2127

Ted HarmsSS#4 Brooks ABCustom grower Blue Grama Grass

Hannas SeedsLACOMBE AB T0C 1S0(403) 782-6671 Fax 782-6503

Eastern Slopes Rangeland SeedsClare TannasBOX 273CREMONA AB T0M 0R0403 637-2473

Ingledew, Dave & ScottSouth Edmonton780 955-2728

Canadian Seed Industry www.germination.ca

Alberta Branch Canadian Seed Growers Associationwww.seed.ab.ca



Specifications for Sod Transplants

• High quality sod for transplanting has minimum 50% vascular plant cover• Hand cut sod blocks; maintain square corners; flat bottom• Maintain consistent depth of sod: 10-15 cm• Lift sod block with flat shovels or machine bucket• Do not bend or roll sod blocks; minimize amount of handling• Store on FLAT ground or conveyance apparatus (pallet, wood sheeting)• Pile sod blocks soil side next to soil; vegetation side next to vegetation! OR separate sod blocks upright with layers of filter fabric

• Cover sod pile with filter fabric; excess wraps double over top• Use non-woven geotextile filter fabric, light in color• Stack sod maximum of 5 layers high• Gather loose soil and root material; retain with sod• Store sod maximum 3 days active growth season; longer if dormant• Keep stockpiles moist in dry weather. Wet sod may compost• Replacement: lay blocks, very tight seams, create a small hump• Place salvaged topsoil in interstitial spaces, make a perfect fit

© David Walker & Associates


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University of Alberta Extension! Applied Vegetative Reclamation

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© David Walker Associates Ltd Seed Mix Design

Typical Seeding Ratesplts/m2 seeds/g PLS est PLS/m2 kg/ha kg/ha

drill brdcstLegumesalfalfa 20 440 80% 15% 133 3.8 7.6alfalfa coated seed 20 330 80% 15% 133 5.1 10.1bird's-foot trefoil 20 825 80% 10% 200 3.0 6.1cicer milkvetch 20 286 80% 10% 200 8.7 17.5clover, alsike 20 1,543 80% 5% 400 3.2 6.5clover, alsike coated seed 20 1,157 80% 5% 400 4.3 8.6clover, white 20 1,764 80% 5% 400 2.8 5.7clover, white coated seed 20 1,323 80% 5% 400 3.8 7.6sainfoin 20 66 80% 15% 133 25.3 50.5

Drought Tolerant Grassesfescue hard or sheep 20 1245 80% 15% 133 1.3 2.7bluegrass Canada 20 5,555 80% 2% 1,000 2.3 4.5Indian ricegrass 20 518 80% 15% 133 3.2 6.4needlegrass, green 20 398 80% 15% 133 4.2 8.4wheatgrass, slender 20 353 80% 25% 80 2.8 5.7wheatgrass, northern 20 345 80% 25% 80 2.9 5.8wheatgrass, streambank 20 344 80% 25% 80 2.9 5.8wheatgrass, western 20 242 80% 25% 80 4.1 8.3

Low Competitive Grasses (low-stature) bluegrass, alpine 20 3,300 80% 1% 2,000 7.6 15.2bluegrass, Canada 20 5,555 80% 2% 1,000 2.3 4.5bluegrass, alkali (big) 20 2,022 80% 5% 400 2.5 4.9fescue, sheep 20 1,498 80% 10% 200 1.7 3.3June grass 20 3,300 80% 1% 2,000 7.6 15.2timothy, turf 20 2,712 80% 5% 400 1.8 3.7wheatgrass, streambank 20 344 80% 25% 80 2.9 5.8

Agronomic Grasses (rates for 2 grasses or grass-legume mix)bromegrass, smooth 50 298 80% 30% 167 7.0 14.0fescue, tall 50 500 80% 15% 333 8.3 16.7orchard grass 50 1,439 80% 15% 333 2.9 5.8timothy 50 2,712 80% 15% 333 1.5 3.1wheatgrass, crested fairwa 50 485 80% 50% 100 2.6 5.2wheatgrass, intermediate 50 193 80% 50% 100 6.5 13.0wheatgrass, pubescent 50 193 80% 50% 100 6.5 13.0wheatgrass, tall 50 174 80% 40% 125 9.0 18.0wild ryegrass, Altai 50 121 80% 40% 125 12.9 25.8wild ryegrass, Dahurian 50 300 80% 40% 125 5.2 10.4wild ryegrass, Russian 50 520 80% 20% 250 6.0 12.0

Turf Grasses (rates for 1-2 grass species mix, high maintenance conditions)bluegrass, Kentucky 1600 4,850 80% 5% 32,000 82.5 164.9fescue, creeping red 400 1,355 80% 15% 2,667 24.6 49.2ryegrass, perennial 100 500 80% 50% 200 5.0 10.0


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