Catena 104 (2013) 251–256

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Soil genesis and classification

Alfred E. Hartemink ⁎, J.G. BockheimUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Soil Science, FD Hole Soils Lab, 1525 Observatory Drive, Madison, WI 53706 USA

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 608 263 4947.E-mail address: hartemink@wisc.edu (A.E. Hartemin

0341-8162/$ – see front matter. Published by Elsevier Bhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2012.12.001

a b s t r a c t

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 19 June 2012Received in revised form 16 October 2012Accepted 4 December 2012

Keywords:PedologySoil genesisSoil historySoil taxonomySoil science in the USA

The formation and classification of soils have been a key area of research in the soil science discipline. Majorbreakthroughs have been brought about since the mid 1800s and it has evolved from conceptual frameworks,to descriptive studies tomore quantitative approaches. Some 50 years ago the American soil scientists Stan Buoland Francis Hole hatched idea for the book Soil Genesis and Classification. Now six editions of the book have beenpublished and it has become a standard text book in teaching soil science and pedology in the USA. Over 50,000copies have been sold and this paper reviews how the book evolved over time, and relates the text to trends anddevelopments in soil formation and soil classification.

Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction

The formation and classification of soils have been a key area of re-search since the soil science discipline emerged in the 19th century.Most things beneath the feet of scientists in that time were largelyunknown and there were wild speculations on the origin of manysoil features. For example, there were theories that stones developedin soils by chemical precipitation and that peat was formed by algae.Initial soil studies in the 19th century focused on geology and parentmaterial on one hand, and agricultural chemistry on the other hand.The chemical school of thought had several followers (Baxter, 1832;Lawes et al., 1883; Ruffin, 1832) but was led by J. von Liebig whowas one of the most influential scientists of his time (Blume, 2002;Brock, 1997). An early example that viewed soils from a geologicalpoint of view was by J. Morton (1843). Morton discusses alluvialand diluvial soils— a distinctionmade between fine sediments depos-ited by water (alluvium), and coarse sediments deposited by floods(diluvium). That geological distinction had a religious origin, and forMorton soils and geology were one. Also Fallou (1862) distinguishedbetween soils formed in-situ and “washed-in” or alluvial soils and ashe was trained as a mineralogist he attributed variations in soils pri-marily to differences in soil forming rocks. Senft (1857) and Fallou(1862) prepared the way for V.V. Dokuchaev (Blume, 2002) whobrought the study of soils out of the chaos and confusion of the geo-logic, chemical, and agronomic points of view and established it as in-dependent science (Marbut, 1936).

Whereas soil science in the beginning was driven by the idea thatgeology and parent material are the main forming factors, the Russianschool emphasized the effects of climate and introduced the zonal

k).

.V.

theory of soil distribution. Sibirtsev (1900) considered climate asthe key soil forming factor although he also paid attention to soil ecol-ogy. Glinka (1914) defined the fundamental law of pedology as thelaw of the adaptability of soil types of the globe to definite natural(primarily climatic) conditions. In the USA it took a while before theRussian ideas on soil genesis were digested (Helms et al., 2002) andthe zonal theory had supporters (Joffe, 1936) as well as critics(Marbut, 1936).

Hand in hand with the theories on soil formation developed thesubdiscipline of soil classification. Initially that was largely based for taxpurposes (e.g. Fallou, 1862) and was more a form of dissection than tax-onomic classification (Krasilnikov et al., 2009). Most classifications arebased on the ideas of discreteness of entities, and in soil science therehas been fairly rapid developments in classification following increasedunderstanding of properties and processes. In the past 100 years thefocus and backbone of soil classificationwent fromproperties to process-es and back to properties (Bockheim and Gennadiyev, 2000). Currently,both Soil Taxonomy and World Reference Base for Soil resources relylargely for their diagnostics on soil properties.

As the body of knowledge on soil formation and soil classificationevolved so did the textbooks that aimed to summarize and synthesizethe newly acquired information and insights. Early examples are forexample Hilgard (1906), Merrill (1906) and Joffe (1936), and thesewere widely used in the USA prior to Hans Jenny's book (Jenny,1941). There were other less pedology and more edaphology textbooks used in the USA like, for example, Lyon and Buckman (1948)and Weir (1949). In Europe and Russia text books that had a strongfocus on soil formation were by Robinson (1932) in the UK, byDuchaufour (1977) in France , by Ramann (1911) in Germany, byvan Baren (1920) in the Netherlands by Rode (1962) and Vilenskii(1963) in Russia and earlier works by Glinka (1914), and Sibirtsev(1900) — just to name a few.

Plate 1. The founding authors of Soil Genesis and Classification, L to R: Stan Buol, Francis Hole, and Ralph McCracken.

252 A.E. Hartemink, J.G. Bockheim / Catena 104 (2013) 251–256

In 1973 the text Soil Genesis and Classificationwas published (Buolet al., 1973) with the intention to summarize the body of knowledgecalled pedology, to encourage students to learn directly from the soilin its natural setting, and to “serve as stepping stones across theseeming morass of terminology and information.” Recently, thesixth edition of this standard text was published. Here we reviewhow that book has changed and how that changes reflect develop-ments in the subdiscipline of soil formation and soil classification.The book is widely used and represents the synthesis of a substantialperiod of almost 40 years. This sort of analysis has been done forother soil science books like Russell's Soil Condition and Plant Growth(Greenland, 1997), general soil science books (McDonald, 1994a) andthe seven soil encyclopedia and reference books that have been pub-lished in the past between 2000 and 2012 (Hartemink, 2012).Although there are several other excellent soil science text books(e.g. Fanning and Fanning, 1989; Singer and Munns, 1987; Wildinget al., 1983) none of these textbooks have 6 editions that cover almost40 years and could be used to investigate trends in the subdisciplineof soil formation and classification. The aim of this paper is to contrib-ute to the limited number of historical and interpretative studies ofthe soil science discipline.

2. The beginning

The ideas and start of the text book Soil Genesis and Classificationwere summarized by Stan Buol of NC State University in the USA(2010). It began one summer afternoon in 1963 or 1964 when Stan

Table 1Summary of six editions of Soil Genesis and Classification.

1st edition 2nd edition 3rd edit

Year 1973 1980 1989Authors S.W. Buol S.W. Buol S.W. Buo

F.D. Hole F.D. Hole F.D. HolR.J. McCracken R.J. McCracken R.J. McC

No. of pages 360 406 446No. of chapters 26 26 24

Buol met again with his major professor Francis Hole in Madison,USA. Both used Hans Jenny's book (1941) but several new develop-ments urged for a new textbook. These included the ideas laid outin “Outline of a Generalized Theory of Soil Genesis” (Simonson,1959), several papers translated from Russian relating in the severalfields of soil science, the adoption of the 7th Approximation (SoilSurvey Staff, 1960), and the fact that soil survey had greatly increasedthe interpretation for land use and productivity studies, especially fornonfarm land use problems. An emphasis was put on classifying soilson the basis of soil properties that could be measured within the soilbody. Existing concepts of soil genesis and classification related to ex-ternal factors of soil formation were replaced by discussions of specif-ic soil properties, such as mollic epipedons, argillic horizons, or aquicconditions. Terms related to climatic conditions such as warm, cold,arid, and humid conditions were replaced by more quantitativeterms of soil temperature and moisture regimes. According to Buol(2010), it was becoming apparent that the system of soil classificationpresented in the 7th Approximation was to become the official soilclassification system in the United States and that there was a needto teach the system to soil science students. Both Hole and Buol la-mented that teaching the 7th Approximation was cumbersomewhen the complete text was used, and there was no available textthat presented the processes of soil formation. Buol, Hole andMcCracken got together in the summer of 1972 at the University ofWisconsin and prepared the first draft. Both Hole and McCrackencame from Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana, USA, whereasBuol was a graduate student of Hole (Brevik, 2010).

ion 4th edition 5th edition 6th edition

1997 2003 2011l S.W. Buol S.W. Buol S.W. Buol

e F.D. Hole R.J. Southard R.J. Southardracken R.J. McCraken R.C. Graham R.C. Graham

R.J. Southard P.A. McDaniel P.A. McDaniel528 494 54323 21 21

Table 2Chapters in six editions of Soil Genesis and Classification.

First edition Second edition Third edition Fourth edition Fifth edition Sixth edition

Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction

Morphology of Soils Morphology of Soils Morphology of Soils Morphology and Composition of Soils Morphology and Composition of Soils Morphology and Compositionof Soils

Soil Micromorphology Soil Micromorphology Soil Composition and Characterization Biogeochemical Processes inSoil Formation

Biogeochemical Processes inSoil Formation

Soil-forming Factors: Soil as aComponent of Ecosystems

Soil Composition and Characterization Soil Composition and Characterization Weathering and Soil Formation Soil as a Component of the Ecosystem Soil as a Component of theEcosystem

Soil Materials and Weathering

Weathering and Soil Formation Weathering and Soil Formation Pedogenic Processes: Internal,Soil-Building Processes

Time as a Factor of Soil Formation Space and Time in Soil Formation Soil-forming Processes

Pedogenic Processes: Internal,Soil-Building Processes

Pedogenic Processes: Internal,Soil-Building Processes

Soil as a Component of the Ecosystem Modern Soil Classification Systems Modern Soil Classification Systems Modern Soil Classification Systems

Soil Environment: External Factorsof Soil Formation

Soil Environment: External Factors ofSoil Formation

Site Factors: State Factors, InitialMaterial, and Relief

U.S. Soil Taxonomy U.S. Soil Taxonomy U.S. Soil Taxonomy

Parent Material: Initial Material of theSolum

Parent Material: Initial Material of theSolum

Flux Factors: State Factors, Climate,and Organisms

Alfisols: High Base Status Soils withArgillic Horizons

Alfisols: High Base Status ForestSoils with Finer-Textured SubsoilHorizons

Alfisols: High Base Status ForestSoils with Finer-textured SubsoilHorizons

Relief and Landscape Factors of the Soiland its Environment

Relief and Landscape Factors of the Soiland its Environment

Time as a Factor of Soil Formation Andisols: Soils with Andic SoilProperties

Andisols: Soils with Andic SoilProperties

Andisols: Soils with Andic SoilProperties

Contributions of Climate to the TotalSoil Environment

Contributions of Climate to the Total SoilEnvironment

Soil Systems Aridisols: Soils of Dry Regions Aridisols: Soils of Dry Regions Aridisols: Soils of Dry Regions

Organisms: Biological Portion of the Soiland its Environment

Organisms: Biological Portion of the Soiland its Environment

Modern Soil Classification Systems Entisols: Recently Formed Soils Entisols: Recently Formed Soils Entisols: Recently Formed Soils

Time as a Factor of Soil Formation Time as a Factor of Soil Formation Histosols: Organic Soils Gelisols: Very Cold Soils Gelisols: Very Cold Soils Gelisols: Very Cold Soils

Principles and Historical Developmentof Soil Classification

Principles and Historical Developmentof Soil Classification

Spodosols: Soils with SubsoilAccumulations of Humus andSesquioxides

Histosols: Organic Soils Histosols: Organic Soils Histosols: Organic Soils

Modern Soil Classfication Systems Modern Soil Classfication Systems Oxisols: Sesquioxide-Rich, HighlyWeathered Soils of the IntertropicalRegions

Inceptisols: Embryonic Soils withFew Diagnostic Features

Inceptisols: Embryonic Soilswith Few Diagnostic Features

Inceptisols: Embryonic Soils withFew Diagnostic Features

Entisols: Recently Formed Soils Entisols: Recently Formed Soils Vertisols: Shrinking and SwellingDark Clay Soils

Mollisols: Grassland Soils of Steppesand Prairies

Mollisols: Grassland Soils ofSteppes and Prairies

Mollisols: Grassland Soils ofSteppes and Prairies

Vertisols: Shrinking and Swelling DarkClay Soils

Vertisols: Shrinking and Swelling DarkClay Soils

Aridisols: Soils of Dry Regions Oxisols: Low-Activity Soils Oxisols: Low-Activity Soils Oxisols: Low-Activity Soils

Inceptisols: Embryonic Soils withFew Diagnostic Features

Inceptisols: Embryonic Soils with FewDiagnostic Features

Ultisols: Low Base Status Forest Soils Spodosols: Soils with SubsoilAccumulations of Humus andSesquioxides

Spodosols: Soils with SubsoilAccumulations of Humus andSesquioxides

Spodosols: Soils with SubsoilAccumulations of Humus andSesquioxides

Aridisols: Soils of Arid Regions Aridisols: Soils of Arid Regions Mollisols: Grassland Soils of Steppesand Prairies

Ultisols: Low Base Status Soils Ultisols: Low Base Status ForestSoils with Finer-Textured SubsoilHorizons

Ultisols: Low Base Status ForestSoils with Finer-Textured SubsoilHorizons

Mollisols: Grassland Soils of Steppesand Prairies

Mollisols: Grassland Soils of Steppes andPrairies

Alfisols: High Base Status ForestSoils with Argillic Horizons

Vertisols: Shrinking and SwellingDark Clay Soils

Vertisols: Shrinking and SwellingDark Clay Soils

Vertisols: Shrinking and SwellingDark Clay Soils

Spodosols: Soils with SubsoilAccumulations of Sesquioxide andHumus

Spodosols: Soils with Subsoil Accumulationsof Sesquioxide and Humus

Andisols Soil Families and Soil Series Spatial Arrangement of Soils:Soilscapes and Map Units

Spatial Arrangement of Soils:Soilscapes and Map Units

Alfisols: High Base Status Forest Soils Alfisols: High Base Status Forest Soils Inceptisols: Embryonic Soils withFew Diagnostic Features

Nature of Soil Cover: Polypedons,Soilscapes, and Mapping Units

Interpretations of Soil Surveysand Technical Soil Classification

Interpretations of Soil Surveysand Technical Soil Classification

Ultisols: Low Base Status Forest Soils Ultisols: Low Base Status Forest Soils Entisols: Recently Formed Soils Interpretations of Soil Surveys: SoilClassifications and Soil Maps

Bibliography Bibliography

(continued on next page)

253A.E.H

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254 A.E. Hartemink, J.G. Bockheim / Catena 104 (2013) 251–256

3. Trends in soil genesis and classification

The book Soil Genesis and Classification has run through six edi-tions. The first three were authored by the founding authors(Plate 1) and the last three editions have been authored by fourauthors — all from the USA. The first edition was reprinted seventimes and translated into Russian, Japanese, and Spanish.

The book increased in size from 360 to 543 pages between 1973and 2011 whereas the number of chapters slightly decreased(Table 1). The second edition underwent four printings and a transla-tion into Chinese (Buol, 2010). After three printings of the third edi-tion the fourth edition was published in 1997. At that time bothFrancis Hole and Ralph McCracken were retired and Randall Southardwas recruited. For the fifth edition Robert Graham and Paul McDanieljoined as authors.

In the first three editions the five soil forming factors each had aseparate chapter but from the fourth edition these chapters weremerged (Table 2). In the first two editions there were chapters enti-tled "Contributions of climate to the total soil environment", whereassome years later the first books appeared on the soil contributions tothe climate (Bouwman, 1990; Scharpenseel et al., 1990). Soil micro-morphology was treated separately in the first two editions andthen merged with the morphology chapter. Except from adding twoextra soil orders and some relabeling, the book chapters and itsmain focus changed little over time.

Fig. 1 shows how the number of pages per topic changed over thesix editions. Although the size of the book changed a bit over theyears so these figures the graph shows that the number of pages de-voted to the Soil Taxonomy soil orders almost doubled between 1973and 2011. This obviously reflects the additions of the two extra orders(Andisols, Gelisols) and an increased amount of new information onall soil orders. As the number of pages also increased (Table 1) the rel-ative portion that deals with the soil orders only increased from 25%to 30%. The number of pages dealing with soil formation droppedover time and so did the section on soil survey interpretations.About 40 to 50 pages dealt with soil classification in each edition ofwhich about half was devoted to the US Soil Taxonomy. The last edi-tion has 94 pages bibliography (17% of the book) and 13-page index.

Some reference statistics was performed for the first and sixth edi-tions. The first edition had 772 references and the sixth edition in-cluded 1581 references. About 80% of the references in the firstedition were from the previous two decades (e.g. 1950s and 1960s)whereas only 27% of the references in the sixth edition were fromthe 1990s and 2000s (Fig. 2). The sixth edition kept about 35% ofthe references listed in the first edition and appears to have a refer-ence distribution pattern with peak references from the 1960s andfrom the 1980s. The number of references to Soil Science Society ofAmerica Proceedings/Journals was 140 (19% of all references) in1973 and 272 (17% of all references) in 2011.

4. Discussion

The literature of soil science is rich and diverse. It consists of half amillion articles published in peer reviewed journals, and thousands ofbooks, monographs, and reports (Hartemink, 2012). Initially, most ofthe exchange of findings took place through letters followed by booksand reports. In the beginning of the twentieth century the journalsthat solely devoted to soil research were started (Hartemink, 2009).Various books in the nineteenth century focused on the origin andformation of soils. With increasing knowledge and over time soil sci-ence books were published that digested and synthesized largeamounts of information. These books served as reference works butalso had an important role in teaching and education.

Here we have analyzed how the text book Soil Genesis and Classi-fication evolved over time. Although the amount of statistics is limitedfrom these types of analyses, the book covers almost 40 years and

Fig. 1. Changes in subject treatment in six editions of Soil Genesis and Classification (1973–2011).

255A.E. Hartemink, J.G. Bockheim / Catena 104 (2013) 251–256

reveals some of the trends and developments in soil science.According to Stan Buol (pers. communic., May 2012) about 50,000copies of the books have been sold. Thus, several generations of most-ly American soil science students have been educated and brought upwith this book although Nature and Properties of Soils (in its 14th edi-tion now) is probably more widely taught and more generic. Soil Gen-esis and Classification has mostly been favorably reviewed by the soilscience community (e.g. Gillot, 1981; Rice, 2003). In the mid 1990s,Soil Genesis and Classification was listed among the 930 titles consid-ered core monographs in soil science that were published betweenthe mid 1950s and 1990s. It was ranked First by soil scientists fromdeveloped countries and Second by soil scientists from the thirdworld (McDonald, 1994b). First means here that it was highly citedin the literature and was considered by reviewers of great impor-tance; Second rank means that it generally received fewer citationsbut which many reviewers still thought important.

The major developments in our thinking on soil formation are wellsummarized in these books. The factors of soil formation have re-ceived less attention with time and also emerging subjects like

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450No. of references

First edition

Sixth edition

Fig. 2. References per decade in the first edition (1973) and sixth edition (2011) of SoilGenesis and Classification.

pedometrics, digital soil mapping, hydropedology or ethnopedology(to name a few) have notmade it in these books despite being thrivingsubdisciplines of pedology. Also quantitative aspects of pedogenesis(Stockmann et al., 2011) have not gained much attention whereassuch aspects will continue to push the knowledge barriers.

One of the key challenges in teaching pedology is the richness ofits language. Soil science has always been rich in semantics (Wilde,1953) (one needs to read Brewer or Soil Taxonomy 11th edition(Soil Survey Staff, 2010) to see this confirmed). It seems that the ad-dition of new words is proportional to the activity in a scientific dis-cipline. Very few new words have been added in the 6 editionsbetween 1973 and 2011; in fact some words and metaphors likesyntographs and pedotechnology have been lost. And who speaksBrewerese nowadays?

In a sense it appears that the 1973 book was much more an actualsynthesis of the soil genesis and classification literature than the lastedition from 2011. In part that is due that 40 years have lapsed andsoil science and pedology have suffered in the last two decades(Basher, 1997), particularly in the USA (Baveye et al., 2006). Inmany departments around the world the pure study of soils in thefield has diminished considerably over time (Ruellan, 1997). Thebooks have become slightly more international and various nationalsoil classification systems are discussed but the emphasis is on SoilTaxonomy and most examples are from the USA. More emphasishas been put on the soil orders perhaps as new developments andgrand ideas on soil genesis are limited in the past decades. Soil Taxon-omy, now in its 11th edition has become useful for framing researchon soil formation. However, the days of the Soil Taxonomy interna-tional commissions are over and apart from some efforts to establisha soil order strongly influenced by humans (e.g. the Anthrosols andTechnosols inWRB) the amount of work on expanding Soil Taxonomyis quite limited compared to the 1970s or 1980s. The IUSS' work onUniversal Soil Classification (since 2010) is to ascertain that the disci-pline remains thinking and active in developing classification systemsthat reflect our current abilities to collect and analyze soil datacoupled to sound understanding of soils in the field.

In 1973 Buol et al. (1973) wrote that it was exciting times to be inpedology because of the information explosion. That is as applicabletoday as it was then and there are many new projects, research alliesand developments in soil science (Hartemink and McBratney, 2008).We have several new ways to collect data through remote and prox-imal soil sensing (Viscarra Rossel et al., 2011) but the need to make

256 A.E. Hartemink, J.G. Bockheim / Catena 104 (2013) 251–256

interpretations and distil some solid soil knowledge out of that newinformation is highly essential. The new data can greatly help us inbetter understanding how soils are formed, how they differ acrossthe landscape and how they can be classified. With time the urgefor new standard text books on these subdisciplines becomesimperative.

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