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Soil Erosion Processes

Soil Erosion in Europe Edited by J. Boardman and J. Poesen# 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-470-85910-5

2.2

Soil Erosion in Europe: Major Processes,Causes and Consequences

John Boardman1 and Jean Poesen2

1Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford, Dyson Perrins Building, South ParksRoad, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK

2Physical and Regional Geography Research Group, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,GEO-Institute, Celestijnenlaan 200 E, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium

2.2.1 INTRODUCTION

Soil erosion is the detachment, entrainment and transport (and deposition) of soil particles caused by one or

more natural or anthropogenic erosive forces (rain, runoff, wind, gravity, tillage, land levelling and crop

harvesting). Large spatial and temporal variations in soil erosion processes and rates are observed in the

European countries (see country chapters). The objective of this chapter is to explore the various soil erosion

processes at the European scale, to analyse the major causes and consequences and to pinpoint major research

needs.

Why is there a need for understanding soil erosion processes, their rates, extent and controlling factors at the

European scale? Throughout Europe there is a large diversity of landscapes and of land use which causes

significant variations in soil erosion processes and rates. Environmental management requires a thorough

understanding of erosion process combinations in a given European environment. In general, we have a fair

understanding of mechanisms of soil erosion and controlling factors. However, applying this knowledge to a

given local context seems to be difficult. Hence there is still a need for research targeted at soil erosion-related

topics such as processes, data on rates and factors, models, consequences including both on-site and off-farm

impacts, control and soil conservation measures and strategies.

Soil Erosion in Europe Edited by J. Boardman and J. Poesen# 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-470-85910-5

2.2.2 FUNCTIONS OF SOILS AND THE THREAT OF SOIL EROSION

Soil erosion may affect soil functions to various degrees. Functions of soils determining soil quality can be

summarised as follows: (a) food and fibre production function, (b) water filter function (c) ecological function

(soil is the habitat for many micro-organisms, it maintains a genetic diversity of micro-organisms, stores

nutrients and is the environment where roots grow), (d) bearing or foundation engineering function, (e) archive

function (soils store artefacts and are testimony to past cultural history, land use or climatic change) and (f)

heritage function (integrated into human culture; soils are important abiotic elements of landscapes which

need to be conserved for future generations).

Most importantly, soils are the medium in which crops are grown. Without soils in good health crop yields

will decline. Soil erosion leads to soil surface lowering and hence a reduction in soil thickness. If soil thickness

decline is not compensated by soil formation, soil erosion threatens sustainable crop production. There is a

close relationship between soil thickness and crop yield (Evans, 1981; Bakker et al., 2004). Loss of nutrients,

along with erosion, affects crop yields. In extreme cases, soil erosion may affect yields owing to loss of

seedlings and inability to harvest crops due to the presence of gullies.

The soil cover fulfils an important hydrological function. Under natural vegetative cover of woodland or

grassland, soils have high infiltration rates (e.g. >50 mm h�1) and high resistance to water erosion. Thus even

under extreme rainfall conditions runoff is unusual and, if it occurs, clean (lacking sediment). The impact on

flood events is therefore limited. All conservation and flood protection strategies recognise this relationship:

well-vegetated ground encourages infiltration and limits erosion. Many strategies attempt to reduce the total

amount of bare ground through the year or the length of slope that is bare at any given time.

Soil erosion has been recognised to have consequences both on- and off-site. If soil is lost or its quality is

decreased then it is likely that many of its functions will degrade. This may happen over the short term through

catastrophic loss, but it may also occur through long-term change, for example, reflected in a gradual change

of hydrological response and hence a change in flood frequency. Off-site impacts of soil erosion are now

recognised to be important in Europe particularly muddy flooding and damage to property (Chapter 2.19),

sedimentation of artificial reservoirs (Chapter 2.20), eutrophication (Chapter 2.21) and damage to fish stocks.

2.2.3 THE PHYSICAL AND SHIFTING HUMAN GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPEAS A BASIS TO UNDERSTANDING MAJOR SOIL EROSION PROCESSESAND CONTROLLING FACTORS

Europe has important climatic, topographic/geomorphic, geologic/pedologic, land use and political gradients

(see, e.g., Koster, 2005) affecting the type and rates of soil erosion processes, e.g. snowmelt erosion in

Scandinavian countries and badland development (caused by water erosion and mass movement) in the

Mediterranean. Northern, western and eastern Europe are characterised by the growing of cereals and root and

tuber crops (e.g. sugar beet, potatoes), which affect water erosion (Chapter 2.4 and 2.5), tillage erosion

(Chapter 2.9) and soil erosion during crop harvesting (Chapter 2.10).

Climate has a strong influence on soil erosion. Rain properties control the eroding capacity of the rain

(¼ rain erosivity) and hence rates of soil degradation processes such as surface sealing and crusting (Chapter

2.3), interrill and rill erosion (Chapter 2.4), gully erosion (Chapter 2.5), pipe and tunnel erosion (Chapter 2.6)

and landsliding (Chapter 2.8). Wind velocity determines wind erosivity (Chapter 2.7) whereas air temperature

controls the occurrence of frost, snowfall, snowmelt and soil moisture, the last of which affects the

susceptibility of soils to erosion (¼ soil erodibility; Chapter 2.15). It used to be thought that the ‘light

rains’ of north-western Europe meant that there was no water erosion risk (Hudson, 1967). In the last 30 years

it has become clear that the large quantity of rain, rather than the high intensity, falling on bare arable ground

480 Soil Erosion in Europe

can lead to soil crusting and/or saturation, runoff and erosion. However, intense summer thunderstorms may

also play their part (e.g. Chapter 2.14). In the Mediterranean basin, seasonality of rainfall (and therefore

vegetation growth; see Chapter 2.14) plus high-intensity storms have given rise to a long history of erosion and

flooding. The highest recorded rainfall depths in southern Europe are 2.5 times those observed in northern

Europe (Poesen and Hooke, 1997). Snowmelt in northern regions or in mountainous areas generates runoff

either intermittently through the winter or in the spring.

Topographic, geomorphic and soil characteristics strongly influence the types and location of soil erosion

processes in Europe. In the north, on young landscapes primarily composed of glacial and periglacial

sediments, particularly cover sands, wind erosion is largely related to strong winds and the presence of dry

sandy soils lacking the protection of vegetation. Snowmelt in combination with rain may lead to significant

soil erosion by water. Landsliding is a problem on uplifted marine quick clays (e.g. Norway). The loess belt of

western and central Europe is a major focus for erosion by water on cultivated land as loess-derived soils with

a soil organic matter content less than 2 % rank amongst the most susceptible soils for water erosion in the

world (Poesen, 1993). More recently, it has been demonstrated that tillage erosion and erosion due to root and

tuber harvesting are also important in this part of Europe. In southern Europe, young, tectonically active areas

with strong uplift have resulted in landscapes with a high potential energy. If silt clay deposits (marls) occur,

steep slopes are affected by intense mass wasting, water erosion and badland development (e.g. Poesen and

Hooke, 1997; Grove and Rackham, 2001; Chapter 2.5). Throughout Europe, coastal areas with sandy and silty

deposits (e.g. Bakker et al., 1990) may suffer from intense wind erosion. Hence strong geological and

pedological controls allied to intensive land use over long periods of time mean that the most erosion-sensitive

areas of Europe are the loess belt (with collapsible soils), the marl areas in southern Europe and also the

volcanic ash soils in Iceland (Chapter 1.5).

Soil erosion in Europe is, and has been, strongly influenced by land-use change and land policy. In northern

and western Europe, post-World War II intensification in agriculture has featured, through land consolidation

programmes, remodelling of landscapes in terms of parcel sizes and slope length. It has also led to the

abandonment or reduction of mixed farming (mix of cattle and arable farming) with specialisation in livestock

farming in some areas and arable farming in others. In the latter case, there has been significant extension of

monocultures (e.g. maize). Many of these changes were driven by the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP),

with the main aim of increasing Europe’s self-sufficiency in terms of food production, but this led to over-

production and environmental degradation (i.e. soil compaction, surface sealing, soil erosion, muddy flooding

and pollution; Bond, 1996). Most governments and agencies are now responding to the increased soil erosion

risk (Chapter 2.23). An attempt is being made to reverse this trend through agri-environmental measures

(Boardman et al., 2003; Chapter 2.24).

In eastern Europe, collectivisation since World War II led to remodelling of landscapes with mechanisation

and the creation of large fields; this had a major impact on erosion rates and pollution (e.g. Chapter 1.11).

Since 1990, the introduction of free market reforms, return to private ownership and economic decline in

agriculture (lack of investment, decline in fertiliser application, etc.) have introduced changes which pose new

challenges. Accession to the EU now poses a fresh series of challenges with regard to farming in an

environmentally sensitive manner (including limiting erosion) as farming incomes rise and intensification

takes place. There is a clear danger of repeating the mistakes of western Europe.

In many hilly areas of Mediterranean Europe, there has been a shift from traditional multiple cropping

systems (i.e. contour cultivation of mixed herbaceous and tree crops combined with stabilising underground

drainage, contour ditches and terracing on steep slopes, e.g. Coltura Promiscua in central Italy) on small

parcels towards monoculture in combination with mechanistaion and up- and downslope cultivation (e.g.

vines, almonds) on large parcels (e.g. Chisci, 1986). The loss of traditional landscapes with terraces (e.g.

Ambroise et al., 1989; Grove and Rackham, 2001) has come about mainly because of a decrease in rural

population, a decrease of persons working in agriculture and mechanisation and scale enlargement in

Major Processes, Causes and Consequences 481

agriculture. Abandonment and disrepair of terraces have in a number of cases led to gully erosion and

landsliding. In the Mediterranean, there has also been significant remodelling of badland areas through land

levelling (Poesen and Hooke, 1997; Chapter, 2.12) and the creation of terraced landscapes for the establish-

ment of vineyards or greenhouses which do not require soil, only water (‘permaculture’, ‘hydroculture’). EU

subsidy systems have encouraged monocultures of olives and almonds at the expense of traditional landscapes

(e.g. loss of cork oak forests and expansion of eucalyptus forest). Strong economic incentives to grow certain

crops (e.g. grapes) have led to the establishment of cropland on steep, less suitable slopes with a high soil

erosion risk (Boardman et al., 2003; Chapter 2.12). These changes have had implications for soil erosion and

loss of native habitat (e.g. of the lynx in Spain and Portugal).

2.2.4 IS SOIL EROSION A NEW PROBLEM IN EUROPE?

In historical times, soil erosion problems were mainly concentrated in Mediterranean Europe, particularly

during the Greek and Roman periods (Vita-Finzi, 1969; van Andel and Zangger, 1990; Bintliff, 1992). The

start of the erosion problem strongly relates to woodland clearance and subsequent farming activities. Lang

and Bork (2006) cite examples of significant soil erosion due to human impact starting in the Neolithic in the

Peloponnesus peninsula and in the Late Bronze Age in the Drama basin of Macedonia (Fuchs et al., 2004;

Lespez, 2003). Other examples of early human-induced erosion phases in the Mediterranean are reported by

Wainwright and Thornes (2004) and Poesen et al. (Chapter 2.5). In central and western Europe, the onset of

erosion came later and related to the beginnings of arable agriculture. Intense periods of soil erosion have been

documented in Germany in medieval times which relate to extreme climatic events. However, it is clear that

certain crop types, field and crop patterns and farming practices create landscapes that are sensitive to climatic

events, including those of an extreme character (Bork, 1989; Chapter 2.1).

Substantial loss of soil has occurred in the past and modern humans are in many areas cultivating the

remnants of a former thick soil cover. This is especially true in the Mediterranean, where much archaeological

evidence shows excessive soil loss and impact on Classical civilisations. In northern Europe too, formerly

thick loess covers have been substantially lost owing to Historic and Prehistoric farming practices (Favis-

Mortlock et al., 1997). Hence there is a long legacy of deterioration in soil quality and quantity dating from

before to the modern period of intensive farming.

2.2.5 OVERVIEW OF MAJOR SOIL EROSION PROCESSES, THEIR SPATIALEXTENT, MAJOR CONTROLLING FACTORS AND CONSEQUENCES

2.2.5.1 Soil Erosion by Water

Soil erosion by water (water erosion) comprises sheet or interrill, rill, gully and pipe erosion. Interrill erosion

is often preceded by physical soil degradation processes such as soil compaction, surface sealing and crusting

(Chapter 2.3 and 2.4). To progress from a noncrusted soil surface state to gullying may take months and

requires cumulative rainfall of >450 mm (Papy and Boiffin, 1989) or may occur as a result of a single storm

event (Boardman, 1988).

Severe soil erosion by water occurs typically on bare, temporarily unprotected arable land, overgrazed

rangelands and on badlands (e.g. De Ploey, 1989).

Cerdan et al. (Chapter 2.4) review sheet and rill erosion rates across Europe as measured on experimental

runoff plots under different land uses. This allows for a reasonably standardised comparison of rates under

different land use conditions. The largest mean sheet and rill erosion rates in Europe have been recorded on


bare soil (23 t ha�1 yr�1), vineyards (20 t ha�1 yr�1) and maize (14 t ha�1 yr�1) whereas shrubland, grassland,

orchards and forest typically have values well below 1 t ha�1 yr�1. Clearly, erosion rates on runoff plots are not

the same as on field parcels with variable lengths and topographies and therefore plot rates may underestimate

field rates by large amounts (Evans, 1995).

Poesen et al. (Chapter 2.5) conclude that for various reasons, gully erosion has been much less studied in

Europe. Compared with sheet and rill erosion rates, however, the limited available data indicate that gully

erosion rates are far from negligible and may even exceed 200 t ha�1 yr�1 in active badland areas of the

Mediterranean. The contribution of ephemeral gullies in cropland or permanent gullies in rangeland to total

soil loss by surface water erosion may range between 10 and 80 %, depending on the environmental

conditions. Compared with sheet and rill erosion, off-site effects of gully erosion may be more important

since the development of gully channels in the uplands dramatically increases the connectivity for sediment in

the landscape resulting in significant reservoir siltation (Chapter 2.20) and muddy floods (Chapter 2.19).

Faulkner (Chapter 2.6) emphasises the importance of subsurface (pipe and tunnel) erosion processes by

water in three distinct European environments: on Histosols and Gleysols in upland, humid northern Europe;

in the loess belt; and in the semi-arid Mediterranean basin. In northern Europe, piping is encouraged by

discontinuities in the soil profile especially peat overlying mineral soil. In loess, pipes seem to develop along

failure planes which focus throughflow into gully heads. Under semi-arid conditions, subsurface flow is related

to dispersive, clay-rich soils and sediments which initiate pipe formation and collapse, resulting in gullying

and badlands. Despite the importance of pipe erosion in these environments, few or no published data on soil

loss rates are available. In some cases, soil losses by pipe erosion may equal or even exceed soil losses by

water erosion (e.g. badlands in central Italy; Torri D, personal communication).

In many parts of Europe, rates of soil erosion by water have been on the increase since the middle of the

20th century. The reasons for this vary throughout Europe, but several factors are relevant:

� Efficient weed control in cropland, hence less soil cover and thus more water erosion. Weed control in winter

also led to the introduction of winter cereals in the UK in the 1970s, increasing the risk of soil erosion.

� Increase in crop monocultures (e.g. maize, vineyards), leaving the soil unprotected during part of the year.

� Implementation of land consolidation programmes, leading to larger and longer parcels.

� Extensive removal of hedgerows and other types of field boundaries because they are impractical to

maintain, expensive and time and labour consuming. This removal has led to a decrease in landscape

roughness and buffer capacity to store runoff and sediment. At the same time, the sediment connectivity

within these landscapes has increased.

� Movement of arable farming on to steeper slopes as a result of greater vehicle power in the post- World War II

period, for instance, ploughing-up of grassland in the UK and ploughing of steep slopes for almond

production in Spain (introduction of caterpillar tractors; Poesen et al., 1997).

� Intensification of cropland production through the use of chemical fertilisers has led to a decline in organic

matter content in soils and loss of their structural stability. The introduction of power harrows has reduced

aggregate size of seedbeds (e.g. Speirs and Frost, 1985).

The consequence of these changes has been a significant increase in off-farm impacts, such as eutrophication,

phosphate pollution, sediment pollution, muddy floods and reservoir sedimentation. Overall, in the short term the

costs related to off-farm impacts seem to be more important than those related to on-farm impacts in Europe.

2.2.5.2 Soil Erosion by Wind

In northern Europe, wind erosion is severe on light, sandy soils (Pleistocene glacial outwash) and on volcanic

ash soils (Iceland). In the drier parts of southern Europe, wind erosion also occurs on more silt- or clay-rich


soils, but the problem here is less well researched, and probably less extensive or intense (Warren, 2003).

Inappropriate farming practices have increased the wind erosion problem, i.e. enlargement of parcels and

removal of hedges, drainage of soils and overgrazing (Chapter 2.7). In contrast to water erosion, very few data

on rates of soil erosion by wind in Europe are available.

2.2.5.3 Soil Erosion by Tillage

Although recognised by farmers for many decades (e.g. Weinblum and Stekelmacher, 1963), it is only during

the last decade that scientists have studied the intensity and controlling factors of tillage erosion in arable lands

of Europe. Reported mean soil erosion rates induced by present-day soil tillage techniques on sloping land in

Europe range between 3 and 93 t ha�1 yr�1 (Chapter 2.9) and are of the same order of magnitude as rates of

soil erosion by water. Overall, tillage erosion rates in Europe have increased over recent decades because of an

increase in tillage depth and speed (which increases rates of tillage translocation of the plough layer), but also

because of the expansion of arable land for crops requiring frequent tillage of the topsoil (e.g. almonds; Poesen

et al., 1997). Because rills and (ephemeral) gullies in cropland are filled in by soil tillage annually, tillage

erosion reinforces soil erosion by concentrated runoff (Poesen et al., 2003).

2.2.5.4 Soil Erosion by Land Levelling

Throughout Europe, land levelling has been applied in various regions and this has resulted in significant soil

profile truncation: 1 m soil surface lowering represents 15 000 t ha�1. In some cases, the soil surface has been

lowered by several metres within less than a year! Hence soil erosion by land levelling can be considered to be

the most intense soil erosion process. In addition, land levelling often induces other soil erosion processes such

as sheet, rill, gully and pipe erosion, in addition to shallow landsliding resulting in very high soil losses and in

significant off-site effects (Chapter 2.12). Despite its importance, soil erosion by land levelling has received

limited attention in Europe.

2.2.5.5 Soil Erosion Caused by Crop Harvesting (SLCH)

Over the last two decades, it has become clear that during harvesting of crops such as potato, sugar and fodder

beet, chicory and leek, significant amounts of soil (clods, rock fragments and soil adhering to the crop) can be

removed from the parcel where these crops are grown. This erosion process, termed SLCH (soil loss due to

crop harvesting), is significant in various parts of Europe. Mean SLCH data for Europe range between

2 t ha�1 yr�1 for potato and 17 t ha�1 yr�1 for sugar beet (Chapter 2.10). Soil moisture content at harvest time

largely controls the magnitude of SLCH in Europe (Ruysschaert et al., 2004).

Given its important off-site effects, farmers and the crop processing industry make efforts to reduce SLCH.

Nevertheless, this erosion process remains significant and can even be the dominant soil erosion process in flat

cropland areas.

2.2.5.6 Shallow Landsliding

Landsliding in general and shallow landsliding in particular occur most frequently on steep slopes (often under

rangeland and cropland) with a clay-rich substratum at shallow depth. Shallow landsliding is a soil degradation

process in hilly and mountaneous areas of Europe (De Ploey, 1989). Maquaire and Malet (Chapter 2.8) discuss

their triggering mechanisms. Although its on- and off-site effects are very significant, limited data on soil

losses caused by this process are available.


Most soil erosion problems occur on cultivated land, but also uncultivated land (rangeland, forest) can suffer

from significant soil erosion (Evans, 2006). Soil erosion in uncultivated land is often driven by grazing animals

(in some cases caused by subsidies increasing sheep numbers and hence stocking rates), by afforestation and

drainage, by fire and by the exposure of bare soil through human activities (e.g. increase in soil erosion rates in

recreational areas, caused by deforestation, and the establishment of ski resorts, as a result of an increase

in disposable income).

On the other hand, in some mountainous areas of Europe (e.g. France, Spain) there has been an increase in

forest cover because of depopulation, resulting in a reduction in soil erosion rates.

In conclusion, it should be stressed that several soil erosion processes often operate at the same site.

Common soil erosion process combinations in Europe are (1) water erosion (interrill and rill, gully and pipe

erosion), tillage erosion and SLCH; (2) wind erosion, water erosion (interrill and rill, gully erosion) and

SLCH; and (3) soil erosion by land levelling, water erosion (interrill and rill, gully and pipe erosion), tillage

erosion and shallow landsliding. Pan-European soil erosion assessments (Chapter 2.13), available soil erosion

datasets (Baade and Rekolainen 2006), soil erosion models (Chapter 2.16) and assessments of the impact of

environmental changes on soil erosion across Europe (Chapter 2.18) usually focus on only one or two soil

erosion processes, neglecting the other processes. Hence assessments of soil erosion rates for a given area in

Europe are often underestimates (Poesen et al., 2001). This should be rectified by future soil erosion

assessments.

2.2.6 CONCLUSIONS

We have outlined the current understanding of erosion processes as they affect Europe. Gaps in our knowledge

remain, for example on the spatial and temporal distribution of various soil erosion processes and their

interactions, and these affect our ability to model and predict. It is also clear from the earlier chapters that

summarise knowledge in each country that there are great contrasts in the amount of erosion data available. In

some countries there are reliable estimates of erosion rates, in others none. This volume is merely a first

attempt to draw together existing knowledge and research on the European continent.

Despite the inter-European contrasts, and the continuing need to fill in the gaps, we would argue that action

to control soil erosion should continue. There is sufficient knowledge in Europe to apply control techniques

and to experiment with the efficacy of those available (including those based on traditional knowledge). Much

of the failure to address on- and off-farm impacts of soil erosion is a result not of technical inadequacy, but of a

failure to recognise the importance of socio-economic factors in influencing erosion. Erosion often occurs

because farmers are encouraged by financial incentives to grow inappropriate crops (or keep animals) on

vulnerable sites. The relationship between financial incentives and wise or unwise use of the land is brought to

prominence by the recently introduced agri-environmental measures within the EU. The main reason why soil

erosion is now a political issue in Europe is that it is beginning to be recognised that it is not simply a farming

problem but one with implications for wider civil society. Impacts and costs of erosion are both short and long

term, affecting, for example, drinking water quality, freshwater ecosystems and the life of dams.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors acknowledge all contributors to this book and also all participants in the COST Action 623 ‘Soil

Erosion Under Global Change’ (COoperation in Science and Technology; European Commission). The COST

secretariat, in particular Dr Lazlo Szendrodi and Dr Emil Fulajtar) are thanked for their support of this COST

action. Thanks go also to Anke Knapen, Miet Van Den Eeckhaut and Greet Ruysschaert for their critical

remarks on an earlier draft.


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