1.13

Romania

Ion Ionita,1 Maria Radoane2 and Sevastel Mircea3

1Department of Geography, University of Iasi, Iasi, Romania2Department of Geography, University of Suceava, Suceava, Romania3Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

1.13.1 INTRODUCTION

Romania covers 237 500 km2 of south-eastern Europe and consists of three major relief units: the Carpathian

Mountains and Sub-Carpathians (36%), the hills and plateaus (34%) and the plains (30%). Within its

boundaries live 22.3 million people.

Hot summers and cold winters, variability in the distribution of rainfall and fluctuating length of the growing

season typify the Romanian continental–temperate climate. However, there is a clear transition between the

central European climate in the centre and west and the east European climate in south and east of the country.

Mean temperatures decrease with increasing elevation, from 10 �C on plains and 8–9 �C on plateaus to

7–8 �C on lower mountains of 700–1200 m elevation and –2.6 �C on high mountains with elevations around

2500 m. The minimum temperature of �38.5 �C was recorded on 25 January 1942 near Brasov, in the central

part of Romania and the maximum temperature ofþ44.5 �C on 10 August 1951 near Braila, in the southeast

region. Average annual precipitation varies from about 360 mm at lower elevations in the Danube delta to

1450 mm in the high mountains.

In hilly areas, as a result of erosion, mostly clayey, sandy Tertiary layers outcrop. Mollisols (Chernozems,

grey forest soils) and Argiluvisols (reddish-brown soils, brown soils, brown–luvic and Luvisols) are among the

most common soils and have been used for crop production.

According to an inventory undertaken in 1980 by the Institute of Geodesy, Photogrammetry, Mapping and

Land Organization, agricultural land in Romania averaged about 63% of the total (Table 1.13.1).

Soil Erosion in Europe Edited by J. Boardman and J. Poesen# 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-470-85910-5

1.13.2 MAGNITUDE OF SOIL EROSION IN ROMANIA

Erosion surveys started in 1947 in Buzau County and reached a climax when Florea et al. (1977) released the

map of soil erosion in Romania at 1:500 000 scale. The map in Figure 1.13.1 shows that the potential for soil

erosion caused by water is far more severe than for wind erosion. Agricultural land subjected to water erosion

averages 45.6% of the total, whereas wind erosion is a potential threat on only 1.4% located in the south.

Motoc (1983) provided a similar value with a potential for water erosion on 42.6% of the total Romanian

agricultural land. Of those 6.4� 106 ha, 2.6� 106 ha are cropland, 3.4� 106 ha are pasture and 0.4� 106 ha

are orchard and vineyard.

Figure 1.13.2 shows erosion rates in different areas of the country (Motoc, 1983). The estimated peak

erosion rate rises to 30–45 t ha�1 yr�1 and it occurs in the curvature of the Sub-Carpathians. Slightly lower

erosion rates are found in the southern Sub-Carpathians, the Getic Plateau, Moldavian Plateau and the

Transilvanian Plateau. The classes with moderate and high rates of erosion (9–10 t ha�1 yr�1) are predominant.

Motoc (1983) also devoted special attention to the sediment source. Tables 1.13.2 and 1.13.3 show the

contributions of both land use and the erosion processes to the total erosion.

Motoc’s (1983) estimates are based on various sources: the map of soil erosion in Romania (Florea et al.,

1977); a map of suspended sediment concentration in Romania (Diaconu, 1971); a model for estimating soil

erosion in small catchments where total erosion is the sum of surface erosion, gully erosion and erosion from

landslides (Motoc et al., 1979); runoff plot data; studies of soil erosion in different catchments, such as Arges

and Putna; soil conservation projects in representative catchments provided by ISPIF (Institute for Land

Reclamation Studies and Designs); an inventory of the agricultural land in Romania undertaken in 1980 by

IGFCOT (Institute of Geodesy, Photogrammetry, Mapping and Land Organization); an inventory of the

forestry land in Romania undertaken in 1981 by ICAS; and a pedoclimatic division and land classification of

the Romanian agricultural land by ICPA (Research Institute for Pedology and Agrochemistry) in 1975.

These data show the different sources contributing to the gross erosion. Of the 126.6� 106 t,

106.6� 106 t, which equates to 84% of the total, is delivered by agricultural land. The low vineyard and

orchard input results from the setting of plantations under conservation treatments for the last 30 years.

Annual sheet and rill erosion rates average 61.8� 106 t, which is twice as great as the next highest rate

(29.8� 106 t for gully erosion). Therefore, sheet and rill erosion and gully erosion are the most important

TABLE 1.13.1 Land use in Romania

Surface

Land use 106 ha %

Arable 9.833 41.4

Pasture (grazing land) 4.467 18.8

Vineyard 0.306 1.3

Orchard 0.357 1.5

Agricultural total 14.963 63.0

Woodland 6.568 27.7

Waters and marshes 0.796 3.3

Roads and railroads 0.375 1.6

Yards, construction areas 0.655 2.8

Unproductive (abandoned) 0.393 1.6

Nonagricultural total 8.787 37.0

Total 23.750 100.0

156 Soil Erosion in Europe

contributors to gross erosion, whereas landslides have a lesser input. Moreover, the sediment delivery ratio

averages 0.35, equating to 44.5� 106 t yr�1 at the national scale (Motoc, 1984).

According to Ichim and Radoane (1987) and Ichim et al. (1998), the sediment yield from the 1100 km2

Putna basin is 12.5 t ha�1 yr�1 from flysch strata and 45.4 t ha�1 yr�1 from Neogene molasses layers. More

than 50% of the sediments originating in small catchments are deposited in third-order basins of the flysch

area, whereas in the Sub-Carpathians only 30% is stored.

For understanding basic processes, studies of dispersed overland flow, rill-flow and the flash streamflow

were undertaken. Runoff plots were set up under different conditions in some agricultural research stations at

Cean-Turda (Motoc, 1975), Perieni-Barlad (Motoc et al., 1998; Ionita, 2000b), Podu-Iloaiei (Dumitrescu and

Popa, 1979), Aldeni (Ene, 1987) and Bilcesti (Teodorescu and Badescu, 1988). Table 1.13.4 summarizes and

illustrates the substantial differences in erosion rates reported for each land use. Of those stations, the Perieni-

Barlad within the Moldavian Plateau is the most interesting. Data collected here over a 30-year period indicate

the following (Ionita, 2000b):

� Mean annual precipitation is 504.3 mm and precipitation which causes runoff and erosion occurs during the

crop-growing months of May–October.

Figure 1.13.1 Soil erosion map of Romania: 1, erosion free land with no flooding risk; 2, erosion-free land at risk from

flooding and siltation; land subjected to water erosion; 3, slightly eroded soils; 4, moderate to strongly eroded soils; 5,

severe to excessively eroded soils; land subjected to wind erosion; 6, moderate to strongly eroded; 7, severe to excessively

eroded. (Reproduced from Florea N. et al., 1977, with permission from N Florea)

Romania 157

Figure 1.13.2 Total erosion on agricultural lands in Romania (t ha�1 yr�1) (Reproduced from Motoc M, 1983, with

permission of M Motoc)

TABLE 1.13.2 Total erosion by land use in Romania

Total erosion

Land use 106 t yr�1 %

Arable 28.0 26.2 24.7 22.3

Pasture (grazing land) 45.0 42.2 39.6 35.7

Vineyard 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.2

Orchard 2.1 2.0 1.8 1.7

Unproductive (Abandoned land as gullies) 29.8 28.0 26.4 23.6

Agricultural land total 106.6 100.0 — —

Woodland 6.7 — 6.0 5.3

Total 113.3 — 100.0 —

River bank and localities erosion 12.7 — — 10.2

Total 126.0 — — 100.0

158 Soil Erosion in Europe

� About 26% (133.5 mm) of the annual precipitation induced runoff/erosion is on continuous fallow and

18.5% (93.5 mm) on maize.

� Runoff ranges from 36.5 mm under continuous fallow with a peak of 12.0 mm during July and 17.7 mm

under maize with a peak of 6.5 mm during June.

� Soil loss is averaging 33.1 t ha�1 yr�1 for continuous fallow with a peak of 12.8 t ha�1 during July and

7.7 t ha�1 yr�1 for maize with a peak of 3.7 t ha�1during June (Figure 1.13.3).

According to Motoc et al. (1998) and Ionita (2000b), data collected from a continuous fallow plot and

processed by using a 3-year moving average revealed that over the period 1970–99 there were three peaks. The

centre of those highest values is placed at 1975, around 1988 and 1999 (Figure 1.13.4).

By processing such data, Motoc (1960, 1983) developed a quantitative model to evaluate soil loss by sheet-

rill erosion. It is the same type as Wischmeier’s model.

The Hi15 indicator proposed by Stanescu et al. (1969), where H is the amount of precipitation and i15 the

intensity of the rainstorm of 15-min duration, was of value in running this model. The Hi15 index for rainfall

aggressiveness can to be calculated more easily than, and has a similar value to, the rainfall erosion index

proposed by Wischmeier (1959) for the USA.

Concerning gully development and concentrated flows, research carried out by Ionita (1998, 1999, 2000a,

2003) in the Moldavian Plateau of eastern Romania is of particular interest. In order to obtain a clear image

of the development of continuous gullies, 13 gullies were first sampled near the town of Barlad. Most have

catchments smaller than 560 ha. Linear gully head advance, areal gully growth and eroded material rates

were quantified for three periods (1961–70, 1971–80 and 1981–90). The results indicate that gully erosion

has decreased since 1960 (Figure 1.13.5). This decline in gullying results from changes in rainfall

distribution and the increased influence of soil erosion control. The mean gully head advance of

12.5 m yr�1 between 1961 and 1990 was accompanied by a mean areal gully growth of 366.8 m2 yr�1

and a mean erosion rate of 4168 t yr�1. Most of these catchments exhibit average values of soil loss due to

gullying ranging from 10 to 40 t ha�1 yr�1.

The average annual regime of gullying was documented through a periodic survey of six continuous gullies

over the period 1981–96 and showed a pulsatory development. It exhibited great fluctuations that ranged from

stagnation to average annual peak values of 19.1 m gully head advance and 304.0 m2 areal gully growth during

1988. The four rainy years of 1981, 1988, 1991 and 1996 contributed 66% of the total gully growth. Another

main finding of this 16-year stationary monitoring was that 57% of the total gullying occurred during the cold

season, with the remainder during the warm season (Figure 1.13.6). The critical period for gullying covers the

4 months between 15–20 March and 15–20 July.

TABLE 1.13.3 Total erosion by types of processes

Total erosion

Process 106 t yr�1 %

Sheet and rill erosion 61.8 54.5 49.0

Gully erosion 29.8 26.4 23.6

Landslides 15.0 13.1 11.9

Gully erosion and landslides in woodland 6.7 6.0 5.3

Total 113.3 100.0 —

River bank and localities erosion 12.7 — 10.2

Total 126.0 — 100.0

Romania 159

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Figure 1.13.5 Measured gully head retreat in the Moldavian Plateau, Romania (1961–90)

As regards discontinuous gullies, results have indicated that during a variable period of 6–18 years the mean

gully head advance was 0.92 m yr�1 and ranged from 0.42 to 1.83 m yr�1. The mean areal gully growth was

17.0 m2 yr�1, varying between 3.2 and 34.3 m2 yr�1. Both values indicate a slow erosion rate.

Field measurements performed in small catchments within the Moldavian Plateau during flash streamflows

showed two types of sediment delivery, synchronous and asynchronous. In the synchronous case there is

almost simultaneous production and removal of debris. In the asynchronous case there is a preparatory stage

during late winter and early spring prior to removal of the debris. The synchronous scenario occurs rarely and

is mostly associated with quick thawing, and gives very high sediment concentrations, exceeding 300.0 g l�1 at

the basin outlet and low values, up to 40.0 g l�1 upstream of gully heads in the upper basin. Gullying is the

major sediment source. The asynchronous scenario commonly occurs and is characterized by higher water

discharges and fluctuating sediment concentration (Ionita, 1998, 1999, 2000a).

A multiple regression model was proposed by Radoane et al. (1995, 1999) for assessing the rate of the gully

head advance between the Siret and Prut rivers:

Ra ¼ aAbLcEdPe

for the gullies on marls and clays and

Ra ¼ aþ bAþ cE þ dLþ eP

for the gullies on sandy layers, where Ra ¼ the rate of the gully head advance (m yr�1), A¼ the drainage basin

area upstream of the gully head (ha), L¼ gully length (m), E¼ the relief energy of the drainage basin (m) and

P¼ drainage basin slope (m per 100 m). By processing data from 38 mainly discontinuous gullies, the

estimated rate of gully head retreat was over 1.5 m yr�1 on sands and less than 1 m yr�1 on marls and clays.

Mircea (1999, 2002) evaluated the rate of the gully head advance as ranging from 1.75 to 6.70 m yr�1 within

some small catchments of the Buzau Sub-Carpathians over the period 1962–89 using MODPERL (MODel de

Prognoza a Evolutiei Ravenelor in Lungime, a model for predicting the development of gullies in length) that

has the following functional form:

Rar ¼ ½aþ ðbq10% þ chþ difvÞCUCs

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995

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n re

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Figure 1.13.6 Measured mean rate of gully head retreat in the Moldavian Plateau, Romania, between 1981 and 1996

162 Soil Erosion in Europe

where Rar ¼ the annual rate of the gully head retreat (m yr�1), q10% ¼ the unit discharge at 10% frequency

(m3 s�1 m�1), h¼ the depth of the headcut (m), ifv¼ the slope of the valley-bottom upstream of the gully head

(%), C¼ the erodibility factor (0–1), U¼ the layer moisture factor (�1) and Cs¼ conservation practices

factor within the basin (0–1). Model calibrating and testing resulted in underlining the strong influence of unit

discharge and the low influence of both the headcut depth and the slope of the valley-bottom on the gully head

advance.

The denudation rate by landslides was evaluated by Balteanu (1983) as ranging from 0.6 to 73.8 mm yr�1 in

the Buzau Sub-Carpathians and by Pujina (1997) averaging 36.0 mm yr�1 within the Barlad Plateau between

1968 and 1992.

Romania is a country where the tradition of dam construction is very old. Among the 80 members of the

International Committee of the Big Dams, Romania occupies the 19th place with respect to the number of ‘big

dams’ (over 15 m height) and the ninth place in Europe. The total number of big dams is 246, and almost half

are dams under 40 m height. About 90% of the existing reservoirs have storage capacities under 200� 103 m3,

and half of them are under 20� 106 m3. There are some dam reservoirs that have been functional for centuries,

such as those in Banat Mountain or Metaliferi Mountains, but there are also lakes that became silted in a short

period of time.

Ichim and Radoane (1986) and Radoane and Radoane (2005) came to the following conclusions:

� Over an average of 15 years a volume of about 200� 106 m3 of sediments has been deposited in the

reservoirs within the interior rivers, of which the Arges and Olt rivers contributed almost 50% of the total.

� The largest annual silting rates are associated with the lakes in the Sub-Carpathians such as on the Arges

River (Pitesti 15.7%, Bascov 11.7%, Oiesti 9.5%, Cerbureni 7.3% and Curtea de Arges 5.3%) and the Siret

River (Galbeni 10.6%).

� Average annual rates of faster silting have been recorded also at the first lakes, built on the Olt river (Govora

8.3%, Rm. Valcea 5.6% and Daesti 4.9%), Bistrita river (Pangarati 3.5%) and the Ialomita river (Pucioasa 2.6%).

� Low rates of silting have been assessed in the big reservoirs of Izvoru Muntelui (0.03%) and Vidraru

(0.04%).

� The silting time of 50% of a reservoir’s volume is reduced to less than 100 years for the lakes that lie in areas

with high sediment yield (Sub-Carpathians, plateaus and piedmont). In other words, only 57 reservoirs have

enough silting time to justify the investment and the significant environmental changes.

Measurement of the caesium-137 content of sediments established the rate of sedimentation in 15 reservoirs

of the Moldavian Plateau (Ionita et al., 2000). The estimated mean values vary between 2.6 and 7.9 cm yr�1-

with an average value of 4.6 cm yr�1after April 1986. The shape of the caesium-137 depth profile was used as

the main approach. Taking into account that the standard pattern is in the form of a cantilever and based on the

burial magnitude of the caesium-137 peak derived from Chernobyl, two main patterns of reservoir

sedimentation were identified, shallow and deep buried cantilever.

The caesium-137 technique has also been used effectively in areas of deposition of gully sediment to

provide a chronological measure of gully development (Ionita and Margineanu, 2000). The mean sedimenta-

tion rate is 4.4 cm yr�1 between 1963 and 1996 and 2.5 cm yr�1 after 1986 in the short successive dis-

continuous gullies. In the case of long discontinuous gullies, these values are almost double.

1.13.3 SOIL CONSERVATION

Soil erosion and associated water runoff increase short-term farm production costs per unit of harvested

crop in a variety of ways. In most cases, to correct runoff problems and to bring erosion under control,

Romania 163

farmers have several options: use conservation practices, change land use or crop rotation and alter field

boundaries.

Before 1960, the traditional agricultural system on the hills of Romania consisted of up-and-down-slope

farming. Most of the land, accounting for roughly 85% of agricultural acreage, was split into small plots, each

of less than 1 ha in size. Except in local areas, there was no concern about the soil erosion threat and a

minimum awareness of conservation practices. After 1960, the area comprising those small plots was turned

into cooperative farms. The remaining 15% of the agricultural land, which belonged to proper farmers (as

regards the ownership size), was changed to State farms.

After several decades of quiescence, many new, innovative research studies on soil erosion control

have been initiated (Motoc et al., 1975, 1992; Nistor and Ionita, 2002). For the nation as a whole, the first

priority consisted of implementing one or more conservation practices. The first important objective was

to plough on or nearly on the contour as one of the simplest of conservation methods. Then, based on the

experience gained by the Central Research Station for Soil Erosion Control of Perieni-Barlad, some

representative farms under conservation practices were set up on 65 000 ha. By the end of 1989, as much as

2.2� 106 ha, equating to 30% of agricultural land at risk of erosion, was adequately treated with

conservation measures.

The new land property law No. 18/1991 includes two provisions that do not encourage the extension

of conservation measures (Motoc et al., 1992; Nistor and Ionita, 2002). One of these stipulates that

land reallotment has to be done as a rule in the old locations. In most cases, this means that the plots will

be up-and-down slope. The second refers to the successors’ right up to the fourth degree. Under these

circumstances, the rate of land division increased and it is higher than before World War II. Another law,

No. 1/2000, was promulgated and is focusing on the forestland division for private ownership. The major

effect of the earlier mentioned laws is the revival of the traditional agricultural system with up-and-down slope

farming. Another problem over the last decade is that the state ceased funding soil erosion control and such an

investment does not represent a priority for landowners.

The depth distribution of caesium-137 in recent sediments in the Bibiresti reservoir within the upper

Racatau basin of 3912 ha produced evidence of a doubling in erosion/deposition rates after a contour farming

system was converted to a traditional up-and-down slope system (Ionita and Margineanu, 2000). Therefore,

it might be concluded that real soil erosion control in Romania took place over the 30-year period from

1960 to 1990.

1.13.4 CONCLUSIONS

Romania is a central and eastern European country that presents various forms created by land degradation

because of its natural conditions. Agricultural land subjected to water erosion averages 43% of the total,

whereas wind erosion is a potential threat on only 1.4%.

The total erosion was estimated at 126.6� 106 t yr�1 and of this, 106.6� 106 t yr�1, million which equates

to 84% of the total, is delivered by agricultural land. Inter-rill and rill erosion and gully erosion are the most

important contributors to gross erosion since their specific erosion rates average 61.8� 106 t yr�1. The

sediment delivery ratio averages 0.35, equating to 44.5� 106 t yr�1 at the national scale.

Before 1960, the traditional agricultural system on the hills of Romania consisted of up-and-down slope

farming. By the end of 1989, as much 2.2� 106 ha, equating to 30% of agricultural land with erosion

potential, was adequately treated with conservation practices.

The new land property law No. 18/1991 includes two provisions that do not encourage the extension

of conservation measures. The major effect of this law is the revival of the traditional agricultural system,

up-and-down slope farming.

164 Soil Erosion in Europe

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We express our deepest appreciation for the guidance and drive that Professor Mircea Motoc has given to the

study and control of soil erosion in Romania, and in particular for the support and kindness that he has

provided to us during our careers.

REFERENCES

Balteanu D. 1983. Experimentul de Teren in Geomorfologie. Aplicatii la Subcarpatii Buzaului. Editura Academiei R. S.

Romania, Buchurest.

Diaconu C. 1971. Probleme ale Scurgerii Aluviunilor pe Raurile din Romania. Studii de Hidrologie, XXX. IMH, Buchurest.

Dumitrescu N, Popa A. 1979. Agrotehnica Terenurilor Arabile in Panta. Editura Ceres, Buchurest.

Ene Al. 1987. Studii si cercetari privind valorificarea terenurilor in panta, prin rotatia culturilor si ingrasaminte, in zona de

curbura a Subcarpatilor. Teza de Doctorat, ASAS, Buchurest.

Florea N, Orleanu C, Ghitulescu N, Vespremeanu R, Mihai Gh, Badralexe N. 1977. Harta eroziunii solurilor R. S. Romania la

scara 1:500 000. In Folosirea Rationala a Terenurilor Erodate, Ministeril Agriculturii si Industriei Alimentare si SCCES

Perieni, Buchurest; 13–26.

Ichim I, Radoane M. 1986. Efectul Barajelor ın Dinamica Reliefului. Editura Academiei, Buchurest.

Ichim I, Radoane M. 1987. A multivariate statistical analysis sediment yield and prediction in Romania. In Geomorpho-

logical Models, Ahnert F (ed.). Catena Supplements, 10.

Ichim I, Radoane M, Radoane N, Grasu C, Miclaus C. 1998. Dinamica Sedimentelor. Aplicatie la Raul Putna-Vrancea.

Editura Tehnica, Buchurest.

Ionita I. 1998. Studiul geomorfologic al degradarilor de teren din bazinul mijlociu al Barladului. Teza de Doctorat,

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