soil classification

CENTRE FOR POLICY ANALYSIS (CEPA)

GHANA

SELECTED ECONOMIC ISSUES

No. 3 2000

Soil Classification in Ghana

Henry Obeng

Copyright CEPA 2000

Centre For Policy Analysis

No. 35 Josif Broz Tito Avenue

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Accra

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Ghana

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ISSN

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CEPA: Selected Economic Issues, No.3 1

Preface

Soil Classification in Ghana 2

LAND CLASSIFICATION IN GHANA

Henry Obeng

1. Introduction

In 1998, the half year drought and evidence of a failing agriculture became the basis for

CEPA's policy recommendations that beyond macroeconomic stabilisation, the

stabilisation of agricultural water supplies is essential to stimulate and sustain growth in

that sector. This could call for imaginative and diversified use of the large body of water

in the Volta Lake and its tributaries not only for generating electricity but also for

irrigating available arable land, especially within the Savannah and the Forest-Savannah

Transition Zones of the country with a view to ensuring increased and sustained

agricultural production. But, beyond water there is also the question of land. There is the

general notion that Ghana is endowed with extensive good arable land for a diversified

crop and animal production. However, the true status of the land situation is not very

clear to policy analysts. CEPA is therefore, anxious to obtain accurate data on land in

Ghana: classification, the extent to which classes will support increased and sustained

production of traditional and non-traditional crops under both rain fed and irrigated

conditions not only for home consumption but also for export to earn much needed

convertible foreign currency.

Further, in line with its objective of keeping policy research relevant to the economic

necessities of Ghana, CEPA will publish a series of discussion papers, which identify the

impediments that constrain agricultural development. Thus policies can be defined that

are not only implementable, potentially effective, but will also promote efficiency in

agricultural land use and development.


1.1 Agricultural Production Outcomes versus Income

It is an issue of major concern that arable agricultural production in Ghana is a

nightmarish recurring cycle of poor farmer incomes irrespective of production outcomes.

Thus when the weather is good and output levels are high, gluts force prices down and

farmers are confronted with low incomes. On the other hand, when bad rains lead to low

production outcomes, there is nothing to sell anyway and production outcomes are

limited to subsistence. Policy attention must focus on breaking this recurring cycle of

perpetually reinforcing poverty outcomes in the arable sector that make players therein

the largest single group who earn below the poverty line in Ghana as outlined in the

GLSS4.

In this issue, the focal spotlight will be placed on the natural resourceswater and land,

and, to a limited extent, on the influences of markets to convert agricultural production

outcomes into farmer incomes.1

2. Water Resources2

Throughout Ghana, natural rains will successfully support one cropping regime every

year. The problem has been the unpredictability of the rainfall. Global geographical

changes have distorted rain patterns and left very well confounded, those traditional

farmers who hitherto held on to experience as their sole tool for predicting planting times

and crop husbandry. They have looked helplessly on to science and technology to help

them predict planting times for rain fed crops, but in vain.

Agricultural policy pursuit, therefore, has little choice but to dwell on the exploitation of

water harnessing capacity to give the sector a much-needed boost. The need for

supplemental irrigation as a means to reduce the risk of crop failure is dire. The high

1 The analyses in this section are supported by the findings of a team of water and soil resources

specialists. 2 This section is an abridged version of a commissioned study by CEPA conducted by Dr Henry Obeng and

Nii Boi Ayibotele which is forthcoming.


risks associated with the production environment scares away rational lenders and

investors from the sector. A high degree of certainty in yield outcomes will translate

into greater formal banking confidence in much the same way as lower risks of crop

failure will translate into lower lending and investment risks.

Irrigation will also allow multiple cropping especially of high value export crops. More

readily available returns to farming will build up farm capital and lead to greater capacity

of producers to meet the costs of improved technologies either of a mechanical nature

(land tillage, water pumps) or of a chemical nature (fertilisers, pesticides both of

production and storage)—for, even with „green/organic‟ farming, appreciably high costs

of up to 20 percent of gross returns can still be incurred in the current production

environment3.

The history of irrigation in Ghana has been fraught with failure upon failure of large

schemes. This must not necessarily be so. Nor do Ghanaian policy makers have to re-

invent the wheel in a search for new methods of irrigation. Mali, a country right in the

Sahara Desert is reported to be recording growth in arable agriculture over the last five

years as a result of small irrigation schemes. The successful residential-plot-sized

vegetable gardens of Denu have shown the way to the feasibility and benefits of tubewell

irrigation for example, in areas of high groundwater levels. So too has the relative success

of the Okyereko small-scale irrigation scheme. On a general scale, the constraints that

have so far played against extensive irrigation culture can be grouped into three—a)

Physical factors, b) Social Factors, and c) Financial limitations.

3 As illustrated above from the Ketu district, organic fertilizer costs are in excess of 20% of farm returns to

irrigated export vegetable farming.


2.1 Physical Constraints

In general, the lay of the land conditions irrigation feasibility. Where land is relatively

flat over large stretches, dam walls need to be long to be effective. The cost of building a

longer dam wall can be prohibitive. Further, a considerable amount of cultivable land is

lost to submersion. Vast expanses of such shallow reservoirs also then allow high

evaporation and water. On the other hand, if the lay of land is hilly, then on the need

arises for huge investments in groundwork not only for dam building but also for ground

levelling on crop fields. This can be considerable if the surface condition of the land is

uneven.

Sheer unavailability of ground water can constrain options open to irrigation. In the

lower half of the SGSG belt for instance, borehole-tunnelling work by the Ghana Water

Company has revealed that groundwater is low yielding and groundwater cannot

therefore be relied upon for extensive irrigation. Under such circumstances, the effective

strategy should be in the establishment of small reservoir schemes rather than expensive

large-scale reservoirs. This is the system used in Burkina Faso, and the strategy that has

made the arable sector in Nigeria currently the fastest growing agricultural sector in Sub-

Saharan African. These small schemes also allow more efficient management as

responsibility rests on smaller sizes of beneficiaries, than would be the case for huge

reservoir schemes.

2.2 Social Factors

The social implications of dam construction are often under emphasised probably in the

belief that the benefits will be so overwhelming that the beneficiaries will work together

to ensure legitimate, orderly and peaceful exploitation of irrigated land resources. This

has been proven wrong all over the world—a reflection of the danger of replacing

advocacy in development work over policy research. In Ghana, the Vea dam was raised

in 1979 and yet to date the conflict on land distribution still rages. The lessons of

Aveyime are even more current. It is important therefore that potential beneficiaries from


irrigation investments be assured of sufficient security regarding land tenure. An outright

freehold title to the land will, for instance, offer them sufficient confidence to invest in,

maintain and improve their irrigated holdings. These point to the need for policy

research on land tenure in Ghana.

It has also been established empirically that the smallholder farmer will sometimes turn

down apparently clear advantages of new technology because it is attendant with such

increased use of labour resources as may be beyond their means.

2.3 Financial Factors

By far the most constraining factor to irrigation development is the lack of funds. It is

however a constraint that cannot be solved in isolation. MoFA reports that their effort at

facilitating irrigation have been frustrated by the high the high capital outlay required for

putting up any form of irrigation infrastructure. Even small schemes are expensive to

develop. To reduce the cost of dam construction, road culverts in India and neighbouring

Burkina Faso that are close to agricultural settlements are constructed to hold water in

reservoirs, rather than just allow the water to flow through as pertains in Ghana. This

shares costs between road construction and irrigation development.

3. Land Resources

Agricultural sector productivity in Ghana is at the crossroads. The years of low and

declining real income from the arable sector sits uncomfortably with vanishing incomes

from lower global demand of our historically rewarding cocoa sector, as well as the

environmental correctness of lowered harvests of timber and forest products. The need

therefore, for policy to explore new directions to harness natural resources and improve

their marginal productivities, is a sine qua non for economic growth. Key to


sustainability of agricultural development though will yet remain the land factor—its

availability, access/tenure and soil quality.

3.1 Land Availability

Published statistics of the MoFA reveal a vast amount of land that is potentially available

for agricultural use. MoFA reports that of the total land area of 23.9 million hectares,

13.6 million hectares (57.1%) can be classified as agricultural land area but only 5.3

millions (22.2% of all agricultural land area) were under cultivation at the last count

(1995). A paltry 4 percent is was under irrigation.4 It should not be a surprising

therefore when causal observers assert that Ghana is a land abundant country. For land to

be declared agriculturally useful though, a lot more factors must be considered than just

the mere fact of availability. Two such factors worthy of discussion are suitability and

tenure.

3.2 Tenure of Land

Whereas outright landlessness may be unusual in this country, widespread practices of

land division and fragmentation through inheritance are resulting in ever decreasing

holdings. In the Upper East Region, CEPA surveys are picking up indications that some

scale of landlessness is emerging. If the ordinary producers of Ghana are going to meet

and overcome the current and future challenges of globalisation, then land tenure and

access issues are sufficiently important to warrant wider and much more rigorous policy

research than is currently the case.

CEPA does not profess to be sole repository of knowledge or in deed the authority on

solutions to land laws and legislative instruments that will revolutionise the system. The

4Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) Medium Term Agric Development Programme (MTADP)

Document, Accra


primary objective, in bringing this up for review is therefore to excite policy minds on

what the need, opportunities and challenges are, for providing a land policy that is

altogether equitable, efficient, sustainable and not just supportive of, but actually

promotional to the agricultural sector.

In respect of agricultural land in particular, but also for much of the country, customary

land tenure is more widespread in Ghana than statutory land tenure. In general,

customary tenure systems have two features. The first is that customary title is

inalienable. Thus, in most areas of the country, those in whom ownership has been

vested cannot cede full property rights. The second feature is that multiple claims can be

made over a same piece of land. Whilst one party may have farming rights to a piece of

traditional holding, any community member can exploit the land for a different purpose

or use it in some other way at a different time, just so long us there is no conflict or

destruction to their respective interests. Thus in the SGSG belt, our survey identified that

any person can pick sheanuts from a farm that may not belong to their farm household.

The Vea Irrigation scheme provides a further example where traditional landlords

cultivate the land during the rainy season and tenant farmers cultivate it in the dry season.

These and other smaller features make long term development of customarily acquired

and held land rather unattractive investment options. Thus, long-term acquisitions on

holdings for which rights have, over generations, shifted from lineage to individual

landlords tend to hold a huge potential for conflict. Competing claims for land as from

aggrieved gender-based victims of land loss, or between patrikin and matrikin,

newcomers and latecomers, and statutory-backed versus customary-backed claimants to

title can all add to such litigation costs as to dent the competitiveness of production if the

such land would be a production.

It is also the case that in some cases, the value of land held under customary title is not

immediately discernible to the landlord, until it has been acquired and is being used for

income generating ventures. The now increased awareness of the export and income

generating potential for cashew production to a hitherto unmindful rural sector has placed


new value on land and is upsetting longstanding tenant-landholder relationships. Our

survey identified that in some areas of the Transition zone, stretching from the western

border of Ghana to the upper fringes of the Volta region, tenant farmers are beginning to

express doubt on the fairness of the sharecropping schemes that has existed for decades.

The fact that inputs such as pesticides and fertiliser are now becoming more and more a

necessity as soil fertility is falling, could itself be putting a new perspective to the

meaning of „share‟. Ambiguities abound. For instance, in some parts of the Volta

region, tenant farmers, whether local or immigrants must only harvest two-thirds of their

produce after farming. The landlord owns the other third, irrespective of inputs cost.

Along the same latitude to the West around Techiman, tenant farmers, if they insist, may

be allowed to deduct costs of inputs before the sharing is done.

The survey sought to establish a picture of land prices in Ghana for agricultural purposes.

Even this proved futile. Even within a distance of ten kilometres of Wenchi, land sale

prices differed by over ¢100,000 per acre (¢450,000 per hectare). No clear and consistent

reasons could be assembled to categorise sales. These included level of kinship,

friendship or other relationship with the landlord, use to which the land will be put

(cassava, cashew, maize or tomatoes, for instance), proximity to water or settlement,

number of years land will be held and such others. There was no possibility to organise

these into land price categories. In deed, in many areas of the Northern Ghana (SGSG

zone) as well as the Ashanti and Volta regions, as already mentioned, outright and

irreversible sale was said to be impossible.

Livestock development is particularly in jeopardy in Ghana. Cattle breeding, by

intensive grazing is a practice that has as yet not widely practised in Ghana. The MoFA

has a series of pilot schemes presently. Generally, therefore, headsmen, usually of the

Fulani traditions who are known to be masters of livestock management, would collect

and husband cattle from several owners for a fee. 5 Common grazing lands are however

not demarcated in community settlements in Ghana and the headsmen are free to exploit


all un-farmed land for grazing purposes. The conflict sets in when cattle move out of

their communal lands into neighbouring or even distant communal lands. In some cases

the herdsmen are simply labelled as „Alien‟ over extending their welcome, and the

ensuing conflicts can often result in loss of stock. The time is ripe for the encouragement

and guidance by policy to communities to allocate communal grazing grounds with water

wells. Even better will be such policy guidance that will encourage the development of

pastures.

It is clear that land policy in Ghana is required at the very least, to redress the many

ambiguities that prevail currently. The challenge to policy thinking is how effectively to

marry customary laws with statutory laws of acquisition and tenure, without sowing

seeds of discontent, nor perceived threat of a future landlessness state for grandchildren

yet unborn to current traditional holders, and yet, confer such statutory rights that will

engender such security as to attract and allow the private sector to sink capital

investments in land development and agricultural production.

3.3 Land Suitability

Physical impediments such as rocks and mountains have been cited earlier as constraints

to irrigation. But this is not specific to irrigation. Rocky areas and mountainous terrain

are generally difficult to cultivate. An even more critical constraint is the soil that the

weathering of rocks and parent material produce. As natural medium for the growth of

land plants, soil is the most valuable natural resource a nation possesses. There are,

however, different types of soils with different suitability rating for various crops and for

different farming systems. The soil type that pertains in any locality depends on several

factors. These include, as mentioned, the parent rock, the climate, the relief, the

drainage, the living organisms on the land and the time taken for a particular parent

material to break down into soil. Such is the importance of the climate among these

5 Our survey identified a wide variety of these forms of payment ranging from monthly cash and all milk to the herdsman, through a calf at start and at close of contract to the more common


factors that in Ghana, soil zoning can be grouped into two based on the two major distinct

vegetation zones, namely forest and savannah.

3.3.1 Soils of the Main Agro-Climatic Belts and their Potential for Agricultural

Production

The local classification system of soil in Ghana is based on characteristics that are the

result of the major climatic differences that in turn have given rise to two major distinct

vegetation belts, namely, Forest and Savannah.

The soils of the Forest belts of Ghana are easily distinguished from those of the Savannah

belts by the greater accumulation of organic matter in the surface horizon resulting from

the more abundant leaf-fall under Forest vegetation and the slower rate at which humus is

oxidised. The soils of the Savannah belts are on the other hand, generally lower in

organic matter within the surface horizon due to the fact that grass is the dominant

vegetation. In addition, over extensive areas, such soils have unfavourable moisture

relationships due mainly to the fact that rainfall is less reliable in occurrence than in the

Forest belts.

3.3.2 Soils of the Forest Belt

The major soils are those developed as weathering products of metamorphosed and basic

intrusive rocks, principally, granites, phyllites, quartzites, sandstones and epidiorites,

greenstones, balsalt and upper Birrimian phyllites. They fall mainly within the „Great

Soil Groups‟ of Forest Ochrosols, Forest Ochrosol-Rubrisol Intergrades, Forest Lithosols

(on uplands), Forest Gleisols, and Forest Gleisol-Alluviosol Intergrades (on lowlands).

payment of the fourth calf of any flock to the herdsman.


Forest Ochrosols

Forest Ochrosols cover approximately 3,144,575 hectares within Ghana. They are red,

brown and yellow-brown, well to imperfectly drained soils occurring on summits, upper,

middle and lower slopes. Such soils have a marked concentration of organic matter in the

upper topsoil (A horizon) with strongly leached lower horizons.

The upland Forest Ochrosols consist of three main subgroups of which the Wenchi series

are not of much agricultural importance. They are , in any case very minor in extent, and

should be permanently kept under forest to prevent undue accelerated soil erosion.

The second subgroup is the moderately shallow to moderately deep, red and brown

concretionary and/or gravelly, moderately heavy to medium textured soils overlying

mostly highly weathered phyllite (Bekwai series), biotite schists (Swedru series),

(Kumasi series) or quartzites (Juaso series). This subgroup constitutes the most extensive

soils within the semi-deciduous Forest belt. Due to their concretionary and gravelly

nature and their occurrence over moderately undulating to sloping topography, they are

not generally considered suitable for intensive mechanised cultivation of arable crops.

They are, however, eminently suited for extensive food crop and tree cash crop

cultivation of such crops as cocoa, coffee, oil palm, black pepper, sweet berry, nutmeg,

ginger, cassava, plantain, cocoyam and maize.

The third subgroup, associated mainly with weathered phyllite (Akumadan series),

granite (Boamang series), quartzites (Bompata series), or sandstones (Bediesi series), are

deep to very deep, red and brown, well to moderately well-drained soils which are devoid

of concretions and gravel at least to 60 cm and are moderately heavy to medium textured.

This group are the best for crop production due to the fact that they are non-concretionary

and non-gravelly to considerable depths, are mainly medium textured and occur on

relatively flat uplands. Such soils are potentially suited to mechanised and hand

cultivation of both arable and tree crops. They are, however, limited in extent.


Some Forest Ochrosols also occur on the lower slopes. These are mainly deep to very

deep, yellow brown, moderately to imperfectly drained and medium to light textured.

When they are associated with upland soils over phyllite they are moderately heavy to

medium textured and are recognised as Kokofu series. Those occurring along with

sedentary soils over granite are mainly medium textured (Akroso series) or very light

textured (Nta series). Those occurring along the lower slopes and derived from quartzites

are predominantly medium textured and are recognised as Asuboa series.

Forest Ochrosols are by far the most extensive and the most important soils within the

Forest belts for both food and tree cash crop cultivation. Such soils, under natural

conditions contain adequate nutrients that are tied-up with the organic layers in their

topsoils. They can, therefore, sustain good crop growth. As soon as the Forest is cleared

for cultivation, however, the nutrient level is drastically reduced and crops are adversely

affected. For increased and sustained food crop and tree cash crop production, therefore,

it will be necessary for manure and/or commercial fertilisers such as a compound of

NPKMgS to be applied. In areas where the topography is sloping especially where arable

crops are to be grown, in addition to increasing the fertility level of the soils, mulching,

contour ploughing or terracing and rotations that include legumes and long term crops

like cassava and plantain will help to counteract erosion.

Forest Rubrisol-Ochrosols Intergrades

Forest Rubrisols consist of dark red, firm or plastic, nutty to blocky clays developed over

basic rocks. They are limited in extent, occupying only about 524,400 hectares mainly in

the Eastern, Western, and Ashanti regions). They are formed from an underlay of

hornblende and biotite granodiorites, epidiorites, dolerite intrusions and green stones that

have been found to give rise to soils that are intermediate between true Rubrisols and

Ochrosols. Such soils, which are represented by the Wacri, the Koforidua and the Susan

series constitute the most valuable within the Forest belt of Ghana. They are more fertile,

have a better moisture holding capacity and are more resistant to erosion than both the

Ochrosols and the Oxysols. They are thus capable of offering a better medium for the


prolific growth of arable and tree cash than the much more widespread Forest Ochrosols.

Unfortunately they are very limited in extent. But it is suggested in the literature, that

with proper management, the limited areas covered by soils of the Forest Rubrisol-

Ochrosol intergrades could by themselves produce about half of the total quantity of

cocoa produced from the whole Forest belt of Ghana.6

Forest Lithosols

These soils occur mainly over Togo quartzites, Voltaian sandstones and Takwaian

quartzites. They are found largely along the Akwapiman and Volta ranges and on the

escarpment running through the Forest belt from Koforidua through Nkawkaw and

Ashanti Mampong in a northern direction towards Wenchi. They occur on high ranges

within the Forest belts over basic rocks (Atukrom), granites (Nyanao) and Birrimian

phyllites (Kobeda) especially within the vicinity of Lake Bosomtwi. The predominant

soils within the Volta Region are the Adomi and Afeyi series. Forest Lithosols, which

cover an area of approximately 554,400 hectares within the country are very shallow to

shallow, excessively well-drained soils directly covering incompletely weathered and/or

hard rock, usually on steep slopes. Due to their shallowness and occurrence around areas

with steep slopes, they are considered generally unsuitable for arable cropping and are to

be reserved for Forestry purposes in order to protect existing watersheds. Any attempt to

cultivate them extensively may result in severe accelerated soil erosion.

Forest Ochrosol-Lithosol Intergrades

These cover approximately 65,200 hectares of the country and consist of soils that are

transitional between Forest Ochrosols and Forest Lithosols. These intergrades, unlike

true Forest Lithosols, are not too shallow for limited arable food cropping. Areas of such

soils are found on the sloping flanks of some Upper Birrimian ranges around Bechem,

Bibiani and Wiawso areas (Bechem and Wiawso series). They are of such high inherent

6 Brammer (1962)


fertility status that under strict management practices they can be successfully cultivated

to tree cash crops such as cocoa, black pepper, sweet berry and coffee.

Forest Gleisols

These cover approximately 486,800 hectares within the country. They are predominantly,

very deep to deep, grey, imperfectly to very poorly drained alluvial soils developed in

materials transported from upslope and deposited in the valley bottoms. Generally, such

soils border the rivers and the major streams within the Forest belts as very narrow bands.

They occur in the wide valleys of the major rivers such as the Bia, Tano, Ankobra, Pra,

Ochi-Amisa, Ayensu and Densu.

Forest Gleisols associated with granites, (Ofin), sandstones (Sene) and quartzites

(Pamusua) are characteristically coarse and/or sandy textured, free draining, near-neutral

to moderately acid in reaction and generally medium to low in fertility. Such soils are

unable to retain enough moisture for good crop growth during the dry season. During the

rainy season, however, they can be successfully cultivated to vegetables. However, they

can also be found associated with phyllites (Oda), schists (Densu) and greywache (Debia)

in which case they are clayey with considerable amount of silt. Unlike their sandy

counterparts, these latter associations have better moisture relationships and are, as such,

more capable of being mechanised and/or hand cultivated for the cultivation of rice,

sugarcane and vegetables. Within the high rainfall areas of the Forest belt the

imperfectly drained, brown to yellow-brown moderately heavy textured, very acid old

alluvial soils such as Kakum series are capable, upon draining and the application of

fertilisers, of sustaining good growth of cocoa, oil palm and bananas.

Forest Gleisol-Alluviosol Intergrades

These cover approximately or 104,192 hectares of the country. Alluviosols are mainly

deep, moderately to imperfectly drained sandy loams and loose sands developed along

the levees of the major rivers (Chichiwere series). Such soils are, however, in such


limited extent that they cannot be mapped separately on a map of a scale of 1:1,000,000

and as a result they have been grouped with their associated Gleisols within the valley

bottoms. Detailed physico-chemical data for Chichiwere series is presented in Table 32

in the Appendix Section.

Forest Oxysols

These are fond largely within the extreme south-western part of the country where they

extend over approximately 647,773 hectares. They are generally are more paler in colour

and more acid than Forest Ochrosols and characterised by deeply weathered, yellow,

moderately well drained, acid, medium to moderately heavy textured upland soils either

over phyllite (Boi series) or over granite (Abenia series) or developed in tertiary sands in

which case the soil is mainly reddish brown to brown, well drained and medium textured

(Tikobo series). Rainfall within areas occupied by Forest Oxysols is generally within the

annual average of 2,000 mm. This high precipitation coupled with the poor nutrient

retentive capacity of the existing parent materials is mainly responsible for the occurrence

of strongly leached soil profiles. Soil reaction trends within the profiles of Forest Oxysols

are very different from those found in the Forest Ochrosols.

Forest Oxysols are generally unsuitable for cocoa. Also, arable crops do not appear to do

as well as on Forest Ochrosols and Rubrisols. It will seem that these soils are best suited

to tree cash crops such as rubber and oil palm, mainly because of the high rainfall regime

and not because of any special soil properties.

Forest Regosols and Other Minor Soil Groups

Forest Regosols cover approximately 40,000 hectares, occurring as a narrow band

bordering the coast and stretching from Axim to the western frontier with Cote D'Ivoire.

The soils consist of either deep, brown sands (Fredericksburg series) on the raised

beaches or moderately shallow white sand grading into about 61 cm of dark brown, weak


organic pan underlain again by white sand occurring on the shoreward side (Princess

series).

Where the organic pan is compact a soil known as Atuabo series and classified as

Regosolic Groundwater Podzol, is developed. Such a soil and other minor groups cover

approximately 7,200 hectares within Ghana.

Forest Regosols are highly acid in reaction and almost barren of nutrients. They have,

however, favourable moisture relationships due mainly to the over 2,032m of well

distributed annual rainfall which they receive. Such soils are considered suitable for

coconut cultivation but because of their poor nutrient status, manuring and the application

of Nitrogen fertilisers will be required if good yields of the palms are to be obtained.

In perennial waterlogged sites, black, highly acid, peaty clays, distinctly different from

Forest Regosols (Mpataba series) occur. These soils cover only about 1.6 hectares of the

Coastal Savannah belt and have been suggested in some literature as potential rice lands.

The soils are however highly infertile and may therefore serve only a limited purpose

other than for poor rough-grazing for some time to come.

3.4 Soils of the Transition belt

The general relief is mainly level to near-level with isolated Inselbergs capped by the

prevailing geological rocks that in this case are mainly sandstones. Substantial areas of

level to near-level relief within the Savannah patches are covered by deep, to very deep,

non-gravelly, sandy clay Savannah Ochrosols, mainly Ejura and Damongo series.

Though the soils are quite low in inherent fertility and subject to erosion and droughts,

they are considered to be well suited to extensive mechanised cultivation of maize,

guinea corn, sunflower, cashew nuts, yams, tobacco, soybeans, groundnuts and fibre

crops such as cotton, urena lobata and kenaf. However, for increased and sustained crop

production, there will be the need to improve upon the fertility status of the soils through


manuring and the application of commercial fertilisers, especially a suitable compound of

NPKMg. In addition, accelerated erosion will have to be controlled through crop

rotations in which a leguminous crop is included, mulching, strip cropping or contour

ploughing and appropriate water control measures during the rainy season. During the

long dry season, for all year round cultivation, there will be the need to provide irrigation

water.

Within the Afram Plains, especially, parts falling within the Sene and Obosum basins,

such soils as occur near the Volta Lake, can easily be irrigated for increased and

sustained production of the crops mentioned above.

Additionally, in areas with moderately deep and concretionary soils, improved pastures,

can be established for livestock production, especially with a pangola grass-centrocema

mix for extensive livestock production.

The Forest patches within the belt have soils developed over granites (Kumasi series),

phyllites (Bekwai series) and quartzites (Juaso series), similar to those occurring within

the Forest belt. Within these areas, cash crops such as cocoa, coffee, black pepper, sweet

berry and ginger as well as food crops like maize, plantain, cocoyam and cassava can

successfully be extensively cultivated if management practices afore-mentioned for such

soils are strictly enforced. Extensively developed along the banks of the major rivers and

streams within the belt are Forest and Savannah Gleisols. These too can be developed for

the prolific and sustained production of rice, sugarcane and vegetables.

It is interesting to note that in between the Forest and Coastal savannah is a somewhat ill-

defined narrow belt of up to 48 km wide between Kade and Kibi. The relief is one of

several hill ranges, prominent among which are the Bogosu Hills and the Atewa range to

the north and east of the belt, respectively. The main rivers draining the entire belt are the

Ankobra, Tano and the Birim. The major soils are those developed over or in the

weathering products of Upper and Lower Birrimian rocks, granites and quartzites. The

resulting soil are therefore, generally inherently more fertile than their counterparts


within the more limited Forest belt. Such soils have characteristics that are transitional

between the very acid, Forest Oxysols and the moderately acid Forest Ochrosols of the

semi-deciduous Forest belt. They are thus mainly classified on the uplands as Forest

Ochrosol-Oxysol Intergrades. Other soils that occur within the belt are similar to the

Forest Rubrisol-Ochrosol intergrades, Forest Literosols and Forest Gleisols already

described above.

3.5 Soils of the Coastal Savannah belt

The vegetation here is grassland, interspersed with fire resistant trees and tall grasses in

sparsely settled areas with short grasses and scattered shrubs occurring around heavily

cultivated areas. The predominant rocks within the belt are mainly basic and acidic

gneisses with substantial areas of quartzites and tertiary sands. Such rocks have given

rise to a variety of soils locally classified as Savannah Ochrosols, Savannah Lithosols,

Savannah Ochrosol-Lithosol Intergrades, Tropical Black and Brown Clays, Savannah

Gleisols, Tropical Grey Earths and Regosolic Groundwater Laterites, Sodium Vleisols

and Savannah Regosols.

Coastal Savannah Ochrosols

Savannah Ochrosols are mainly red and brown well to moderately well-drained, medium

to light textured soils that are very extensive within the Savannah belts of the Country

with a total coverage of some 5,730,880 hectares. They tend to have thin organic layers

due to insufficient accumulation of organic matter.

Like their Forest counterparts, there are three subgroups of Savannah Ochrosols. The

shallow to very shallow, reddish brown and brown, concretionary, medium to light

textured soils which belie directly over sandstones and/or Togo quartzite schists

(Nyigbenya series) are unsuitable for any type of arable or tree crops production.


The second subgroup are moderately shallow to moderately deep, red and brown,

concretionary and/or gravelly, moderately heavy to medium textured soils overlying

mostly weathered quartzites (Mamfe series) and phyllites (Jakiti series). While not quite

suited to mechanised cultivation, this subgroup can easily be hand cultivated for the

growing of both arable and tree crops. They are also quite suited for pasture grazing of

livestock.

By far the best soils for both mechanised and hand cultivation of both arable and tree

crops are the non-gravelly soils of the third group. They are deep to very deep, red and

brown, moderately heavy to medium textured soils, devoid of concretions and gravel to at

least 60 cm from the surface. They are developed in the weathered products of either

quartzites (Oyarifa series) or tertiary sands (Toje series). Notably, their inherent fertility

is quite low and they are liable to be eroded if strict management practices are not

followed. They must be manured and fertilized, especially with NPKMg compound

fertilisers and protected against undue accelerated erosion through mulching, rotation of

crops in which a suitable legume is included and/or contour ploughing, strip cropping or

terracing. Crops that thrive very well on the soils are cashew nuts, sunflower, pineapples,

maize, cassava, soybeans, maize, pepper and tomatoes.

Coastal Savannah Lithosols

Savannah Lithosols are very shallow, concretionary and/or gravelly soils over little

weathered and/or hard rock occurring over steep slopes. They cover some 1,132,400

hectares within the country. Within the Coastal Savannah belt, the soils have either been

developed over quartzites (Kloyo, Fete and Krobo series) or over phyllites, shales and

sericite schists (Salom series). Such soils are highly susceptible to erosion due mainly to

their shallowness and occurrence over steep slopes. They are thus considered unsuitable

for arable cropping. They must be put under tree crops in a Forest reserve system.


Coastal Savannah Ochrosol-Lithosol Intergrades

These are Intergrades between Savannah Ochrosols and Savannah Lithosols. The soils

are, therefore, somewhat less gravelly and deeper than true Savannah Lithosols. They

are, thus capable under strict management practices, of being cultivated mainly by hand

to arable crops similar to those recommended for Savannah Ochrosols. Together, they

cover about 468,400 hectares within the Savannah belts.

Coastal Tropical Black and Brown Clays

Tropical Black and Brown Clays are dark coloured, heavy, alkaline, cracking clays

occurring over level to near level gilgai micro-relief. Within the whole country (SGSG

belt inclusive) they cover approximately, 212,710 hectares. Clay content of the soils is

more than 30% and base saturation is more than 50% throughout their profiles. Organic

matter content is generally less than 4% in the A horizon. The soils become saturated

with water during the peak of the rainy season and dry out almost completely to develop

wide vertical cracks during the dry season.

These soils consist predominantly of Akuse series and their shallow phase, the

Prampram series developed over basic gneiss on low uplands. They are associated within

the valley flats with very plastic somewhat acid variants that are referred to as the Bumbi

and Lupu series.

In Ghana, Tropical Black Clays are not extensively cultivated. Under hand hoe culture,

indigenous small-scale farmers have avoided cultivating such soils mainly because of

their heavy nature and difficult moisture relationships. However, similar soils in India,

South Africa and the West Indies are known to be intensively cultivated to rice, cotton,

vegetables and sugarcane. They require the use of heavy machinery, skilled

management, proper irrigation and careful drainage to enable the soils to be irrigated with

a view to producing high yields of vegetables, rice, sugarcane and cotton on large scale.


Tropical Brown Clays, which have been grouped with Tropical Black Clays are very

minor in extent and generally lighter in texture within the topsoil (A horizon) than their

Black counterparts. They occur mainly within the Accra Plains (Ashiaman series) around

the vicinity of the peri-urban settlement of Ashiaman in Accra. As a result of their lighter

topsoil texture, they are more extensively cultivated by indigenous farmers with food

crops such as maize, tomatoes, okro, garden eggs, pepper and cassava.

Coastal Savannah Gleisols

Savannah Gleisols are mainly poorly drained alluvial soils covering some 1,608,000

hectares within the Savannah belts. They are, predominantly, very deep, grey, non-

gravelly, and imperfectly to very poorly drained soils developed in materials transported

from up slope and deposited in valley bottoms. Such soils are heavy to medium textured

with moderately acid A horizon becoming alkaline with depth. Organic matter content is

generally very low (less than 2%).

Due to the fact that the relief within the Savannah belts is more level than within the

Forest belts, Savannah Gleisols are more extensively developed and they, therefore,

constitute potentially, some of the most important agricultural soils in the country.

Within the Coastal Savannah belt extensive lowlands along the Lower Volta flood plains

consist of very deep to deep, grey, non-gravelly, medium to heavy textured alluvial soils

(Amo, Tefle and Hake series) which have tremendous potentialities under irrigation for

large scale arable crop production (Maize, cotton, vegetable, rice and sugarcane),

especially, around the Aveyime area of the Accra plains.

Coastal Tropical Grey Clays

Tropical Grey Clays are grey, hard claypan soils occupying very gentle Savannah

topography over acidic gneisses and schists (Agawtaw series) mainly within the south-

eastern section of the Coastal Savannah belt. They are low in organic matter (less than


2% in the A horizon) with a pH of near neutral in the A horizon (6.4-6.5) becoming

increasingly alkaline with depth (8.2-8.8).

Agricultural development of the Tropical Grey Clays is definitely a difficult undertaking.

Not only will it involve breaking up the hard claypan so as to allow deeper rooting but

also improving the internal drainage to leach out the sodium. However, with gypsum

treatment (which will be very expensive) and the application of fertilisers under a suitable

irrigation system, such soils can be developed for the cultivation of millet and vegetables

and for the rearing of livestock under an improved pasture.

Mapped with the Grey Clays are limited areas of Regosolic Groundwater Laterites which

consist from few centimetres to several meters of pale-coloured sands overlying mottled,

gravelly, sandy clays underlain by weathered acidic gneiss or granite (Doyum, Simpa and

Ziwai series). Both groups together, cover some 150,037 hectares within the Coastal

Savannah belt. Such soils when properly managed can be cultivated to groundnuts,

millet, guinea corn and cassava.

Coastal Sodium Vleisols

Sodium Vleisols (Ada, Songaw, Oyibi, Agbozome and Muni series) border the saline

coastal lagoons and creeks along the Lower Volta, covering, an area of, approximately,

89,728 hectares. They comprise of black or dark grey clays, sticky when wet and hard

when dry, occurring extensively in highly saline areas, mottled sandy loams and clay

encrusted salt crystals at the surface occurring on the almost bare lagoon margins.

Indigenous farmers sometimes cultivate the less saline soils intensively to sugarcane and

vegetables along the Volta, where they are annually flooded with fresh water. For

increased and sustained crop production on such soils, though some drainage control,

irrigation and the application of commercial fertilisers will be required. It will, however,

be uneconomical to attempt to bring the soils of the salt flats under cultivation for, they

are considered to be one of the worst soils in the Ghana.


Coastal Savannah Regosols

Savannah Regosols are mainly sands developed on the coastal sand dunes. They consist,

predominantly, of a few centimetres of yellowish, incoherent, coarse sand grading into a

layer of yellowish coarse sand containing shell fragments that are sometimes underlain by

hard, laminar, calcareous pan (Keta series). Together, they cover approximately 50.7

hectares within the Coastal Savannah belt.

Savannah Regosols, especially over the sand dunes, characteristically, support coconut

with a sparse ground cover of short grasses. They are droughty and almost barren of

nutrients. They have therefore little potential for agricultural development. With heavy

fertilization involving chemical fertilisers or organic manure and the supply of irrigation

water, though, they may be utilised for intensive vegetable production.

3.6 Soils of the SGSG belt

The relief within the belt is predominantly level to very gently undulating. Broad valleys

are broken by isolated low-lying inselbergs characteristically capped sandstone, shales,

mudstone and phyllites and, to a lesser extent, granite. The major rivers that drain the

entire belt are the White, Red and Black Voltas, the Kulpawn, Sissili and the Nasia.

The geology of the SGSG belt is quite diverse consisting of granites, phyllites,

greywaches, schists and basic intrusive rocks within the northern section. A greater part

of the belt occupying the central and southern sections, usually termed the Voltaian basin,

is however, underlain mainly by Voltaian sandstones, shales and mudstones.

The underlying rocks of the sandstone, shale and phyllite series are usually ferruginous

with ironstone impregnations when they are encountered capping the inselbergs. Such

rocks are very old, of Lower Birrimian age (late tertiary, Junner 1940) and they suggest

that a great part of the belt had been raised and degraded several times. It is generally

believed that such areas once formed part of an extensive peneplain which was later


mostly eroded away leaving isolated remnants behind which are presently typified by the

ironpan capped inselbergs.

The prevailing climatic conditions of rainfall for half the year, with the rest of the period

very dry and hot registering practically no rains at all coupled with the general gentle

relief are conducive to alternating wetness and dryness resulting in the extensive

occurrence of very shallow soils overlying impenetrable ironpan (ironpan soils).

Majority of such soils have been classified locally as Groundwater Laterites but they may

actually be Petrosols. In any case, they are by far the most extensive soils occurring

within the SGSG belt.

Other major soils are Savannah Ochrosols, Savannah Ochrosol-Groundwater Laterites

Intergrades, Savannah Ochrosol-Rubrisol Intergrades, Savannah Lithosols, Tropical

Black and Brown Clays, Savannah Gleisols, Savannah Gleisol-Tropical Black Clay

Intergrades and Savannah Gleisol-Alluviosol Intergrades, all of which, except ironpan

soils (Petrosols), Savannah Ochrosol-Groundwater Laterites, Savannah Ochrosol-

Rubrisol Intergrades, Savannah Gleisol-Tropical Black Clay Intergrades and Savannah

Gleisol-Alluviosol Intergrades, have already been discussed under soils of the Coastal

Savannah belt.

Savannah Ochrosols

The Techiman series lead a subgroup of three in this classification. They are shallow to

very shallow soils overlying in situ developed ironpan within 55.9cm. The second

subgroup is moderately shallow to moderately deep concretionary and/or gravelly, heavy

to medium textured soils overlying mostly highly, weathered granites (Puga series),

phyllite (Dorimon series) and shales (Nyankpala series). The third subgroup is deep to

very deep, red and brown, and mostly medium textured non-gravelly soils developed in

weathered products of either sandstones (Mimi series) or granites (Varempere series) or

phyllites (Baleufili series).


Savannah Lithosols

These are very shallow soils mostly on steep slopes either over Bongo granites (Nangodi

and Pusiga series) or phyllites (Gbeshie series) or basimorphic rocks (Gbache).

Tropical Black and Brown Clays

Also rather limited in extent within the belt, these occur mainly in pockets around areas

underlain by basic intrusive rocks within the northwest and along the White Volta to the

extreme Northeast of the country (Pani and Yagha series).

Savannah Gleisols

Savannah Gleisols are mainly heavy in texture (Kupela, Pale, Siare and Volta series) or

medium textured (Dagere series) that are liable to the flooded during the peak of the rainy

season.

Savannah Gleisols-Alluviosol Intergrades

These soils have been developed, mainly, along the lower part of the White Volta and

around the vicinity of the village of Walewale. Such soils are predominantly, Brownish -

grey , loose sands which occur in pockets within the levees of the large rivers and

streams (Kunkwa and Sirru series). In view of the fact that they are too minor to be

mapped separately, they have been grouped with their more extensive associated

Gleisols. They are suitable for the cultivation of maize, guinea corn, beans, tomatoes and

onions


Ironpan Soils7

Ironpan soils are the associations with the geomorphic surfaces of high-level, footslope

and low-level peneplain remnants. They are highly weathered, sesquioxide-rich, humus-

poor and mainly kaolinitic soils that may contain considerable quantities of 2:1 lattice

clays, especially in respect of low-level ironpan soils associated with shales. Ironpan

Soils have distinct, in situ developed, super-hard, sesquioxide-rich horizon at varying

depths within their profiles. They occur extensively within the SGSG belt of Ghana and

are also reported to be very predominant in other West Africa countries, like Niger, Togo,

Benin, Upper Volta, Cote D‟Ivoire, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea and Senegal.

High level ironpan soils typified by Wenchi series are also associated with high level

peneplain remnants mainly on flat summits. They are characteristically, red to reddish

brown, very shallow, highly concretionary, light to medium textured soils overlying,

(within 12.7cm of the surface) several centimetres of in situ developed ironpan horizons.

These in turn may either be underlain by weathered or incompletely weathered rock.

On lower slopes occur footslope colluvial ironpan soils often associated with the high-

level ironpan soils. These are moderately deep, characteristically, yellow brown mottled,

imperfectly drained sandy to silty clays overlying several centimetres of in situ

developed, hard, ironpan horizon within 46-51 cm of the surface and are typified by

Bianya series . The low-level ironpan soils are the most extensive among the ironpan

soils of West Africa. In Ghana, for example, they cover almost 25 per cent of the land

area of the country mostly within the SGSG belt. They are characteristically, shallow to

very shallow with sheet ironpan encountered mostly around the edges where it sometimes

forms extensive bovals. Such soils are of two kinds: imperfectly drained, occurring

within the east on the low lying uplands (Kpelesawgu series) and poorly drained,

occupying the lower slopes and valley bottoms (Changnalili series). Within the west,

such soils have either been developed over granite (Gulo series), or phyllite (Dugu

series).

7 They are also classed as Petrosols (See Obeng, 1970).


All the low-level ironpan soils are mainly coarse textured and concretionary in the A

horizon with a hard, in situ developed ironpan (ferricrete) B horizon which cannot easily

be broken up with ordinary iron implements. They are in general pale-coloured with

marked manganese staining in the B horizon and with the layer immediately above it (B

horizon) showing soft ochre mottles indicative of impeded drainage condition.

In general, Ironpans restrict root penetration and are therefore a hindrance to crop

production.

Savannah Ochrosol-Groundwater Laterite Intergrades

Savannah Ochrosol-Groundwater Laterite Intergrades are extensively developed over the

Voltaian Basin within the SGSG belt. They cover, approximately, 3,082,800 hectares

within the country. They are in the main, a mixture of Savannah Ochrosols and

Groundwater Laterites but could also be true intergrades between the two. Such soils

occur where drainage is more impeded than the Groundwater Laterites and may be due

either to a more sandy bedrock in the case of Voltaian areas, possibly to a high biotite

content in the case of granites or to recent slight dissection of the topography.

In these soils, the top layer just below the humus-stained layer may be yellow-brown to

pale orange-brown in colour and the upper part of the ferruginous layer consists of dark-

coloured, spherical, ironstone concretions in an orange-brown, porous, loamy matrix in

the case of the Voltaian Sandstone, mudstone and shale areas or of orange-coloured,

semi-hard, gritty, vesicular ironpan in granites areas (Babile series). Such soils only

become waterlogged in the lower part of the profile. They are droughty during dry spells.

Where drainage improves still further, true Savannah Ochrosols are developed.


Savannah Rubrisol-Ochrosol Intergrades

These soils are limited in some extent within the Savannah belts of the country. Within

the SGSG belt they cover approximately 78,260 hectares. They consist either of deep,

well-drained, reddish brown, non-gravelly silty clays overlying basic micaceous intrusive

rock (Kaleo series) on the flat uplands or moderately deep to moderately shallow,

moderately to imperfectly drained, red, brown and olive mottled concretionary sandy

clays over granite (Nakori series).

4. Cocoa and Export Diversification for Sustainable Growth

A topical issue of discussion in Ghana is the decision by cocoa producers in the West

African subregion to influence world market cocoa prices via artificial shortages

expected to be triggered through the destruction of cocoa already harvested. In Ghana,

this sits uncomfortably against a government grant pledged to private companies to

rehabilitate the Cocoa industry for increased production of 75,000 Metric tonnes in the

next year. The question that begs itself is, should the destruction succeed in making

cocoa more expensive, and if global research for alternative artificial replacements is then

heightened, then would the producers continue to destroy more cocoa year after year?

The better policy alternative is to diminish the importance of cocoa standing alone, and in

its raw form, as a foreign exchange earner. Adding value for higher returns should be

the strategy for increased incomes rather than physical destruction. In any case, there are

alternative crops that hold as much potential for Ghana as cocoa had and sustained

research could give them a boost. Export diversification must not remain a political

platform piece of rhetoric. Both scientific and economic research must continue to

identify new and suitable alternative crops and the associated cultural practices in

production and marketing that will unearth Ghana‟s competitive advantage in the export

of those alternatives. In Box 1, one such an alternative is highlighted.


Box 1: Alternative Commodity Exports: The Case for the African Sweetberry

When in the 7

th century sugar was derived from cane, it was said to be a ‘curious foreign salt

which looks like salt, but tastes like honey’8 Today the consumption of sucrose or what is

commonly called sugars is on the down turn. In its place, various high-potency plant constituents

have been used throughout history to impart sweetness to food. Saccharin about 300 times sweeter than Sucrose and Aspartame, 180 times sweeter than sucrose, are the popular sugar

substitutes in drinks and medicines. The search for artificial sweeteners is on the upswing.

It will appear that with some scientific and socio-economic research commitment by policy

makers, Ghana can tap into that search to diversify our commodity export base for, Thaumatin a

substance that is 2000 to 2500 times sweeter than sucrose is found in the African sweet berry

plant. The vast rain forests of Ghana have the precipitation, soils and shade that together make a tropical the rainforest natural habitat of this plant.

The scientific research aspect of this potential export has already been far advanced elsewhere. The US Food and Drug Administration, in their search for potent and low calorific sweeteners,

selected Thaumatin as one of 36 from an initial list of 400 chemicals. It is known that the plant

relishes rainfall of 1500 to 2000 and the alluvial soils of river basins. When it is well shaded and

the leaves not pruned irresponsibly, harvests of berries can amount to 3 metric tonnes per hectare. It is reported that for purposes of cultivation, this wild plant will not need any more

labour or input that would have been required for the production of a normal crop. What may be

needed is the scientific enquiry into breeding that will turn it from a wild plant to a domesticated plant.

The markets for Thaumatin will also need to be researched. It will seem, though that there is a market for the African Sweetberry. It is reported variously, that exporters of the berries are

paying $(US) 150/kg for the crop and harvesting windfalls sales of $(US) 500/kg in Japan. But

even at the conservative $5.00 per kg that is widely perceived as the farm gate price, the potential

for export incomes of up to $5000 per metric tonne is much better than cocoa revenue. It also means that a diligent farmer who is able to coax a single hectare to yield the optimal three metric

tonnes suggested by current research, will have an incomes of $150,000 accruing in a year.

If Ghana needs a new export opportunity for the country, it will appear the African Sweetberry is

providing a solid basis for further exploration and economic exploitation.


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