Development

Economic growth Increased productivity Modernization Westernization Urbanization Industrialization

However, growth-oriented development…

Failed to “trickle down” to the poor

Created a form of “dependency” by the poor on the rich

Led to environmental destruction

Promoted gender inequality

Displaced indigenous cultures

Alternative Models of Development

Human development Sustainable

development

Human Development

Material development +

Political empowerment Spiritual development

Sustainable Development

Environmentally sound Culturally appropriate Gender equal

Development, Science and Technology

Development is a process of social change

Science and Technology play a significant role in the process

Theories of Social and Technical Change

Techno-determinism Structural Functionalism Historical Materialism

Techno-Determinism

Technology is the main driver for social change

The universal application of technology has led to industrialization

Technology caused significant changes in the economy, politics and culture of human societies

Structural Functionalism

Social change is an evolutionary process

Change is viewed as gradual and incremental

The ideal state is characterized by balance and harmony

Conflict is seen as dysfunctional and abnormal

High Mass Consumption

Drive towardsMaturity

Take-Off

Preparation forTake-Off

Traditional Societies

PrimitiveTechnologies,

Spiritual Worldviews

Progress inScientific

Knowledge andTechnology

Pre-Industrial Stage

Industrial Stage

Post-Industrial Stage

Historical Materialism

Dynamic view of society Conflict and contradiction is

what drives change The historical development

of society is driven by the contradiction between social forces at a given time.

The resolution, or synthesis, of such conflict paves the way for the emergence of a new period

Mode of Production

DominantSocial ClassLoses control

Of technology

Society isorganized in relation to

the conversion ofnature into products

and commodities(Social classes)

NewMode of Production

Technology(Forces of Production)

Controlled by theruling class

DevelopmentsIn technology

ClassConflict

(Revolution)

Feudalism

The CapitalistClass

Emerge;Landlords loses

control ofdominant

technologyThe production process

Is land-based;Landlords versusPeasants in which

Land-owners controlthe production process

Capitalism

AgriculturalTechnologiesControlled by

landlords

DevelopmentOf

IndustrialTechnology

ClassConflict

(Revolution)

Development Processes vis-à-vis Science and Technology

Modernization Development of the

modern state and its attendant bureaucratic organizations

Development of a capitalist economy

Globalization

Modernization

A process of social change Society moves from a

primitive state towards an advanced and modern state

Movement is unidirectional It is desirable since it

implies progress, humanity and civilization

Not revolutionary but evolutionary – a slow, gradual and piecemeal process

Characteristics of the Modernization Process…

Phased—comes in stages Homogenizing—tends to

unify different political, cultural, economic and social systems into a single system

Europeanization (or Westernization)—follows the European or Western models and patterns of social change

Irreversible—a system cannot go back to its original state once modernization ensues

… Characteristics of the Modernization Process

Progressive—from backward to advanced states

Lengthy—takes a long time Systematic—follows a

distinct pattern Transformative—transforms

societies from one state of existence to another

Immanent—inevitable

Characteristics of Relatively Non-Modernized Societies

Low degree of specialization High level of self-sufficiency Cultural norms of tradition,

particularism and functional diffuseness

Relatively low emphasis on money circulation and market

Family norms such as nepotism are prevalent

One-way flow of goods and services from rural to urban areas

Characteristics of Relatively Modernized Societies High degree of specialization and

interdependency of organizations Cultural norms of rationality,

universalism and functional specificity

High degree of centralization Relatively more emphasis on

money circulation and market Emphasis on bureaucratic

organizations Two-way flow of goods and

services between towns and villages

Relatively Non-Modern

Societies

Relatively Modern Societies

Low degree of specialization High degree of specialization and interdependency of organizations

High level of self-sufficiency Cultural norms of rationality, universalism and functional specificity

Cultural norms of tradition, particularism and functional diffuseness

High degree of centralization

Relatively low emphasis on money circulation and market

Relatively more emphasis on money circulation and market

Family norms such as nepotism are prevalent

Emphasis on bureaucratic organizations

One-way flow of goods and services from rural to urban areas

Two-way flow of goods and services between towns and villages

Role of S and T in Modernization

S and T are already present in “relatively non-modern” societies

Modernization is enabled by advances in S and T

Modernization also enables advances in S and T

Political Modernization

Development and emergence of the state and the bureaucracy

Associated with social and cultural modernization

Involved the differentiation of political structures

Secularization of political culture

Entrenched the ethos of equality as a political ideal

Enhanced the capacity of a society’s political system

The Modern State An outcome of the increasing scale

or coverage of a political system, and its ability to implement its decisions

Able to perform tasks through bureaucratic organizations that are able to penetrate, govern and regulate the conduct of citizens

Acquired the capacity to aggregate the interests of various political groups

Institutionalized political structures and processes that strengthen the capacity for problem-solving

Sustained the emergence of new political demands and organizations

Crises of State-Building

The crisis of national identity The crisis of political legitimacy The crisis of penetration The crisis of citizen participation The crisis of integrating the

interests of various political groups

The crisis of distribution emanating from the inability of the state to bring about economic growth, and its failure to distribute the benefits of such growth

Role of S and T in the Development of the State

S and T as resources for nation and state-building As resources for development As resources for controlling and

influencing citizens S and T helps the state in

addressing the various crises Scientific management

principles enhances state capacity through bureaucratic efficiency Work specialization Development of planning and

monitoring systems

Capitalist Development

Capitalism is the dominant economic system in the age of modernity

It is an outcome of industrialization

Accomplished through the rise of entrepreneurs and markets

Underdeveloped and Traditional Economies

Usually seen as closed and backward

There is an oversupply of labor which are not fully employed to their productive capacities

Dominated by a subsistence sector, which is mainly based on family labor

Low labor productivity Low levels of capital

investments

Developed Capitalist Economies

Attended by the effective mobilization of capital and productive resources

Productive investment enabled the manufacturing sector to become a significant part of national income

Investments later went to other sectors (agriculture, services)

Population growth is overtaken by economic growth

Effects of Increase in Investments

Increase in investments, supported by an increase in the rate of savings, drives the capitalist sector to grow significantly

The final stage of capitalism is a society of high mass consumption Growth in employment

opportunities Increase in national income Continuing rise in consumer

demands Formation of a strong domestic

market

Vicious Cycle of Poverty

Low Productivity

Low Income

Low Demand

Low Savings

Low Levels of Investments

Low Levels of Capital

Demand Side Supply Side

To break the cycle….

A strong incentive system for investments needs to be created

There is also a need to expand markets by balancing capital investments in a number of key industrial sectors

Investments in S and T can play a big role!

Role of S and T in increasing Productivity

New machines and methods enable the development of new production processes

New methods of converting raw materials into commodities, and the search for new materials and sources of energy increase productivity

Biotechnology and agricultural engineering enhance land productivity and modernize agricultural production

Advances in IT, artificial intelligence, and robotics enhance the productivity of work

Capitalist Development in a Globalized World

Internationalization of commercial capital: growing commodity trade among capitalist economies

Internationalization of productive capital: the transfer of industrial production from the industrialized countries to the developing countries

New patterns affecting global industrialization

Increasing numbers of cheap labor in developing economies

Technological developments that allowed for the splitting up of the production process into constituent parts

Developments in transportation, information and communication technologies

Internationalization versus Globalization Internationalization

Involves merely the relocation of certain production processes to other countries, including developing countries

Example: A Japanese-based company relocating its assembly plants to the Philippines

Globalization Involves a deliberate

restructuring of manufacturing, trade, and services within a system that is global in scale

Led by globally oriented mega-corporations or transnational corporations (TNCs) that organize their entire production and sales as a world-wide operation

Globalization

Enabled by a rapid growth of global financial markets resulting from the deregulation of financial transactions

Facilitated by technological developments in information technology

This development is called technocapitalism, and is associated with the enhanced movement of money, ideas, products, design and services within societies and across societies