sociology

Definition of Sociology:

Sociology is the systematic and scientific study of human

behavior in groups and society.

Sociologists study various aspects of social life, including

behavior in large organizations and small groups, deviant

behavior, and the characteristics of political and religious

institutions and social movements; sociologists study the social-

psychological explanations for behavior.

Ex: A person that goes to a football game to watch the people

rather than the game.

Knowledge:Knowledge accumulates in one of three general ways:.

Mysticism- refers to knowledge gained by intuition, revelation,

inspiration, magic visions, or spells.

Rationalism- refers to knowledge gained through common

sense, logic, and reason.

Empiricism- (real world knowledge) refers to knowledge that is

gained by sense observation-by observing or experiencing

phenomena with the sense of touch, sight, hearing, smell, or taste.

Ex: Based on scientific Observations.

The Sociological Perspective:

If sociology is the systematic and scientific study of

human group behavior, and a perspective is a viewpoint,

or a particular way of looking at the world.

Then, the sociological perspective is a particular of looking at

the world of human activities that focuses on their social nature.

Humans are social animals that congregate to establish

families, groups, tribes, communities, and nations.

Our desire to be social, far outweighs biological and instinctual

drives of other animals that cluster for survival.

This choice of collectivities with rules, laws and various other

guidelines; sacrifices freedoms of the individual. Yet, it protects

the individual in the sense that society is made up of individuals-

but laws govern the collectivity or Macro-level as well as Micro-

level or individuality.

The term sociology was not coined until the latter part of

the nineteenth century. Human behavior, and why people

behave the way they do, has been a part of the human

consciousness, writings of philosophers, poets, and

religious leaders, and ancient civilizations.

The Pioneers of Philosophy and the

Social Sciences:Greece had a profound impact on western social thought

with three very distinctive social philosophers:

Socrates- (469-399 B.C.) is noted as being one of the most

profound thinkers and teachers of all time. He refused to accept

the classical or traditional explanations of religion, politics, and

the rights of the individual in relation to the state. He came up

with the Socratic Method of teaching (questioning and

answering orally rather than written).


Social Sciences:Greece had a profound impact on western social thought

with three very distinctive social philosophers:

Plato- (427-347 B.C.) is noted as being a student and follower of

Socrates. Plato, in Athens, developed the Academy-a school

where he incorporated the Socratic Method. He drilled his

students endlessly of questions that became central to

philosophical and sociological inquiry.


Social Sciences:Greece had a profound impact on western social thought with three

very distinctive social philosophers:

Aristotle- (384-322 B.C.) is noted as being a student and follower of Plato.

Aristotle was more practical in his beliefs of government and society.

Whereas, Plato was more idealistic and utopian. Aristotle and his students in

the Lyceum, which was like a modern university, through the Socratic

Method explored social issues, religion, politics, education, the rights and

duties of the citizenship, and the relationship between the individual and the

larger society.

During the 17th and 18th centuries, or the Age of Enlightenment, Western

Culture emerged from the middle ages, also known as the Dark Ages, into a

new era of social thought.

Over several centuries, the standard way of explaining social events shifted

from a theological to a scientific.

Rather than attributing human behavior and social conditions to

supernatural forces, people searched for logical-rational cause-and-effect

explanations.

As a direct result, the religious bodies, such as the church, were replaced

by the universities as the primary source of knowledge.

Religion

To Explain

Everything

Universities

And Scientists

To Explain

Everything

Polar Extreme Model

This era created Francis Bacon (1561-1626), who is largely

credited with developing the Scientific Method.

The Scientific Method is the basic steps that provide a systematic framework

to guide the research process.

Although social thinkers and philosophers has long pondered the influence of

society on human behavior, the formal discipline of sociology did not emerge

until the early nineteenth century.

Sociology began in France, it gained momentum in Germany, and Great

Britain, and it eventually arrived in the United States as each of these countries

experienced an industrial revolution.

The transition from feudalism to industrialism in Europe is believed to be

responsible for the development of the social sciences, especially

Sociology.

In the industrialization and urbanization periods, the proletariat or

common-folk/working class, were now considered to be important

members of society because they were consumers/workers. During the

feudalism periods they were not as such.

This era focused on the conditions of their lives. Never before had

society been confronted with such a rapid social change.

People were made aware of social problems such as: poverty,

unemployment, homelessness, mental disorders, and crime.

The time was just right for a systematic approach to the study

of society.

Auguste Comte- (1798-1857)-is honored with the title

Father of Sociology. Comte was somewhat an

eccentric person (he claimed to practice Mental

Hygiene or refused to read the works of others as he felt

it would contaminate his own originality or thoughts. He

is regarded as one of the most original thinkers of all

time.

It was he who coined the term sociology and argued, in 1838,

that the methods of science should be applied to the study of

society

Comte wrote Positive Philosophy-the first systematic

sociological approach to the study of society, which offered

solutions to social problems.

Comtes new approach or science, emphasized Positivism the

use of observation, comparison, experimentation, and the

historical method to gain necessary facts to analyze society.

Comte established two specific problems for sociological

investigation: Social Statics and Social Dynamics.

Social Statics- refers to the problem of order and stability

or social structure or the relatively stable elements found

in every society.

Social Dynamics- refers to the problems of social

change.

What make society or societies change and what

shapes the nature and direction of the changes?

Comte was so confident that the scientific method would unlock the secrets of

society that he came to regard sociologists as the Priesthood of humanity. They

were experts that would not only explain society or social events, but would

guide society in the direction of greater progress. Comte believed sociologists

could cure the social ills of society.

Although later sociologists have generally had more modest ambitions, they

have continued to wrestle with the problems of social order and social change.

Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)- she is considered to as a co-founder of sociology along with Comte. In 1838

she wrote How to Observe Manners and Morals. This

was one of the first books on social research.

While Comte was introducing sociology to France, Martineau

was laying the ground-work for sociological research in the

United States and Great Britain.

Martineau produced another book entitled Society in America

which was on e of the first and most thorough sociological

treatments on American social life.

This book addressed moral values; compared the system of social

stratification in Europe to that in America.

Martineau also condensed and translated Comtes

six volume positive philosophy into two volumes

and became the first to present sociology to

England.

Martineau had similarities to Comte in her views

on social order and social change.

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)- was considered to

be a major influence in sociology.He devised a theory to explain the problems of social order and change. He

also compared human societies to living organisms.

Ex: The parts of an animal, such as the heart and the lungs are interdependent

and contribute to the survival of the total organism.

Similarly, Spencer argued, the various parts of society, such as the state and

the economy, are also interdependent and work to ensure the stability and

survival of the the entire system.

To explain change, Spencer pushed from his analogy even

further. Applying Charles Darwins theory of evolution to

human societies, or On the Origin of Species (1859), he

argued that they gradually evolve from the forms found in the

primitive societies of his own time.

Spencer believed that evolution- means progress, and he

strongly opposed attempts at social reform on the grounds

they might interfere with the natural evolutionary process.

This position was called Social Darwinism or Survival of the

Fittest. This was believed to save the world, but later helped

to understand it.

Karl Marx (1818-1883):

He was educated in history, economics, and philosophy. He

declared that the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and

prestige, and other limited resources were not the result of

Natural Laws but were caused by the exploitation of one social

class by another.

Marx believed the Bourgeoisie or the power elite ruling class,

possessed power not because they were the fittest, but because

they owned and controlled the means of production.

Marx concluded that a slow, natural evolutionary process would

not bring necessary social change. The modern communist

movement owe their inspiration directly to Marx. Marxism is

not the same as communism.

Marx believed the bourgeoisie used deception, fraud, and

violence to seize the profits of the proletariat, or the working

class, whose labor produced the majority of societies material

assets.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917):

One of his most important contributions was his explanation for

suicide not as a personalized individual act, but as a sociological

act.

Durkheims first step was to develop a clear-cut, working

definition of suicide.

For example: Is it suicide for a soldier to rush into enemy fire,

knowing he will probably be killed, in order to save the lives of

his comarades?Durkheim said YES: Suicide occurs whenever an individual

knowingly causes the end of his own life, whether or not he puts

the gun to his head himself.


Durkheim, through various methods, found three types of suicide:

Egoistic Suicide: When people do not feel attached to a group or

community that commands loyalty and participation, they find it

easier to opt out once and for all, via suicide.

Ex: The kid that is singled out to be a potential gang member by a

gang. He has to prove himself, but finds he cant kill anyone like

the gang is asking. He finds it easier to kill himself than face the

gang everyday.

Altruistic Suicide: An act of self-sacrifice for the welfare of others.

Ex: When the group becomes more important than life itself. The

individual is willing to sacrifice himself to its needs (i.e. suicide

bombers).


Anomic Suicide: Traditional guidelines for behavior and shared

standards of good and bad n longer apply. What once seemed

impossible now seems probable. Hopes soar, and people may

become angry and lose hope when their unrealistic expectations are

not fulfilled. Durkheim called this breakdown of the collective

order Anomie from the Greek word Lawlessness.

Durheim was concerned about explaining social order. He believed that Social Solidarity, which is

a feeling of collective conscience by societal members, was responsible for social order.

He distinguished between two types of social solidarity:

Mechanical Solidarity: which is small, simple societies whose

members share the same beliefs and values (homogeneity).

Organic Solidarity: which develops in advanced, more complex

societies despite individuals dissimilar beliefs; people are

bonded by reciprocal needs, and fulfill different tasks in society.

Georg Simmel (1858-1918):

He believed that other sociologists had defined sociological study too broadly.

Earlier sociologist had taken the Macro-Level Approach- which was study sociology

on the broad scale and viewing it as more than the sum of its parts.Whereas Simmel believed that a more meaningful understanding of society could be

derived by a Micro-Level Approach, which was focusing more on small group

interactions and the relationships between the individual and society.

He also contributed the conceptual analysis of small group behavior.

Especially the DYAD- which is the smallest group possible consisting of two people/

And the TRIAD- which is a group of three people.

Simmels theoretical and methodological contributions were the basis for the

Interactionists perspective in sociology.

Verstehen, relieves the sociologist of the rigors of objective verification.

Max Weber (1864-1920):

He thought scientific objectivity was important.

He was insistent on using Verstehen, which is the somewhat subjective, empathetic

introspective, analysis of the interaction, in understanding the meaning of social

interaction.

Another important contribution was his concept of the Ideal Type. This is a conceptual

model or typology that is constructed from direct observation of a member of specific

cases and represents the essential qualities found in those cases.

Ex: Weber used bureaucracy as an ideal type to analyze and explain the increasing

rationalization that is part of formal organizations.He stated to maximize efficiency, formal organizations had become more bureaucratic

in structure.

The Three Interchangeable Lenses (Schools of

Thought):

Conflict Theory: suggests that competition and conflict are common in social

interaction and that the study of these processes is the most appropriate way to

understand society.

Symbolic Interaction: focuses on interactions between people on the processes by

which individuals come to develop viewpoints about themselves and to relate to their

associates.

Structural Functionalism: also known as functional analysis, focuses on the

structures that emerge in society and the functions that these structures perform in the

operation of society as a whole.

* Each of these perspectives can be viewed as interchangeable lenses in a

camera.

Some American Sociological Influences:

William Graham Sumner (1840-1910)- He was influenced by Herbert

Spencers ideas of social evolution.One of his most important contributions to sociology was his book on Folkways (1906),

which described the process through which societal norms and customs develop.

This led to two types of norms:

Folkways: Which are the informal rules and guidelines based on tradition that govern everyday behavior. These are the SHOULDS of society.

Mores: Which are norms based on moral precepts or obligatory norms, these are the MUSTS of society; sanctions for violations of mores are

harsh.

Ex: If you celebrated Halloween at Christmas time.

Ex: If you ate your neighbors dead dog.

Pure Sociology (1903)-involved the study of society in an effort to

understand and explain the natural laws that govern its evolution.


Lester F. Ward (1841-1913)- He was considered the first systematic sociologist.

He attempted to synthesize the major theoretical ideas of Comte and Spencer.

Ward created two subdivisions of sociology in his work :

Applied Sociology (1906)-used sociological principles, social ideas, and the

ethical considerations for the improvement of society.


W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963):

Founded the African American Sociology.

He was instrumental founding the (N.A.A.C.P.) National Association for the

Advancement of Colored People.


Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)- He developed the concept

of the Looking Glass Self-which was to describe the process

whereby an individuals self-concept is largely a reflection of how

he or she is perceived by other members of society. Society is

used like a mirror to reflect back a sense of self doubt or self-

worth or pride.

Ex: Like self-realization in psychology, positive or negative self-concept.


George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)- He was a big contributor to

the Interactionist Perspective. He insisted that humans were not

functionaries responding to an existing social structure, but that

the process of social interaction and the creating, defining, and

redefining of meaningful symbols made society possible.

He wrote Mind, Self, and Society (1934), where he outlined his

theoretical perspective and development of a sense of self.


Erving Goffman-He was a University of Chicago Student that

developed an analytical framework within symbolic

interactionism called Dramaturgical Analysis which uses the

analogy of the theater to analyze social behavior.


Robert Merton & Talcott Parsons- Shifted the attention of

sociology from the study of day-to-day social interaction back to

the macro-level of societal analysis.This theoretical approach came to be called Structural

Functionalism, and this perspective dominated sociology for

almost two decades and remains as sociologys major

theoretical perspective. It views society as a system of

interdependent and interrelated parts. Each part fulfills a

specific function.


Merton wrote a book called Social Theory and Social Structure.

He differentiated between two types of functions:

Manifest Functions: which are the intended and recognized

functions.

Latent Functions: which are the unintended and less obvious,

often unrecognized functions.

Merton pointed out that society, or aspects of society, are

dysfunctional because they threaten to disrupt social stability.


C. Wright Mills- Described the sociological imagination as the

ability to grasp history and biography and the relationship

between the two within society.


Students, you will see some overlap from chapter to chapter.

You have just been exposed to some of the major contributors of

sociology. We will make reference to them from time to time.

sociology

Documents

social sciences

social animals

social nature

western social thought

social movements sociologists

profound impact

deviant behavior

pioneers of philosophy