socio-economic impacts of ocean acidification, societal ...lead.univ-tln.fr/fichiers/paper...

Socio-economic impacts of ocean acidification, societal adaptation and alleviation of

poverty from MENA and SIDS

Nathalie HILMI, Mine CINAR, Alain SAFA, Samir B. MALIKI, Hina GREPIN-LOUISON,

Tamatoa BAMBRIDGE

Abstract : This study examines existing information on fisheries and fish production in

selected Middle East and North African Countries (MENA: Turkey and Algeria) and contrasts

it with Small Island Developing States (SIDS: French Polynesia). We use case studies to

make comparisons between the two regions vulnerable to ocean acidification, where one is a

closed sea and one is an open ocean. Our purpose is to discuss strategies to improve efficiency

and productivity in fisheries, especially in the selected countries to improve household protein

intake, eradicate poverty and increase household income. We study societal adaptation and

solutions to improve the welfare of the coastal communities. We find that MENA coastal

areas have more alternatives in food production compared to SIDS, which have very little

substitutes for sea food, and they are more at peril with OA.

Corresponding author: Nathalie HILMI ([email protected]), 8 Quai Antoine 1er

,

MC 98000 Monte-Carlo, MONACO

Mine CINAR, Loyola University Chicago, USA

Alain SAFA, Skill Partners, France

Samir MALIKI, University of Tlemcen, ALGERIA

Hina GREPIN-LOUISON, ISEPP-UCO Pacifique, Polynésie Française.

Tamatoa BAMBRIDGE, CRIOBE, Polynésie Française.

Introduction :

Ocean acidification is the process through which the balance of the global ocean chemistry is

changing by a decrease of ocean pH resulting from the dissolution of additional anthropogenic

CO2 from the atmosphere, primarily due to humans’ increasing need of energy and its

production by burning fossil fuel. This process becomes significantly relevant in the context

of biology and the effects that occur in living organisms. Other stressors like global warming,

low oxygen, high nutrients and pollution, overfishing, increasing tourism activities also

expose species and communities.

With the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) in September 2015, two

months before the UNFCCC-COP21 in Paris, it is extremely important that indicators

emphasize the need to accelerate the decarbonization of the economy and the reduction of

CO2 emissions globally to prevent further OA and its potential impacts on ecosystems and

human communities. A report commissioned by the Global Ocean Commission, The High

mailto:[email protected]

Seas and US, estimates that life in the high seas is absorbing 500 million tons of carbon per

year.

Ocean acidification is a global issue as it is due to an increase of CO2 emissions, but it should

be prioritized in local, national, regional and global policies. For that it is important to include

it in discussions and negotiations because it is an additional argument to CO2 emissions. The

sustainable development diagram with its three pillars - environmental, economic and social -

is the most appropriate way to consider the problem of ocean acidification with all its

implications.

Ocean acidification will result in adverse economic impacts on employment, incomes, food

security, trade and profits, and social and cultural impacts on well-being, poverty alleviation,

social conflicts and population migration. Amongst the sectors that might endure dramatic

social and economic downside are fisheries and aquaculture. Our purpose is to discuss

strategies to improve efficiency and productivity in fisheries, especially in the selected

countries to improve household protein intake and income. We also study societal adaptation

and solutions to improve the welfare of the coastal communities.

Given the variation in pH, we make use of case studies to make comparisons between the two

regions vulnerable to ocean acidification, one is a closed sea and one is an open ocean.

Craig (2014) discusses climate change, ocean acidification and food security. He mentions an

important point:“…..there is one climate change impact to the oceans that is completely

outside the regulatory purview of fisheries management but is nevertheless increasingly

destructive of marine biodiversity: ocean acidification, climate change’s “evil twin”. Since

the Industrial Revolution, the oceans have been the world’s largest carbon dioxide sink. Over

the decade 2002-2011, according to the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, the oceans

absorbed about 26% of the carbon dioxide released from fossil fuel burning, cement

manufacture, and land use changes, or about 2.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide per year. Once

in the ocean, carbon dioxide undergoes chemical reactions that lower seawater’s naturally

basic pH levels, a phenomenon known popularly as ocean acidification. Ocean acidification is

exacerbating the growing impacts of climate change on marine biodiversity and food security.

As the IPCC reports, corals and mollusks are particularly sensitive to ocean acidification, but

crustaceans and fish are not immune.” (p.4). And “It is doubtful that current fisheries

management law is up to the challenge of dealing with all of these climate change impacts to

marine biodiversity, even with respect to valuable food species. Even in developed countries

with relatively sophisticated fisheries management laws, species’ shifting ranging and

changing food web dynamics are likely to befuddle fisheries managers.” (p. 3). He suggests

that nations develop contingency plans and alternative sources for food security, which can be

more achievable in countries with large land bases.

I- French Polynesia

French Polynesia is made up of five groups of islands: Marquesa Islands, Society Islands,

Tuamotu Islands and Gambier Islands, Austral Islands, Bass Islands. Most of reef fish on

Tahitian markets are caught in the Tuamotus. Fishing is no longer enough to sustain the

fishers’ livelihoods. They often do several other jobs to make their living. The population is

also no more dependent on fish for their protein intake. They also consume imported frozen

chicken and corned beef as well as the local pork production. The French Polynesia’

Exclusive Economic Zone (FPEEZ) is usually illegally fished by other countries (Japanese,

Korean and Spanish) in important quantities like tuna, depleting the area. Figure 1 below

shows the increasing capture and aquaculture over the recent decades (Figure 1).

Figure 1 : Capture fishery in Polynesia by species in tons

Source : FAO Fishstat

The most important species fished in French Polynesia are albacore, yellowfin, skipjack,

bigeye, billfish and swordfish. Albacore represents 43% of catches by French Polynesian

fleets (mostly freezer vessels and for exports) of which 96% obtained by longliners.

Yellowfish represents 12% of catches by fleets of which 74% by longliners and 20% by poti

marara, a small multi-purpose fishing boat used by fishermen in the region. Skipjack

represents 12% of catches by French Polynesian fleets of which 55% by coastal bonitiers ( a

larger, ten meter long boat designed for bonito catching) and 38% by poti marara (artisanal

fishing). Bigeye represents 7% of catches, mainly by longliners. Billfish (blue marlin and

striped marlin) and swordfish represent respectively 5% and 1% of catches by French

Polynesian fleets (Gillett, 2009). Figure 2 represents the types and tuna and swordfish catch

over the years.

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1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Polynesia Fishery Production, by tons

CAPTURE Aquaculture

Figure 2 : Capture fisheries in Polynesia by species in tons


In French Polynesia, there are oceanic and coastal fisheries, with limited freshwater and

estuarine fisheries, and also coastal aquaculture. Oceanic fisheries are industrial fisheries

which are mainly longlining for albacore tuna. French Polynesia has also licensed foreign

fleets, but other foreign vessels also fish tuna in its FPEEZ exclusive economic zone. Coastal

fisheries are composed of demersal fish, nearshore pelagic fish, invertebrates mainly for

exports purpose. Coastal fisheries are a primary or secondary source of income for 25% of

coastal households in French Polynesia. Coral reef represents about 15000km2 of habitat for

fishes. Deepwater and interdital sand flats are also important for fisheries. Freshwater and

estuarine species are mainly catch by subsistence fishers on the river Papenoo and encompass

flagtails, eels, gobies, tilapia and Macrobrachium. Aquaculture employs 5000 people (Ponia,

2010) and aims mainly at the production of pearls (black pearl or mother-of-pearl) and marine

ornamentals (giant clams), as well as shrimp and marine fish.

Even if fisheries are not the primary source of protein due to imported food, French Polynesia

is considered to have one of the world highest per capita fish consumption. The average

national fish consumption in French Polynesia is about 70 kg per capita per year, twice the

recommended level of 35 kg and one of the highest fish consumption of fish per year (by the

SPC Public Health Programme, SPC 2008). Coral reefs and coastal habitat provide 169 kg of

catch per capita per year. The fish demand is forecasted to increase because of a growing

demography. Seafood quality may be deteriorating by becoming hazardous to humans

because of the local proliferation of ciguatera toxin in fish in Fakara and Nuku Hiva, as well

as pollution.

Longlining vessels are the most developed fishery in French Polynesia, essentially between

the Society and Marquesas islands, and they target mostly albacore, bigeye and yellowfin

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Polynesia Capture Fishery by species, by tons

Albacore Bigeye tuna Swordfish Yellowfin tuna

tuna, but also swordfish, sailfish, skipjack and mahi mahi. Some of the catch is exported to

Japan and Hawaï, the rest stays in Tahiti for markets, restaurants and schools. The smaller

reef fish in Papeete comes from the Tuamotus. High demand exists for exports of fresh or

frozen fishes in the United States and Europe, but also in new markets. Frozen albacore,

directly prepared and frozen on vessels, represent 60% of the exported fish. Bigeye, yellowfin

and swordfish have an important potential for exports. Figure 3 shows the trade evolution in

volume and Figure 4, in value.

Figure 3 : Exports and imports of fisheries in Polynesia, in tons


Figure 4 : Exports and imports of fisheries in Polynesia, in monetary value

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1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Polynesia Trade volume, by tons

Export Import

Source

a) Political aspects and societal adaptation solutions

French Polynesia is a member of the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission.

Marine Protected Areas (MPA) are management tools aiming at protecting biodiversity

and restoring marine ecosystems locally inside the MPA boundaries and also on the

outside thanks to spillover benefits. Overfishing and the scarcity of coastal fishes due to

climate change (increase of the temperature level of the sea, of the frequency of extreme

events) has motivated the implementation of a comprehensive management plan in the

island of Moorea with the involvement of all the stakeholders. The Plan de Gestion de

l’Espace Maritime (PGEM) for Moorea encompasses the entire lagoon. In another part of

Tahiti, local population chose to implement a hybrid model of lagoon protection based on

traditional principles (the rahui, which is a temporary ban on a territory or a resource like

fish) and state law enforcement (Bambridge 2013).

Fisheries preservation, conservation and management have a key social and economic

role, especially in coastal areas near urban centers. It is important to maintain the

contribution of fisheries to food security thanks to management practices and preservation

techniques especially because the population pressure has increased as well as imported

animal proteins. Though traditional fisheries management practices have disappeared

because of migration and social change, we have witnessed since the 2000’s the revival of

hybrid cultural and state law models of lagoon protection in many parts of the Pacific. In

French Polynesia, this socio-cultural revival appears in the form of a “cultural

reinvention” (Alevêque 2015). Such reinvention toward fish and lagoon protection, like in

other SIDS, appears as a way to secure economic benefits and adopt sustainable

management for resources.

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1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Polynesia Trade value, by thousands of dollars

Export Import

In fact, the social resilience to ocean acidification in many SIDS is notably the result of

strong cultural identity communities. In Polynesia, where this cultural identity is

prevalent, the rahui, which is a ban or a taboo, was enforced by the community to manage

the impact of ocean acidification on marine resources. Being a traditional institution of

sacred resource management, the rahui has become a political and ecological instrument

to restore unstructured ecological situation. Traditional pharmacopoeia and experts in

marine biology have defined zones of rahui,where bans have been initiated and

enforced/respected by the local community. Such an example of integrated management

of a protected space is Tehaupoo in Tahiti which is in the next figure.

Source: Bambridge 2013.

This form of resilience is indeed due the involvement of the local community participating

in a co-management process, which, when combined with the state law enforcement of

marine protected areas, is very effective.. In addition, the social and ecological resilience is

part of a dialogue between traditional and scientific experts which is heuristic in itself.

Recognition of experts allows scientists to update an entire segment of ancestral knowledge

about fish behavior to predict the evolution of weather or climate.

The international ocean governance framework for the management of oceans is provided by

the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which defines the

extent of jurisdictional zones and set the rights and obligations of each country. It governs

activities both at sea and on land. Other global and regional agreements supplement the

UNCLOS, like the UN Fish Stocks Agreement, the Convention on Biological Diversity and

Chapter 17 of Agenda 21. At the regional level, the United Nations Environment Program

Regional Seas Program includes regional agreements complemented by Regional Fisheries

Management Organizations for conservation and management of fisheries.

Multilateralagreements have been adopted under the auspices of the International Maritime

Organization for shipping or the International Whaling Commission. In the Doha round of the

World Trade Organization, the SIDS participated to the negotiations because of their trade

impact of marine goods and services (especially commodities through preferential trade

regimes).

Offshore fisheries, typically 20 miles out of shore for tuna, have an important economic role

in the Pacific SIDS and have lower levels of fishing efforts than inshore fisheries. Inshore

fisheries, a few miles off the shore have deteriorated because of population pressures and

migration, and the development of commercial fish sales opportunities. In artisanal fisheries,

there is no discard or by-catch because all the catch is retained for human consumption. But in

industrial fisheries, highgrading retains only the high quality fish and discards the rest.

Regional cooperation is needed between SIDS to help share the information about effective

fisheries management. Collaboration between them will help to develop technical,

institutional, technological and financial capacity.

II- Turkey

Turkey has 8,140 km of coast lines, which are in Black Sea, Aegean and the

Mediterranean with a LAND MASS TO COAST mass ratio of 10.4. ADD WRI HERE

These three seas are closed seas…….Figure 5 below shows the fluctuations in total

fishery production in Turkey between 1980 and 2011. The 40,000 tons of production

actually decreased by 1990-1991 due to environmental degradation and overfishing in

the Black Sea (See Cinar, et. al, 2013). Since then, tonnage has fluctuated but with a

rising trend to reach close to 70,000 tons by 2011.

Figure 5 : Total fishery production in Turkey in tons

Total Fishery Production by tons-Turkey

Unit Quantity(t) Change in percentage %

1950 89700

1951 100100 12%

1952 99300 -1%

1953 92700 -7%

1954 110610 19%

1955 103210 -7%

1956 125820 22%

1957 108930 -13%

1958 95240 -13%

1959 94550 -1%

1960 87860 -7%

1961 81280 -7%

1962 60200 -26%

1963 130420 117%

1964 121150 -7%

1965 134580 11%

1966 117056 -13%

1967 188163 61%

1968 133578 -29%

1969 169580 27%

1970 174241 3%

1971 160880 -8%

1972 175487 9%

1973 146974 -16%

1974 129418 -12%

1975 122494 -5%

1976 153520 25%

1977 165435 8%

1978 245221 48%

1979 350902 43%

1980 428225 22%

1981 471720 10%

1982 505206 7%

1983 559267 11%

1984 569168.085 2%

1985 580782.115 2%

1986 582930.932 0%

1987 627998 8%

1988 674004.5 7%

1989 454841.3 -33%

1990 384986.1 -15%

1991 364784 -5%

1992 456459 25%

1993 557973 22%

1994 603574 8%

1995 652585 8%

1996 553630.5 -15%

1997 504605 -9%

1998 543901 8%

1999 636827 17%

2000 582383 -9%

2001 594980 2%

2002 627847 6%

2003 587715 -6%

2004 644932 10%

2005 546063 -15%

2006 662381 21%

2007 773193 17%

2008 647014 -16%

2009 623556 -4%

2010 653646 5%

2011 703653 8%

2012 645249 -8%

2013 607991.6 -6%


In the meantime, efforts to increase aquaculture fishery production have paid off, where

production has increased by almost ten-fold, from about 20,000 tons in 1995 to close to

200,000 tons in 2011 (see Figure 6 below) and where the value has quadrupled from two

hundred million to about eight hundred million USD (See Figure 7).

Figure 6 : Aquaculture fishery production in Turkey in tons


Aquaculture Fishery Production, by tons- Turkey


1954 10

1955 10 0%

1956 20 100%

1957 30 50%

1958 40 33%

1959 50 25%

1960 60 20%

1961 80 33%

1962 100 25%

1963 120 20%

1964 150 25%

1965 180 20%

1966 220 22%

1967 250 14%

1968 310 24%

1969 350 13%

1970 400 14%

1971 470 18%

1972 530 13%

1973 600 13%

1974 680 13%

1975 770 13%

1976 860 12%

1977 970 13%

1978 1090 12%

1979 1220 12%

1980 1370 12%

1981 1540 12%

1982 1740 13%

1983 1970 13%

1984 2226 13%

1985 2700 21%

1986 3075 14%

1987 3300 7%

1988 4100 24%

1989 4354 6%

1990 5782 33%

1991 7835 36%

1992 9085 16%

1993 12438 37%

1994 15998 29%

1995 21607 35%

1996 33201 54%

1997 45450 37%

1998 56700 25%

1999 63000 11%

2000 79031 25%

2001 67244 -15%

2002 61165 -9%

2003 79943 31%

2004 94450 18%

2005 119567 27%

2006 129333 8%

2007 140743 9%

2008 152896 9%

2009 159639 4%

2010 167721 5%

2011 188890 13%

2012 212805 13%

2013 233863.6 10%

Figure 7 : Aquaculture fishery production in Turkey in US Dollars


Aquaculture Fishery Production in Turkey by Thousands of US Dollars

Land Area Turkey(USD 000) Change in percentage %

1984 5767.468

1985 7650 33%

1986 8977 17%

1987 10507.5 17%

1988 14817.5 41%

1989 23286 57%

1990 31379.5 35%

1991 48920 56%

1992 54411.9 11%

1993 67578.27 24%

1994 106961.89 58%

1995 127197.06 19%

1996 182568.59 44%

1997 227960 25%

1998 280745 23%

1999 306408.4 9%

2000 219775.11 -28%

2001 142315.16 -35%

2002 130481.5 -8%

2003 278614.15 114%

2004 401864.25 44%

2005 519887.29 29%

2006 555171.33 7%

2007 613942.31 11%

2008 649636.035 6%

2009 615737.914 -5%

2010 708531.179 15%

2011 763622.155 8%

2012 900642.819 18%

2013 905901.216 1%

Figure 8 below reports both capture and aquaculture productions by major species from 1980

to 2011. The most volatile production is the Plegaic marine fish capture, where annual

harvest can vary between 200,000 tons to 500,000 tons, and where the biggest dip occurs

during 1990-1991.

Figure 8 : Capture fisheries in Turkey by major species in tons


In general, one can see the substitution between aquaculture and fresh catch in Turkey,

which is as expected, given the volatility of the fresh catch production and the

degradation of Black Sea fishing environment.

a) Impacts of OA on food security

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Total Fishery Production, major species of commodities, by tons,

Turkey

Demersal Marine Fish Fresh, aquaculture Demersal Marine Fish Fresh, Capture

Freshwater Diadrom Fresh, Aquaculture Freshwater Diadrom Fresh, capture

Molluscs Excl Cephlp Fresh, capture Pelagic Marine Fish Fresh, capture

Being surrounded on three sides by seas, fisheries, fish production and consumption

are essential for food security in Turkey. Studies have concentrated on what can be

done to mitigate disaster and therefore are more concentrated understanding fish

consumption or the survival of the fisheries, rather than ocean acidification which

cannot be controlled regionally. Survival of fishery firms has been of of utmost

importance to the country. Tan et. Al. (2014) in Balikesir and Dardanelles Provinces

found through firm surveys factors that determined survival length of fishery firms.

They state that the long term survivors had managers whose education levels were

considerably higher than firms in other agricultural subsectors. These firms marketed

their brand names well (in tuna and sardine cannery, etc) and they exported outside the

country. Summarizing their results in a SWOT analysis, they found the weaknesses to

be the inability to use credits, supports and subsidies. Their survey results also showed

that employers found their biggest problems to be overharvesting of fish (40%), lack

of government subsidies and support (18%), regular inspection of fishing processes

(12%), reducing bureaucracy (12%), and planning production (12%). Last of all, they

mentioned the reduction of pollution in the seas (6%). Note that the pollution and or

the water quality did not rank as high as other factors among the successful firms of

fisheries.

Another study (Sen, 2011) examined food habits of households in two cities, Konya

(landlocked) and Mersin (on the Mediterranean). Conducting 500 to 1000 surveys to

understand their fish consumption habits, they found chicken-turkey meat to be first in the

survey respondents (Konya: 47.8%; Mersin: 47.0%). The second most consumed was red

meat, beef and lamb (Konya: 25.6%; Mersin: 24.2%). Fish was the least consumed in the diet

(Konya: 22.8%; Mersin: 25.8%). The consumption was anchovy, bonito and salmon (Konya)

and anchovy, sea bream and sea bass (Mersin). The author notes:

“It was found that 65,8% of participants from Konya and 90,4 % from Mersinconsumed the

fish as fresh, and …… fried…… It was determined that most of the families inKonya (53,2%)

and Mersin (70,6%) consumed 0-4 kg fish a week. 72,8 % ofparticipants in Konya and 84,2%

of participants in Mersin answered the question“ Do you think that sufficient and balanced

fish is consumed in Turkey?” as “No”.” (Sen, 2011).

It is interesting to note that people in Mersin, a city on the coast, thought there was not

enough household consumption of fish because fish was expensive (46.2%) and that they

failed to find fish in the markets (17.6%).

b) Impacts of OA on trade, employment and income

Figure 9 : Trade of fisheries in Turkey in US dollars

Global Value Fishery Trade, by Thousands of US dollars

Value(USD 000) Value(USD 000)

Trade flow Exports Change in

percentage % Imports

Change in percentage %

1976 16678 394

1977 19742 18% 544 38%

1978 19293 -2% 429 -21%

1979 29219 51% 40 -91%

1980 37415 28% 160 300%

1981 48298 29% 434 171%

1982 46771 -3% 251 -42%

1983 43117 -8% 108 -57%

1984 62374 45% 2771 2466%

1985 49060 -21% 534 -81%

1986 81015 65% 1637 207%

1987 74217 -8% 3445 110%

1988 77379 4% 1871 -46%

1989 69214 -11% 11310 504%

1990 73355 6% 27828 146%

1991 64216 -12% 24770 -11%

1992 64616 1% 30557 23%

1993 33496 -48% 18483 -40%

1994 75330 125% 38526 108%

1995 92318 23% 51233 33%

1996 105250 14% 61291 20%

1997 127049 21% 85305 39%

1998 96861 -24% 76684 -10%

1999 100364 4% 59577 -22%

2000 92363 -8% 52534 -12%

2001 74841 -19% 30676 -42%

2002 117437 57% 29671 -3%

2003 150667 28% 46586 57%

2004 214069 42% 93828 101%

2005 245510 15% 105286 12%

2006 206518 -16% 151694 44%

2007 223887 8% 181172 19%

2008 439705 96% 205033 13%

2009 346259 -21% 191505 -7%

2010 361239 4% 245043 28%

2011 437265 21% 279805 14%


Figure 10 : Trade of fisheries in Turkey in tons

Global Value Fishery Trade, by Tons- Turkey

Quantity(t) Quantity(t)

Trade flow Exports Change in percentage % Imports Change in percentage %

1976 6929 514

1977 7185 4% 755 47%

1978 6756 -6% 431 -43%

1979 8112 20% 31 -93%

1980 9785 21% 73 135%

1981 15427 58% 581 696%

1982 15790 2% 110 -81%

1983 18834 19% 140 27%

1984 27224 45% 4565 3161%

1985 22848 -16% 746 -84%

1986 23699 4% 2872 285%

1987 33977 43% 3605 26%

1988 36805 8% 2552 -29%

1989 32710 -11% 22175 769%

1990 28937 -12% 51799 134%

1991 18887 -35% 47619 -8%

1992 15570 -18% 51901 9%

1993 10786 -31% 33905 -35%

1994 29631 175% 53372 57%

1995 37664 27% 57924 9%

1996 27781 -26% 66124 14%

1997 35767 29% 87874 33%

1998 28076 -22% 75080 -15%

1999 31005 10% 98662 31%

2000 39433 27% 75725 -23%

2001 27476 -30% 49853 -34%

2002 39996 46% 37208 -25%

2003 47920 20% 63776 71%

2004 41282 -14% 110827 74%

2005 46243 12% 89392 -19%

2006 47548 3% 116970 31%

2007 58581 23% 128121 10%

2008 73150 25% 133467 4%

2009 62018 -15% 144236 8%

2010 72663 17% 159326 10%

2011 78598 8% 133198 -16%


c) Political aspects and societal adaptation solutions

Environmental degradation, lower quality as well as the size of fish catch, and the decline of

artisanal fishing have been accepted as the current norms in Turkey. She has substituted

alternative meat proteins for fish protein, developed aquaculture and has paid attention to the

survival of marine related firms after the environmental crisis lived through the 1990s with

the sharp decrease of fish catch. Emphasis has been placed in the industrial organization

structure and industrial parks, in the easement of credit facilities for marine output processing

firms and in aquaculture.

III- Algeria

We note an increase of the fishing production over two periods 1996-2003 and 2005-2008. From this

year, the production decreased (see Figure 11).

As regards the production stemming from the fish farming, she tripled between 1986 and 2006 with

a light reduction between 2002 and 2004 (see Figure 12).

The biggest value in thousand dollars in the sector of the fish farming was registered in 2008 and

having been constant since 1994 (see Figure 13)

Figure 11 : Total fishery production in Algeria in tons

Total Fishery Production by tons-Algeria


1950 27300

1951 23100 -15%

1952 29100 26%

1953 22798 -22%

1954 20962 -8%

1955 25898 24%

1956 21956 -15%

1957 21952 0%

1958 18578 -15%

1959 22100 19%

1960 25500 15%

1961 30400 19%

1962 21500 -29%

1963 16900 -21%

1964 17300 2%

1965 18300 6%

1966 20350 11%

1967 21150 4%

1968 18250 -14%

1969 23150 27%

1970 24234 5%

1971 23715 -2%

1972 28313 19%

1973 31243 10%

1974 35758 14%

1975 37693 5%

1976 35122 -7%

1977 43475 24%

1978 34143 -21%

1979 38678 13%

1980 48000 24%

1981 56000 17%

1982 64500 15%

1983 65002 1%

1984 65595.9 1%

1985 66141.6 1%

1986 65511.8 -1%

1987 94367.8 44%

1988 106741.3 13%

1989 99555.42 -7%

1990 90603.24 -9%

1991 79852 -12%

1992 95420.91 19%

1993 102200 7%

1994 135798.9 33%

1995 106247.7 -22%

1996 82317.8 -23%

1997 91907.4 12%

1998 92620 1%

1999 102649 11%

2000 113510.9 11%

2001 134082 18%

2002 134800.8 1%

2003 141376 5%

2004 114050.2 -19%

2005 126628.3 11%

2006 146051.8 15%

2007 147768.1 1%

2008 141642.3 -4%

2009 129676.2 -8%

2010 95365.75 -26%

2011 104006.3 9%

2012 108190.9 4%

2013 102251.1 -5%


Figure 12 : Aquaculture production in Algeria in tons

Aquaculture Fishery Production, by tons- Algeria


1983 2

1984 95 4650%

1985 141 48%

1986 250 77%

1987 274 10%

1988 304 11%

1989 368 21%

1990 407 11%

1991 150 -63%

1992 147 -2%

1993 300 104%

1994 389 30%

1995 369 -5%

1996 322 -13%

1997 322 0%

1998 283 -12%

1999 250 -12%

2000 351 40%

2001 454 29%

2002 476 5%

2003 417 -12%

2004 586 41%

2005 368 -37%

2006 288 -22%

2007 405 41%

2008 2779.916 586%

2009 2163.232 -22%

2010 1758.748 -19%

2011 2244.25 28%

2012 2647.879 18%

2013 2193.082 -17%


Figure 13 : Aquaculture production in Algeria in US dollars


Aquaculture Fishery Production in Algeria by Thousands of US Dollars

Value(USD 000) Change in percentage %

1984 341.611

1985 430.612 26%

1986 808.999 88%

1987 1040.186 29%

1988 1252.339 20%

1989 1029.951 -18%

1990 1062.211 3%

1991 504.792 -52%

1992 362.866 -28%

1993 721.688 99%

1994 959.6 33%

1995 970.5 1%

1996 860.2 -11%

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Aquaculture Fishery Value , by Thousands of dollars US

Algeria

Algeria

1997 860.2 0%

1998 794.1 -8%

1999 677.6 -15%

2000 938.15 38%

2001 1230.2 31%

2002 1282.5 4%

2003 977.55 -24%

2004 1327.2 36%

2005 854.65 -36%

2006 613 -28%

2007 879 43%

2008 6594.449 650%

2009 3767.976 -43%

2010 3388.456 -10%

2011 4181.64 23%

2012 4575.478 9%

2013 4328.786 -5%


The Algerian coastline length represents of around 1,480 km with 31 fishing ports and 56000

fishermen. Maritime depths are irregular, with a background in rugged terra in majority.

Algeria has not escaped the transformation process of natural economies worldwide. Indeed,

the fisheries sector is facing qualitative and quantitative changes of fisheries resources and

threats of depletion of fish stocks. As for aquaculture, despite the many individual initiatives

and projects implemented, it could not find sustainable development.

Similarly, the sea food processing industries remain facing a multitude of barriers limiting

their performance and competitiveness in the international market. Also, the exports are

marked by a double rigidity both in terms of structure and destination of products.

During the development of fishing and aquaculture activities, the Algerian Ministry of Fishing

and Fishery Resources has begun the implementation of the development strategy plan

“Aquapêche Algeria 2020”, which is based on several goals, including the development of

infrastructure and port super-structure dedicated to fishing, their management of services to

the fishing industry and aquaculture.

The marine catches in the case of Algeria consist mainly of pelagic species and decreased

significantly from 2006: -46% for pelagic, -57% for demersal, -23% for crustaceans

(Figure14).

The continental capture, conducted mainly in tanks and irrigation canals where we found

mainly carp (extensive aquaculture), have experienced strong growth in 2008 and currently

are still around 2,000 tones per year. The productions in acquacol farms (shellfish, marine fish

and freshwater fish) show a booming business, especially from 2007, which forecasts a bright

future, but it's currently in its early stages of productive activity with large variations in

production by species. In particular, shellfish farming has significantly reduced its level of

production in recent years (Wiefels, 2014)

Figure 14 : Capture fisheries in Algeria by major species in tons

Total Fishery Production, major species of commodities, by tons, Algeria

Species Cephalopods Crustaceans Demersal Marine Fish Marine Fish NEI Pelagic Marine Fish

1950 0 1700 2100 7300 16200

1951 0 2100 1200 4400 15400

1952 0 1800 1800 6200 19300

1953 0 1700 1700 6500 12898

1954 0 1200 1600 4400 13762

1955 0 1600 1700 4400 18198

1956 0 1600 1700 4100 14556

1957 0 2100 1300 4300 14252

1958 0 1500 1500 5700 9878

1959 0 1600 1700 7300 11500

1960 0 1300 1900 7100 15200

1961 0 2000 1300 7000 20100

1962 0 1700 1500 7000 11300

1963 0 900 1500 2300 12200

1964 0 1200 1700 1900 12500

1965 0 1100 1000 2000 14200

1966 0 1300 1800 2800 14450

1967 0 2000 2100 2500 14550

1968 0 1400 1500 2200 13150

1969 0 1100 1800 4100 16150

1970 0 1000 3900 0 19334

1971 0 943 3458 262 19052

1972 0 895 4473 0 22945

1973 0 1330 4801 600 24512

1974 0 2290 5620 320 27478

1975 0 1546 5146 286 30715

1976 0 1443 5846 200 27633

1977 0 1578 6042 232 35623

1978 0 1792 6471 277 25603

1979 0 1740 7243 156 29539

1980 0 2160 8990 190 36660

1981 0 2520 10490 220 42770

1982 0 2900 12080 260 49260

1983 0 2923 12172 262 49643

1984 0 2947 12264 264 50025

1985 0 3000 12350 270 50380

1986 0 6052 3088 0 56121

1987 0 7186 4686 0 82220

1988 0 1958 4316 0 100160

1989 755 2773 9742 4083 81831

1990 650 2555 8124 2612 76251

1991 550 2160 7139 2836 67005

1992 650 2390 8271 1869 82086

1993 750 2605 9377 1912 87250

1994 900 3030 10600 2737 118135

1995 834 2105 8017 3890 91026

1996 810 2364 7867 3964 66984

1997 942 2858 7550 3799 76431

1998 1307 3646 9746 2351 75272

1999 886 3285 9264 3403 85558

2000 916 4245 8781 9324 89891

2001 929 3150 9285 6010 114249

2002 969 2949 10381 6749 113272

2003 1480 2654 12389 8271 116163

2004 1340 2637 9869 0 99616

2005 1899 2806 10764 0 110790

2006 1364 2332 9733 0 132333

2007 2319 1846 11325 6452 125377

2008 1609 2199 14497 14419 106120

2009 1298 2612 12043 13560 97994

2010 1122 1866 10746 13871 65906

2011 1482 2202 12221 13489 72346

2012 1444 2312 11540 16648 73572

2013 1362 1736 9215 16004 71653


a) Impacts of OA on food security

The Algerian case raises an important issue concerning the supply of the domestic market in

seafood. Indeed the domestic fish products are inadequate to meet the request of the Algerian

market and the trend of the domestic production during the last 7 years is continuously

downward while imports continue to grow, even in a particularly low consumption context.

The demographic growth is supposed to peak at 55.7 million inhabitants in 2075. Population

pressure can negatively influence the environment in Algeria and contribute to the increased

risk of ocean acidification. Artisanal fishing methods also have their impact on food security

because they adversely affect the presence of some species. This will be translated into

significant risk of overfishing in case of lack of landings and accompanying studies of the

main species stocks

b) Impacts of OA on trade, employment and income

As for exports, we can see that they have declined, particularly between 2007 and 2013,

which is understandable in terms of reduced catches. Spain is by far the largest customer of

Algerian seafood, especially shellfish (octopus) and crustaceans (shrimp). The neighboring

Tunisia is the second client, mostly for fresh fish.

The fishery imports increased sharply in recent years to exceed 30,000 tons (90 million USD)

in 2013. (Figures 15 and 16). The hypothesis is that a large part of these imports is intended

for very specific niche market consisting of tens of thousands of Chinese laborers working in

Algeria (Wiefels, 2014)

Figure 15 : Exports and imports of fisheries in Algeria, in quantities

Global Value Fishery Trade, by Tons- Algeria

Quantity(t) Quantity(t)

Trade flow Exports Change in percentage % Imports Change in percentage %

1976 4731 3276

1977 1653 -65% 7482 128%

1978 366 -78% 6949 -7%

1979 297 -19% 8468 22%

1980 389 31% 9372 11%

1981 347 -11% 13633 45%

1982 37 -89% 13066 -4%

1983 163 341% 19545 50%

1984 182 12% 22941 17%

1985 188 3% 30471 33%

1986 247 31% 35786 17%

1987 336 36% 23969 -33%

1988 351 4% 31147 30%

1989 428 22% 13409 -57%

1990 1064 149% 6257 -53%

1991 1944 83% 1714 -73%

1992 5122 163% 8229 380%

1993 2117 -59% 5073 -38%

1994 2361 12% 9460 86%

1995 4544 92% 33028 249%

1996 3515 -23% 7247 -78%

1997 2288 -35% 9973 38%

1998 1178 -49% 7864 -21%

1999 2734 132% 13352 70%

2000 4205 54% 12546 -6%

2001 4876 16% 14015 12%

2002 5816 19% 9260 -34%

2003 6454 11% 16616 79%

2004 8200 27% 23320 40%

2005 10924 33% 21077 -10%

2006 11244 3% 30607 45%

2007 12164 8% 27581 -10%

2008 13335 10% 31417 14%

2009 8498 -36% 54058 72%

2010 5899 -31% 50643 -6%

2011 5868 -1% 58593 16%


Figure 16 : Exports and imports of fisheries in Algeria, in monetary value

Global Value Fishery Trade, by Thousands of US dollars

Value(USD 000) Value(USD 000)

Exports Change in percentage % Imports Change in percentage %

1976 1392 5868

1977 1889 36% 11261 92%

1978 354 -81% 10168 -10%

1979 260 -27% 10979 8%

1980 246 -5% 13192 20%

1981 248 1% 16858 28%

1982 16 -94% 20219 20%

1983 61 281% 28510 41%

1984 78 28% 45917 61%

1985 92 18% 34212 -25%

1986 81 -12% 31039 -9%

1987 100 23% 37197 20%

1988 93 -7% 44216 19%

1989 75 -19% 15680 -65%

1990 164 119% 6862 -56%

1991 408 149% 3367 -51%

1992 877 115% 9137 171%

1993 541 -38% 6461 -29%

1994 620 15% 9952 54%

1995 1045 69% 20356 105%

1996 717 -31% 4576 -78%

1997 716 0% 7461 63%

1998 379 -47% 5717 -23%

1999 860 127% 7953 39%

2000 1317 53% 8118 2%

2001 1498 14% 7944 -2%

2002 2415 61% 11306 42%

2003 1755 -27% 21818 93%

2004 1537 -12% 22996 5%

2005 1982 29% 20505 -11%

2006 2079 5% 23204 13%

2007 2181 5% 20978 -10%

2008 2781 28% 18189 -13%

2009 1881 -32% 28296 56%

2010 1408 -25% 29923 6%

2011 1265 -10% 29171 -3%


For the development of sustainable aquaculture, it will benefit from 60% of the budget as provided in

the Plan Aquapêche 2020. It is projected initially 100,000 tons, which will generate permanent jobs

(MPRH, 2014).

c) Societal adaptation solutions

The Algerian Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources has opened a major plan of actions

for the development of fisheries and aquaculture and to a better understanding of the socio-

economic context of fisheries in Algeria and the levers that could guarantee its success with a

focus on artisanal fishing.

On the basis of a SWOT analysis, there is a possibility of action to develop many small

industries / freezing with relatively small individual investments to reduce the level of poverty

and the creation of new jobs. The traditional lifestyle is important because the most of coastal

regions are economically dependent on the commercial fisheries sector and there are few

economic alternatives to fishing. Another socioeconomic opportunity action concerns the

important Algerian domestic market with a strong demand, the rapidly growing markets in

neighboring countries and at global level as shown by statistics of foreign trade in

aquaculture.

Conclusion and policy options for addressing OA:

Finally, large area countries, even if coastal such as Turkey, have more alternatives in food

production compared to SIDS which have to rely on production from the seas only. SIDS

have very little substitution for food, they are more at peril with OA than larger countries such

as Turkey and Algeria where other animal protein substitutes can be made.

There is no literature connecting OA to food security directly, linearly or nonlinearly. The

connection is only indirectly. Most regional literature from agricultural and fisheries

departments of universities, including those in Turkey, Algeria and French Polynesia, look at

what they can control: They study fish eating habits, survival of the fisheries, survival of some

species, etc. The future research agenda should consider OA impacts in more detail. Right

now, metallic pollution of waters and seas with discharges seems to be the concern of the

nations of regions. Why? It is easy to measure them in the laboratory in the fish catch and

make a decision on whether they are safe to eat or not. On the other hand, it is not easy to

measure OA in fish catch but only find trends on where fish/corals can survive/die.

Theoretically, a zero emission of CO2 would be the long-term solution to ocean acidification

but this is a panacea and not economically viable on a worldwide scale. Thus, we believe that

OA issues should be addressed on a more regional level based on scientific data pertaining to

the economy, culture or available natural resources. Nevertheless, a global mitigation

approach is always valid and would most likely lead to sustainable outcomes. Furthermore, as

economies are mostly driven by private sector, the latter must be considered as an important

stakeholder for the process of determining adaptive solutions.

Ocean acidification can be included in global climate change negotiations in addition to

increasing temperatures, pollution, sea level rise, overexploitation of resources and invasive

species introduction. Scientists can determine the most tolerant species to ocean acidification

to develop their culturebecause biodiversity is a natural capital and ecosystem services have

non-monetary values too. So their protection and preservation in a healthy planet is a legacy

to transmit to new generations.

To achieve rapid results in protecting the oceans, all the stakeholders should be involved. As

we have noticed, developing countries and specifically the SIDS are the most vulnerable to

ocean acidification. No solution can be found without their participation in the negotiations.

Also indigenous populations should be involved in the international negotiations because they

are likely to be the most impacted communities, for exemple in coastal areas of the SIDS.

To improve ecosystem and community resilience through better management options and to

reduce the negative effects of other stressors (overfishing, destructions by divers, bad water

quality), funding is necessary to undertake such actions, so financing solutions should be

found. In addition to the Green Climate Fund, a Blue Ocean Fund could be raised.

When countries face economic crisis, the environmental issues become secondary.

Governments seek to recover the economy thanks to an increase of growth domestic product

(GDP), while ocean acidification potentially reduces all the components of the GDP :

consumption, investment, governement spending, trade. That is why environmental options

can be considered not only in structural policies, but also in cyclical policies and be inserted

in monetary or budgetary policies. That is why environmental issues should be considered in

both macreconomic and microeconomic aspects.

Local mitigative actions should be developed, such as marine protected areas, in addition to

human adaptation solutions. The private sector should be involved in ocean acidification

actions too. Green economy and green finance should be blued. The firms can be environment

friendly. As they imply investments, financial instruments should be implemented like taxes,

insurances, loans and bonds, equities and derivatives, … The biobanking scheme can

complete the credit-trading scheme with biodiversity credits. In the Ecosystem Marketplace,

natural capital is considered as important as other forms of capital. Nature is also an heritage

for future generations. Industries and financial markets should be part of the solution at the

same level as international organizations, governments and NGOs. Greening the financial

system and the business, and including ocean-related issues would be part of mitigation and

adaptation strategies. Public and private investments can be combined and oriented towards

social, economic and environmental objectives.

Communication between the different stakeholders is crucial : scientists, policy makers,

CEOs, businessmen, traders, bankers, international organisations, NGOs. As economists are a

common components to all those parties, their language can be understood by most of them.

Through education and training, the population can be informed and included in adaptative

capacities. To convince people about ocean acidification risks, scientific facts may be

presented with its advances and remaining questions. They have to know that the phenomena

are amplifying year after year because the effects are cumulative and that it is really urgent to

find mitigation and adaptation solutions. Even if there is no « one-fits-all » solution, some

options are already locally applicable.

References and Bibliography:

Allison,E.H. et al. “Vulnerability of National Economies to the Impacts of Climate Change on

Fisheries.” Fish and Fisheries,10(2), 2009, 173–196.

Asian Development Bank, World Bank, Forum Fisheries Agency, Secretariat of the Pacific

Community, and Australian Agency for International Development, The Contribution of

Fisheries to the Economies of Pacific Island Countries and Territories. By Gillett, R., Pacific

Studies Series, 2009, 362

Bambridge T., 2013. “Le foncier terrestre et marin en Polynésie française. L’étude de cas de

Teahupoo”. Land Tenure Journal, Vol. 2, n°12, pp 118-143, FAO, Rome Italie.

Chakraborty, S., and Newton, A. C. “Climate Change, Plant Diseases and Food Security: An

Overview.” Plant Pathology, 60(1), 2011, 2-14.

Cinar, E. M., Johnson, J., and Palmer, A. “Decision making: Fishing production and fishers in

the Black Sea.” Fisheries Research, 147, 296-303.

Craig, R. K. “Climate Change, Oceans, Public Health, and the Law.” University of Utah

College of Law Research Paper, 19 April, 2014, 77.

Huelsenbeck Matthew, 2012. Ocean-based Food Security Threatened in a High CO2 World.

OCEANA

Ministère « Algérien de la Pêche et des ressources halieutiques (2014) », Plan Aquapeche

2020 », Algiers, http://www.mpeche.gov.dz/IMG/pdf/aquapeche_2020.pdf

Ponia Ben, 2010, A review of aquaculture in the Pacific Islands 1998-2007: tracking a decade

of progress through official and provisional statistics, Secretariat of the Pacific Community

technical paper, ISBN : 978-982-00-0401-6

Şen, A. 2011, “Konya ve Mersin il merkezlerinde yaşayan bireylerin balık tüketimi

konusundaki alışkanlık ve bilgi düzeylerinin karşılaştırılması.” Doctoral diss., Selçuk

Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.

Secretariat of the Pacific Community, 2012, “Pacific Oceanscape and the Ocean

Commissioner: A new way of looking at the Pacific Ocean”, <http://www.spc.int/library/991-

pacific-Oceanscape-and-the-ocean-commissioner-a-new-way-of-looking-at-the-pacific-

ocean.html>

Shindell, D., Kuylenstierna, J. C., Vignati, E., van Dingenen, R., Amann, M., Klimont, Z., ...

& Fowler, D. “Simultaneously Mitigating Near-term Climate Change and Improving Human

Health and Food Security.” Science, 335(6065), 2012, 183-189.

Tan, Sibel, Ismail Seki and Mehmet Akbulut (2014). « Dogal Kaynaklarin Kullanimi ve Su

Surdurebilirligi Acisindan Su Urnuleri Sektorunun Mevcut Durumu ve SWOT Analizi »:

Turkiye TR@ Bolgesi Ornegi , Working Paper, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversity,

<http://gkd.comu.edu.tr/images/form/dosya/dosya_386739.pdf>

Türkeş, M. “Impacts of the Climate Change on Agricultural Food Security, Traditional

Knowledge and Agroecology.” Turkish Journal of Agriculture-Food Science and Technology,

2(2), 2014.

Wiefels Rolans (2014), « L’industrie de la Pêche et de l’Aquaculture en Algérie », FAO-

UNDP, Projet ALG/14/001/ /01/34, December.

Appendices : Alternate figures

http://www.mpeche.gov.dz/IMG/pdf/aquapeche_2020.pdf

Figure 5 : Total fishery production in Turkey in tonnes


Figure 6 : Aquaculture fishery production in Turkey in tonnes


Figure 7 : Aquaculture fishery production in Turkey in US Dollars

0

200000

400000

600000

800000

1000000

19

80

19

81

19

82

19

83

19

84

19

85

19

86

19

87

19

88

19

89

19

90

19

91

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92

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20

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06

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07

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11

Total Fishery production, by tonnes Turkey

Turkey

0,00

50000,00

100000,00

150000,00

200000,00

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Aquaculture Fishery production, by tonnes Turkey

Turkey


Figure 9 : Trade of fisheries in Turkey in US dollars


Figure 10 : Trade of fisheries in Turkey in tonnes

0

200000

400000

600000

800000

1000000

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Aquaculture Fishery Value, by Thousands of dollars US

Turkey

Turkey

0

200000

400000

600000

800000

1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

Global Value Fishery Trade, by Thousands of dollars US

Turkey

EXPORT IMPORT


Figure 11 : Total fishery production in Algeria in tonnes


Figure 12 : Aquaculture production in Algeria in tonnes

0

50000

100000

150000

200000

250000

1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

Global Value Fishery Trade, by Tonnes Turkey

Export Import

0

50000

100000

150000

200000

19

80

19

81

19

82

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83

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11

Total Fishery production, by tonnes Algeria

Algeria


Figure 14 : Capture fisheries in Algeria by major species in tonnes


0

50000

100000

150000

200000

19

50

19

52

19

54

19

56

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58

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60

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19

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Aquaculture Fishery production, by tonnes Algeria

Algeria

0

50000

100000

150000

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Total Fishery Production, major species of commodities, by tonnes,

Algeria

Cephalopods Fresh, capture Crustaceans Fresh, capture

Demersal Marine Fish Fresh, capture Marine Fish Nes Fresh, Capture

Pelagic Marine Fish Fresh, capture

Figure 15 : Exports and imports of fisheries in Algeria, in quantities


Figure 16 : Exports and imports of fisheries in Algeria, in monetary value


0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

Global Value Fishery Trade, by Tonnes Algeria

EXPORT IMPORT

0

50000

100000

Global Value Fishery Trade, by Thousands of dollars US

Algeria

EXPORT IMPORT

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