soci ppt chapter 1 by j.j.macionis

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Society: the basics

CHAPTER

Eleventh Edition

Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.

All rights reserved.

Society: the basics,Eleventh Edition

John J. Macionis

Sociology:

Perspective, Theory,

and Method

1

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2/91Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.



John J. Macionis

The Sociological Perspective

Socio logy

The systematic study of human society

At the heart of the discipline is a distinctive point of

view called the sociological perspective


3/91Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.



John J. Macionis

The Sociological Perspective:

Seeing the General in the Particular

Seeing general patterns in the behavior of

particular individuals.

The general categories which we fall into

shape our particular life experiences.

Question:

How are your life experiences shaped by the

general categories into which you happen to

fall (or have been placed) into? List the

categories and give examples.


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John J. Macionis


Seeing the Strange in the Familiar

Looking sociologically requires us to give

up the familiar idea that human behavior is

simply a matter of what people decide to

do in favor of the initially strange notion

that society guides our thoughts and

deeds.


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John J. Macionis


Seeing the Strange in the Familiar

Brainstorm about three familiar practices

in the United States.

Now find something strange about each of

the practices. Discuss why they seem

strange, now that you are using the

sociological perspective.


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John J. Macionis

Image Bank


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John J. Macionis

The Sociological Perspective: Seeing

Personal Choice in Social Context

Human behavior is not as individualistic as

we may think.

Why do people resist the idea that they act

in socially patterned ways?


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John J. Macionis

The Sociological Perspective: Seeing

Personal Choice in Social Context

Durkheims Study of Suicide

Higher suicide among whites and men reflect

greater wealth and freedom

Lower rate among women and people of color

reflect limited social choices

Social Integrationthe degree to which

people are tied to their social group.


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John J. Macionis

Image Bank


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John J. Macionis

Seeing Sociologically:

Marginality

Social Marginalitybeing excluded from

social activity as an outsider.

TAKE A STEP BACK

Have you ever been treated as an outsider?

Why?


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John J. Macionis


Marginality

The greater a persons marginality, the

better able they are to use the sociological

perspective

To become better at using the sociological

perspective, step back from familiar

routines


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John J. Macionis


Social Crisis

Periods of change or crisis makes

everyone feel off balance, encouraging the

use of the sociological perspective

How did the Great Depression (1930s)

and the events taking place in the 1960s

spark sociological thinking?

C. Wright Mills (1959)

Using the sociological imagination helps people

understand their society and how it affects their

own lives


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John J. Macionis

The Importance of a

Global Perspective

Global Perspective

The study of the larger world and our societys

place in it.


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John J. Macionis

The Importance of a

Global Perspective

What is the importance of a global

perspective for sociology?

Sociology shows that our place in society

profoundly affects our life experiences.

How would your life be different if you would

have been born and raised in a low-income

country verse that of a middle- or high-incomenation?


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John J. Macionis

Benefits of Global Thinking

Thinking globally helps us learn more

about ourselves.

In an increasingly interconnected world,

we can understand ourselves to the extent

that we understand others

Sociology is an invitation to learn a new

way of looking at the world around us


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John J. Macionis

Applying the Sociological

Perspective

Sociology is at work guiding many of the

laws and policies that shape our lives.

On an individual level, making use of the

sociological perspective leads to important

personal growth and expanded awareness

Studying sociology is excellent preparation

for the world of work


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John J. Macionis

Sociology and Public Policy

Sociologists have helped shape public

policy

The laws and regulations that guide how

people in communities live and work

Question:

Think of a public policy topic in our society that is

currently under review and/or discussion. How could we use sociological thinking to help

guide our society towards effective public policy in

relationship to the selected topic?


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John J. Macionis

Sociology and Personal Growth

Using sociology benefits us in four ways

The sociological perspective helps us assess

the truth of common sense

The sociological perspective helps us see the

opportunities in our everyday lives

The sociological perspective empowers us to

be active participants in our society The sociological perspective helps us live in a

diverse world


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John J. Macionis

Sociology and Personal Growth

Question:

How can you benefit in your work and/or your

personal life by thinking sociologically?


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John J. Macionis

Careers:

The Sociology Advantage

A sociology background is excellent in

preparing for the working world

Agencies and companies want to be sure

that products, programs, and policies they

create get the job done at the lowest cost

Sociologists, especially researchers, are in

high demand for the above type of

evaluation research


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John J. Macionis

Careers:

The Sociology Advantage

Clinical Sociologists

Work is the same as clinical psychologists

Other fields

Criminal justice

Health care

Gain sociological advantage by learning

about Patterns of health and illness within a population

How factors such as race, gender, and social class

affect health


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John J. Macionis

Social Change and Sociology

What striking transformations took place in

18thand 19thcentury Europe that drove

the development of sociology?

Rise of a factory-based economy

Explosive growth of cities

New ideas about democracy and political

rights


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John J. Macionis

Social Change and Sociology

Question:

Can you think of any striking transformations

that have taken place recently that may have

had influence on the future development ofsociology?


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John J. Macionis

Science and Sociology

Auguste Comte (17981857)

French social thinker who coined the term

sociology in 1838 to describe a new way of

looking at the world. Prior to the development of sociology, how did

people answer questions that they had concerning

the operation of society?


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John J. Macionis

Science and Sociology

Auguste Comte (17981857) (continued)

Comte saw sociology as the product of three

stages of historical development:

Theological stageGods will

Metaphysical stagenatural phenomenon

Scientific stage

Positivismunderstanding the world based on science.


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John J. Macionis

Sociological Theory

Theory

A statement of how and why specific facts are

related

Job of sociological theory

To explain social behavior in the real world

Sociologists conduct research to test and

refine their theories


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John J. Macionis

Sociological Theory

Two basic questions in building theory

What issues should we study?

How should we connect the facts?


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John J. Macionis

Sociological Theory

Theoretical Approach

A basic image of society that guides thinking

and research

It serves as a roadmap.

Three major theoretical approaches

Structural-functional approach

Social-conflict approach Symbolic-interaction approach

Th St t l F ti l


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John J. Macionis

The Structural-Functional

Approach

A framework for building theory that sees

society as a complex system whose parts

work together to promote solidarity and

stability

Social Structure

Any relatively stable pattern of social behavior

Is there social structure in this classroom? Whatabout in the family or workplace?

Th St t l F ti l


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Approach

Social Functions

The consequences of a social pattern for the

operation of society as a whole

Th St t l F ti l


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Approach

This approach looks for each structures

social patterns function to keep society

going, at least in its present form

Robert K. Merton (19102003)

Expanded understanding of social function

Pointed out that any social structure probably has

many functions Distinguished between manifest functions and

latent functions

Th St t l F ti l


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John J. Macionis


Approach

Manifest Functions

The recognized and intended consequences

of any social pattern

Latent Functions

The unrecognized and unintended

consequences of any social pattern

What are the manifest and latent functionsof our nations higher education

programs?

Th St t l F ti l


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John J. Macionis


Approach

Social Dysfunction

Any social pattern that might disrupt the

operation of society

Why are prison gangs considereddysfunctional? Even though are may be

considered dysfunctional, can this

dysfunction be functional?

The Str ct ral F nctional


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John J. Macionis


Approach

CRITICAL REVIEW

Main idea of the structural-functional

approach is its vision of society as stable and

orderly Main goal of sociologists who use this

approach is to figure out what makes society

tick


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John J. Macionis

The Social-Conflict Approach


society as an arena of inequality that

generates conflict and change

Highlights how the following factors are

linked to inequality

Class, race, ethnicity, gender, age

Social-conflict approach is used to look at

ongoing conflict between dominant and

disadvantaged categories of people

Feminism and the


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John J. Macionis

Feminism and the

Gender-Conflict Approach

Gender-conflict Approach

A point of view that focuses on inequality and

conflict between women and men

Gender-conflict approach is closely linkedto feminism

The advocacy of social inequality for women

and men

Feminism and the


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John J. Macionis

Feminism and the

Gender-Conflict Approach

Another contribution of the gender-conflict

approach

Awareness of the importance of women to the

development of sociology


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John J. Macionis

The Race-Conflict Approach

A point of view that focuses on inequality

and conflict between people of different

racial and ethnic categories

Race-conflict approach points out the

contributions to the development of

sociology by people of color


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John J. Macionis

The Race-Conflict Approach

CRITICAL REVIEW

Ignores how shared values and

interdependence can unify members of a

society Politically, social-conflict cannot claim

scientific objectivity

Supporters note that social-conflict responds that all

theoretical approaches have political consequences

Both the functional and conflict approaches

paint society in broad strokes

The Symbolic Interaction


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John J. Macionis

The Symbolic-Interaction

Approach

Structural-functional and social-conflict

approaches share a macro-level

orientation

Broad focus on social structures that shape

society as a whole

Micro-level orientation

A close-up focus on social interaction inspecific situations



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John J. Macionis


Approach

Symbolic-interaction Approach


society as the product of the everyday

interactions of individuals How do millions of people weave their lives

together into the drama of society?



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John J. Macionis


Approach

Society is the reality people construct for

themselves as they interact with one

another

If you see a homeless man on the street, howdo you respond to that person? Consider

your thoughts and how they lead to your

actions.



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John J. Macionis


Approach

CRITICAL REVIEW

Symbolic-interaction approach reminds us

that society basically amounts to people

interacting Micro-level sociology shows how individuals

construct and experience society



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John J. Macionis


Approach

CRITICAL REVIEW (continued)

This approach risks overlooking

Widespread influence of culture

Factors such as Class

Gender

Race


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John J. Macionis

Image Bank


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Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved.

Society: the basics,Eleventh EditionJohn J. Macionis

Apply each of the three major

theoretical paradigms to the analysis of

the ant colony.


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Three Ways to do Sociology

All sociologists want to learn about the

social world

Three ways to do sociological research

Scientific

Interpretive

Critical Sociology


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Scientific Sociology

Science

A logical system that bases knowledge on

direct, systematic observation


The study of society based on systematic

observation of social behavior


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Empirical Evidence

Information we can verify with our senses

A scientific orientation often challenges

what we accept as common sense


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Concepts Variables and


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Concepts, Variables, and

Measurement

Concept

A mental construct that represents some part

of the world in a simplified form

Variable

A concept that changes from case to case

Concepts Variables and


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Concepts, Variables, and

Measurement

Measurement

A procedure for determining the value of a

variable in a specific case

Operationalize a variable

Stating exactly what they are measuring


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Statistics

Descriptive statistics

To state what is average for a large

population


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Statistics

Descriptive statistics (continued)

Most commonly used descriptive statistics

are:

MeanArithmetic average of all measures, obtained by adding

them up and dividing by the number of cases

Median

The score at the halfway point in an ascending series ofnumbers

Mode

The score that occurs most often


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Reliability and Validity

Reliability

Consistency in measurement

For measurement to be reliable, the process must

yield the same results when repeated

Validity

Actually measuring exactly what you intend to

measure Means hitting the exact target or the bulls-eye


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Correlation and Cause

Correlation

A relationship in which two (or more) variables

change together

Not just how variables change but which variablechanges the other

Cause and Effect

A relationship in which change in one variablecauses change in another


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Scientists refer to the cause as

Independent Variable

And the effect as

Dependent Variable

Understanding cause and effect is valuable

Allows researchers topredict how one pattern of

behavior will produce another


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Spurious or False Correlation

When two variables change together but

neither one causes the other

Usually results from a third factor


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To be sure of a real cause-and-effect

relationship, we must show:

Variables are correlated

The independent (causal) variable occursbefore the dependant variable

There is no evidence that a third variable has

been overlooked, causing a spuriouscorrelation

f O


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The Ideal of Objectivity

Objectivity (personal neutrality)

To allow the facts to speak for themselves

and not be influenced by the researchers

personal values and biases Value-relevant research

Topics the researcher cares about

Value-free research Dedication to finding truth as it is rather than

as we think it should be

I i S i l


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Interpretive Sociology

Humans engage in meaningful action

Interpretive sociology

The study of sociology that focuses on the

meanings people attach to their social world

I t ti S i l


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Interpretive sociology differs from scientific

or empirical sociology in three ways:

Scientific sociology focuses on action

Interpretive sociology focuses on meaning

Scientific sociology sees an objective reality

Interpretive sociology sees reality

Scientific sociology favors quantitative data Interpretive sociology favors qualitative data

I t ti S i l


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Scientific orientation is well-suited for

research in a laboratory

Interpretive orientation is better suited in a

natural setting

Investigators interact with people

W b C t f V t h


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Webers Concept of Verstehen

German word for understanding

Interpretive sociologists job

Observe what people do

Share in their world of meaning

Appreciate why they act as they do

Subjective thoughts and feelings, though

difficult to measure, are the focus of

interpretive sociologists attention

C iti l S i l


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Critical Sociology

The study of society that focuses on the

need for social change

Critical sociologists ask moral and political

questions Critical sociologists reject Webers goal that

Sociology be value-free

Emphasize that sociologists should be activists inpursuit of greater social equality

C iti l S i l


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Critical Sociology

The study of society that focuses on the

need for social change (continued)

Point of sociology is

Not just to research the social world but to changeit in the direction of democracy and social justice

(Feagin & Hernan, 2001:1)

C iti l S i l


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Critical Sociology

Critical sociologists

Seek to change society and the character of

research

Identify personally with their research subjects With subjects, use their findings to provide a

voice for less powerful people

Advance the political goal of a more equalsociety

S i l P liti


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Sociology as Politics

Scientific sociologists

Object to taking sides in this way

Claims critical sociology

Becomes political

Lacks objectivity

Cannot correct for its own biases

S i l P liti


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Sociology as Politics

Critical sociologists

All research is political in that it either calls for

change or does not

Believe critical sociology is an activeapproach


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M th d d Th


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Methods and Theory

Each of the three ways to do sociology,

scientific, interpretive, and critical, stand

closer to one of the theoretical approaches

Scientific orientation is linked to structural-functional

Interpretive sociology is linked to symbolic-

interaction Critical sociology is linked to social-conflict

G d d R h


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Gender and Research

Gender

The personal traits and social positions that

members of a society attach to being female

or male Gender affects research

Gender can affect sociological research in

five waysAndrocentricity, over-generalizing, gender

blindness, double standards, and interference

Gender and Research


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Gender and Research

Androcentricity

Literally means focus on the male

Approaching an issue from a male

perspective Researcher that tries to explain human

behavior cannot ignore half of humanity

Gender and Research


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Gender and Research

Over-generalizing

Occurs when sociologists gather data only

from men but use that information to draw

conclusions about all people Gender blindness

Failing to consider gender at all

Lives of men and women differ in many ways

Gender and Research


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Gender and Research

Double standards

Researchers must be careful not to judge

men and women by different standards

InterferenceA study is distorted if a subject reacts to the

researchers sex, interfering with the research

operation

Research Ethics


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Research Ethics

Awareness that research can harm as wellas help subjects and communities

American Sociological Association

Established formal guidelines for conducting

research

Sociologists must be skillful and fair-minded in their

work

Disclose all research findings

Make results available to other sociologists

Ensure that subjects are not harmed

Research Ethics


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Research Ethics

American Sociological Association(continued)


research Stop work right away if subject is at risk of harm

Protect the privacy of individuals involved in a

research project

Get informed consent

Must include all sources of financial support

Must have an institutional review board (IRB)

Research Ethics


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Research Ethics

American Sociological Association(continued)


research Before beginning work in another country:

Investigator must become familiar enough with that society

to understand what people are

Likely to regard as violation of privacy Likely to regard as sources of danger

In the United States diverse society, the same rule applies

to studying people with a different culture

Research Methods


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Research Methods

A systematic plan for doing research

Four methods of sociological investigation

Experiments

Surveys

Participant observation

Existing sources

Testing a Hypothesis:


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g yp

The Experiment

A research method for investigating causeand effect under highly controlled

conditions

Test a specific hypothesisA statement of how two or more variables are

related

An educated guess about how variables arelinkedusually an if-then statement

Testing a Hypothesis:


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g y

The Experiment

Evidence needed to reject or accept thehypothesis occurs in four steps:

State which variable is the independent

variableand which is the dependent variable Measure the initial value of the dependent

variable

Expose the dependent variable to the

independent variable

Measure the dependent variable again to see

what change, if any, took place

Asking Questions:


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Survey Research

Survey

A research method in which subjects respond

to a series of statements or questions in a

questionnaire or an interview Survey targets some population

Researchers usually study a sample

A much smaller number of subjects selectedto represent the entire population

Asking Questions:


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Survey Research

Survey must have a specific plan forasking questions and recording answers

Most common is a questionnaire

Series of written statements or questions

Interview

Researcher personally asks subjects a series of

questions

Gives participants freedom to respond as they wish

In the Field: Participant


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Observation

Participant observation

A research method in which investigators

systematically observe people while joining

them in their routine activities Cultural anthropologists

Uses fieldwork to study societies

Fieldwork makes most participant observation

exploratory and descriptive

Participant observation has few hard-and-fast rules

In the Field: Participant


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Observation

Participant observation (continued)

Critics claim:

Participant observation falls short of scientific

standards Personal impressions of a single researcher play a central

role

Strength

Personal approach Observer can gain profound insight into peoples

behavior

Survey might disrupt a setting


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Using Available Data:


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Existing Sources

Sociologists make use of existingsources

Data collected by others

Most widely used data are gathered bygovernment agencies

Using available information

Using Available Data:


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Existing Sources

Criticism

Data might not be available in the exact form

that is needed

Always questions accuracy of the existingdata


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Putting It All Together: Ten Steps


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Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved.Society: the basics,Eleventh EditionJohn J. Macionis

in Sociological Research

1. What is your topic?

2. What have others already learned?

3. What, exactly, are your questions?

4. What will you need to carry out research?

5. Might the research cause harm?

6. What method will you use?

Putting It All Together: Ten Steps


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in Sociological Research

7. How will you record the data?

8. What do the data tell you?

9. What are your conclusions?

10.How can you share what you have

learned?

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