PLANS AND PURPOSES

HOW VIDEOGAME GOALS SHAPE PLAYER BEHAVIOUR

PhD DEFENCE7 DECEMBER 2006

JONAS HEIDE SMITHSMITH@ITU.DK

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What is a game?A social experience

An aesthetic experience

A virtual training ground

A part of the media ecology

An arena for decision making

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There are competing

theories/models of the player

(and the most dominant is the Rational Player

Model)

How can the Rational Player

Model be used

analytically?

What are the behavioral predictions

of the model?

(and how well do they

explain actual play?)

THESIS STRUCTURE

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The player is an entity optimizing his/her outcome within the game as defined by the objective goals.

"…in every game [the player] responds in a fashion calculated to help him achieve his objectives."

- game designer Greg Costikyan

THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL

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Bridges the gap between game and player (behavior)

Explains behaviour in terms of individual/selfish reasoning

Makes it closely related to Economic Man (the Beliefs/Preferences/Constraints Model)

But the Rational Player Model is bolder (or more reckless): It assumes preferences

THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL

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Can be operationalized through economic game theory: The formal study of conflict (between agents whose choices are interrelated)

THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODELAlice

Swerves Does not swerve

BobSwerves Bob: 2 points

Alice: 2 pointsBob: 1 point

Alice: 3 points

Does not swerve Bob: 3 pointsAlice: 1 point

Bob: 0 pointsAlice: 0 points

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Example 1: Three degrees of cooperation

THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL

Competitive Semi-cooperative Cooperative

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Example 1: Three degrees of cooperation

THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL

Competitive Semi-cooperative Cooperative

Constant sum games (the total payoff is

fixed). In two-player competitive games, no

incentives for cooperation exist at all. For games with more

players, such incentives may occur transitorily.

Non-zero sum games which reward team-

work over mutual non-cooperation but provide

temptations for individuals to act

selfishly.

Non-zero sum games which reward players for coordinating their strategies; i.e. they

reward team-work and provide no temptation

for selfish play.

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Example 2: Strategicness

A measure of the degree to which other players matter and the degree to which one can do anything about it

THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL

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THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL

Strategicness Strategicness Strategicness

Time Time Time

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THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL may open games for formal analysis…

But does it accurately portray reality?

THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL

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PLAYER STUDY

Mashed (PS2) Champions of Norrath (PS2) Fifa 2004 (Xbox)

CompetitiveNo formal incentives to

cooperate

CooperativeNo formal incentives

to act non-cooperatively

Semi-cooperativeCooperation necessary but with temptations to

be selfish

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PLAYER STUDY19 test subjects in 6 groups played all three games

Sessions were videotaped from two angles

All verbal statements (~ 8500) were transcribed

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PLAYER STUDYData analysisAll statements were coded

August [CoN]: Just distribute them all [Albert is distributing points]. Dexterity and intelligence are probably the most important things.

§ ORDER, REQUEST OR SUGGEST ACTION

§ ADVICE, INFORMATION, OR HELP GIVEN

Ask advice (interface)4%

Ask advice10%

Laughter18%

Give advice18%

Annoyance7%

Critique1%

Game criticism2%

Advice given (interface)6%

Order action8%

Apology for self1%

Other22%

Suggest injustice1%

Order action (interface)2%

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PLAYER STUDYData analysis

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PLAYER STUDYExample 1: Skill inequityPlayer 4 wins round1: I really think I’m pointing, I’m just crashing

4: Hey, look at what’s on my roof!

3: [laughs]

1: Yaayy!

3: It’s completely insane

2: This is the weirdest car game I’ve ever played

3: No!

1: Then you just explode because you don’t move

2: I’m trying to shoot now, but I can’t

1: [laughs]

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PLAYER STUDYExample 2: Tension2: I think I heard the whistle

3: Who did that?

2: I did

1: No-body’s doing anything. And red is just looking while they score.

2: Am I the keeper or what?

1: No, I am the keeper. You just have to watch for your colors.

3: Okay, let’s pull ourselves together… We need a goal.

2: I’m running deep

3: I’m with you over here.

1: No!

3: Come on, ahh he’s really slow this one

4: [laughs]

3: Stop him!

1: Nobody’s doing anything. The defence is completely gone. Yellow.

2: Well, two of us have never tried Fifa 2004 before.

1: Well I haven’t tried it either

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PLAYER STUDYObservationsPlayers only redefined game goals jokingly, and often in order to alleviate embarrassment over collective defeat

Taunts were rare, quite polite and only occurred during Mashed (competitive play)

Serious criticism of other players was practically non-existent

Apologies were used to acknowledge that one’s actions hurt the team

Lars: I had the most unforced errors. That was me.

Daniel: Where are you going? [The other players fall behind] [Laughs]

Simon: No, you click through before you [read the dialogue]. I have no idea what we need to do, I’m just following.

Simon: Oh, sorry. That was my mistake.

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PLAYER STUDYBut was the model supported?

YESWithin the gamespace

players acted in (apparent) alignment

with the model

NOIn the sofa, players did

not confirm the predictions (e.g. they

were helpful when playing Mashed)

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PLAYER STUDY

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PLAYER STUDYInterpretationPlayers seek to win but this desire is subjugated by social norms defining appropriate play.

Outside the gamespace, the players mitigate and modify their “rational” behavior to satisfy the social norm of fairness: Performance in the game should not be a consequence of inferior knowledge about game mechanics.

Most multi-player gaming is in fact cooperative.

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PLAYER STUDYA purposeful blindnessA model gives focus and precision

It does not, in any simple form, grant us access to the Truth

But it helps us see if we are on the right track

And…

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THE ENDit enables us to be surprised

Thank you very much!