skull base monitoring
DESCRIPTION
The fundamental goal of skull base surgery is tumor removal with preservation of neurological function. Injury to the lower cranial nerves (LCN; CN 9-12) profoundly affects a patient's quality of life. Although intraoperative cranial nerve monitoring (IOM) is widely practiced for other cranial nerves, literature addressing the LCN is scantTRANSCRIPT
Neuroelectrophysiological Monitoring
in Skull Base surgeries
What is Intraoperative Monitoring ?•Intraoperative Neurophysiological Monitoring (IONM or IOM)
•utilization of neurophysiological tests in a surgical setting
•tests were originally designed for clinical diagnosis but have been adapted for intraoperative use
•early usage of facial nerve monitoring provided a basis for the usefulness of IOM
• “STANDARD OF PRACTICE”
Why Use Intraoperative Monitoring ?
Why Use Intraoperative Monitoring?• posterior fossa and skull base surgery carries a significant risk of
devastating neurological injury
• detection of evolving iatrogenic neural injury at a stage when it is still reversible
• localization of sensitive neural structures in the presence of pathology
• prognostic value in assessing and anticipating possible postoperative neurological deficits
• allows aggressive resection of tumours that may have been previously considered inoperable
What Tests are Utilized ?•Somatosensory Evoked Potentials (SSEPs)
•Auditory Evoked Potentials (AEPs)
•Cranial Nerve Electromyography (cnEMG)
• skull base and posterior fossa surgery requires the most complex monitoring
• recent advances in computer technology have facilitated significant improvements in MULTIMODALITY MONITORING
• up to 32 channels can be recorded
What Tests are Utilized ?
Cranial Nerve Monitoring• cranial nerves can be grouped as: sensory, motor, mixed
• electromyography has so far proven to be the only practical means of protecting the cranial nerves
• cranial nerve is assessed indirectly by recording from the muscles that it innervates
• provides real-time audio and visual feedback of cranial nerve function
• most effective in cranial nerves that are predominantly motor (facial, spinal accessory, hypoglossal)
• offers limited protection of sensory dominant nerves (trigeminal, glossopharyngeal, vagus)
Cranial Nerve Electromyography Cranial Nerve Monitored Muscle(s)
I olfactory N/A (sensory nerve)
II optic N/A (sensory nerve, use VEP?)
III oculomotor inferior rectus
IV trochlear superior oblique
V trigeminal masseter, temporalis
VI abducens lateral rectus
VII facial orbicularis oculi, orbicularis oris, mentalis
VIII vestibulocochlear N/A (sensory nerve, use BSAEP)
IX glossopharyngeal stylopharyngeus
X vagus cricothyroid
XI spinal accessory trapezius, sternocleidomastoid
XII hypoglossal intrinsic tongue muscles
Cranial Nerve Electromyography• activity can be classified as:
surgically evoked – spontaneouselectrically evoked - triggered
• surgical events – temperature changes, traction, blunt traumaany mechanical manipulation
• sharp dissection is a poor trigger event
• quantification of intraoperative EMG is elusive
• the optimal situation is the lack of activity - neurotonic discharges – “train activity”
amplitude, frequency, duration
• cranial motor nuclei can be mapped within the brainstem
Cranial Nerve Electromyography
Cranial Nerve Electromyography
Cranial Nerve Electromyography• electrically triggered
EMG with the use of a stimulator probe can help the surgeon gauge the proximity to cranial nerves
• stimulation proximally at the brainstem can predict postoperative dysfunction
• functional integrity can be tested and compared to structural integrity
Auditory Evoked Potentials• AEPs are a type of sensory evoked potential (SEP)
• neural responses to acoustic stimuli
• the short latency AEPs are the only useful responses in IOMBrainstem Auditory Evoked Potential (BSAEP)Electrocochleogram (ECochG)VIIIth Cranial Nerve Action Potential (NAP)
• largely unaffected by anaesthesia
• can guard against cochlear, VIIIth nerve and brainstem injury- ischemic or traumatic
Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potential• BSAEP is a short latency
auditory evoked potential
• a multi-peak, far-field response to stimulation of the auditory apparatus, generated in structures from the cochlea to the midbrain
• seven waves (or peaks) are typically recorded in the first ten milliseconds following stimulation
• generator sites are still often in dispute
II
IIII
IIIIII
IVIV
VV
VIVI
VIIVII
Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potential
II
IIII
IIIIII
IVIV
VV
VIVIVIIVII
Peak I - post-synaptic distal cochlear nerve
Peak II - ipsilateral cochlear nucleus in the upper medulla
Peak III - superior olivary complex in the pons (ipsi and contralateral)
Peak IV - ascending lateral lemniscus in the pons (ipsi and contralateral)
Peak V - inferior colliculus in the midbrain (ipsi and contralateral)
Peak VI - medial geniculate in the thalamus
Peak VII - thalamo-cortical auditory radiations or auditory cortex
Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potential• click stimulus is
presented to the auditory apparatus though headphones or silastic tubing and ear inserts
• recorded far-field with electrode combination placed around ear and at vertex
• bilateral recordings are obtained so that a control side is present
Brainstem Auditory Evoked PotentialII
IIIIIIIIII VV
Electrocochleogram• near–field recording of the cochlear response to auditory stimulation
• recorded simultaneously with the BSAEP
• the cochlea is acutely sensitive to ischaemic injury
• a large percentage of postoperative hearing loss can be attributed to the loss of the intracranial blood supply
• ECochG will quickly disappear in situations where the cochlear artery is stressed
• does not test the integrity of the VIIIth nerve or brainstem
Electrocochleogram
•electrode is placed extratympanically or transtympanically to sit in close proximity to the cochlea
Electrocochleogram
IIECochGECochG
BSAEPBSAEP
• a large evoked potential is recorded that mimics peak I of the BSAEP
• up to 10X larger than the BSAEP
• response is minimally averaged and is quickly acquired in almost real-time
• can be recorded even when the BSAEP is almost absent
I V
VIIIth Nerve Action Potential
II
IIII
• electrode is placed on the VIIIth cranial nerve proximally at the brainstem
• best assessment of VIIIth nerve integrity
• presence of a “bulky” electrode in a small surgical site can be interfering
• recording site is not always accessible
VIIIth Nerve Action PotentialNAPNAP
VIIIth Nerve
• large evoked potential is recorded - occurs between peak I and II of the BSAEP
• very short acquisition time – can be recorded live
• near-field response up to 100X larger than the BSAEP
• can be recorded even when the BSAEP is almost absent
Preservation of Hearing• acoustic neuromas above 2.5 – 3.0 cm rarely result in serviceable hearing and is usually not attempted
• even in small tumours (0.5 – 1.0 cm) the success rates vary (20 – 50%) and should not be considered as a standard
• other CP angle tumours usually have better results
Preservation of Hearing
VIIIth NAPVIIIth NAP
ECochGECochG
BSAEPBSAEP III
IV V
I II
• an abnormal or absent BSAEP is often seen even in patients with minor preoperative hearing loss
• widely agreed that the combined use of BSAEP, ECochG and VIIIth NAP results in the greatest chance of hearing preservation
Preservation of Hearing• presence of peak V (A) of the BSAEP is the single best predictor of postoperative hearing even with changes in the other peaks
• absence of peak V (B) rarely results in any serviceable hearing
• presence of peak V does not guarantee hearing but the correlation is strong
• ECochG and VIIIth NAP should remain relatively unchanged
AA
BB
Somatosensory Evoked Potentials• Somatosensory Evoked Potentials (SSEPs) can be obtained
from the upper or lower limbs
• electrical stimulation of the peripheral nervous system recorded centrally
• probably no difference between UL and LL
• ULSSEP is technically easier to record so it is used more often
• like the BSAEP is recorded bilaterally
• when combined with the BSAEP two distinct brainstem pathways are assessed providing more effective monitoring
Somatosensory Evoked Potentials• brainstem generators of
the SSEP remain controversial and elusive
• sensory cortex response is used for interpretation
• changes in amplitude and latency are compared to the baseline and any controls
• capable of detecting conduction blocks through the brainstem -ischaemic or mechanical
cortical
cervicalperipheral
Brainstem
generators?
Somatosensory Evoked Potentials
peripheral control
cervical-medullary junction
cortical response
ULSSEP
Other Modalities ?• Motor Evoked Potentials (MEP)
• limited but increasing use has been reported skull base surgery
• cortical stimulation triggering head and neck muscles directly can be distracting
• more practical in spinal surgery
• Cranial Nerve Sensory Evoked Potentials
• early uses of technique have proven to be inconsistent (trigeminal SEP)
• may eventually evolve into a viable IOM technique
References•Møller AR: Intraoperative Neurophysiologic Monitoring, Luxembourg, Harwood Academic Publishers,1995
•Russell GB: Primer of Intraoperative Neurophysiologic Monitoring, Boston, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1995
•Zouridakis G: A Concise Guide to Intraoperative Monitoring, Boca Raton, CRC Press, 2001