six sigma - rolul campionilor de proiect
TRANSCRIPT
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SIX SIGMA
Role of Project Champions
Material prepared by Robert H. Lochner, Ph.D.Copyrighted 2003, 2004
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What is Six Sigma?
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Six Sigma is:
A measure of quality of a process
An approach to process and systemdesign and management which leads to
superior quality and productivity
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Six Sigma as a Measure of Quality
Sigma Percent Defects per Million
Level Defective Opportunities (DPMO)
6 0.000% 3.45 0.02% 320
4 0.4% 6,210
3 6.6% 66,8002 30.8% 308,000
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Examples of Sigma Processes
6s: Domestic airline fatality rate.
6s:Anesthesia deaths during surgery.
4s: Preventable hospital deaths. 3s:Airline lost baggage
2s: Mammography screening
1s: IRS telephone tax advice
Source: GE Medical Systems, in article by W.H. Ettinger in Sept. 2001 Trustee.
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Examples of Sigma Processes
There are 365x24x60 = 525,600 minutes per year.
6s: No water at faucet 1.8 minutes per year.
5s: Telephone not working 2 hours and 48 minutesper year.
4s: No electricity 54 hours a year.
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Common Weaknesses of
Management Systems
Production schedule comes first, cost
second, quality third Inadequate or no quality planning
Quality viewed as a Production issue
Quality by inspection
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Common Weaknesses of
Management Systems - continued
Customers and Production not involved innew product design
Lack of understanding of process variation
Inadequate training of employees
Decisions based on opinions
No understanding of concept of internalcustomer
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Strategy for Success
Decisions should be:
Driven by what customers want, not what
the boss wants.
Based on data, not opinions.
Made with input from individuals closest tothe situation.
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Evolution of Modern Quality
Inspection
Statistical Quality Control
Quality Assurance
Total Quality Management
Six Sigma
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Inspection
Quality is assured by inspecting finished
products. The goal is uniform quality.Individuals are held responsible for thequality of finished products.
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Statistical Quality Control
Statistical tools developed in the 1920sare used to produce uniform products with
reduced inspection. Unacceptableproducts are caused by out of controlprocesses. The Quality ControlDepartments job is to solve quality-related
problems. Controlling variation is a key issue
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Quality Assurance
It is understood that superior products canbe produced only by cooperation of all
departments involved in design,production and delivery of products.Processes, not people, are the source ofmost quality problems. Quality is built into
products. Reducing variation is a priority.
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Total Quality Management
Quality is a management issue, not amanufacturing issue.
Quality is a competitive issue.
Quality is driven by customer expectations
Quality Improvement actions must bebased on data.
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W. Edwards Deming
Leading quality guru of 20th Century.
Credited with bringing modern quality to
Japan.
A physicist turned statistician, Demingstresses need to measure and reduce
process variation. Taught that quality was a management
issue.
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Deming Chain Reaction
Improve Quality
Costs Decrease
Increased market shareStay in business and grow
Fulfill the missions of our sponsors
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Dr. Demings Profound Knowledge
Knowledge of variation, types of variation,statistical theory.
Knowledge about tampering.
Knowledge about interaction of forces.
Knowledge of operational definitions.
Knowledge of psychology.
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Definition of Six Sigma
Six Sigma is a comprehensive and flexible systemfor achieving, sustaining and maximizing
business success. Six Sigma is uniquely drivenby close understanding of customer needs,disciplined use of facts, data, and statisticalanalysis, and diligent attention to managing,
improving, and reinventing business processes.
from pg. xi ofThe Six Sigma Wayby Pande, Neuman and Cavanagh
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In a Six Sigma organization:
Quality is a strategy for increasing marketshare and profitability.
Variation is reduced to levels previouslythought unattainable.
Modern statistical methods are used to
understand what drives processes andachieve breakthrough improvements.
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Six Sigma:
Customer driven
Process focused
Prevention oriented
Decisions are based on data
Extensive use of statistical methods
Supported by infrastructure
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Benefits of Six Sigma:
Significant cost savings
Increased customer satisfaction
Increased market share
Increases productivity
Reduces cycle times
Promotes cross-functional cooperation
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Success Story - Motorola
Between 1987 and 1997, sales increasedfive-fold, profits increased 20% per year.
Total savings of $14 billion.
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Success Story General Electric
Started Six Sigma in 1995, pay-off of $750million by end of 1998.
A team in billing cut invoice errors by 98% A team in GE Capitol streamlined contract
review process, saving $1 million per year
A GE Medical Systems team redesignedmedical scanning technology to reduce time forfull body scan from 3 minutes to 30 seconds
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VARIATION
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If I had to reduce my message for
management to just a few words, Id
say it all had to do with reducingvariation.
-- W. Edwards Deming
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Variation
Every process has variation.
The amount of variation which can be
tolerated in a process depends on theimpact the variation has on the processand on customer satisfaction.
Excessive variation leads to errors, delays,scrap, rework and lost business.
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Traditional Quality Loss Function
0
Loss tobusiness
Specificationlimits
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Quadratic Quality Loss Function
0
Loss tobusiness
Specificationlimits
Target
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Cost of Quality
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Fixed Costs of Quality
Time employees routinely spend oninspection and verification of their work.
Storage of extra materials as safetyfactors
Extra production to allow for defects
Routine complexities, inefficiencies
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Variable Costs of Quality
Overtime caused by quality problems
Time spent soothing unhappy customers
Damage to products in handling, spoilage
Expediting orders due to purchasingproblems
Lost business due to poor quality
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Cost of Quality Categories
Appraisal
Internal Failure
External Failure
Prevention
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Appraisal Costs
Traditional costs associated with qualitycontrol such as:
Inspecting incoming materials, finishedproducts, orders, invoices.
Monitor customer service staff.
Monitor suppliers.
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Internal Failure Costs
Costs associated with unacceptable products orwork discovered prior to delivery to the customer
such as: Damaged supplies or products.
Rework and overtime due to quality problems.
Sorting out unacceptable products.
Extra work due to inaccurate forecasting orordering of materials.
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External Failure Costs
Costs resulting from unacceptable productsor services being delivered to a customer
such as: Returns or adjustments due to errors or
defects.
Time spent handling customer complaintsand making adjustments.
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Prevention Costs
Time and resources spent to preventproblems or improve operations such as:
Training in quality concepts and methods. Six Sigma project teams.
Quality planning.
Process capability analyses.
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Quality Costs Exercise
A company has monthly sales of $1,000,000.
Profits are 6% of sales. Then profits = ____
Quality costs are 8% of sales. Then quality costs = ____
Failure costs are 75% of quality costs. Then failurecosts = ____
Suppose failure costs are reduced by 10%. Then profitswould increase by ____
How much more sales would be needed to realize thesame increase in profits as could be obtained bydecreasing failure costs by 10%? ____
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Organizing for
Six Sigma
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Six Sigma Roles
Management
Sponsor/Champion
Process Owner
Black Belt, Green Belt
Team Leader, Team Members
Implementation Leader
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Management Responsibilities
Strong, visible, sustained leadership.
Incorporate Six Sigma into strategic plan.
Study Six Sigma concepts and methods. Select projects, black belts, green belts,
champions and team leaders.
Provide support infrastructure.
Conduct project reviews. Approve and support team recommendations.
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Sponsor/Champion Role
Work with management in developing projectcharter and selecting team leader and members.
Meet regularly with Black Belt and team leaderto review project progress.
Assure adequate resources for team.
Support the team and the project withmanagement.
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A Project Champion must:
Show sincere interest in and enthusiasm for theproject.
Tell others how important the project is.
Support but not direct the project. Anticipate problems.
Deal with roadblocks quickly and directly.
Learn about the Six Sigma approach to processimprovement and the tools teams use.
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Champions should evaluate drivingforces and barriers to the Project
Driving Forces Barriers/Obstacles
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Process Owner
Keep informed on progress of team.
Provide input and support to team.
Secure cooperation of employees working in theprocess.
Assist project team in obtaining information andwhen implementing improvements.
Process owner may also be the projectchampion and implementation leader.
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Black Belt
Provide training to team on DMAIC and teamprocesses.
Provide training in use of process and data
analysis tools. Perform or lead data collection and statistical
analysis activities. Provide assistance to individuals on data-based
decision making. Coach management in Six Sigma concepts. Half-time to full-time responsibility.
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Team Leader
Is familiar with process to be improved.
Has good interpersonal skills.
Conducts team meetings. May be a Black or Green Belt.
Works with Black/Green Belt and team membersoutside of meetings to keep project moving.
Provides progress reports to Champion, processowner and management.
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Implementation Leader
Develops timeline and plan for implementingimprovements.
Assures appropriate documentation and training. Actively monitors the new process to prevent
slippage.
Usually the process owner is the implementationleader.
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Project Team Participants
Leader is usually the process owner or, for yourprojects, a Black Belt trainee.
Team members must include people working in
the process. If possible, internal and/or external customers
and suppliers should be on team. Outside experts can be part of team or called in
as needed. Individuals can have more than one role.
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DMAIC: The Six Sigma Approach to
Process Improvement
DefineaMeasureaAnalyzeaImproveaControl
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What is DMAIC?
DefineaMeasureaAnalyzeaImproveaControl
DMAIC is a five-step structured approach toprocess improvement and processdesign/redesign. It evolved from and is an
improvement upon the Deming Cycle.
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DMAIC Cycle Step 1: Define
Identify the problem.
Determine customer requirements.
Define the scope of the project.
Set goals for the project.
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DMAIC Cycle Step 2: Measure
Identify key input, process and outputmeasures
Measure current state of process;measure key inputs and outputs.
Validate problem/issue with data.
Compare current process measures tocustomer expectations and businessneeds.
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DMAIC Cycle Step 3: Analyze
Discover root causes.
Identify causal relationships.
Identify key control factors.
Assess adequacy of current or proposedprocesses.
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DMAIC Cycle Step 4: Improve
Develop strategy to improve process orrecommend new process.
Test proposed changes/new process. If proposed actions have desired effect,
implement them system-wide.
If proposed actions do not have desiredeffect, go to steps 1 or 2, as appropriate.
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DMAIC Cycle Step 5: Control
Document new standard operatingprocedures.
Train employees in new process. Determine appropriate measures of
process performance.
Monitor ongoing process performance. Correct problems as needed.
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Step 1: Define Opportunities
DefineaMeasureaAnalyzeaImproveaControl
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Caution:
One of the most common and costlyerrors that occur in Six Sigma
implementation is selection ofinappropriate projects.
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External sources of project ideas
Voice of the Customer: What feedback haveyou gotten from customers regarding satisfactionwith current products/services and anticipated
future needs. Voice of the Market: Is your market share or
number of orders dropping? Are currentproducts becoming obsolete?
Comparison with Competitors: How are youperceived relative to your competition in quality,service, delivery, cost?
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Internal sources of project ideas
Voice of the Process: How are key processesperforming? Are scrap rates, down time orovertime increasing or varying greatly? Are
schedules missed? Are there frequent costoverruns? What processes require constantmonitoring or adjustment?
Voice of the Employee: What do those closest toyour processes have to say about what is not
working well? Are there disagreements betweendepartments?
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Criteria for project selection
Important to your customers
Part of your strategic plan
Opportunity for significant cost savings Chronic, difficult problem
Solution to problem unknown
Narrowly defined scope Doable in 4 months with available resources
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Issues regarding project selection
Select core rather than support processes
Base selection on data, not opinions
Has management already decided what to do? Will the project enhance cross-functional
cooperation?
Is there a sense of urgency?
Is variation a major problem?
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Project team charter should include:
Mission statement:Goal of the project
Measurable criteria of success Reason for project selection
Scope/boundaries of project
Constraints on time, cost and resources List of participants
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Examples of a Mission Statements:
Reduce production down-time in final assemblyby 10%.
Reduce occurrence of missed medications in
nursing units by 30%. Ship 95% of all orders within 7 days of receiving
them.
Increase chemical process yield by 15%.
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Examples of Reasons for Project
Selection: Lose of market share due to late shipments.
Rising customer complaints about finish on
motor housings. Unable to match price of competition due to high
production costs.
Extended hospital stays due to missed
medications.
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Examples of Scope of Project:
Final assembly operations.
Responding to customer inquiries regarding
orders from receipt of call to answering customerconcerns.
From physician prescribing medication to patientreceiving medication.
From grain arriving on a truck until grain is instorage unit.
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Examples of Resource Constraints:
Overall costs must not be increased.
Project must be completed within 150 days.
Staff from Information Services will assist asneeded.
Financial services will provide all financial datarequested by the team, subject to approval of
the team champion.
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Customer
Requirements
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Customer-Focused Quality
The customer decides what constitutesquality.
Customer expectations can be defined interms of:Cost
Delivery
Quality
Service
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Customer Expectataions
Customers classify features and servicesinto three basic categories:
Basic requirementsIf theyre not presentthey are called dissatisfiers.
Satisfiers - features that are expected in
varying degrees Delighters - unexpected pleasing features
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Example of customer expectations
A person goes to a restaurant for a chickensandwich.
Basic requirement the meat is cooked. Satisfier the meat is properly seasoned.
Delighter the bun is freshly baked.
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Another example
A person feels sick and goes to see a doctor
Basic requirement doctor says he/she knows
what is the problem and recommends treatment. Satisfier You recover from the illness quickly.
Delighter The doctor gives you free medicineor calls the next day to see how you are doing.
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Grid for identifying customerexpectations
Cost Delivery Quality Service
Basic
Satisfier
Delighter
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Exercises Customer expectations
What are your expectations when you buy ashirt?
What range of room temperatures is comfortablefor you?
For your customers, or a specific subset ofcustomers, fill in as much as you can of the grid
on the previous slide. How would you get theinformation needed to complete the grid?
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Customer Data
Qualitativeinformation like I liked the waythe shirt fit or there was too much salt on
the hamburger has limited usefulness. Quantitativeinformation like I had to wait
on the phone for 10 minutes or the
temperature in my hotel room was 20degrees last night is much more useful.
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Quantifying Customer Expectations
Customers non-quantitative expectations,called the Voice of the Customer(VOC)need to be translated into measurablecharacteristics of the product or service,called Critical Customer Requirements(CCR). Critical to Quality measures (CTQ)
are specifications on process output whichneed to be met in order to achieve CCRs.
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In other words . . .
If the process outputs meet their CTQs,
then the product or service meets its
CCRs, and the customer is happy because
his/her expectations (VOC) were met.
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Example
VOC: I dont want to wait for my luggage.
CCR: Luggage to be available within 15
minutes of airplane arriving at the gate. CTQ: All luggage must be off the airplane
within 9 minutes of planes arriving at the
gate.
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Sources of Customer SatisfactionInformation
Complaints
Salesmen
Warranty data Sales data
Surveys
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Document the
Process
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Basic SIPOC Diagram
SupplieraInputsaProcessaOutputsaCustomer
The Supplierprovides Inputs: materials, information orresources.
The Process is a series of steps that uses Inputs to produceOutputs.
The Outputs are then delivered to the Customer.
Reference: The Six Sigma Way by Pande, Neuman and Cavanagh, 2000, pages 168-173.
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SIPOC Example: Shipping an Order
InputCheck
customercredit
Issuepacking
order
Pick &packorder
Label&
ship
Output
CompletedOrder form
BoxedProduct& Invoice
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Top-down Process Flow Chart
What is it?
A SIPOC diagram with process sub-steps listed belowthe basic steps.
Why do we use it?
Major steps in the process are easy to identify.
It shows the relative complexity of different steps.
Sub-steps can be easily added later.
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Example of Top-down Flow Chart:Shipping an Order
InputCheck
customer
credit
Issuepacking
order
Pick &pack
order
Label&
ship
Output
CompletedOrder form
BoxedProduct& Invoice
Checkcreditstatus*Problemson earlier
orders?
*Verifyin stock
*Verifyaddress
*Print
order
*Find items*Select box*Put itemsin box*Seal box
*Addresslabel
*ShippingInstructions
*Handlingwarnings
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Traditional Process Flow Chart
Shows greater detail than SIPOC.
May have branches and decision points.
Suitable for use with simple processes orparts of larger processes.
Useful for identifying process complexity.
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Example of Process Flow Chart
CheckCustomer
creditObtainorder
IssuePacking
orderCheckinventory
Adequate?
Pick &Packorder
Label&
ship
PrepareInvoice
Holdorder
NoYes
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Process Flow Chart Symbols
Below are some symbols commonly used inprocess flow charts:
Process start and end
Action step
Decision point
Direction of movement
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Block Diagram(Also called a functional deployment process map.)
What is it?A block diagram is a process flow chart in
which activities of different departments areput in separate rows or columns.
Why do we use it?
A block diagram highlights interfaces betweendepartments.
E l f Bl k Di
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Example of Block Diagram:Preparing Product Information Sheet
Engineering
Marketing
ProductInformation
Production
Printing
Shipping
Obtaininformation
Createblueline
Review
Review
Review
Revise
Review
Review
Review
Clarify
Print
Inventory Ship
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Process Map
What is it?A process map is a flow chart in which
measurable inputs, outputs and processcontrol factors are shown for each step.
Why do we use it?Six Sigma projects are data driven. A process
map shows us what measurements, and ofwhat type, are available for the project.
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Xs and xs Ys
The output of any process (Y) isdetermined by the inputs into the process
(Xs) and the factors that control theprocess (xs):
Input: X Process Output: Y
X1, x2,, xk
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Process Parameters
X: measurable process input
x: measurable factor affecting process
outcomesY: measurable final outcome of a process
y: measurable outcome of a process step
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Pharmac
y
Nursing
Unit
Transmit
order to
Pharmacy
Ordergenerated
Prepare
medication
Transcribe
MAR andVerify with MD
order
AdministerMedication
CompleteDocumentation
Correctly
transcribed
MAR
Patient receives
correct medication
on time
Physician
order
Processcompleted
Info documented on MAR
Process Map if Medication Stored in Pharmacy
C Legibility of order
C Legibility of fax
N Allergies, BSA,
P Chart flagged
P Shift to shift
communication
N Patient specifies
times
P D/C orders
P Stop ordersP Order date/time
Verification of
completeness,
allergy,
interactions,
availability, BSA
C Fax machines working
C Unit clerk available
Legible order
N Volume of orders
P Patient info available
C Pharmacist available
C Dose scheduling
Drug added to patient profile
Patient info (allergies) into
Pharmacy data base
MAR label generated to
nursing unit
Product label generated
N Product available
N Mixing required
C Packaging
Apply label
Pharmacist
verify and send
C Printing equip
Labeled final
product
Correct medication to correct location,
labeled for correct person, on time
C Arrival time of MAR
N Volume of meds for
a patient
C RN available
C Unit clerk available
P No standard procedure
C/N Agency staff or floats
C Med clipboard available
N Deviation from routine
admin. times
C Adequate training
C Med available
C Nurse available
C Patient info sheet avail
N/C IV access
C Nurse familiar with med
N Patient available
N Patient refuses med
N Patient specifies times
N Route needs to be changed
N/C Form of drug changed
P Additive stock avail in unit
C MAR available
C Nurse available
C Duplicate charting
P Order of forms
C Variation in knowledge
of documentation process
C Pharmacist available
C Medication & ID correct
P Delivery method (tube, hand
deliver, server exchange
Unlabeled
final product
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VARIATION
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If I had to reduce my message for
management to just a few words, Id
say it all had to do with reducingvariation.
-- W. Edwards Deming
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Variation
Every step of every process has variation.
The amount of variation which can be
tolerated in a process depends on theimpact the variation has on the processand on customer satisfaction.
Excessive variation leads to errors, delays,scrap, rework and lost business.
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Example: Sony USA vs. Sony Japan
LSL USL
Sony JapanSony USA
Distribution of color density in television sets
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Discussion
Why does variation increase costs?
What examples are there from your
company?
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Types of Variation
When seeking to improve the performanceof a process, the first objective is usually
to reduce variation. There are two basictypes of variation:
Common cause variation,
Special cause variation.
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Common Cause Variation
Common cause refers to the persistent variability whichis a part of any process. The amount of common causevariation present in a process is largely a function ofprocess design and management.
Common Cause Variation: Consists of many individual causes, each making a
small contribution to the variability. Varies in level from place to place and process to
process. Is present in every step of every process. Can usually be reduced only by management action
by changing the process.
E l f C C V i ti
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Examples of Common Cause Variation
Natural variation in raw materials.
Minor vibrations in machinery.
Temperature fluctuations due to heater cycling.
"Normal" variation in times to complete productionorders.
"Normal" variations in plating thickness.
Errors in medical insurance claims form due to poorly
worded instructions. Typographical errors in a report due to poor lighting in
the office.
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Special Cause Variation
Special cause refers to temporary or local disturbancesin a process which have a noticeable effect on one ormore process characteristics. Special causes areexceptions to, rather than part of, the system.
Special cause variation:
Is the result of one or a few individual causes.
Is much larger than common cause variation.
May appear and then leave the process sporadically.
Can often be eliminated through action by employeesworking in the process.
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Examples of Special Cause Variation
Voltage surge which damages equipment
Excess materials due to a major order being cancelled
Product dropped on the floor
Broken gauge Shipment late due to a blizzard
Order lost in the mail
Errors in order due to inexperienced clerk
Machine settings entered incorrectly due to intoxicatedoperator
Relationship Between Common Cause
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Relationship Between Common Causeand Special Cause Variation
Special cause variation is usually the result ofcommon cause variation which is present in a
larger system. Attempting to reduce common cause variability
through adjustments by employees is called"tampering."
Tampering usually leads to increased processvariation.
Dealing with Variation
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Dealing with Variation
Special cause variation should be removed from the process.If that is not possible the process should be evaluated andpossibly redesigned to minimize the effects of this specialcause.
Common cause variation should be measured and evaluatedwith respect to specifications and customer expectations.
If common cause variation does not result in unacceptableproducts or services, the process should be maintained atthat level of variation. Employees working in the processshould look for opportunities to reduce the variation,however.
If common cause variability is so large that it results inunacceptable products or services, the process should beredesigned to eliminate the problem. This may involvemaking the process less sensitive to certain uncontrollablefactors.
St bl P
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Stable Processes
Processes which have only common causevariation are said to be stable.
For a stable process measurements of process,product and service performance will vary overtime, but the distribution of measurements will
be constant over time.
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Measuring
Performance
Step 2 of DMAIC Process
Why do we measure?
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Why do we measure?
To ASSESSCompare with standards, requirements, benchmarks
Establish benchmarks
Identify opportunities for improvement
To IMPROVE Discover actions which will improve performance
Evaluate effects of improvement actions
To CONTROLMaintain process stability
Adjust to changing situations
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Why measure outputs (y, Y)?
They are of immediate interest to customers.
They provide summary measures ofperformance.
They aid in identifying processes in need ofimprovement.
They aid in setting priorities for improvement.
They enable organizations to measure theeffects of implementing process changes.
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Why measure process factors (X, x)?
Virtually all results can be changed only bychanging the processes that produce them.
By monitoring critical process factors it ispossible to assure desired results.
Process measures can sometimes be used assurrogates for output measures.
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What should we measure?
Characteristics which are important tocustomers.
Characteristics which are important to thebusiness (costs, cycle times, scrap rates).
Characteristics which affect processes.
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Operational Definition
An operationaldefinition is "one peoplecan do business with." W. Edwards Deming
An operational definition is a clear,unambiguous definition which enables usto make measurements." William A.
Golomski
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Operational definitions of specifications and of
customer requirements include some way of judgingwhether those specifications and requirements havebeen met. For example, what does "eighty pounds ofsugar" mean? Is 79.6 pounds close enough? If a batchis to be mixed for ten minutes at 90oC, will there be a
problem if the batch is mixed for 10 minutes and 15seconds? If it is mixed for only 9 minutes? And whereand how should the temperature of the batch bemeasured? What are the standards for neatness inpackaging, testing package seals? What is the definition
for acting "in a courteous manner"? What constitutes agood job as a first-line supervisor?
Fi P i i l f M
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Five Principles of Measurement
1. Know what you are measuring.
2. Let customers tell you which outputcharacteristics to measure.
3. Ask continuously how your competitorsare doing.
4. Track your processes.
5. Tell your people everything you know.
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Using measurement
to find root causes
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We begin now the process of asking why?
We dig for root causes. First we obtain Y and yvalues, and determine whether they consistentlysatisfy our CTQ requirements. If they dont wewant to find the CTPs -- the input (X) and
control (x) factors which affect these outcomemeasures. We will now look at three processtools which help us discover potential rootcauses of unacceptable variation.
f f C
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Tools for Identifying Potential CTPs
Pareto Chart
Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Is/Is Not Analysis
P t Ch t
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Pareto Chart
What is it?
A bar chart which graphically displays
frequencies of various types of problems. Why use a Pareto chart?
It helps prioritize quality problems.
It can be used to present non-numeric data.
C C
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Customer Complaints in April
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Containe
rdam
aged
Toospicy
Prod
uctnotu
nifo
rm
Flavo
rtoo
stro
ng
Offta
ste
Toodry
Oth
er-notp
rodu
ct
Off
colo
r
Notsp
icyeno
ugh
Toobl
and
Complaint Count
Container damage 43
Too spicy 29
Product not uniform 18
Flavor too strong 17
Off taste 12
Too dry 11
Other not product 8
Off color 8
Not spicy enough 3
Too bland 2
C d Eff t Di
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Cause-and-Effect Diagram
What is it?
A graphical tool which aids in discovering themost likely root causes of a problem orcondition.
Cause-and-effect diagrams are also calledIshikawa diagrams (after their developer) and
fish bone diagrams (after their appearance).
C d Eff t Di ti d
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Cause-and-Effect Diagram, continued
Why do we use it? Provides structure to brainstorming. The creation process itself is educational.
Discussions of diagrams helps team membersunderstand the entire process being reviewed.
Facilitates the active search for root causes. Aids in seeing relationships among causes. Demonstrates the group's level of understanding.
The more complex the diagram, the moresophisticated the participants are in their knowledgeof the process.
Cause-and-effect diagram for errors by data
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entry operators:
Taiichi Ohno former Toyota Motor Vice President used the
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Taiichi Ohno, former Toyota Motor Vice President, used thefollowing example of looking for the root cause of a machinebreakdown (which is what cause-and-effect diagrams are all
about):Question 1: Why did the machine stop?Answer 1: Because the fuse blew due to an overload.Question 2: Why was there an overload?Answer 2: Because the bearing lubrication was inadequate.
Question 3: Why was the lubrication not adequate?Answer 3: Because the lubrication pump was not working
properly.Question 4: Why wasn't the lubricating pump working?Answer 4: Because the pump axle was worn out.
Question 5: Why was the axle worn out?Answer 5: Because sludge got in.Question 6: Why...
I /I N t A l i
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Is/Is Not Analysis
One structured form of stratification is Is/Is-NotAnalysis, developed originally by Charles H. Kepner andBenjamin B. Tregoe. This can be useful where extremestratification effects are noted -- that is where there are
significantly different scrap rates on different days orlines, or different patterns in field failures among differentcustomer groups, or where customer complaints showgeographic patterns. The Is/Is Not Matrix on the nextslide can be used as part of the analysis.
Reference: P.R. Scholtes, The Team Handbook; C.H. Kepner and B.B. Tregoe, The Rational Manager.
IS: Where, When, IS NOT: Where, ANALYSIS:What and for Who etc. does the How might we
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does the situation situation NOT explain thisoccur? occur? pattern?
WHERE has the
problem or situationoccurred, or wherehas it been observed?WHEN did the problemoccur? Is its occurrencerelated to the occurrence of other events?WHAT type of situationoccurred? What wasthe extent or durationof the problem?WHO was present orinvolved with the pro-
cess when the situationoccurred?
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Types of
Measurement Data
Categories of Measures
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Categories of Measures
Discrete measures
Also called attributes measures
Continuous measures
Also called variables measures
Discrete Measures
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Discrete Measures
Discrete measures refer to qualitative datathat can be categorized and counted.
Examples include the number of errors ininvoices, and the percent of ordersrequiring expediting, the number of times amachine was down for repair, the number
of under-weight packages.
Continuous Measures
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Continuous Measures
Continuous measures refer to quantitativedata such as temperatures, weights, tear
strengths, completion or delay times, costsand distances. They are generally muchmore valuable for improving processesthan are attributes measures.
Continuous versus Discrete Measures
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Continuous measures are generally much morevaluable for improving processes than arediscrete measures. However, it is far better tohave a meaningful discrete measure than have
a continuous measure which is not stronglyrelated to quality or customer satisfaction. Forexample "lost time" data that does not includethe reasons for the lost time may not be as
valuable as discrete data on occurrences ofspecific packaging problems.
Measure xs
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Measure x s
Processes cannot be improved by measuringjust the characteristics (Ys) of the productsproduced by the process. What happens to the
product is a result of what is going on in theprocess. Management and quality improvementteams should focus on critical characteristics oftheprocess (xs), since if the process can be
held in proper control, then the finished productwill be acceptable.
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Tools for Graphical
Data Analysis
Dotplot
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p
Recommended for displaying data sets of up to 20measurements. Each measurement is represented by adot.
Example: A persons heart rate was measured on tendifferent occasions. Observed rates were 77, 76, 80,79, 85, 76, 86, 82, 74 and 82 beats per minute.
o o
o o o o o o o o70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90
Histogram
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196.5194.5192.5190.5188.5186.5184.5182.5180.5178.5
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Sodium
Freque
ncy
Stem-and-Leaf Diagram
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Stem and Leaf DiagramThe stem-and-leaf diagram is a tool developed to replace
the histogram. It contains more information than thehistogram and is easier to make. The stem-and-leafdiagram is recommended for use with data sets having20 or more measurements and at least 15 distinctvalues.
0 00000011111223345558891 00122235592 001334445563 28994 09
5 04
HI 8.51 (#13), 10.88 (#28)
Boxplots
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Boxplots
The boxplot is a tool used to compare graphically three ormore sets of data.
42.0
42.5
43.0
43.5
44.0
44.5
Measure