shuyi liao thesis

8/17/2019 Shuyi Liao Thesis

1/166

Building

partnerships

as

a

key

strategy

in

developing

an

event

management

model

for

an

international

dance event: a case study of the 2008 WDA (World Dance

Alliance)

Global

Summit,

Brisbane,

Australia

by

SHUYI LIAO

BA

Submitted for the degree of Master of Arts at the Queensland University of

Technology

January, 2009


2/166


3/166

I

Table of Contents

Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... I

Keywords ................................................................................................................................. VII

Abstract ................................................................................................................................... VIII

Statement of original authorship ....................................................................................IX

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................X

Chapter 1: Background to the study ............................................................................... 1

1.1 The purpose of the study .............................................................................................. 1

1.2 Concepts of event management .................................................................................. 3

1.2.1 Definitional perspectives ....................................................................................... 3

1.2.2 The application of a project management approach in the events field ..... 5

1.2.3 An event management model: EMBOK .............................................................. 9

1.3 Event management strategies (model) for not-for-profit arts event ................ 11

1.3.1 The definition of an arts niche event ................................................................ 11

1.3.2 The characteristics of not-for-profit management ......................................... 12

1.3.3 Challenges for implementing an international not-for-profit arts event ... 12

1.3.3.1 A tourism perspective .................................................................................. 13

1.3.3.2 Market oriented events ................................................................................ 14

1.4 The role of partnerships in not-for profit arts events ........................................... 16

1.4.1 Partnership definitions ......................................................................................... 16

1.4.2 Partners as stakeholders ..................................................................................... 17

1.4.3 Categorisations of stakeholders ......................................................................... 17


4/166

II

1.4.4 Fundamentals of social capital ........................................................................... 21

1.4.5 Partnerships and social network ........................................................................ 23

1.4.6 Trust ......................................................................................................................... 24

Chapter 2 Methodology .................................................................................................... 27

2.1 Paradigm: Realism ........................................................................................................ 28

2.2 Qualitative methodology ............................................................................................. 29

2.2.1 Case study approaches ........................................................................................ 30

2.2.2 Ethnographic approach ........................................................................................ 32

2.2.3 The researcher’s role ............................................................................................ 34

2.3 Data collection ............................................................................................................... 35

2.3.1 Participant observation ........................................................................................ 36

2.3.2 Semi-structured interviews ................................................................................. 37

2.3.3 Questionnaire survey ........................................................................................... 39

2.3.4 Documents and archive records ........................................................................ 40

2.3.5 Triangulation .......................................................................................................... 41

2.4 Data analysis ................................................................................................................. 43

2.5 Ethical considerations .................................................................................................. 46

Chapter 3: History and structure of host organisations, World Dance

Alliance and Ausdance ........................................................................................................ 47

3.1 Background .................................................................................................................... 47

3.2 Relationship between World Dance Alliance (WDA) and Ausdance ................... 49

3.3 Evolution of organisational goals ............................................................................... 51

3.4 Evolution of organisational structure ........................................................................ 53


5/166

III

3.5 Membership strategy ................................................................................................... 55

3.5.1 The role of chapters ............................................................................................. 55

3.5.2 The relationship between chapters and national organisations .................. 56

3.5.3 The role of networks ............................................................................................ 57

3.6 The role of events ......................................................................................................... 59

Chapter 4: The conceptualisation and implementation (outcome) of 2008

WDAGS ...................................................................................................................................... 65

4.1 The bidding process...................................................................................................... 65

4.2 Program design and branding .................................................................................... 66

4.3 Realising the event ....................................................................................................... 72

4.3.1 Dates and venues ................................................................................................. 72

4.3.2 Implementation ..................................................................................................... 73

4.3.2.1 Dance Dialogues ............................................................................................ 73

4.3.2.2 Performative Dialogues ................................................................................ 74

4.3.2.3 Physical Dialogues ........................................................................................ 79

4.3.2.4 Networking Dialogues .................................................................................. 84

4.3.2.5 Performances and Associated Events ....................................................... 85

Chapter 5: Partnerships & their relationship to the event management

model of 2008 WDAGS ....................................................................................................... 87

5.1 Event management structure ..................................................................................... 87

5.1.1 The overarching committee ................................................................................ 87

5.1.2 The executive committee .................................................................................... 90

5.1.3 Staffing structure .................................................................................................. 92

5.1.3.1 Administration and management .............................................................. 93


6/166

IV

5.1.3.2 Student volunteers ....................................................................................... 94

5.1.3.3 Professional volunteers ................................................................................ 97

5.1.4 The conference committee.................................................................................. 97

5.2 Partnerships ................................................................................................................. 100

5.2.1 Identifying partners ............................................................................................ 100

5.2.1.1 Funding partners ......................................................................................... 102

5.2.1.2 Program partners ........................................................................................ 110

5.2.1.3 Operational Partners .................................................................................. 114

5.2.3 Partner inter-relationships ................................................................................ 115

5.2.4 Maintaining partnerships ................................................................................... 117

5.2.4.1 Subjective successful factors ................................................................... 118

5.2.4.2 Objective successful factors ..................................................................... 120

Chapter 6: Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 125

References ............................................................................................................................. 129

Appendix A: Interview questions ................................................................................. 138

Appendix B: Questionnaire survey .............................................................................. 140

Appendix C: Consent form .............................................................................................. 141

Appendix D: Masterclass information ........................................................................ 144

Appendix E: The inaugural meeting of conference committee ........................ 153


7/166

V

List of Tables

Table 1: Key roles in the 2008 World Dance Alliance Global Summit 38

Table 2: Comparison of initial goals of the WDA with current goals

(2008) of WDA-AP ...................................................................................... 52

Table 3: WDA-AP Annual Events & Global Summits .............................. 60

Table 4: WDAGS from 2000 ........................................................................ 62

Table 5: Feedback from QUT Event Management survey ..................... 76

Table 6: Executive Committee members ................................................. 90

Table 7: Student volunteer/supervision relationship & roles ............... 96

Table 8: Cash funding partners ................................................................ 105

Table 9: Unsuccessful applications for cash support ............................ 106

Table 10: 2008 WDAGS Program Partner involvement ....................... 114


8/166

VI

List of Figures

Figure 1: The EMBOK framework ................................................................. 9

Figure 2: The stakeholder relationship to events ................................... 18

Figure 3: Overarching structure ................................................................. 53

Figure 4: WDA-Asia Pacific Board structure ............................................. 54

Figure 5: The Image of 2008 WDAGS ....................................................... 69

Figure 6: Selected photos of performance presentation ....................... 79

Figure 7: Selected photos of Choreolab .................................................... 83

Figure 8: The initial event management model ...................................... 88

Figure 9: The actual event management model ..................................... 89

Figure 10: Staffing structure ...................................................................... 93

Figure 11: The pyramid figure of logos .................................................. 101

Figure 12: Distributed Financial Model ................................................... 110

Figure 13: The relationship of partners .................................................. 116


9/166

VII

Keywords : partnerships; international dance event; project/event

management; Australian case study; not-for-profit arts organisations


10/166

VIII

Abstract

With the increasing growth of cultural events both in Australia and internationally,

there has also been an increase in event management studies; in theory and in

practice. Although a series of related knowledge and skills required specifically

by event managers has already been identified by many researchers (Perry et

al., 1996; Getz, 2002 & Silvers et al., 2006) and generic event management

models proposed, including ‘project management’ strategies in an event context

(Getz, 2007), knowledge gaps still exist in relation to identifying specific types of

events, especially for not-for-profit arts events.

For events of a largely voluntary nature, insufficient resources are recognised as

the most challenging; including finance, human resources and infrastructure.

Therefore, the concepts and principles which are adopted by large scale

commercial events may not be suitable for not-for-profit arts events aiming at

providing professional network opportunities for artists. Building partnerships are

identified as a key strategy in developing an effective event management model

for this type of event.

Using the 2008 World Dance Alliance Global Summit (WDAGS) in Brisbane 13-

18 July, as a case study, the level, nature and relationship of key partners are

investigated. Data is triangulated from interviews with organisers of the 2008

WDAGS, on-line and email surveys of delegates, participant observation and

analysis of formal and informal documents, to produce a management model

suited to this kind of event.


11/166

“The w

require

the be

previou

is made

_______

Signatur

S

rk contain

ents for

t of my

ly publish

.”

_______

of candi

ateme

ed in this

n award

knowledg

ed or writt

_______

ate

t of ori

thesis has

t this or a

e and b

n by ano

_____

ginal a

not been

ny other h

lief, the

her perso

___

Dat

uthors

previousl

igher edu

thesis co

except

__18/08/

ip

submitte

ation insti

ntains no

here due

009 ____

I

to meet

ution. To

material

reference

_______


12/166

X

Acknowledgements

Firstly, I would like to express my gratitude to my principal supervisor A/Prof.

Cheryl Stock and associate supervisor Ms Rachel Pedro. As an international

student who just started her academic journey, I have been fortunate to acquire

enormous support from the supervision team not only for the thesis itself, but

also in other aspects such as improving my English skills and in my daily life.

During almost one year and a half, I was rewarded by a learning experience that

went beyond my research. Again, special thanks to A/Prof Cheryl Stock for her

untiring commitment, intellectual advice, and valuable time.

Secondly, I would like to extend my thanks to those organisers of the World

Dance Alliance Global Summit including the key staff of the conference

committee and the members of the executive committee, who were so

supportive of my research. It has become more than a research project to

encompass a learning process about many aspects of the field of dance and

arts management.

Finally, this thesis would never have been completed without the

encouragement and help of my friends and family.


13/166

XI


14/166

1

Chapter 1: Background to the study

1.1 The purpose of the study

The purpose of this study is to identify the status of building partnerships as a

key strategy for developing an effective event management model for not-for-

profit arts events through a single case study: the 2008 World Dance Alliance

Global Summit (WDAGS), held in Brisbane, Australia. The following research

questions arising from the nature of the case study delineate a framework for

the investigation.

1. How do dance activities that aim to provide networking and professional

development opportunities for artists to extend their practice, attract

investors or support?

2. How important is the establishment of partnerships for not-for-profit arts

organisations which do not aim to provide commercial outcomes？

3. How did WDAGS build partnerships and why was this particular

partnership combination selected?

4. Were these partnerships effective?

5. How did these partnerships influence the event management model?

In order to contextualise the research topic and the surrounding issues above, a

survey of current relevant literature on event and project management, the

nature of partnerships and their relationship to events, was undertaken. This


15/166

2

literature review provides a theoretical perspective to inform the study and

provides existing event management models on which to draw.

There appears to be an increasing growth in events both in Australia and in an

international context, ranging from small local community festivals to large

complex international events (Allen et al., 2008). Subfields of such events are

proposed by Goldblatt (1997, p.6), including ‘civic events, conventions,

expositions, fairs and festivals, hallmark events, hospitality, incentive travel,

meetings and conferences, retail events, reunions, social life-cycle events, sport

events, and tourism’. In terms of size, function, form or content, these different

types of events above reflect the particular contexts which make it difficult to

agree on a standard definition of the nature of an event. However, all events

have the common characteristics of being ‘temporary’ and ‘unique’, ‘stemming

from the blend of management, program, setting and people’ (Getz, 2005, p.16).

The Accepted Practices Exchange (APEX) Industry Glossary of terms

(Convention Industry Council, 2004) defines an event as ‘an organized occasion

such as a meeting, convention, exhibition, special event, gala dinner, etc.’ When

referring to ‘special events’, Goldblatt (2005, p.6) describes an event as a

‘unique moment in time celebrated with ceremony and ritual to satisfy specific

needs’, while Getz (2005, p.16) talks about the term ‘event’ from the

perspectives of both event organisers and customers/guests. Although similar

principles can be shared to profile events, it is important to recognise that each

event is motivated by different objectives which lead to diverse participants,


16/166

3

management strategies and style. However, it would seem that previous event

management models are quite generic. Getz (2007, p.295) has argued that ‘little

related research is being done to test concepts and evaluate methods specific

to different types of events and event settings’. Apart from lack of specific

methods for certain types of events, much of the key literature is discussed in a

corporate context (such as in O’Toole & Mikolaitis, 2002). Since this research

focuses on a non-corporate cultural context in a service-based environment, it is

necessary, on one hand, to identify whether applying those event management

models is suitable in terms of the specific characteristics of not-for-profit arts

events and, on the other hand, to explore effective strategies for successfully

realising such events.

Previous research on event management with a particular focus on project

management models is discussed, and EMBOK (Event Management Body of

Knowledge) is introduced as a useful structure to relate to this study. In terms of

the changing roles of the event industry, the challenges for event management

have also been identified especially in relation to the specific event type of an

international dance global summit. Finally, the role of partnerships is examined

in response to challenges for not-for-profit arts events.

1.2 Concepts of event management

1.2.1 Definitional perspectives

Goldblatt (1997, p.4) emphasises the function of event management is to

support ‘human assembly for the purpose of celebration, education, marketing,


17/166

4

and reunion’. Getz (1997, p.11) lists the necessary components of event

management as comprising ‘organising and coordinating; leadership; planning,

evaluating, and controlling; human resources (or staffing); financing; and

marketing’. Thus, it is not surprising that much knowledge and many skills of

event management are borrowed from closely related disciplines such as

tourism, sport, arts administration, leisure studies and recreation (Getz, 2007).

Despite varying definitions of event management, most are generally based on

Henri Fayol’s famous four functions of the management process, ‘planning,

leading, organising and controlling’ (as cited in Byrnes, 2003, p.12).

Despite generic theories and methods provided from the traditional

management area, events still have their own characteristics which require

particular management styles. Getz (1997, p.11) points out that a combination

of ‘creativity and operational skills’ is also needed in ‘programming and event

production’ (Getz, 1997, p.11). Similarly, Silvers et al. (2006, p.185) describes

the principle of event management as a ‘multidisciplinary occupation’ which

attracts persons ‘who possess creative talents and organisational skills’.

In fact, with the development of event management, a series of related

knowledge and skills required specifically by event managers has been

identified by some researchers (Perry et al., 1996; Getz, 1997; Royal & Jago,

1998). Based on a survey conducted at the Australian Events Conference in

Canberra, Perry et al. (1996, p.88) identified 19 knowledge areas and attributes


18/166

5

required by event managers. The survey results demonstrate that the aspects

most valued include:

• project management• budgeting• time management• relating to the media• business planning• human resource management• marketing• contingency management

• obtaining sponsorship• networking

Specifically, an events manager with particular skills in project management is

considered one of the most important attributes, according to the views of 105

managers (Perry et al., 1996, p.88). Most importantly, Getz (2000) proposes a

‘two-level conceptual framework’ extracting the necessary skills of event

managers from both a generic management perspective and an event specific

perspective.

1.2.2 The appl ication of a project management approach in the events f ield

Similar in nature, project management is well established and thus can

contribute to the general event sector. Emerging from engineering, project

management has been defined as ‘a response to the inability of traditional

organisational structure and methods to deal with the new economic fluidity’ (O’

Toole & Mikolaitis, 2002, p.22). In terms of this research, a project management

approach is employed to examine the different facets of, or projects within, a

large event.


19/166

6

‘A project is a complex nonrouting one-time effort limited by time, budget,

resources and performance specifications designed to meet customer needs’

(Gray & Larson, 2000, p.4). According to the definition, a discrete time period is

emphasised which distinguishes it from the concept of ongoing management.

An event, at this point, can be considered as a project.

Based on the traditional project management provided by PMBOK 2000TM ( P

Management Body of Knowledge), five phases and nine knowledge areas are

identified by Allen et al. (2008) to describe the processes involved in event

project management. A textbook approach is employed to examine the

advantages and disadvantages of adopting ‘project management’ in an event

context.

According to Allen et al. (2008, pp.163-165), a project will pass through five

phases described as:

1) Initiation2) Planning3) Implementation4) Event5) Shutdown

A traditional project management considers implementation as a final phase, as

it often results in a tangible outcome such as a building. Extra phases are

needed for an events context which will involve the examination of the event.

Generally, there is a lot of work to be done post-event, both on-site and off-site.

The former requires packing up and re-setting the environment for the next


20/166

7

event, while the latter includes a debrief and evaluation of the management

team and structure. A shutdown may lead to a perceived failure of an apparently

successful event if the post-event management is not well handled, since it

involves the evaluation of the events’ outcomes and possibly preparation for the

next event. Therefore, the shutdown phase may in fact be better described as

the debrief phase（ Allen et al., 2008, p.165).

It should be noted that some of the event knowledge areas are described

differently in project management. For example, cost is called finance in event

management. This is because event managers need to search for suitable

sponsorship and funding which may not be a problem in traditional project

management. Additionally, some extra areas are identified in event

management such as marketing and stakeholder management. In event

management, marketing can be recognised as a ‘feed-forward control

mechanism’ and as a ‘risk management tool to minimize uncertainty’ (Allen et al.,

2008, p.166). In other words, successful marketing is thought to ensure a high

level of participation in the event. Stakeholder management is considered a

major function for an event manager who is most probably dealing with a

number of projects with various stakeholders (Allen et al., 2008, p.129). Instead

of just meeting the needs of its audiences or participants, an event is judged by

its ‘success in balancing the competing needs and interests of a diverse range

of stakeholders’ (McDonnell et al., 1999, p.39).


21/166

8

The advantages of using project management strategies and theories for events

have been identified as including establishing a systematic approach to all

events under the following headings (O’ Toole and Mikolaitis, 2002, pp.23-25):

• Depersonalizing the event• Facilitating clear communication• Conforming to the methodology used by other departments• Ensuring accountability• Increasing the visibility of event planning• Facilitating training•

Developing transferable skills• Establishing a diverse body of knowledge

From the description above, one can see that many techniques from traditional

project management have been well absorbed by the event sector such as ‘the

scope’ and ‘work breakdown structure’ (WBS) (O’ Toole and Mikolaitis, 2002,

p.27). To apply a WBS technique means the tasks are classified into

manageable units so that event management structure can be build up from

component break down information. However, although project management is

a widely accepted management framework for events, there are still limitations

which have been identified by some researchers (Shone, 2001; O’Toole &

Mikolaitis, 2002). Instead of a solid defined asset and stable management

environment as in a traditional project management context, event management

needs to be more flexible in terms of new opportunities and challenges that

could emerge at any time across all five phases, such as new funding policies

and new marketing information. Therefore, it is challenging for event

managers/organisers to face the ‘intangible nature’ and ‘ever-changing


22/166

9

environment’ of an event (Allen et al., 2008, p.188). More flexibility is thus

required for leadership in an event context than in a typical business setting. As

Van der Wagen, suggests, one must sometimes be ‘autocratic, as in a crisis,

and at other times collaborative and appreciative’ (as cited in Getz, 2007, p.259).

1.2.3 An event management model: EMBOK

Based on an examination of previous studies, Silvers et al. (2006) have

developed the Event Management Body of Knowledge (EMBOK). The

conceptual EMBOK model, as illustrated below, is based on three dimensions

that correspond to the core values, process, and phases of project management.

In addition, knowledge domains have also been identified and classified into

sub-areas.

Figure 1: The EMBOK framework

(Source: Silvers et al., 2006, p.193)


23/166

10

Since Silvers et al. (2006) argue that the project management is often mistaken

as the representation of the entire event management system, the five phases

of project management are only one of three dimensions which should not be

viewed in isolation, as shown in Figure 1.

Most importantly, the core values of creativity, strategic thinking, continuous

improvement, ethics, and integration are the values that must permeate all

decisions throughout event management regarding every element, phase, and

process. Especially in an arts event, artistic expression and creativity could be

regarded as essential qualifications for an effective event manager. Core values

become crucial criteria when making decisions in response to the ever changing

event environment.

Silvers et al. (2006) argue that the output of the process such as tourism and

destination marketing should not be confused with the event management

process. Unlike a pure business model which emphasises outputs, Silvers et al.

(2006, p.195) suggest that, ‘A major use for the EMBOK is in the recognition of

event management as a process’ and can be described as ‘an integrated,

sequential, and iterative system associated with each element of each class of

each domain at each phase in the event management process, with tools and

techniques that may be used for each’ (Silvers et al., 2006, p.194).

This model solves the dilemma of the perceived inability to describe processes

appropriately, which has been considered a major constraint for the


24/166

11

development of event management research. As Getz (2007, p.288) comments,

‘the EMBOK project is intended to provide the body of knowledge necessary to

permit licensing’ which accelerates the professionalism of event management.

However, in terms of the diverse nature of different events, it is difficult to

achieve the same standard across all components of the event. As Harris (2004)

argues, a lack of common purpose and unity stemming from the diversity of

events currently precludes the assurance of standard professional status.

1.3 Event management strategies (model) for not-for-profit artsevent

1.3.1 The definition of an arts niche event

Although this research will focus on a specific global dance summit, it is helpful

to define its characteristics under the bigger picture of cultural events, and the

more specific nature of an arts event. A global summit can be defined as a

professional gathering to discuss specific issues in relation to its targeted field

from an international perspective. Thus, a dance global summit can be defined

as a gathering of dance professionals and specialists with the purpose of

sharing and discussing crucial issues emerging from the dance discipline.

Unlike an international dance festival event whose program is usually to curate

showcase performances with paying audiences, the nature of a global dance

summit can be described more in terms of ‘meetings and conferences’, which

‘primarily deals with educational seminars providing networking opportunities for

association members’ (Goldblatt, 1997, p.8). However, in a dance global summit,

this does not mean that dance showcases are not included. In a physical art


25/166

12

form, in-studio professional development, sharing performance work and

masterclasses are equally important as discussions and conference papers. To

ensure maximum efficacy of a dance event, a series of different activities with

diverse forms are combined, often under the umbrella of a particular theme.

Thus, in this context “summit” means much more than ‘meetings and

conferences’.

1.3.2 The characteristics of not-for-profit management

The common features among this sector include: ‘centrality of values,

complexity of revenue generation, reliance on volunteers, difficulty in judging

performance, accountability and Board/staff conflict in relation to economic

contribution’ (Allen Consulting Group, 2002, p.36). The leader’s responsibility in

a not-for-profit organisation thus includes recruitment and development of board

or committee members, fundraising, engaging in advocacy and creating a

shared strategic vision and mission.

1.3.3 Challenges for implementing an international not-for-profit arts event

With changing economic environments and cultural policies, cultural events

have experienced a series of evolutions. Instead of being a forum for celebrating

community and seasonal change which is described from an anthropology

perspective (Alomes, 1985), it would seem that this evolution has seen a

broadening role for cultural events. Rather than a pure celebration of community,

Schuster (2001) describes festivals from an ‘arts and urban development’

perspective, whilst Crespi-Vallbona and Richards (2007, p.106) further expand


26/166

13

the idea and highlight the status of a festival as a ‘catalyst’, which can contribute

to ‘urban renewal, attracting tourists and capital investment, enhancing a city’s

image and creating new jobs’. In citing van Elderen, they also describe the

meaning of cultural festivals as a ‘symbolic transformation of public space to a

particular form of cultural consumption’ (Crespi-Vallbona & Richards, 2007,

p.106).

In terms of the broadening roles which cultural events play in our contemporary

society, many researchers have become interested in the economic contribution

of events, rather than their content or symbolic importance, and begin to view

such events from a tourism perspective, and from a market orientation.

1.3.3.1 A tourism perspective

From a tourism point of view, an event manager meets visitors’ needs, using

that information internally to create programs that will satisfy them (Mayfield &

Crompton, 1995). However, Crespi-Vallbona and Richards (2007, p.106) argue

that although tourism has been identified as ‘one of the main conduits of

modernization and commoditization for cultural events’, there are very few not-

for-profit cultural events which are directly related to tourism in terms of

economics connected to urban renewal. Cultural events are often organised by

volunteers from community or professional associations, with differing levels of

public or private sector support. Especially in recent years, in relation to the

meaning and value of cultural events, research which only concentrates on the


27/166

14

replacement of local, traditional culture by globalised, popular culture has been

criticised (Crespi-Vallbona & Richards, 2007).

1.3.3.2 Market oriented events

‘In general, it can be said that marketing has dominated the events literature in

terms of management topics, including sponsorship and motivational,

satisfaction and segmentation studies’ (Getz, 2007, p.375). The adoption of the

concept of market orientation seems to be advantageous to management

models of arts festivals trying to satisfy the need of audiences. However, ‘many

events exist in the realm of public policy or social services, and do not need to

respond only to market forces’ (Getz, 2007, p.279). Mehmetoglu and Ellingsen’s

(2005) research based on a survey of 13 small Norwegian festivals, concludes

that none of these events adopt a market oriented concept.

It would seem that the changing roles of cultural events nowadays, present

challenges to traditional event management practices, not only in terms of type

of events and their context but also their function. In the Australian context,

government and related sectors have become interested in the events sector

largely due to their potential economic contribution. Rentschler (1998) and

Radbourne (1997) state that cultural policy has shifted from supply to market

oriented, especially since the Creative Nation policy produced by the Federal

Government in 1994. In order to encourage partnerships between business and

the arts, which saw a shift to more visible and commercial outcomes for the arts,

an advisory body called AbaF (The Australian business for the arts Foundation)


28/166

15

(AbaF, 2002) was funded by the Australian Government. Its task is to foster

sponsorship relationships between arts and business. Despite the increasing

interest of sponsors, government and funding agencies in the event sector as

mentioned above, their focus largely concentrates on an event’s ever-increasing

attendance and the ability to return a profit (AbaF, 2002).

However, the event which is volunteer-driven by nature with a focus on

networking opportunities and professional participation rather than profit, may

find it difficult to attract investment. For most events of a largely voluntary nature,

insufficient resources are still recognised as the most challenging; including

finance, human resources and infrastructure (Allen et al., 2008).

As Hadley (2007, p.2) argues, previous research about events pays much

attention to the degree of formality with which they are programmed, managed

and positioned in the marketplace. In other words, they cater for ‘external

market environments’, and are predominantly product/outcome driven. At this

point, tourism and some market-oriented management models which are

suitable for larger-scale sports, arts and food festivals with an attraction for

major sponsors can be counterproductive for smaller events, especially if they

focus exclusively on this strategy. In response to the limited resources available

when holding small scale community-based events, Hadley (2007) proposes a

strategy which can be described as a ‘partnership strategy’ based on

‘cooperation, trust and social capital’. The following section draws on the


29/166

16

significance of building partnerships in not-for-profit arts events and the

strategies to achieve an effective outcome, not just in marketing terms.

1.4 The role of partnerships in not-for prof it arts events

1.4.1 Partnership definitions

The term partnership has been used to describe the relationship of cooperation

among private enterprises (Kanter, 1994; Koza & Lewin, 1998; Hemphill &

Vonortas, 2003). More recently it has also incorporated public-private

partnerships (PPP) (Miller & Ahmad, 2000; Rowe & Devanney, 2003). Nicholls

(2005, p. 6) describes partnerships as a relationship ‘where two or more parties,

having compatible goals, form an agreement to work together in a mutually

beneficial manner, often doing things together that might not be possible alone’.

Googins and Rochlin (2000) specifically emphasise the importance of financial

reciprocity when judging the effectiveness of partner relationships in a cross-

sector context.

Partnership, in event management terms, can be very broad and is used across

a range of disciplines. It can be considered ‘a critical factor to attract resources

to plan, manage and evaluate the event’s marketing strategies’ (Allen et al.,

2008, p.331). In a not-for-profit voluntary context, the benefits of partnerships

can be found in Halseth and Ryser’s (2007) research, which concludes that

partnerships can be used for expertise, to access resources and for networking.

In particular, funding is evidently crucial in determining the value of partnerships,


30/166

17

and, as Halseth and Ryser (2007) suggest, partnerships have increasingly been

a requirement to access some government funding programs.

Based on the definition and benefits of partnership as discussed above, the

following section will discuss the range of partnerships in an event context.

Some related concepts including stakeholders and the fundamentals of social

capital theory will also be reviewed to frame an effective partnership strategy.

1.4.2 Partners as stakeholders

In terms of the diversity and complexity of partners and other relationships in an

event, a stakeholder theory is useful to help analyse the different nature of

partners and examine their varying relationships.

As Getz (1997, p.15) states ‘Stakeholders are those people and groups with a

stake in the event and its outcomes, including all groups participating in the

event production, sponsors and grant-givers, community representatives, and

anyone impacted by the event’. In the ‘Event Management Profession model’,

Goldblatt (1997, p.4) emphasises stakeholders’ various motivations such as

what they ‘financially, politically, emotionally, or personally invested in an event’.

1.4.3 Categorisations of stakeholders

A number of stakeholder categorisations are revealed in the event management

literature such as those defined by Shone and Parry (2001) as comprising the

‘public, private and voluntary sector’, examining event stakeholders from a


31/166

18

social angle, whereas McDonnell et al. (1999) looks at stakeholder relationships

from a functional angle.

According to McDonnell et al. (1999), from a functional point of view, there are

six major event stakeholder groups which are illustrated below:

Figure 2: The stakeholder relationship to events

( Adapted from McDonnell et al., 1999, p. 39)

The functional approach to stakeholder analysis developed by McDonnell et al.

(1999) identifies event stakeholders according to their roles, as above, in

implementing the event through a web of relationships among them. This fits

well with cultural events, where there are a wide range of stakeholders involved

in the development, production and consumption of the event.

Sponsors are considered major stakeholders in event management literature,

and so characteristics of partnerships and sponsorships can be interchangeable

Participants& Spectators

Hostorganization

Hostcommunity

Co-workers

Media

Sponsors

Event


32/166

19

in some situations. As Bowdin et al. (2006, p.228) suggest, ‘events and festivals

must view sponsorships as working business partnerships’. Partners can be

sponsors who become involved in an event through financial participation and/or

in-kind contributions. Some sponsors may emphasise their commercial interest

in the event, while others are looking for more intangible benefits. As

Meenaghan (1983, p.9) suggests:

Loosely defined, sponsorship can be regarded as the provision ofassistance either financial or in-kind to an activity [e.g., sport, musicalevent, festival, fair, or within the broad definition of the Arts] by acommercial organization for the purpose of achieving commercialobjectives.

This kind of sponsorship can be viewed as ‘a strategic marketing investment’

(Bowdin et al, 2006, p.228). In this scenario, arts sponsorship can be

considered to be a communication tool in the business world in order to market

their product or service (Meenaghan, 1998). In other words, the art is used to

sell a product. However, partners in a volunteer based arts event may not be

driven by the motivation of commercial benefit. As Waterman (1998, p.69)

argues, due to declines in public subsidies, arts festivals have been driven into

competing for business sponsorship, as a result of which ‘the festival becomes a

medium for business image making, as well as an arena characterised by less

adventurous and less expensive programming’. It seems that festivals can be

easily made as an economic tool, failing to meet social and cultural goals.


33/166

20

A host-organisation is the organisation responsible for running the event. The

different natures of host organisations determine the various ranges of

stakeholders. In a not-for-profit voluntary context, from a social perspective as

suggested by Shone and Parry (2001), voluntary bodies as host organisations

can organise a whole event based on solely voluntary work or a mixture of

voluntary work and receiving support from other stakeholders like local

authorities, other voluntary organisations, or partially commercial organisations,

companies, and sole traders. The host community provides a geographic

context for the event. However, the same event can be culturally diverse in

terms of the differing nature of the host communities.

Another possible major partnership can exist between the co-workers and the

host organisation(s). Co-workers can include administrative and technical staff

as well as volunteers for different parts of the event. Labor and support provided

by co-workers for the event can be exchanged as either payment or in-kind of

rewards by the host organisation(s). Thus, the relationship between the co-

workers and host organisation(s) can be a long term relationship from the very

beginning to the closure of the event.

Participants and spectators comprise the event’s audience, who pay to attend

the cultural/arts events and seek quality content and service from the organiser

and the event. It should be noted that participants and spectators can have very

different relationships with the host organisation. The former are usually much

more involved in an event such as a conference presenter who may participate


34/166

21

from the pre-event to the post-event whist spectators mainly only focus on the

actual event itself and their observation of it. Although the different nature of

stakeholders can influence an event and various possibilities of partner

relationships between event and stakeholders, this research focuses on those

stakeholders who are involved directly in the development and production of the

event and therefore can be considered partners. Thus, stakeholders as

participants and spectators will be only considered as a way of evaluating the

case study event.

Consequently, the range of partners can involve event staff and volunteers, as

well as commercial sponsors and public or private funding bodies and

institutions. A partner relationship can exist, on one hand, between the host

organisations and other stakeholders which consist of external partners such as

sponsors; and on the other hand, within the host organisations and their teams.

Additionally, the degree of participation of different partners should be taken into

account. Some of them may have a close and long term relationship sharing

many resources including organisational structure and staff, while others may

be less involved in the process of the event. The balance of these factors

influences the effectiveness of the partnerships.

1.4.4 Fundamentals of social capi tal

Getz (2007, p. 352) has argued that ‘Event studies fits best into Social Science,

mainly because of its heavy reliance to the human and behavioral disciplines’.

The terms from the sociology discipline such as ‘social capital’, ‘social network’


35/166

22

and ‘trust’ become useful. As Portes (1998, p.7) states, ‘Whereas economic

capital is in people’s bank accounts and human capital is inside their heads,

social capital inheres in the structure of their relationships’. Social capital ‘refers

to connections among individuals – social networks and the norms of reciprocity

and trust that arise from them’ (Putnam, 2000, p.19). In this sense, partnerships

are similar in definition to social capital in that they are based on reciprocity or

mutual benefit, and involve people coming together to achieve a common goal

(Wallis, 1998). In terms of voluntary organisations which are coping with limited

financial resources by accessing other forms of support, ‘social capital’ theory is

particularly useful in examining the effectiveness of partnerships amongst

voluntary organisations.

Hadley (2007) emphasises the crucial use of ‘social capital’ in the specific

context of small cultural festivals. Although this research focuses on an

international arts event which may distinguish it from the small cultural festivals

mentioned above, they still have something in common especially in

emphasising values as outcomes rather than economic contribution and tourism.

Additionally, this type of professional arts event normally has limited budgets

and resources. Thus the use of ‘cooperation, partnerships and social capital’

can help minimise the need for major financial resources. One way, as

suggested by Hadley (2007, p.3), is to ‘encourage other organisations to

contribute to their programming’, rather than paying for or commissioning

program items.


36/166

23

1.4.5 Partnerships and social network

‘Network theory’ is closely related to stakeholder theory. A ‘social network’

consists of individual ‘actors’ and the ties between them, either formal or

informal. Getz (2007, p.58), discussing ‘social network’ in an event context,

suggests that the more ties an actor has (e.g., event organization) the more

social capital it will accumulate. Putnam (1993) identifies two types of networks:

horizontal and vertical. Vertical networks have strong bonds, closure, and

solidarity. Horizontal networks have the capacity to bridge different groups of

peers and use weak ties to nurture cooperation between groups for society’s

benefit. Therefore, effective communication should contain both horizontal and

vertical networks. Both types of network can be a valuable resource for

individuals and organisations.

Applying Social Network (SN) theory to sponsor/sponsored organisation

relationships, Daellenbach et al. (2006, pp.81-82) propose that social networks

are not only an effective event management strategy, but also a useful way to

examine stakeholder relationships surrounding event policy and management.

Daellenbach et al. (2006, p.82) suggest:

The ties between sponsor and sponsored organization…. can becomemore than economic and legal, to embrace the creative andcomplementary use of heterogeneous resources such as, national reach,branding, identity and finance; to embrace the sharing of information ontarget markets as well as the management of network- building hospitalityevents.


37/166

24

This strategy thus helps develop a perspective that shows whether and how

organisational actions and decisions may be embedded in social networks.

Since not-for-profit organisations are mission-driven, it is challenging to find

suitable partners without compromising the event’s discrete identity and its aims.

1.4.6 Trust

Putnam (1993, pp.163-165) emphasises trust as an important component of

social capital in terms of creating reciprocity or voluntary association. Giddens

(2000, p.78) also takes up the notion of “trust”, writing:

Social capital refers to trust networks that individuals can draw upon forsocial support, just as financial capital can be drawn upon to be used forinvestment. Like financial capital, social capital can be expanded;invested and reinvested.

Elkington (1998, p.397) also discusses ‘trust’, as ‘[a] measure of the ability of

people to work together for common purposes in groups and organizations. A

key element of social capital is the sense of mutual trust’. However, researchers

point out the difficulties of measuring social capital (Winter, 2000, p.35). To

overcome lack of ‘measurement’, a core principle is proposed by Putnam (2000,

p.415) that ‘no single source of data is flawless, but the more numerous and

diverse the sources, the less likely that they could all be influenced by the same

flaw’. Bridger and Alter, also argue that ‘the critical thing is to avoid

generalisations about how beneficial social networks can be, and instead

identity specific factors that build the trust, bridges and social networks that will

encourage partner producers to commit programming to a festival’ (as cited in


38/166

25

Hadley, 2007, p.5). Therefore, whatever the challenges, it appears that the

building of social capital is a positive action for any community.

Voluntary association membership is usually considered as an important

element in building trust with reference to social capital theory. However, recent

theory and research suggest that not all voluntary associations are positive in

building trust, whist the diverse types of voluntary associations can result in

different effects (Paxton, 2007). In a not-for-profit event, the source of leaders

and participants are largely drawn from the membership of the organisation, and

so event producers develop their social capital based on their membership

goals and vision, and the needs of the members and type of membership thus

has a great influence on these events. How to create and reinforce the

membership relationship should be considered as a potential element of event

management. It is thus necessary to examine whether or not the membership

strategy in WDA is effective in generating trust.

This chapter has explained a number of theories and strategies to support the

aim of the study, which is to develop a successful event management model

that is partnership driven for not-for-profit arts events. In examining the

effectiveness of generic management approaches applied to an event context,

project management is considered as an event management strategy since

theory in this area is well established and a number of benefits can be found by

using a project management approach. Whereas previous research of event

management tends to concentrate on economic function and contribution,


39/166

26

alternative concepts and methods are scanned for different types of events and

event settings, to apply in particular to the cultural and arts sector. Not-for-profit

service-based organisations which differ from corporate events are the focus of

this chapter and study. From this review of literature, building partnerships has

been identified as a key strategy and an effective way when confronting limited

resources and a not-for-profit mission-driven orientation.


40/166

27

Chapter 2 Methodology

The aim of this chapter is to explain the research approach and the methods of

data collection and analysis used to address the research issues, arising from

the previous chapter and the case study itself.

Beginning with a comparison between the epistemologies of qualitative

(naturalist/constructivist) and quantitative (positivist) research paradigms, a

realism paradigm which possesses the characteristics of both constructivism

and positivism is employed with regard to the nature of this research.

Epistemologically, a qualitative methodology is adopted and examines a single

case study, the 2008 WDAGS (World Dance Alliance Global Summit), from the

point of view of event management theory with a particular focus on

partnerships. An ethnographic approach is adopted in relationship to the

dynamics of the leadership team and the participants’ views leading up to and

during the actual event. Methods of data collection, related to both case study

and ethnographic approaches, include personal recorded interviews, a

questionnaire, an on-line survey, participant observation and document analysis.

Finally, a three step analytical strategy has been employed to manage data and

extrapolate findings.


41/166

28

2.1 Paradigm: Realism

According to Guba and Lincoln (1994, p.105), a paradigm can be regarded as

the ‘basic belief system or worldview that guides the investigator’. They

synthesise scientific paradigms into four categories: (1) positivism, (2) realism,

(3) critical theory, and (4) constructivism. In general, quantitative research is

predominated by positivism assuming that science quantitatively measures

‘independent facts’ about ‘a single apprehensible reality’, whereas qualitative

research is based on a relativistic, constructivist ontology believing that there is

no objective reality (Guba & Lincoln, 1994; Healy & Perry, 2000). Realism, as a

philosophical paradigm, has elements of both positivism and constructivism. It is

also known as critical realism or postpositivism (Guba & Lincoln, 1994).

Although the realism paradigm shares the common recognition with the

positivism paradigm that there is a ‘real’ reality ‘out there’, it emphasises that the

reality is ‘imperfectly and probabilistically apprehensible’ instead of ‘a single

apprehensible’ one (Perry, Alizadeh & Riege, 1997, p.547). Thus, a realism

researcher recognises that more valid development models can be derived from

a mixture of theory and field data, even if precise knowledge of reality remains

uncertain (Guba & Lincoln, 1994).

As the aim of this research is to identify which factors can contribute to building

a model for a not-for-profit arts event, different theoretical event management

models have been examined. However, in terms of lack of research in these

specific types of event, the theories need to be examined in a real world setting.


42/166

29

Therefore, the researcher’s responsibility at this point is not to find a ‘perfect’

management model for this type of event, but rather the most suitable.

A realism paradigm has also been adopted because previous research shows

that this particular paradigm has been adapted from market research about

business networks (Borch & Arthur, 1995). Although the author is not

undertaking a marketing research study, part of the nature of this research is to

look at partnership strategies which are quite similar to this kind of marketing

research in its endeavor to capture real-world complexity. As a result, the

realism paradigm has been chosen as the most appropriate for an event case

study.

2.2 Qualitative methodology

For the reasons above, a qualitative inquiry is employed in this study, as

characterized by Denzin and Lincoln (2000, p.3):

Qualitative research is multi-method in focus, involving an interpretive,naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitativeresearchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to makesense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bringto them.

Getz (2007), in his book Event Studies, outlines a series of research traditions,

methods and methodologies in an event context. As a closely related field to this

research, the study of leisure and tourism is usually based on large-scale social

surveys and quantitative analysis. However, there is a shift towards learning

more about why people did what they did, and what it meant to them, instead of


43/166

30

just measuring and forecasting what they did. In this study, therefore, a

‘functionalist’ tradition is less appropriate than the more contemporary

qualitative methods (Getz, 2007, p.57).

Getz (2007, p.364) also suggests that a qualitative approach emphasises

‘discovering people’s attitudes, feelings, motives, or perhaps meanings attached

to an event experience’, which are salient factors of my study. In order to elicit

meaningful and experiential rather than statistical or accumulated data, a single

case study is chosen to generate data. Additionally, in this research, elements

of an ethnographic approach are drawn in terms of participant observation and

being embedded in the study both as a participant/volunteer and as a

researcher.

2.2.1 Case study approaches

As one of the most common approaches to qualitative inquiry, case study is

considered as ‘what is to be studied’ instead of a ‘methodological choice’ (Stake,

2000, p.435). Yin (1994, p.7) also emphasises that various disciplines can

employ a case study approach, particularly in work settings, such as in policy

and public administration research, and for organisational and management

studies. In this research, a single case study 2008 WDAGS is employed in a

particular and discrete workplace setting.

Stake (2000) states that in the selection of a case, it can be categorised as

intrinsic or instrumental. The reason why this single case is chosen is largely


44/166

31

due to an intrinsic preference. Unlike an international dance festival whose

program is to curate showcases through performances with paid audiences, the

unique nature of WDAGS is that it is a dance advocacy and networking model

which brokers different activities ranging from in-studio professional

development through to sharing of performance work and masterclasses, as

well as presenting seminars, conferences and performances. However, besides

the intrinsic interest in the case itself, another agenda of this research is to

explore issues arising from this specific event in relation to general event

management and re-examine event management strategies through learning

about the case. Therefore, an instrumental interest in the case is included to

provide other understandings of the case. The instrumental aspects can thus

make this single case study as a ‘critical case’, which is one of the three

rationales for single-case design suggested by Yin (1994). As the nature of a

‘critical case’ is to ‘test a well-formulated theory’ (Yin, 1994, p.38), the

relationship and management style which emerges from WDAGS is therefore

examined in relation to existing theoretical models of event management, with

specific relevance to partnerships.

The limitation of a single case study is that it is difficult to generalize. Unlike

more statistically-based studies which search for quantifiable data, the goal of a

case study is to offer new variables, experiential insights and questions for

further research. Thus, rather than ‘statistical generalization’, this study will

explore ‘analytic generalization’ (Yin, 1994, p.13). In other words, through


45/166

32

analysis of a single case, one can identify some general attributes that can

apply to similar cases. Yin also suggests the researcher should ‘try to generalize

findings to “theory”, analogous to the way a scientist generalizes from

experimental results to theory’ (Yin, 1994, p.13). Although the aim of the

research is not to emphasise generalisation, some generalisable findings

gradually emerged from the case and thus could contribute to event

management theories. This case study will therefore look at extracting elements

that may be generalisable to other not-for-profit international arts events.

This study also adopts an ethnographic approach as a way to address the

potential ‘vulnerability’ of a single-case design, since ‘ethnographic procedures

allow us to grasp subjective aspects of life that other procedures neglect’ (Burns,

2000, p.395).

2.2.2 Ethnographic approach

The word ethnography, literally ‘writing about people’ is described by Burns as

encompassing ‘any study of a group of people for the purpose of describing

their socio-cultural activities and patterns’ (Burns, 2000, p.393). Ethnographers

describe in detail events and people in their particular context. More recently,

Johnson (2000, p.111) defines ethnography as ‘a descriptive account of social

life and culture in a particular social system based on detailed observations of

what people actually do’.


46/166

33

Although this approach is commonly used by anthropologists to study specific,

and often ancient cultures, Spradley (1979, p.3) suggests that it is also a useful

tool for ‘understanding how other people see their experience’. He emphasises,

however, that ‘rather than studying people, ethnography means learning from

people’ (Spradley, 1979, p.3). As in-depth experiential perspectives of detailed

partnership relationships are crucial in this research, a deeper understanding of

the internal environment which may reflect much more about the people’s

professional modus operandi is required, to provide experiential perspectives in

their natural settings. ‘Learning from people’ in order to gain a holistic

perspective in the context of this study, centers on how to build and maintain

relationships of trust internally with the leadership and membership, and

externally with the partners. Therefore, the ethnographic approach provides an

effective protocol for the researcher to implement a detailed observation.

An ethnographic researcher is asked to ‘enter into close and relatively

prolonged interaction with people in their everyday lives’ (Tedlock, 2000, p.470).

In this research, it is the professional working areas and the participants’

professional life which are emphasised instead of their personal ‘everyday lives’.

The researcher thus needs to get a feeling for the dynamics of the leadership

team and the participants who are involved in this event at different levels. The

value of acquiring a detailed insight into a particular group can be well explained

by the ‘postmodern experimental, ethnographic research’ that Denzin and

Lincoln (2000, p.17) refer to as the ‘fifth moment’ which emphasises how ‘the


47/166


48/166

35

study in the choices I make about the data whilst not consciously imposing my

own conceptual framework.

My involvement as the researcher allows me to see, to hear and to experience

various aspects, but not all, of the event. Interaction between the researcher

and the researched becomes an important issue due to the demand for the

researcher to become an ‘insider’ where he or she collaborates, spending time

in the field with participants in order to lessen distance between them (Creswell,

1998, p.75).

Burns (2000, p.404) suggests, ‘ethnographers try to avoid sharpening their

problems into specific research hypotheses until considerable exploratory

investigation has occurred (a process termed “progressive focusing”)’. Similarly,

Yin (1994, p.41) recommends ‘not to commit oneself to the single case until

these major concerns have been covered’.

As I began to do my research from the pre-event stage of WDAGS, she was

able to look at the event through different stages. Thus, the gradual

development of the whole process led to the ‘progressive focusing’ of my

research.

2.3 Data collection

As I began investigating WDAGS in the pre-event stage, this provided an

opportunity to look at the life cycle of the event. A living involvement in the event

created some first-hand data. However, in order to gain a holistic understanding


49/166

36

of the nature of the event and the management style, other data collection

methods were used and designed during various stages of the event.

2.3.1 Participant observation

As one of the most common and demanding methods for qualitative data

collection, participant observation has been characterised as ‘the mainstay of

the ethnographic enterprise’ (Hodder, 2000, p.703).

The basic methodological argument for participant observation, explained by

Guba and Lincoln (1989, p. 193), is to ‘maximize the researcher’s ability to

grasp motives, beliefs, concerns, interests, unconscious behaviors and the like’.

Thus, an ‘analytic ethnography’ can be employed that ‘utilizes data based on

deep familiarity with social setting or situation that is gained by personal

participation or an approximation of it’ (Berg, 1998, pp.120-121).

My fieldwork began in September 2007 which was the pre-event of the study

stage, although bidding and planning began from August 2006. The main site of

my fieldwork was the meeting place of the conference committee. I specifically

focused on the conference committee as it seemed to be the most important

and complicated part of the summit. All accounts and observations as field

notes were taken during committee meetings which I observed in an

ethnographic way. It should be noted that although I was an observer in the

conference committee before the opening of the event, I was not involved in the

actual management process. Thus, the risk of being too ‘subjective’ in the


50/166


51/166

38

Table 1: Key roles in the 2008 World Dance Alliance Global Summit

name position

*Mr. Marcus Hughes Executive Director, AusdanceQueensland, Program Director

*A/Prof. Cheryl Stock Program Chair/Curator, ConferenceConvenor, WDAGS Vice-President(Pacific) WDA-AP, AssociateProfessor, Creative Industries FacultyQUT

Ms Denise Richardson Conference Project Officer, WDAGS

Ms Amy Piekkala-Fletcher QUT Events Manager *Ms. Julie Dyson National Executive Director, Australian

Dance Council—Ausdance andSecretary of WDA-AP

Prof. Mohd Anis Md Nor Anis President of WDA-AP

Dr Urmimala Sarkar Munsi Chair of WDA-AP network: Research& Documentation

* Members of Executive Program committee

Since this research topic focuses on how to implement an international dance

event, a series of questions around the management of this event were

designed ahead of time. The specific questions were related to the factors

contributing to partnership strategies as discussed in Chapter 1. However, a

fully structured interview may not have revealed meaningful data for this

research. In terms of the ‘inflexible, standardized and predetermined’ (Fontana

& Frey, 2000, p.650) nature of this type of interview, there is little room for the

interviewer to know much about the interviewee’s personal inspiration and their

relationship with others. However, in terms of the not-for-profit nature of the

case study, the leaders’ personal motivations and preferences could be

considered crucial factors influencing the effect and outcome of the event. Thus,

encouraging the interviewees to talk about themselves was vital for the


52/166

39

researcher to achieve a multi-facetted and rich understanding of the leadership

team. Therefore, some aspects of unstructured interview methods were used ‘to

understand the complex behavior of members of society without imposing any a

priori categorization that may limit the field of inquiry’ (Fontana & Frey, 2000,

p.653). Finally, the semi-structured interview was employed in order to provide a

fairly open framework. Based on the general questions within the context of

event management, some specific questions could be improvised during the

interview process. The structured questions can be found in Appendix A (pp.

134-135).

2.3.3 Questionnaire survey

A questionnaire survey was also conducted in order to acquire perspectives

from the personal experiences of delegates during the actual event. The

questionnaires were included in the delegates’ packages and twenty-seven

responses were received via e-mail, post-event. Borrie and Brizell , suggest that

there are four approaches to studying visitor experience: the ‘satisfaction

approach’, ‘benefits approach’, ‘experience-based approach’ and ‘meanings-

based approach’ (as cited in Getz, 2007, p.372). Four questions in eight were

designed as open-ended questions with a particular emphasis on a ‘benefits

approach’ and ‘meaning-based approach’. The other four questions in the

survey refer to the background information of respondents as quantitative data.

However, the main aim of the survey was to look at feedback from the delegates’

point of view rather than to collect statistical data. The quantitative data was


53/166

40

only considered as identification for individual respondent types (age, gender,

professional expertise).

In addition, an evaluation survey designed by the conference event manager,

with forty-six respondents, was received in the form of anonymous on-line

feedback with a focus on the ‘satisfactory approach’ of the event, and was also

accessed by the researcher. In addition, personal emails from the delegates to

the Program Chair post-event, have also been accessed as more open-ended

feedback, in terms of unsolicited responses. Therefore, the latter two sources of

data can be considered complementary sources of information. Appendix B,

(p.136) includes the research questionnaire and the feedback questions.

2.3.4 Documents and archive records

Other sources of evidence in the form of documents and archives were used to

complement interviews and participant observation (Yin, 1994, pp.79-80). The

data used in this study ranges from administrative documents to published

articles outlined as follows:

• applications for funding

• conceptual documents

• minutes of meetings

• correspondence

• published program book

• articles about the event (pre & post event)


54/166

41

In terms of the important role of the international host organization, as a main

stakeholder in the event, WDA deals with different levels of relationships with

other stakeholders involved. Therefore, the descriptive data including the nature

of the WDA and its management structure is identified mainly through internal

documents on the history, philosophy and past activities of the organization. To

a lesser extent, Ausdance Queensland, the co-host organization of the event,

has also been examined in terms of structure and management style.

Most significantly, the researcher has been granted access to the funding

applications and acquittal reports of 2008 WDAGS, both successful and

unsuccessful. 2008 WDAGS covers different forms of fundraising including

government, philanthropic and corporate sponsorship. As most not-for-profit

organizations rely heavily on funding subsidies, either cash or in-kind support,

the analysis of different funding sources reveals how WDAGS matches their

various priorities. The number of funding applications (successful/unsuccessful)

can also be considered as effective quantitative data.

2.3.5 Triangulation

In order to increase the credibility of a single-case design, Yin (1994, p.41)

suggests that this kind of design requires ‘careful investigation of the potential

case to minimize the chances of misrepresentation and to maximize the access

needed to collect the case study evidence’.


55/166

42

On this point, triangulation is needed as a validation strategy. It can be defined

as ‘the use of two or more methods of data collection in the study of some

aspect of human behavior’ (Burns, 2000, p.419). Denzin and Lincoln (2000,

p.179) identify four types of triangulation including ‘triangulation of data’,

‘investigator triangulation’, ‘methodological triangulation’ and ‘triangulation of

theories’. In this research, ‘methodological triangulation’ is the major type used

to test the validity of the data collected and analysed. As the central concept of

Guba and Lincoln (2000, p.179), methodological triangulation ‘involves a

complex process of playing each method off against the other so as to maximize

the validity of field efforts’. These multiple perceptions also coincide with the

nature of a realism paradigm rather than exploring only a single ‘reality’. Healy

and Perry (2000) also discuss investigating the reality of a social phenomenon

through ‘the triangulation of cognition processes’. Therefore, the triangulation of

different research methods is not only a validity technique but also a

philosophical need which makes it possible to capture different aspects of the

research study.

In this study, data is collected through participant observation, interviews and

documents which provide the opportunity for cross-checking interpretations.

However, the triangulation approach is not without problems. Schroeder (1999,

p.50) notes that ‘the fundamental problem with triangulation is that we lack a

theoretical framework for specifying the precise manner in which the different

methods actually observe, or “measure”, the “same object”’. In this research,


56/166

43

although much of the data about event management is obtained through

interviews, field notes and internal documents and other data, theories of event

management theory have also been accessed via current literature in the field

as outlined in Chapter 1. The main theoretical areas are in reference to:

• Partnerships/Stakeholders

• Not-for-profit cultural organisations

• Event management

Thus, in response to the limitations of triangulation, a theoretical and broad

contextual background is provided to widen and contextualize this ethnographic

case study.

2.4 Data analysis

In writing about qualitative data analysis, Miles and Huberman (1994) state that

the focus is on data in the form of words. In this research, words came from the

interviews conducted, participant observation, questionnaire surveys and

documents. The processing, structuring and interpretation of these words is a

form of analysis. In terms of analysis of the case itself, the data provides the

material for further theory building, but an analytic strategy is important to

precede the research (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Yin, 1994).

The benefit of a general analytical strategy at the beginning, as Yin (1994, p.103)

suggests, is that it can reduce potential analytic difficulties. In relation to case


57/166

44

studies, this provides the researcher with a system by which he/she can set

priorities for what he/she needs to analyse and why.

According to Yin (1994, pp.103-104), ‘Relying on theoretical propositions’ is the

most common general analytical strategy to assist with the findings in

comparison with previous studies. In this research, therefore, the collection of

data emerging from the case study is compared with research coming from

previous studies on event management and partnership.

In terms of insufficient specific event management theory for not-for-profit arts

events, theoretical propositions may not be enough as a general analytic

strategy. Therefore, ‘developing a case description’ which has been proposed

as the second general analytic strategy by Yin (1994, p.104) is also employed.

Although the objective of this research is not primarily descriptive, the detailed

description of the background and history of the host organization WDA and the

process of the whole 2008 event WDAGS is crucial to set the context in which

the event takes place.

Miles and Huberman (1994, p.10) define data analysis as ‘consisting of three

concurrent flows of activity: (1) data reduction, (2) data display, and (3)

conclusion drawing/verification’.

‘Data reduction’ involves selecting, focusing, simplifying and transforming the

raw data. Beginning with a careful reading of interview transcripts,

questionnaires, field notes and documents, all the materials were categorized


58/166

45

and connected to particular codes in order to reflect the research issues and

emergent themes. Comparing the data obtained directly from the case with

previous event management theories, the researcher looked at how findings

from all the data sources fit previous findings.

As the second major activity, data display is considered to be ‘a major avenue to

valid qualitative analysis’ (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p.11). Data display involves

taking the reduced data and displaying it in an organised, compressed way so

that conclusions can be more easily drawn. Although data display is best used

in cross-case analysis, it