Showa Era Japan:Showa Era Japan:

Great Depression, WW IIGreat Depression, WW II& Recovery& Recovery

1414

Collapse of Taisho Collapse of Taisho DemocracyDemocracy

Late 1920s: Government by AssassinationLate 1920s: Government by Assassination Liberals systematically eliminatedLiberals systematically eliminated Military asserts great authorityMilitary asserts great authority

Withhold military cabinet ministers to Withhold military cabinet ministers to topple cabinetstopple cabinets

Work with Zaibatsu to boost military Work with Zaibatsu to boost military budgets and military hardware acquisitionbudgets and military hardware acquisition

Build alliance with Bureaucrats to get Build alliance with Bureaucrats to get favorable policiesfavorable policies

Showa Emperor:Showa Emperor:HirohitoHirohito New EmperorNew Emperor New policies: New policies:

reemphasize national reemphasize national myth of Imperial Deitymyth of Imperial Deity

Military and Zaibatsu Military and Zaibatsu focus on Colonial focus on Colonial ExpansionExpansion

Mukden Incident: 1931Mukden Incident: 1931Japan dominates in Manchuria (since 1905)Japan dominates in Manchuria (since 1905) Military wants complete controlMilitary wants complete control Moderates in Diet prefer to leave some Moderates in Diet prefer to leave some

Manchurian autonomyManchurian autonomy Military Stages Mukden incidentMilitary Stages Mukden incident

Sabotage Japanese railroadSabotage Japanese railroad Launch full-scale war to Launch full-scale war to

preserve orderpreserve order Fiat accompli: Diet forced Fiat accompli: Diet forced

to ratify military aggressionto ratify military aggression

Japan’s effective beginning Japan’s effective beginning of WWIIof WWII

Japan’s Diet Building

Marco Polo Bridge: 1937Marco Polo Bridge: 1937Japan Joins Axis powers in WWIIJapan Joins Axis powers in WWII

Military favors full-scale attack on ChinaMilitary favors full-scale attack on China Moderates in Diet want to hold off and avoid Moderates in Diet want to hold off and avoid

war with USwar with US Military stages skirmish across Marco Polo Military stages skirmish across Marco Polo

BridgeBridge In Hot Pursuit – invade ChinaIn Hot Pursuit – invade China Capture BeijingCapture Beijing Present Diet with fiat accompliPresent Diet with fiat accompli

Official beginning of WWII for Japan and ChinaOfficial beginning of WWII for Japan and China

WWIIWWII Rape of NanjingRape of Nanjing

(Nanking) Dec. 1937 – (Nanking) Dec. 1937 – Jan 1938Jan 1938

Japanese military Japanese military atrocitiesatrocities Bataan Death MarchBataan Death March ExperimentationExperimentation POW Torture, etc.POW Torture, etc.

Undisciplined Undisciplined military??military??

Shinto and situational Shinto and situational ethics???ethics???

WWIIWWII

Japan allied with Germany and ItalyJapan allied with Germany and Italy Nazi sympathy? Japanese as Arian?Nazi sympathy? Japanese as Arian? Japan threatened by whom? What?Japan threatened by whom? What? US Oil and Scrap metal embargo: 1940US Oil and Scrap metal embargo: 1940

Japan as “Liberators of Asia” Japan as “Liberators of Asia” ““Greater East Asian Co Prosperity Greater East Asian Co Prosperity

Sphere”Sphere” Domestic War Sentiment?Domestic War Sentiment?

WW IIWW II

Pearl HarborPearl Harbor Surprise AttackSurprise Attack Wipe out US Pacific Fleet in Wipe out US Pacific Fleet in

HarborHarbor

Does Japan expect victory?Does Japan expect victory? ““We have only wakened a sleeping We have only wakened a sleeping

giant”giant”

WW IIWW II

Severe & fanatical Severe & fanatical fightersfighters

Japanese Cities devastatedJapanese Cities devastated Firebombing of TokyoFirebombing of Tokyo Defeat but not SurrenderDefeat but not Surrender

Kamikaze: Kamikaze: Divine Winds RepriseDivine Winds Reprise Act of DesperationAct of Desperation

WWII: WWII: Unconditional SurrenderUnconditional Surrender

““We must endure We must endure the unendurable.”the unendurable.”

Emperor HirohitoEmperor Hirohito

US insists on Complete US insists on Complete SurrenderSurrender

Japanese cannot conceive of itJapanese cannot conceive of it Hiroshima … NagasakiHiroshima … Nagasaki

Postwar OccupationPostwar Occupation

McArthur and SCAP: McArthur and SCAP: (Supreme Commander of Allied Powers)(Supreme Commander of Allied Powers)

DDemocratizationemocratization

DDemilitarization emilitarization

DDecentralizationecentralization

Postwar OccupationPostwar Occupation 1945-47 1945-47

3 D3 Dss: REALLY: REALLY Break up of ZaibatsuBreak up of Zaibatsu Decentralize educationDecentralize education Introduce Socialists & CommunistsIntroduce Socialists & Communists Support labor movementsSupport labor movements Dissolve militaryDissolve military Impose Land ReformImpose Land Reform

Postwar OccupationPostwar Occupation

PurgesPurges Most Elected OfficialsMost Elected Officials All Military LeadersAll Military Leaders Zaibatsu LeadersZaibatsu Leaders

War Crimes Trials for War Crimes Trials for major officialsmajor officials

Emperor Emperor NOTNOT tried tried War Crimes Trial of Premier Tojo Hideki

Postwar OccupationPostwar Occupation BureaucratsBureaucrats

Survive Purges – US leadership is unaware of Survive Purges – US leadership is unaware of their major powertheir major power

Bureaucracy stays largely intactBureaucracy stays largely intact Bureaucrats play major postwar roleBureaucrats play major postwar role

Example:Example: Yoshida ShigeruYoshida Shigeru

Ministry of FinanceMinistry of Finance Good EnglishGood English Runs for DietRuns for Diet Eventually becomes PMEventually becomes PM

Prime Minister Yoshida @ UC Berkeley, 1951

Constitution (1946, Constitution (1946, Ratified Ratified 1947)1947)

Japanese versions too much like Meiji ConstitutionJapanese versions too much like Meiji Constitution MacArthur commissions US Military staff to MacArthur commissions US Military staff to

write a constitutionwrite a constitution Borrows heavily from British Borrows heavily from British

Popular sovereigntyPopular sovereignty Diet (two-house parliament) Diet (two-house parliament) expressesexpresses

people’s sovereigntypeople’s sovereignty Emperor as the symbol of Japanese nation, Emperor as the symbol of Japanese nation,

NOT divineNOT divine Judicial independence with power of Judicial Judicial independence with power of Judicial

ReviewReview Universal adult suffrageUniversal adult suffrage

Equal Rights??? Women’s roles?Equal Rights??? Women’s roles?

Odd Electoral SystemOdd Electoral System

Constitution creates a deliberately Constitution creates a deliberately complex system for electionscomplex system for elections

Multi-member districts with single, Multi-member districts with single, non-transferable votenon-transferable vote Intent: to be sure no one party can win a Intent: to be sure no one party can win a

majoritymajority Designed to prevent the Diet from being Designed to prevent the Diet from being

too effective or powerfultoo effective or powerful

1947 1947 Peace ConstitutionPeace Constitution

Peace Clause (Article IX)Peace Clause (Article IX) Proposed by PM Proposed by PM ShideharaShidehara Kijuro Kijuro

Initially rejected by MacArthur as Initially rejected by MacArthur as unrealisticunrealistic

Finally accepted and incorporated into Finally accepted and incorporated into Japan’s Postwar ConstitutionJapan’s Postwar Constitution

..

1947 Peace Constitution1947 Peace Constitution Peace Clause (Article IX)Peace Clause (Article IX)

ARTICLE 9.ARTICLE 9. Aspiring sincerely to an Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international force as means of settling international disputes.disputes. In order to accomplish the aim of the In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding paragraph, land, sea, and air preceding paragraph, land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained. The right of will never be maintained. The right of belligerency of the state will not be belligerency of the state will not be recognized.recognized.

Postwar JapanPostwar Japan

Cold War and “Containment” 1947Cold War and “Containment” 1947

Reverse Course 1947Reverse Course 1947 Reforms haltedReforms halted

No more decentralizationNo more decentralization Stop breaking up ZaibatsuStop breaking up Zaibatsu

Dodge LineDodge Line Detroit Banker leads in an anti-Detroit Banker leads in an anti-

inflation campaign inflation campaign Leads initially to short term recessionLeads initially to short term recession

George Kennan: Mr. X in Daedalus

Joseph Dodge

Yoshida DoctrineYoshida Doctrine

Japan must focus on Japan must focus on economic growtheconomic growth

Japan must avoid Japan must avoid international conflictinternational conflict

Rely on US for securityRely on US for security Follow US lead in international relationsFollow US lead in international relations Focus all energy on economic Focus all energy on economic

developmentdevelopment

Yoshida Shigeru

Japan: Neo-mercantilismJapan: Neo-mercantilism

Yoshida Doctrine details:Yoshida Doctrine details: Focus on GrowthFocus on Growth Grow through export, Grow through export, exportexport, ,

exportexport Protect domestic industryProtect domestic industry Focus on market share and growth, Focus on market share and growth,

not consumer satisfactionnot consumer satisfaction

Japan’s Economic ModelJapan’s Economic ModelExport-led GrowthExport-led Growth Protect domestic firms at firstProtect domestic firms at first Demand that they exportDemand that they export Provide government assistance to direct Provide government assistance to direct

investment and to support exportinvestment and to support export Brilliantly successful for Japan Brilliantly successful for Japan (& later Korea, Taiwan, (& later Korea, Taiwan,

Singapore, Hong Kong, & now China)Singapore, Hong Kong, & now China)

Standard Standard (not Japanese)(not Japanese) 1940s development model 1940s development model Import SubstitutionImport Substitution

Protect domestic industries, produce for domestic marketProtect domestic industries, produce for domestic market Import only raw materials and capital goodsImport only raw materials and capital goods Fails miserably: leads to debt and weak domestic Fails miserably: leads to debt and weak domestic

industries that never “grow up”industries that never “grow up”

Bureaucracy’s role in economic Bureaucracy’s role in economic planningplanning

Administrative GuidanceAdministrative Guidance Control of import licensesControl of import licenses Control of capital Control of capital

allocationallocation Encourage collaborative Encourage collaborative

R&DR&D AmakudariAmakudari (descent from (descent from

heaven)heaven)Chalmers Johnson’s Classic

Study of bureaucracy in Japanese economic

development

Japanese Business Japanese Business ModelModel

Post “Ford” industrial modelPost “Ford” industrial model Dr. W. Edwards Deming:Dr. W. Edwards Deming:

Focus primarily on QUALITYFocus primarily on QUALITY Use statistical analysis to measure Use statistical analysis to measure

and improve qualityand improve quality

Empower shop floor workers to control and Empower shop floor workers to control and guarantee qualityguarantee quality

First presented ideas to US Automakers but was First presented ideas to US Automakers but was rejectedrejected

Took his ideas to Japanese industrial leaders and Took his ideas to Japanese industrial leaders and they adopted them, leading them to become the they adopted them, leading them to become the world’s leaders in QUALITYworld’s leaders in QUALITY

Dr. W. Edwards Deming

Japan gets a Kick StartJapan gets a Kick Start

Chinese Revolution 1949Chinese Revolution 1949 Stimulates US interest in supporting Japanese Stimulates US interest in supporting Japanese

development and securitydevelopment and security Solidifies US security relationshipSolidifies US security relationship

Korean War: 1950Korean War: 1950 McArthur requests Japanese troops to help UN McArthur requests Japanese troops to help UN

effort in Koreaeffort in Korea Japan citing Article IX, declines to send troopsJapan citing Article IX, declines to send troops Japan serves as Command center, R&R site, and Japan serves as Command center, R&R site, and

local procurement center – reaps profits from the local procurement center – reaps profits from the warwar

The LDP and Japan’s 1955 The LDP and Japan’s 1955 Political SystemPolitical System

1955: Liberal Party and Democratic Party merge to 1955: Liberal Party and Democratic Party merge to form the Liberal Democratic Party -- LDPform the Liberal Democratic Party -- LDP

Both were actually conservative, pro-business partiesBoth were actually conservative, pro-business parties Single-party dominanceSingle-party dominance

Manage to manipulate the unwieldy electoral system to Manage to manipulate the unwieldy electoral system to create one-party dominant systemcreate one-party dominant system

Develop system of personal politicsDevelop system of personal politics Elections based on personal networks and pork-barrel Elections based on personal networks and pork-barrel

politicspolitics Classic “party machine” system, like Tammany Hall in US Classic “party machine” system, like Tammany Hall in US

HistoryHistory Supported by a broad consensus that the Yoshida plan and Supported by a broad consensus that the Yoshida plan and

the LDP governance is workingthe LDP governance is working Serve interests of Serve interests of KiretsuKiretsu (former (former ZaibatsuZaibatsu)) Protects interest of conservative farmers to keep Protects interest of conservative farmers to keep

their votetheir vote

Bureaucratic Governance?Bureaucratic Governance?

Division of roles in Postwar Japan:Division of roles in Postwar Japan: Politicians Reign, Bureaucrats RulePoliticians Reign, Bureaucrats Rule

Similar to emperors who reigned with shoguns Similar to emperors who reigned with shoguns who ruled …who ruled …

LDP sets broad guidelines through DietLDP sets broad guidelines through Diet Bureaucracies make it workBureaucracies make it work Bureaucracies propose major adjustmentsBureaucracies propose major adjustments LDP officials provide democratic legitimacy and LDP officials provide democratic legitimacy and

get back in return discretionary funds to get back in return discretionary funds to provide benefits to their constituentsprovide benefits to their constituents

Indecisive DietIndecisive DietWeak Prime MinisterWeak Prime Minister

Government by consensusGovernment by consensus Behind-the-scenes compromise with minor Behind-the-scenes compromise with minor

partiesparties Negotiate until minor parties agree to Negotiate until minor parties agree to

abstainabstain

To force a bill through over minority To force a bill through over minority parties’ strong objections is “dictatorial” parties’ strong objections is “dictatorial” and “undemocratic”and “undemocratic”

Consensus takes a long time & allows only Consensus takes a long time & allows only incremental changeincremental change

Major Post-war Japanese Major Post-war Japanese Political ConsensusPolitical Consensus

NO military involvementsNO military involvements The military route nearly destroyed usThe military route nearly destroyed us No one suffered as much as Japan in WWIINo one suffered as much as Japan in WWII Militarism only leads to troubleMilitarism only leads to trouble

Japan must NOT have a militaryJapan must NOT have a military Maintain a “self defense force”Maintain a “self defense force” No “power projection capability” – no offensive No “power projection capability” – no offensive

weapons, only defensive technologiesweapons, only defensive technologies SDF limited to 1% of GDP – SDF limited to 1% of GDP – that makes it the 5that makes it the 5thth

largest military force in the worldlargest military force in the world

Major Post-war Japanese Major Post-war Japanese Political ConsensusPolitical Consensus

Nuclear weapons are always evilNuclear weapons are always evil Japan is the only victim of atomic bombsJapan is the only victim of atomic bombs It must never happen again – especially not at It must never happen again – especially not at

Japan’s instigationJapan’s instigation No NUKES on our soil or in our harborsNo NUKES on our soil or in our harbors

The Yoshida Doctrine WORKEDThe Yoshida Doctrine WORKED Focus on economic growth without engaging in Focus on economic growth without engaging in

security politics pays offsecurity politics pays off Japan must avoid military involvementJapan must avoid military involvement

Challenges to Japan’sChallenges to Japan’sPost-war Political ConsensusPost-war Political Consensus

China is newly assertive in military matters and China is newly assertive in military matters and may pose a real threatmay pose a real threat

North Korea claims to have NUKES and has North Korea claims to have NUKES and has launched test missiles across Japanlaunched test missiles across Japan

US is far less interested in defending Japan than it US is far less interested in defending Japan than it used to beused to be

Changes in the world economy have undermined Changes in the world economy have undermined Japan’s economic modelJapan’s economic model Too many countries are playing Japan’s game and have Too many countries are playing Japan’s game and have

lower-cost labor – hence, very slow growth since 1991lower-cost labor – hence, very slow growth since 1991 The Yoshida model may have run its courseThe Yoshida model may have run its course