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ChapterChapterChapterChapter−1111
INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION
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The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (1992 edition) defines pollution
as, “the act or process of polluting or the state of being polluted, especially the contamination
of soil, water or the atmosphere by the discharge of harmful substances’’ [Rana, 2007]. An
introductory college text book defines pollution in its glossary as a process, to make foul,
unclean, and dirty; any physical, chemical, or biological change that adversely affects the
health, survival, or activities of living organisms or that alters the environment in undesirable
ways (Saigo and Cunningham, 1992). In 21st century the definition of pollution becomes
wider and more complex as to include natural and social system affecting the quality of our
environment. An expanded definition of pollution includes terms such as ecological
restoration, ecosystem rehabilitation and revitalization as well as aesthetic pollution, cultural
eutrophication and anthropogenic impacts. Human activities increased dramatically,
frequently and chronically resulting into unforeseen problems of diverse nature.
Anthropogenic activities “aesthetically” polluted natural landscapes, “culturally” eutrophied
lakes and deliberately allowed poisonous gasses to enter the atmosphere. Beginning with the
industrial revolution in the 18th century, pollution became a more noticeable phenomenon in
the middle of 19th century, particularly following the American civil war. The phenomenon of
acid rain was first described in the 17th century. The major events, one in the Meuse valley in
Belgium in 1930 and the other in Donora, Pennsylvania in 1948 were responsible for raising
alarm against air pollution in scientific community. Bhopal gas tragedy (1984) affected 3.5
lacks peoples of Bhopal (India).
Environmental pollution in general can be classified as follows.
1. Air pollution
The presence of one or more contaminants in the atmosphere in such quality and for such
duration as is injurious, or tends to be injurious to human health or welfare, animal or plant
life. It is the contamination of air by the discharge of harmful substances. Air pollution can
cause health problems and it can also damage the environment and properties. It has cause
thinning of the protective ozone layer of the atmosphere. Industries, vehicles, increase in the
population, and urbanisation are some of the major factors responsible for air pollution. The
following industries are among those that emit a large quantity of pollutants into the air:
thermal power plants, cement, steel, refineries, petrochemicals and mines. The source of
pollution may be in one country but the impact of pollution may be felt elsewhere.
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Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas. It is a product of incomplete combustion of organic matter
due to insufficient oxygen supply to enable complete oxidation to carbon dioxide. Exposures
at 100 ppm or greater can be dangerous to human health [Prockop and Chichkova, 2007].
Carbon monoxide mainly causes adverse effects in humans by combining with hemoglobin to
form carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO) in the blood. This prevents oxygen binding to hemoglobin,
reducing the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, leading to hypoxia. Inhaling even
relatively small amounts of the gas can lead to hypoxic injury, neurological damage, and even
death. Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring atmospheric gas that is considered safe at
levels below 0.5% according to OSHA standards [CCOHS, 2005]. It is also produced by
human activities. CO2
is considered to be a potential inhalation toxicant and a simple
asphyxiate [Aerias, 2005; NIOSH, 1976; Priestly, 2003]. It enters the body from the
atmosphere through the lungs, is distributed to the blood, and may cause an acid-base
imbalance, or acidosis, with subsequent CNS (Central Nervous System) depression [Nelson
2000; Priestly 2003]. Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) released mainly from air conditioning
system and refrigeration. When released into the air, CFC rise to the stratosphere, where they
come in contact with other gases like ozone and lead to a reduction of the ozone layer. Ozone
occurs naturally in the stratosphere of the atmosphere. This important gas shields the earth
from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. However at the ground level it is a pollutant with
highly toxic effects. Ground level ozone is powerful oxidant and eye irritating. Nitrogen
oxide causes smog and acid rain. It is produced from burning fossil fuels like petroleum and
coal. Nitrogen oxide can make children susceptible to respiratory diseases in winters.
Suspended Particulate matter (SPM) consists of solids in the air in the form of smoke, dust,
and vapours that can remain suspended for extended period and is also the main source of
haze which reduce visibility. The finer of these particles, when breathed in can lodged in
lungs and causes lung damage and respiratory problems. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) gas is
produced from burning coal, mainly in thermal power plants. Some industrial processes, such
as production of papers and smelting of metals, produce sulphur dioxide. It is a major
contributor to smog, acid rain and can lead to lung diseases.
2. Land pollution
It is the pollution of the earth’s natural land surface by industrial, commercial, domestic and
other agricultural activities. Some of the common sources of land pollution are chemical and
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nuclear plants, industries, oil refineries, human sewage, mining, littering, debris from
construction work and deforestation.
3. Water pollution
The indiscriminate disposal of water after use in the form of wastewater causes water
pollution. Water pollution could be in the form of any change in the physical, chemical and
biological properties of water which has harmful effect on living things. It could take place in
various water sources, like ponds, lakes, rivers, seas and oceans. Water is the most abundant
compound on earth, covering nearly three quarters of the planet’s surface. Although the total
amount of water on earth is enormous, only a small percentage is fresh water and much of
that is not readily available for human use. Over 97% of the world’s total supply of water is
found in oceans which is too salty for drinking, irrigation, and most industrial and household
needs. Lakes and rivers, which are the major sources of the world’s drinking water, account
1% of earth’s total water (Fig. 1.1).
Fig. 1.1. Distribution of water on earth’s surface
One of the causes of water pollution is the release of waste into the water bodies, for example
domestic waste, industrial effluents, agricultural wastes. In addition infection agents, plant
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nutrients, exotic organic chemicals, inorganic materials and compounds sediments and heat
totally spoil the quality of water. Several legislations starting from 1899 till date have been
passed in various states (Including Maharashtra India since 1964) to preserve the quality of
water because the water quality is of major concern for everyone. Other causes of pollution in
the sea include events such as oil spills and atmospheric deposition (where pollutants enter
water bodies through falling particles, dissolving in rain, snow, or direct dissolving in water.
Types of water pollution
The growing human population is putting undue pressure on the planet’s water resources
resulting in various type of water pollution. The qualities of major water bodies such as
rivers, lakes, oceans and ground water is greatly reduced by human activities. Ground water
is important to man since a large section of people in every country, including the developed
nations depends on it. Moreover, this recourse is an integral component of hydrologic cycle.
Ground water pollution falls into two broad categories: Point source and Non-Point source
pollution. Point source pollution refers to contamination originating from a single tank or a
single disposal site. Leakage of gasoline from a storage tank is an example of point source
pollution. Non-point source pollution also called diffuse source pollution refers to
contamination that is spread out over an extensive area. For example, fertilizers and
pesticides that are spread over large fields may percolate into groundwater at a number of
places, causing non-point source pollution. Since non-point source pollution affects a larger
area, it is generally considered to be more hazardous than point source pollution.
Chemical pollutants are subdivided into organic and inorganic pollutants (Table 1.1 and 1.2).
Organic pollution is the most common form of water pollution. It is caused by the naturally
occurring compounds like proteins, fats, carbohydrates etc, as well as by synthetic
compounds like dyes pesticides herbicides etc. The synthetic organic derivatives cause more
harm to the environment than the naturally occurring one. Some important organic pollutants,
along with the sources of their origin, are listed in Table 1.1. These pollutants can be
classified into two groups named biodegradable in which naturally occurring compounds are
placed and non-biodegradable which includes synthetic compounds. When a biodegradable
organic polluting load is discharged into a water body it is decomposed or degraded by
aerobic bacteria. However non-biodegradable pollutants like detergents, pesticides,
herbicides, paints, plasticizers, pharmaceuticals, industrial effluents and aromatic derivatives
are resistant to microbial decomposition and also toxic in nature. Their biodegradation occurs
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extremely slowly, consuming massive amount of dissolved oxygen [Sodhi, 2009]. For such
reactions, the rate of oxygen consumption is greater than the rate of oxygen replenishment.
Under these circumstances, depletion of dissolved oxygen occurs, resulting in severe
consequences for the aquatic biota and before they are acted upon by micro-organisms they
manifest their toxic effects on the aquatic living community. Thus such compounds elicit a
wide range of environmental hazards.
Biological pollutants
Those aquatic organisms which either multiplied excessively or are otherwise undesirable,
harmful or injurious are classified as biological pollutants. These pollutants generally arise as
secondary result of pollution by sewage or trade wastes. Excessive growth of fresh water
weeds like chest nuts is because of the discharge of untreated sewage or effluents into water.
Algae multiply at an accelerated pace, causing odours in water. When they die, their cell
decompose, encouraging the growth of bacteria and fungi which thrive on dead cell
constituents, moreover, the decomposition of algae cells consume oxygen. The depletion of
dissolve oxygen causes eutrophic conditions in water bodies likes lacks. High density of
algae may also produce toxins which are lethal to animals for example; Prymnesium parvum
produces a toxin which is harmful to the fish. The faecal contamination of water can
introduce a variety of pathogenic bacteria in water. Salmonella can cause acute gastro-
enteritis with diarrhea, fever and vomiting. Escherichia coli produce diarrhea in children.
Salmonella typhi causes typhoid while Vibrio cholerae causes cholera. Viruses are inducted
into natural water through faeces. Although these organisms are present in water in much
lower number than bacteria, yet they pose a considerable health hazards because they cause
greater resistance to disinfection. Many of the common infection of man are viral diseases.
Influenza, small pox, poliomyelitis and yellow fever are some of the common ailments
caused by viruses. Hepatitis A is transmitted by virus contaminated water. Faecal
contamination of drinking water is the major source of transmission of pathogenic protozoa.
Amoebic dysentery is caused by the parasitic protozoan, Entamoeba histolytica. It is endemic
in the tropical and subtropical region. Another parasitic protozoan, Naegleria fowleri causes
amoebic meningoencephalitis, a fatal disease.
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Table. 1.1. Common organic pollutants.
Pollutants Representative Examples Source
Proteins Gelalin, Keratin Casein Food processing, Cannery waste,
Slaughter house waste, tannery
waste
Fats Glycerol palmitate, glycerol stearate. Fat refining, wool scouring
waste, edible oil waste.
Carbohydrates Starch, Cellulose Paper and pulp industry, textile
industry
Resins Amber, Rosin Paint manufacture, textile
industry, lacquer industry
Soaps Sodium palmitate, potassium stearate Laundry waste, textile waste
Detergents Sodium louryl sulphate, polyglycol
ether
Laundry waste, textile waste
Dyes Fluorescein magenta Dyeing and printing textile,
paper, leather
Agro chemicals DDT, 2,4-D Agricultural run-off
Table.1.2. Common inorganic pollutants.
Pollutants Representatives examples Sources
Acids Sulphuric acids, phosphoric acids Mine run-off, wool scouring
waste, iron pickle liquor.
Alkalis Caustic soda, lime Tannery waste, cotton
processing waste.
Both acids and alkalis destroy bacteria and so inhibit self purification of stream.
Heavy metal pollution
Bjerrum’s definition of “Heavy Metal” is based upon the density of the elemental form of the
metal and he classifies “heavy metals” as those metals with elemental densities above
7 g cm-3. A little later, in 1989, 1991 and 1992, Parker [Parker, 1989], Lozet and Mathieu
[Lozet and Mathieu, 1991] and Morris [Morris, 1992] chose a defining density “greater than
7
5 g cm-3”. However, Streit [Streit, 1994] used a density of 4.5 g cm-3 as his reference point,
and Thornton [Thornton, 1995] Chose 6 g cm-3. In terms of atomic weights heavy metals are
the metals with high atomic weight; (e.g. Chromium, Cadmium and Lead) can damage living
things at low concentration and tends to accumulate in the food chain [USEPA, 2000] or
those metals which have atomic weight greater than Sodium (23) that forms soaps on reaction
with fatty acid [Lewis Sr, 1993]. In terms of atomic number metals with an atomic number
greater than 20 [Hale and Margham, 1988] or those metals having atomic number between 21
and 92 [Lyman, 1995] are termed as heavy metals. Heavy metals are natural components of
the earth’s crust. They cannot be degraded or destroyed. To a small extent they enter in
human bodies via food, drinking water and air. As trace elements some heavy metals are
essential to maintain the metabolism of the human body. However, at higher concentration
they can lead to poisoning [Vinodh et al., 2011]. They can enter a water supply by industrial
and consumer waste, or even from acidic rain breaking down soils and releasing heavy metals
into streams, lakes, rivers and groundwater. Heavy metal pollution has become a serious
problem with the rapid increase of global industrial activities. The pollution of water by toxic
heavy metals is considered as a threat due to their immense toxicity and their non-
biodegradability. These heavy metal ions can be accumulated through the chain even at lower
concentration, leading to a threat to aquatic life as well as to animal, plant life and human
health as shown in Table 1.3.
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Table. 1.3. Some important heavy metals with their toxic effects and sources.
Heavy
Metals
Health Effects Sources
Copper
Cadmium
Chromium
Nickel
Zinc
Lead
Wilson disease, cancer, gastrointestinal catarrh,
cramps in calves, anaemia, diarrhea, fatigue,
loss of hair colour, low hormone production,
osteoporosis, atherosclerosis, demyelination of
nerve, alopecia, anxiety, arthritis, cancer,
diabetes, migraine.
Renal dysfunction, alopecia, anaemia,
cardiovascular diseases, enlarged heart,
migraines, itai-itai disease, lung cancer, damage
to human respiratory system.
Severe mucosal irritation, cancer, renal failure,
haemolysis, Lung cancer, Long-term exposure
can cause kidney and liver damage and damage
too circulatory and nerve tissue.
Haemorrhages, intestinal cancer, oral cancer,
lung cancer, respiratory symptoms, nausea,
dermatitis.
Abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea,
sideroblastic anaemia, leukopenia, hypochromic
microcytic anaemia, red urine, icterus, liver
failure, kidney failure.
In children low level of lead can cause learning
disabilities, nervous system damage, speech and
language impairment, decreased muscle and
bone growth, kidney damage; high level of lead
can cause seizures, unconsciousness and death.
In adults it causes increased chance of illness
Electroplating industries, pulp
and paper mills, fertilizer
plants, petroleum refineries,
copper water pipes, and copper
cookware.
Phosphate fertilizers, Cigarette
smoke, electroplating, Welding
metal, ceramics, Water pipe,
Coal combustion.
Metal alloys and pigment for
paints, cement, paper, rubber
and other materials, cooling
towers, leather tanning
industries.
Industrial waste, tobacco
smoke, Nuclear device testing,
etc.
Galvanized coating on iron and
steel, automotive parts,
batteries, fungicides, zinc
oxides based skin cream (such
as diaper rash cream and sun
screen) etc.
Lead paint, industries that use
lead (battery manufacturing,
pipe fitting, firing ranges,
demolition glass production,
smelting operations etc),
imported glazed pottery and
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Mercury
during pregnancy, harm to fetus, including
brain damage or death, fertility problem in both
men and women, high blood pressure, digestive
issue, nerve disorder, Abdominal pain, arthritis,
blindness, Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia.
Adrenal dysfunction, allergy, alopecia, brain
damage and the central nervous system, hearing
loss, vision loss, etc. Minamata disease, at high
exposure there may be kidney effects,
respiratory failure, and death.
leaded crystal.
Drinking contaminated water,
eating fish contaminated with
mercury, leaching of mercury
from badly fitting dental
filling, from vaccinations
containing thimerosal, air
conditioner filters, and broken
thermometers.
Cadmium
It is a chemical element with symbol Cd(II) and atomic number 48. It prefers +2 oxidation
state. The average concentration of Cadmium in the Earth’s crust is between 0.1 and 0.5 parts
per million (ppm). It was discovered in 1817 simultaneously by Stromeyer and Hermann,
both in Germany as an impurity in Zinc carbonate [Kirk-Othmer, 1994]. Cd(II) ions are
relatively scare in the earth’s crust [Friberg et al., 1971]. Cadmium is one of the heavy metal
found at the top of the toxicity list [Volesky, 1994]. The most significant use of Cadmium is
in Nickel/Cadmium batteries, as rechargeable or secondary power sources exhibiting high
output, long life, low maintenance and high tolerance to physical and electrical stress. Other
uses of Cadmium are as pigments, stabilizers for PVC, in alloys and electronic compounds.
Cadmium is also present as an impurity in several products including phosphate fertilizers,
detergents and refined petroleum products. Cd(II) ions exist in the effluents produced by
metal finishing industry (e.g. electroplating), battery industry and paint industry. It is fairly
mobile in soil and is primarily present as an organically bound, exchangeable and water
soluble species [Holm et al., 1995; Chlopecka, 1996]. It will result in the deterioration of the
environment which will threaten the health and development of humans and other life form
[Shao et al., 2011; Aklil et al., 2004]. Cadmium poisoning includes kidney [Nogawa et al.,
2008], lung insufficiency, cancer, it changes the constitution of bone, liver and blood
[Schroede, 1965]. Cadmium accumulated in the rice crops, it developed itai-itai disease and
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renal abnormalities including proteinuria and glucosuria. Cadmium containing compounds
are known as carcinogens [Bui et al., 1975, IARC, 1996]. Cadmium is non-biodegradable and
once absorbed by an organism remains there for many years (over decades for human). The
long term exposure is associated with renal dysfunction. Cadmium may also produce bone
defects (Ostomalacia and Osteoporosis) in human and animals. The average daily intake for
human is estimated as 0.15 µg from air and 1 µg from water. Smoking a packet of 20
cigarettes can lead to the inhalation of around 2-4 µg of cadmium, but levels may vary widely
[HSDB, 1996]. The drinking water guideline value is 0.005 mg L-1 [Central Pollution Control
Board]. Cadmium can be removed by using three precipitation process [Islamoglu et al.,
2006] which include (a) acid treatment with HNO3 (b) alkali precipitation by NaOH (c)
sulphide precipitation by Na2S. Cadmium can also be precipitated by addition of lime and
magnesium [Lin et al., 2005]. Gould et al., 1986 reported that Cadmium can be removed by
cementation with magnesium while Younesi et al., 2006, Ku et al., 2002 used Zinc powder
for Cadmium removal by cementation. Various types of membranes have also been used to
remove cadmium from aqueous solution such as liquid membrane [Urtiaga et al., 2000],
hollow fiber supported liquid membrane [Breembroek et al., 1998], emulsion liquid
membrane [Mortaheb et al., 2009] and supported liquid membrane [Swain et al., 2006]. Many
researchers studied Cadmium removal by ion-exchange technique using different resins like
Amberlite IR 120 [Kocaoba, 2007], dolomite [Kocaoba, 2007], Dowex 50 W [Pehlivan and
Altun, 2006]. Liquid-liquid extraction by using specific extractants has also been reported for
separation of Cadmium [Nogueira and Delmas, 1999]. The removal of Cadmium from
thiocyanate solutions with bis-2-ethylhexyl sulphoxide (EHSO) in benzene has been
demonstrated by Reddy et al., 2006.
Chromium
Chromium takes its name from the Greek word for colour, ‘Chroma’. The element was
discovered by Bauquelin in 1797. Chromium is generally found in two oxidation states. The
Hexavalent Cr(VI) is toxic and a suspected carcinogen, whereas trivalent Cr(III) is much less
toxic and is a nutrient. It is also the second most abundant inorganic contaminant of
groundwater. Due to its acute toxicity and strong carcinogenic activity to humans, Cr(VI) has
been listed as one of the priority pollutants by the United State Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA) [Keith et al., 1979; JTesta et al., 2004] and the Chinese Environmental
Protection Board (EPB) [Gulay and Arica, 2008; Krishna et al., 2004]. The maximum
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permissible limit of Cr(VI) in potable water, inland surface water and industrial wastewater
are 0.05, 0.1 and 0.25 mg L-1 respectively [Bandegharaei et al., 2004]. Chromium is known as
mutagen and carcinogen [Costa, 2003; Park et al., 2005]. It is highly reactive pollutant which
dissipates into the ecosystems from a variety of industrial activities such as electroplating,
leather tanning, mining, textile dyeing, wood preserving, chromate preparation and metal
finishing [Kim et al., 2002]. Hexavalent Chromium modifies DNA transcription process
causing important chromosomic aberrations. Furthermore it causes cancer in the digestive
tract and lungs and may cause epigastric pain, nausea, vomiting, severe diarrhea and
haemorrhage [PHSA, 1991; Mohanty et al., 2005]. According to the World Health
Organization (WHO) drinking water guideline, the maximum allowable limit for total
Chromium is 0.05 mg L-1 [WHO, 1984]. Dzyazko, 2007 used Inorganic ceramic membranes
such as hydrated zirconium dioxide (HZD) for Cr(VI) removal from dilute solutions. Cr(VI)
can also be removed from aqueous dilute solutions using polymer enhanced ultra filtration
(PEUF) process. Nanofiltration composite polyamide membranes [Muthukrishnan and Guha,
2008] and nonmatted polyacylonitrile fiber (PAN) membranes and aromatic polyamide thin
film membranes were also used to remove Cr(VI) [Bohdziewicz, 2000]. Ion-exchange
technique is a physicochemical method to remove Chromium from wastewater. Sapari et al.,
1996 used Synthetic Dowex 2-X4 ion exchange resins to remove Cr(VI) from plating
wastewater. Other synthetic ion exchange resin, Ambersep 132 was also explored to remove
chromic acid in a four step ion-exchange process [Lin and Kiang, 2003]. Kabay et al., 2003
revealed that Aliquat 336 can be effectively used for the removal of Cr(VI) from aqueous
solution. Rana et al., 2004 reported that electrochemical removal of Cr(VI) from industrial
wastewater is also possible using carbon aerogel electrodes. Kongsricharoern and Polprasert,
1995 used electrochemical precipitation (ECP) process for Cr(VI) removal from an
electroplating wastewater.
Lead
Lead has been recognized as one of the most toxic metals, mainly in ionic state. Due to its
severe toxicity and great potential hazards to the environment and organisms, Lead (Pb) is
regarded as one of “the big three” of the heavy metal (other are Cadmium and Mercury) Lead
poisoning is also known as plumbism colica piuctonum, saturnism is a medical condition
caused by increased level of Lead in the body [Volesky, 1990; Hamidpour et al., 2010]. The
major sources of Lead release into the environment are industrial activities such as
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electroplating, battery, manufacture, metallurgy. More than half of the world’s Lead
production (at least 1.15 million metric tons) is used in automobiles, especially in car battery.
Lead is a traditional base metal organ pipes, mixed with varying amounts of tin to control the
tone of the pipe. The exposure of the human to Lead contamination can cause health problem
including high blood pressure, anaemia, kidney damage, abdominal pain, confusion,
headache, irritability, memory and learning deficiencies and in severe cases seizures, coma
and death [Sgarlata et al., 2008]. Unlike other metals Lead does not naturally exists in the
human body, and thus there is not a minimum Lead level which to be considered non-toxic.
According to the USEPA regulation the acceptable concentration of Pb (II) in drinking water
is of 0.015 mg L-1 [USEPA, 2009]. Therefore, nowadays the removal of Lead ions from
wastewater is a problem of outmost importance [Alvarez et al., 2005]. Conventional methods
that have been used to remove Pb (II) ions from various industrial effluents by various
researchers such as The Jordanian chabazite- phillipsite tuff and faujasite- phillipsite tuff
have been used as ion exchange materials (Ibrahim and Akashah, 2004). Emulsion liquid
membrane (ELM) technique consisted of kerosene, surfactant Span 80, di-2-ethylhexyl
phosphoric acid (D2EHPA) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4) was used to remove lead from battery
industry wastewater (Levent et al., 2005).
Zinc
Zinc is the 24th most abundant element on the earth’s crust. German Chemist Andreas
Sigismund Marggraf is normally given credit for discovering pure metallic Zinc in 1746. Zinc
is considered as an essential trace element for life and acts as a micronutrient, it is one of the
components of certain proteins inside the human body, but at elevated as well as insufficient
concentrations Zinc may be detrimental on human health [Tapiero and Tew, 2003; Maret and
Sandstead, 2006]. It is known as an inorganic pollutant of the priority pollutants list [Hsieh et
al., 2004]. Zinc has been shown to bioaccumulate through the food chain [Kantola et al.,
2000; Thompson et al., 2003]. On the other hand, although Zinc is a key element for humans,
free Zinc ions in solution are highly toxic to plants, invertebrates and even vertebrates fish.
Trace amounts of free Zinc ions can cause heavy damage to the environment and kill some
organisms. Excessive intake of Zinc can promote deficiency in other dietary minerals. WHO
recommended the maximum acceptable concentration of Zinc in drinking water as 5.0 mg L-1
[Mohan and Singh, 2002]. Zinc toxicity to human occurs in both acute and chronic forms
[I.M., F.N.B, 2001]. Zinc deficiency symptoms in human and animals are failure to eat,
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severe growth depression, skin lesion and sexual immaturity [Dimirkou et al., 2002; Kiekens,
1990; Zhang et al., 2009; Haroun et al., 2007]. The main indications of Zinc poisoning are
desiccating muscles, imbalance of electrolytes, stomach, vertigo and disharmony [Veli and
Alyuz, 2007]. However, at large concentrations it is phytotoxic and therefore reduces soil
fertility [Sawalha et al., 2007]. Also reported that Zn(II) accumulates in living organisms
causing diseases and other toxic effects. Therefore there is significant interest regarding zinc
removal from wastewater [Moore and Rama Moorthy, 1985; Bhattacharya et al., 2006]. In
the ‘Dangerous substances Directive (76/464/EEC)’ of European Union, Zinc has been
registered as list 2 dangerous substance with environmental quality standards being set at 40
g L-1 for estuaries and marine waters and at 45-500 g L-1 for fresh water depending on water
hardness [Directive 76/464/EEC, 1976]. Zinc is a raw material for corrosion-resistant alloys
and brass, and for galvanization of steel and iron products. Zinc oxide is a white pigment for
rubber and paper. It is also utilized in paints, plastics, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals [Weng
and Huang, 2004; Arias and Sen, 2009]. Zinc is released into aquatic and soil environments
largely from various natural and anthropogenic activities. Metal mining, metallurgy
industries, coating and sludge produce large quantities of wastewater containing high
concentration of Zn(II) ions. Zinc has many commercial applications such as coatings to
prevent rust, in dry cell batteries and in the production of die castings compounds of zinc are
used in the manufacture of dyes, wood preservatives and cosmetics. Zinc occurs in the list of
primary contaminant elements proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protecting Agency
(EPA), since it has caused serious poisoning events. Due to its high production and
application, Zinc can be found in emission, effluents, sludge and waste for instance Zinc
concentrations of over 620 mg L-1 have been recorded in drainage from abandoned Copper
mines in Montana, USA [Volesky, 2003]. Zinc can be removed from electroplating
wastewater by chemical coagulation and precipitation process [Charerntanyarak, 1999]. Saari
et al., 1998 used Sodium xylenesulfonate (SXS) combined with Polyaluminum chloride
(PAC) as new technology in Zinc removal through hydroxide precipitation. Complexation-
Membrane Filtration is a conventional process to remove Zinc from industrial wastewater
[Borbelya and Nagy, 2009].
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Copper
The element was discovered in prehistoric times and has its name from the island of Cyprus
(Latin: Cuprum). Copper is an essential trace element and necessary for the functioning of
several enzymes involved in electron transfer (cytochrome oxidase), free radical defense
(catalase, superoxide dismutase) and melanin formation (tyrosiwase). Copper is also essential
for the utilization of iron and formation of hemoglobin. The recommended dietary allowance
(RDA) of Cu(II) for an adult male is 3.0 mg kg-1 of the body weight [NRC/NAS, 1980].
Exposure to copper above RDA is fatal to both vegetations and creatures [Mohan et al.,
2006]. Although Copper is an essential element for life in minute amounts, at higher levels of
exposure it shows magnetic and carcinogenic effect. Owing to the toxicity of Cu(II), the
world health organization (WHO) recommended the maximum acceptable concentration of
this element in drinking water to be 2.0 mg L-1 [WHO, 2008]. Cu(II) creates stress in the
gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. Excessive level of Cu(II) may damage liver and
kidney, and may be responsible for anaemia, immunotoxicity and developmental toxicity.
The co-carcinogenic character of Cu(II) is also implicated in stomach and lung cancer
[Ahmad et al., 2009]. Cu(II) is widely used in many industries including metal cleaning and
plating baths, paints and pigments, fertilizers, paper board, wood pulp etc [Aksu and Isoglu,
2005; Zhu et al., 2009]. The effluents from these industries usually contain considerable
quantity of Copper, which spreads into the environment through soils and water streams and
finally accumulates along the food chain which causes human health hazards. Many
researchers remove Cu(II) ions from wastewater by using various techniques. Negrea et al.,
2008 remove Cu(II) ions through precipitation method by using 15% NaOH and 20%
Na2CO3 solutions as precipitation agents. Liehr, 1995 removed Cu(II) through effect of pH
on metal precipitation in denitrifying biofilms.
Nickle
The name of the element is derived from the German and Kupftrnickle meaning ‘Old Nick’s
(=Satan’s) Copper’. Nickel was discovered by Cronstedt in 1751. Enzymes of some
microorganisms and plants contain Nickel as an active centre, which makes the metal an
essential nutrient for them. Nickel is the 24th element in order of natural abundance in earth
crust [Krishnamurti and Viswanathan, 1991]. Nickel is a common metal and it is frequently
used in different industries, electroplating dyeing, storage, batteries, porcelain enamelling,
pigment and steel manufacturing etc. [Ewecharoen et al., 2008; Xu et al., 2006]. The
15
tolerance limit of Nickel in drinking water is 0.01 mg L-1 and for industrial wastewater it is
2.0 mg L-1 [Kadivelu et al., 2001]. Nickel is known as one of the most common toxic metal,
and the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established 0.5 mg L-1 as the
permissible concentration for Nickel in drinking water [Gupta et al., 2010]. However,
effluents of different industries generally contain higher concentrations of Nickel than its
acceptable limit. Although Nickel is an essential micronutrient for animals and takes part in
synthesis of vitamin B12, its higher concentration causes cancer of the lungs, nose and bones
and may also cause nausea, rapid respiration, head ache, cyanosis and dry cough [Periyasamy
and Namasivayam, 1995; Malkoc, 2006]. It is thus necessary to treat industrial effluents rich
in Ni(II) before their discharge. Many researchers removed Ni(II) ions from wastewater by
using various techniques. Papadopoulos et al., 2004 removed Ni(II) by using ion exchange
and precipitation methods, Chiying et al., 1988 removed Ni(II) through precipitation
treatment of spent electroless nickel plating baths.
Standards of drinking water in India are reported in Table 1.4 and 1.5.
Table. 1.4. Drinking water’s standard in India (mg L -1).
Property Level Level
Maximum Minimum
Property Level Level
Maximum Minimum
Turbidity
Colour
pH
Hardness
Mg
Fe
Mn
Cu
5.0 (NTU)
5.0(Hazen unit)
7.0−8.5
100 (mg L-1)
30 (mg L-1)
0.1 (mg L-1)
0.05 (mg L-1)
0.05 (mg L-1)
25.0(NTU)
50.0(Hazen unit)
6.5−9.2
500 (mg L-1)
150 (mg L-1)
1.0 (mg L-1)
0.50 (mg L-1)
1.0 (mg L-1)
Cl-
SO42-
F-
NO3-
Zn
Oils
Detergents
200 (mg L-1)
200 (mg L-1)
1.0 (mg L-1)
4.5 (mg L-1)
5.0 (mg L-1)
0.01
0.20
600 (mg L-1)
400 (mg L-1)
1.5 (mg L-1)
45.0 (mg L-1)
15.0 (mg L-1)
0.30
1.0
16
Table. 1.5. Standard for potable water (as described by W.H.O.) (mg L-1).
Parameters Average W.H.O.
Maximum Minimum
Turbidity
pH
Total solids
Hardness
Calcium
Magnesium
Iron
Chloride
Sulphate
Fluoride
Nitrate
Lead
5.0 (NTU)
7.0-8.5
500.0 (mg L-1)
100.0 (mg L-1)
75.0 (mg L-1)
30.0-50.0 (mg L-1)
0.1-0.3 (mg L-1)
200.0 (mg L-1)
200.0 (mg L-1)
1.0 (mg L-1)
45.0 (mg L-1)
0.05 (mg L-1)
25.0 (NTU)
6.5-9.2
1500.0 (mg L-1)
200.0 (mg L-1)
200.0 (mg L-1)
150.0 (mg L-1)
1.0 (mg L-1)
600.0 (mg L-1)
400.0 (mg L-1)
1.5 (mg L-1)
45.0 (mg L-1)
0.05 (mg L-1)
2.50 (NTU)
7.0-8.5
500.0 (mg L-1)
100.0 (mg L-1)
75.0 (mg L-1)
30.0 (mg L-1)
0.1 (mg L-1)
200.0 (mg L-1)
200.0 (mg L-1)
1.0 (mg L-1)
4.5 (mg L-1)
0.10 (mg L-1)
Characterization of wastewater
Different quality parameters such as colour, odour, pH, temperature, taste, conductivity,
transparency, turbidity, TDS (total dissolved solid), DO (dissolved oxygen), BOD
(biochemical oxygen demand) and COD (chemical oxygen demand) are important to be
assured before discharging water to commercial and domestic water supplies.
Colour
In natural waters is due to the presence of fulvic ions, metal ions, suspended mater,
phytoplankton weeds and industrial effluents. The drinking water should be colourless,
odourless and pleasant to taste.
pH
It is defined as a measure of hydrogen ions concentration in water or solution. The pH of
natural water is nearly about 7 (neutral). According to pH scale, the water is acidic if pH is
below 7 and alkaline if pH is above 7. The alkalinity of water is due to the presence of
carbonates, silicates, bicarbonates and sometimes due to the presence of weak organic acids.
17
Temperature
Temperature of water can have a tremendous influence on aquatic environment. All the
physical, chemical and biological properties are affected by temperature variation. Increase in
water temperature increase oxygen demand, leading to serious oxygen depletion problem in
water resources.
Transparency
Transparency is inversely proportional to the turbidity. It is important because clearer the
water, the deeper sunlight will penetrate which is required for photosynthesis.
Conductivity
Conductivity is the measure of the ability or power of water to conduct electricity.
Conductivity measures the concentration of dissolved ions.
Total dissolved solid (TDS)
TDS is the residue left after evaporation of water at 103◦C to 105◦C. It is an aggregate amount
of the entire floating, suspended, separable and dissolved solids present in water. The solids
may be organic or inorganic in nature.
Dissolved oxygen (DO)
DO is the amount of gaseous oxygen dissolved in an aqueous solution. When DO level in
water drops below 5.0 mg L-1, aquatic life is put under stress and environment shifts towards
anaerobic condition.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
BOD is a standard method for indirect measurement of organic pollution. The BOD of pure
water is 0−3 mg L-1. If BOD is 5.0 mg L-1 or more, water is said to be contaminated with
organic pollutants.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
Biologically resistant organic compounds cannot be decomposed by bacteria. Therefore their
contents cannot be determined in terms of depletion of dissolved oxygen. They are oxidized
18
by strong oxidizing agent like potassium dichromate and oxidant consumed is measured in
terms of chemical oxygen demand.
The characteristics of industrial wastewater generated by some important industries are
described below.
Slaughter houses and meat packing industry
Effluents from the fat and meat industry arise chiefly in slaughterhouses. Stockyard wastes
mainly contain cattle manure. Slaughter house effluents and those from the quartering of
carcasses, etc.; chiefly contain organic compounds such as blood, the contents of the
alimentary canal, urine, pieces of flesh, hide and bowels, grease, bristles and horsehair. These
wastes have a characteristic brownish, bloodlike appearance and a repugnant odour. The
organic compounds occur both as suspended matter and as true solutions and colloids. Due to
the large albumin content, these wastes putrefy easily. Slaughterhouse wastes are much more
polluted than those from meat processing plants but are very similar in composition and
characteristic. The effluents from a slaughterhouses or meat packing factory may contain
pathogenic micro-organisms affecting the bowels, germs of anthrax and other animal
diseases, and ovules of earthworms and bowl parasites.
The dairy industry
Dairy wastes, i.e. those from plants processing milk, contain typical organic pollutants, such
as casein and other albuminous substances, lactose and fats. These substances impose a
severe load on the receiving waters which are usually only small rivers or streams. All wastes
which come directly from milk processing plants contain chemicals (e.g. soda and detergents)
used in the cleaning of vessels and apparatus’. Dairy wastes (except cheese-factory wastes
which usually contain small particles of casein) have only a very small content of suspended
solids. They are turbid, whitish-yellow in colour and contain up to 160 mg L-1 of total
nitrogen almost entirely converted into ammonium nitrogen during putrefaction, 2-3 mg L-1.
The inorganic pigments (paint) industry
The composition and properties of the wastes vary according to the manufacturing process.
The wastes generated during the manufacture of Milori blue, for example, consist of an acid
liquor from the reaction vessel and wash water; they contain free sulphuric acid (pH=1.5),
sulphates, chlorides, iron compounds and cyanides. They may also contain large amounts of
19
suspended solids. In the manufacture of white lead, the wastes (wash waters) usually contain
lead acetate, lead bicarbonate and residual acetic acid. Lead salts also occur in the waste
waters from the production of chrome yellow.
The tanning industry
Tannery wastes are a special problem among effluents polluted with organic compounds
because a high proportion of the pollutants consist of toxic inorganic compounds and
chemically altered albumen. It chiefly consists of waste liquors from the technological
processes (85-90% of the total), but also contain wastes from auxiliary processes which are
no different from ordinary household wastes. The quantity of wastes from the tanning process
average 80-100 per kg of material processed.
The plastic industry
The plastic industry, like that dyes and intermediates, discharges relatively small amounts of
polluted water. The greater proportions of the effluents are cooling waters, which are only
slightly polluted or not polluted at all. The wastes contained a number of organic acids, a
tetrahydric alcohol and pentaerythritol, as well as resin acids, formaldehyde and sodium
formate.
The pharmaceutical industry
It is difficult to make any generalizations regarding effluents discharged from pharmaceutical
products factories. The problem is even more complicated by the fact that the pharmaceutical
industry uses both inorganic and organic raw materials, the latter being synthetic or of
vegetable and animal origin.
The pulp and paper industry
The composition and properties of the effluents from pulp mills differ considerably from
those from paper mills, but since large plants usually produce pulp and paper, the waste are
considered together. The common features of these wastes are the inevitable presence of
cellulose fibres. The pulp and paper mill is a major industrial sector utilizing a huge amount
of lignocellulosic materials and water during the manufacturing process, and releases
chlorinated lignosulphonic acids, chlorinated resin acids, chlorinated phenols and chlorinated
hydrocarbons in the effluents.
20
Industrial wastewater treatment technologies
a) Primary treatment
It includes screening, grinding, sedimentation, flocculation or coagulation and sedimentation.
In screening the larger suspended and floating materials such as paper, rags, wooden, pieces,
wires etc are removed. Screening system consists of two units. The first unit (coarse screen)
consists of metal bars or heavy wires spaced 25-40 mm apart, and the second unit consists of
fine screens. The materials that are removed by screening are usually incinerated. The
grinding is carried out in grinders of rotating screens with cutting teeth. These are used to
chop the solid materials to size smaller than 6 mm chemical treatment precipitates the solids
by flocculation or coagulation. These coagulates settle down rapidly. The coagulants of
importance are ferric sulphate or chloride or aluminium sulphate lime. These coagulates are
then removed either by sedimentation or by filtration.
b) Secondary treatment
The next stage is a biological process which breaks down dissolved and suspended organic
solids by using naturally occurring micro-organisms. These processes may be either aerobic
or anaerobic. In aerobic process, bacteria and other micro-organism consume organic matter
as food, at the expense of dissolved oxygen. Thus aerobic treatment reduces Biochemical
Oxygen Demand (BOD). It also removes appreciable amounts of oil and phenol. However,
commissioning and maintenance of aerobic treatment systems are expensive. Anaerobic
treatment is mainly employed for the digestion of sludge. Generally organic liquid wastes
from dairy, slaughter houses etc., are treated economically and effectively by anaerobic
treatment. In anaerobic treatment process methane and carbon dioxide are the major products
along with a liquid effluent that contains all the water and mineral from the upcoming
material. It is used to produce heat and electricity and also reduce the overall cost of sewage
treatment. The efficiency of anaerobic treatment process depends upon pH, temperature,
waste loading, absence of oxygen and toxic materials.
c) Tertiary treatment
The aim of tertiary treatment is further purification of wastewater as well as its recycling. The
most important purpose of tertiary treatment is an effective and efficient removal of
pollutants than primary and secondary treatment and it can be applied at any stage of the total
21
treatment. It is the final treatment meant for “polishing” the effluent from the secondary
treatment processes, to improve the quality further.
Depending upon the required quality of the final effluent and the cost of treatment that can be
afforded in a given situation, any of the following treatment methods can be employed.
Chemical precipitation
Chemical precipitation method can be used to remove metals, fats, oil and greases,
contaminants, suspended solids, organic and inorganic.
Ion-exchange
In this process, metal ions from dilute solutions are exchanged with ions held by electrostatic
forces on the exchange resin. The natural materials such as zeolites can be used as ion
exchange media (Vander Heen, 1977). The modified zeolites like zeocarb and chalcarb have
greater affinity for metals like Ni and Pb (Groffman et al., 1992). The limitations on the use
of ion exchange for inorganic effluent treatment are primarily high cost, partial removal of
certain ions and the requirements for appropriate pre-treatment systems. Ion exchange is
capable of providing metal ion concentrations to parts per million levels. However in the
presence of large quantities of competing mono and divalent ions such as Na and Ca, ion
exchange is almost totally ineffective.
Electrodeposition
Some metals found in waste solutions can be recovered by electrodeposition using insoluble
anodes. For example spent solutions resulting from sulphuric acid cleaning of Cu(II) may be
saturated with copper sulphate in the presence of residual acid. These are ideal for electro-
winning where the high quality cathode copper can be electrolyticaly deposited while free
sulphuric acid is regenerated.
Reverse osmosis and ultra filtration
Reverse osmosis uses semi permeable membrane to achieve separation of dissolved salts
from the wastewater by applying pressure greater than the osmotic pressure causes by the
dissolved salts using high pressure pumps. Pre-treatment steps of effluents water before going
for reverse osmosis process is necessary and usually this is made possible by using ultra
filtration to first remove large molecules and colloidal materials so that this will help to
22
protect the membranes. The spiral wound configuration of the membranes support structure
proves to be the best and most effective in use when it comes to municipal wastewater
reclamation. However, problems that are still needed to be solved are [Cushnie, 1994]
membrane durability problems, sensitive to hard water salts, fouling of membrane.
Electrodialysis
In this process, the ionic components (heavy metals) are separated through the use of semi
permeable ion-selective membranes. Application of an electrical potential between the two
electrodes causes a migration of cations and anions towards respective electrodes. Because of
the alternate spacing of cations and anions permeable membranes, cells of concentrated and
dilute salts are formed. The disadvantage is the formation of metal hydroxides which clog the
membrane.
These technologies are useful but sometimes create problems like separation of sludge and
disposal of secondary waste generated.
Adsorption
During the 1970’s increasing environmental awareness and concern led to a search for new
techniques capable of inexpensive treatment of polluted wastewater with metals. The search
for new technologies involving the removal of toxic metals from wastewater has directed
attention to adsorption, base of binding capacities of molecules or particles to a surface. Till
date, research in the area of adsorption suggests it to be an ideal alternative for
decontamination of metal/dye containing effluents. Adsorbents are attractive since naturally
occurring biomass/adsorbents or spent biomass can be effectively used. Adsorption is rapid
phenomenon of passive metal sequestration by the non-growing biomass/adsorbents are
comparable with the commercial synthetic cation exchange resins. The biosorption process
involves a solid phase (sorbent or biosorbents; biological material) and a liquid phase
(solvent, normally water) containing a dissolved species to be adsorbed (adsorbate,
metal/dyes). Due to the higher affinity of the adsorbent for the adsorbate species, the latter is
attracted and bound there by different mechanisms. The process continues till equilibrium is
established between the amount of solid−bound adsorbate species and its portion remaining
in the solution. The degree of adsorbent affinity for the adsorbate determines its distribution
between the solid and liquid phases. Adsorption is a power tool for the environmental
engineer for the removal of trace amounts of organic and inorganic contaminants present in
23
municipal and industrial wastewater. Adsorption is a process that occurs when a gas or a
liquid solute accumulates on the surface of a solid or a liquid (adsorbent), forming a
molecular or atomic film (the adsorbate). It is different from adsorption, in which a
substance diffuses into a liquid or solid to form a solution. The term sorption encompasses
both process, while desorption is the reverse process. Adsorption is operative in most natural
physical, biological and chemical systems and is widely used in industrial applications. The
exact nature of the bonding depends on the details of the species involved, but the adsorbed
material is generally classified as exhibiting physisorption or chemisorptions. Physisorption
or physical adsorption is a type of adsorption in which the adsorbate adheres to the surface
only through Vander Waals (weak intermolecular) interactions, which are also responsible for
the non-ideal behaviour of real gases. Chemisorption is a type of adsorption where by a
molecule adheres to a surface through the formation of chemical bond. Adsorption is usually
described through isotherms, that is, function which connect the amount of adsorbate on the
adsorbent, with its pressure (if gas) or concentration (if liquid). One can find in literature
several models describing process of adsorption, namely Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin and
Dubinin-Raduskevicvh isotherms etc. Adsorption from an aqueous solution is influenced
largely by the competition between the solute and the solvent molecule for adsorption sites.
The tendency of a particular solute to get adsorbed is determined by the difference in the
adsorption potential between the solute and the solvent. In general the lower the affinity of
the adsorbate for the solvents, the higher will be the adsorption capacity for solutes. Activated
carbon and polymeric adsorbents have high adsorption capacities in water primarily because
of low adsorption potential [Rai et al., 1998]. Three steps must take place for adsorption to
occur.
(i) The adsorbed molecules must be transferred from the bulk phase of the solution to the
surface of the adsorbent particles. In so doing, it must pass through a film of solvent
that surrounds the adsorbent particles. This process is referred to as film diffusion.
(ii) The adsorbate molecule must be transferred to the adsorption site on the inside of the
pore. This process is termed as ‘pore diffusion’ .
(iii) The particle must be attached to the surface of the solute, i.e., be adsorbed.
There are many factors that influence the rate of adsorption and the extent to which a
particular solute can be adsorbed for instance adsorbent characteristics; size and shape of
adsorbent particles, solubility of solute, pH, temperature, agitation time and concentration.
Adsorption rate usually decreases as the size of adsorbent particles becomes large. Highly
24
soluble compounds having strong affinity to solvent are less easily adsorbed. Adsorption
capacity is inversely proportional to solubility. Adsorption rate also increases with increase in
concentration. The solution pH has strong influence on adsorption primarily due to change in
the ionic concentrations of water and solutes. Temperature is also a factor that affects the rate
and extent of adsorption.
Conventional and non-conventional adsorbents are used in this approach. Activated carbon is
a black solid substance resembling granular or powder charcoal and is carbonaceous material
that has highly developed porosity, internal surface area of more than 400 m2 g-1 and
relatively high mechanical strength. They are widely used as adsorbents in wastewater and
gas treatments as well as catalyst. Activated carbon is prepared by carbonisation and
activation of large number of raw materials [Rodrignes-Reinoso and linares-solano, 1998].
Activated carbon is the most widely used adsorbent, as it has good capacity towards organic
molecules and heavy metals from wastewater [Bansal et.al. 1998] but high cost limits its use.
Shortcoming of using activated carbon, as an adsorbent is its regeneration cost which makes
it uneconomical. The increasing usage and competitiveness of activated carbon prices has
prompted a considerable research work in the search of inexpensive adsorbents especially
developed from various agricultural waste materials therefore to make adsorption an
economically feasible process non-conventional adsorbents have come into application. Non-
conventinal adsorbents include inorganic adsorbents, organic adsorbents and biosorbents.
These adsorbents are capable of removing heavy metal ions and organic pollutants from
wastewater. Materials like chitin, chitosan, modified cotton, keratin, flyash, oil cakes, fruit
peels, barks etc. are few of the non-conventional adsorbents used for the removal of heavy
metals. Some important non-conventional adsorbents studied by various researchers during
the period 2000-2012 are listed in Table 1.6.
25
Table 1.6. Summary of various adsorbents used for the removal of heavy metals from water and wastewater (2000-2012).
Cu(II) selective adsorbents (2000 to 2012)
Metal Removed
Adsorbent Remarks Reference
Cu(II) Iron oxide coated sand % Removal 74.9 %, time-20 min, conc. 5 mg/l,
adsorbent 30 g/l
Kwak et al., 2000
Cu(II) Pyrite Oxidation is accompanied by the reduction of
Cu(II) to Cu(I)
Weisener and Gerson, 2000
Cu(II) Sawdust Provide strong evidence to support the hypothesis
of adsorption mechanism
Yu et al., 2000
Cu(II) Tyre Rubber Al-Asheh and Banat, 2000
Cu(II) Iron coated sand Results of the study developed an innovative
technology.
C. H. Lai et al., 2000
Cu(II) Pseudomonas stutzeri Hur et al., 2001
Cu(II) Perlite Alkan and Dogan, 2001
Cu(II) Activated carbons Goyal et al., 2001
Cu(II) Kyanite Ajmal et al., 2001
Cu(II) Pecan shell activated carbon Dastgheib and D.A. Rockstraw, 2001
Cu(II) Peanut hull pallets 75% and 92% removal of copper was affected
within 20 and 50 min respectively.
Jonson et al. 2002
Cu(II) Ulothrix zonata Nuhoglu et al. 2002
26
Cu(II) Chitosan and cross-linked chitosan
beads
WanNgah, 2002
Cu(II) Chitosan in prawn shell Chu, 2002
Cu(II) Almond shell carbons and
commercial carbons
Toles and Marshall, 2002
Cu(II) Natural and Modified Radiata Bark
Pine
Montes et al., 2003
Cu(II) Savanna Acid Soil pH ≥ 3.0 Agbenin, J. O., 2003
Cu(II) Olive Mill Residues Veglio et al., 2003
Cu(II) Sewage Sludge Ash Pan et al., 2003
Cu(II) Organosolv Lignin Acemiolu et al., 2003
Cu(II) Loess with high carbonate content Jinren, 2003
Cu(II) Activated and Non-activated Oak
Shells
Cu(II) uptake increased with decreasing sorbent
concentration or with an increase in Cu(II)
concentration or solution pH
Al-Asheh et al., 2003
Cu(II) Micaceous Mineral of Kenyan
Origin
Adsorption capacity of 0.850 g/g for Cu(II) Attahiru et al., 2003
Cu(II) Powdered Marble Wastes 100 % Cu(II) was attained Ghazy et al., 2003
Cu(II) Vineyard soils of Genera Celardin et al., 2003
Cu(II) Organic Manure Bolan et al., 2003
Cu(II) A 1.10 Phenanthroline-grafted De Leon et al., 2003
27
Brazilian Bentonite
Cu(II) Caustic Treated Waste Baker’s
Yeast Biomass
Goksungur et al., 2003
Cu(II) Chlorella vulgaris Chu and Hashim, 2004
Cu(II) Humic substance Alvarez-Puebla et al., 2004
Cu(II) Chitosan Wan et al., 2004
Cu(II) Peat Petroni and Pires, 2004
Cu(II) Poly acrylonitrile-immobilized dead
cells of Saccharomyces Cerevisiae
Godjevargova and Mihova, 2004
Cu(II) Montmorillonites Ding and Frost, 2004
Cu(II) Herbaceous Peat Gundoan et al., 2004
Cu(II) Sawdust Larous et al., 2005
Cu(II) H3PO4-activated Rubber Wood
Sawdust
Kalavathy et al., 2005
Cu(II) Cu-ZSM-5 Zeolite Kazansky and Pidko, 2005
Cu(II) Phosphate Rock Sarioglu et al., 2005
Cu(II) Paenibacillus polymyxa Cells and
their (EPS) Exopolysaccharide
Acosta et al., 2005
Cu(II) Kaolinite Peacock and Sherman, 2005
Cu(II) Chemically Modified Thin Chitosan
Membranes
Cestari et al., 2005
28
Cu(II) Chitosan-Cellulose Hydrogel Beads Li and Bai, 2005
Cu(II) Bentonite Al-Qunaibit et al., 2005
Cu(II) Goethite and Birnessite Huerta-Diaz, M. A., 2006
Cu(II) Microwave Stabilized Heavy Metal
Sludge
Hsieh et al., 2006
Cu(II) Kaolinite, montmorillonite and their
modified derivatives
Bhattacharyya and Gupta, 2006
Cu(II) Thin Vanillin-Modified Chitosan
Membranes
Cestari et al., 2006
Cu(II) Tectona grandis L.F. (teak Leaves
Powder)
King et al., 2006
Cu(II) Kaolinite Li and Dai., 2006
Cu(II) Spirogyra Species Gupta et al., 2006
Cu(II) Schwertmannite and Goethite Jonsson et al., 2006
Cu(II) Heavy metal precipitant N,N-bis-
(dithiocarboxy)piperazine
Fu et al., 2006
Cu(II) Chitosan and Chitosan/PVA Beads Ho, Yun-Shan, 2006
Cu(II) Activated Carbon Boari et al., 2006
Cu(II) Glycidyl methacrylate chelating
resin containing Fe2O3 particles
Donia et al., 2006
Cu(II) Activated Carbon from Alkaline Sayan, E., 2006
29
Impregnated Hazelnut Shell
Cu(II) Chelating Cellulose Connell et al., 2006
Cu(II) Cellulosic-adsorbent Resin Bao-Xiu et al., 2006
Cu(II) Montmorillonite Qin and Shan, 2006
Cu(II) Activated Carbon (Chemviron C-
1300)
Kalpakli and Koyuncu, 2007
Cu(II) Rice husk Nakbanpote et al. 2007
Cu(II) Spent activated clay Weng et al. 2007
Cu(II) Sour orange residue Khormaei et al., 2007
Cu(II) Modified carbon nano tube Chung-Hsin, 2007
Cu(II) Citric acid modified Soyabean
straw
At pH 6 maximum adsorption occur. Zhu et al. 2008
Cu(II) 8-hydroxy quinoline immobilized
bentonite
The maximum adsorption capacity was found to be
56.55 mg g-1.
Gok et al. 2008
Cu(II) Modified agricultural by-products Sciban et al. 2008
Cu(II) Steel making slag Kim et al. 2008
Cu(II) Raw and acid activated bentonite Eren and Afsin, 2008
Cu(II)
Marrubium globosum sp. globosum
leaves powder
Kilic et al. 2009
Cu(II) Cross-linked magnetic chitosan
beads
Huang et al. 2009
30
Cu(II) Chest nut shell and grapeseed
activated carbon
Ozcimen and Mericboyu, 2009
Cu(II) Biosolids Sarioglu et al. 2009
Cu(II) Recycled tire rubber Calisir et al. 2009
Cu(II) Pine cone powder Ofomaja et al. 2010
Cu(II) Palm shell activated carbon Issabayeva et al. 2010
Cu(II) Trametes versicolor (Fungi) Sahan et al. 2010
Cu(II) Grape stalk wastes Florido et al., 2010
Cu(II) Palm kernel fiber Ofomaja, 2010
Cu(II) Cashew nut shell Maximum adsorption at pH 5 Senthilkumar et al., 2011
Cu(II) Natural and acid activated clays Bhattacharya and Gupta , 2011
Cu(II) Rice hulls Maximum adsorption at pH 4 Jeon, 2011
Cu(II) Activated carbon Chikhi et al. 2011
Cu(II) Pyrolytic tire char Quek and Balasubramanian, 2011
Cu(II) Biochars were produced through
hydrothermal treatment and
pyrolysis.
Pyrolysis biochars present higher adsorption
efficiency than hydrothermal biochars.
Frantseska−Maria Pellera, 2012
Cu(II) Polymer supported nano-iron oxide Hui Qiu et. al, 2012
Cu(II) Silica-gel functionalized with
amino-terminated dendrimer-like
polyamidoamine polymers
Qu et al., 2012
31
Cu(II) Anatase mesoporous TiO2 Vu et al., 2012
Cu(II) Agricultural by-products Pellera et al., 2012
Cd(II) selective adsorbents (2000 to 2012)
Metal
Removed
Adsorbent Remarks Reference
Cd(II) Transcarpathian Clinoptilolite Vasylechko et al., 2000
Cd(II) Pyrolusite Temp 30οC, pH 7, conc. 1-100 mg L-1. Koyanaka et al., 2000
Cd(II) Bone char Cheung et al., 2000
Cd(II) White-fungus Trametes versicolor Arica et al., 2001
Cd(II) C. vulgaris Aksu, 2001
Cd(II) Calcium hydroxyapatite McGrellis et al., 2001
Cd(II) Dealginated seaweed waste Romero-Gonzalez et al., 2001
Cd(II) Geothite-coated sand Lai et al., 2002
Cd(II) Perlite Mathialagan and Viraraghavan et al.,
2002
Cd(II) Chitin Benguella and Benaissa, 2002
Cd(II) Chitosan-based crab shells Evans et al., 2002
Cd(II) Perlite Mathialagan and Viraraghava, 2002
Cd(II) Muloorina Illite and Related Clay
Minerals
Lackovic et al., 2003
Cd(II) Sugarcane Bagasse Pith Krishnan and Anirudhan, 2003
32
Cd(II) Fungus Aspergillus niger. Junior et al., 2003
Cd(II) Activated carbon from coconut
coirpith
Kadirvelu and Namasivayam, 2003
Cd(II) Rice husk Ajmal et al., 2003
Cd(II) Alginate coated Loofa Sponge Disc Iqbal, M., 2004
Cd(II) Tree Fern Ho and Wang, 2004
Cd(II) Brown, Green and Red Seaweeds Hashim and Chu, 2004
Cd(II) Tree fern Ho et al., 2004
Cd(II) Spirulina platensis Rangsayatorn et al., 2004
Cd(II) Chemically Modified Australian
Coals
Burns et al., 2005
Cd(II) Natural and Oxidized Corncob Leyva-Ramos et al., 2005
Cd(II) Protonated Macroalga Sargassum
muticum
Lodeiro et al., 2005
Cd(II) Agricultrual Waste ‘Rice Polish’ Singh et al., 2005
Cd(II) Commercial activated carbon
(CAC) and chemically prepared
activated carbons (CPACs) from
raw materials such as straw, saw
dust and dates nut
Kannan and Rengasamy, 2005
Cd(II) Hydrous Al(III) Floc in the McCullagh and Saunders, 2005
33
Presence of a Modified Form of
Polyethylenimine
Cd(II) Highly Mineralized Peat Gabaldon et al., 2006
Cd(II) Hydrous Manganese Dioxide Tripathy et al., 2006
Cd(II) Husk of Lathyrus sativus Panda et al., 2006
Cd(II) Chitosan-Coated Perlite Beads Hasan et al., 2006
Cd(II) Arable and Forest Soils Palagyi et al., 2006
Cd(II) Coconut Copra Meal Ho and Ofomaja, 2006
Cd(II) Haro River Sand Ahmed et al., 2006
Cd(II) Kaolinite Harris et al., 2006
Cd(II) Wheat Bran Singh et al., 2006
Cd(II) Kaolinite-based Clays Hizal and Apak, 2006
Cd(II) Pyrite Borah and Senapati., 2006
Cd(II) Green Coconut Shell Powder Pino et al., 2006
Cd(II) Treated Rice Husk Kumar and Bandyopadhyay, 2006
Cd(II) Modified Sodium Alginate Hashem and Elhmmali, 2006
Cd(II) Sugarcane Bagasse Ibrahim et al., 2007
Cd(II) Coconut copra meal E. Ofomaja and Y. S. Ho, 2007
Cd(II) Orange peel Li et al., 2007
Cd(II) Coconut copra meal Ofomaja, and Ho, 2007
Cd(II) Orange peel cellulose Li et al., 2007
34
Cd(II) Spirulina platensis biomass Solisio et al. 2008
Cd(II) Activated carbon Kula et al., 2008
Cd(II) Clarified sludge Naiya et al., 2008
Cd(II) Olive cake Al-Anber et al., 2008
Cd(II) Clinoptilolite-based Zeolites Gedik, Imamoglu et al., 2008
Cd(II) D152resin Xiong and Yao et al., 2009
Cd(II) surfactant-modified carbon
adsorbents
Nadeem et al., 2009
Cd(II) Fennel biomass (Foeniculum
vulgari)
Rao et al., 2009
Cd(II) Manganese dioxide (β-MnO2) Zaman et al., 2009
Cd(II) the marine brown alga Fucus
vesiculosus
Brinza et al., 2009
Cd(II) Modified corn stalk Zheng et al., 2010
Cd(II) Eleocharis acicularis Miretzky et al., 2010
Cd(II) Mercapto-silica Buhani et al., 2010
Cd(II) Tunisian palygorskite Frini-Srasra and Srasra, 2010
Cd(II) Mixed oxides of iron and silicon Mustafa et al., 2010
Cd(II) GMZ Bentonite Zhao et al., 2011
Cd(II) Wheat Maximum adsorption at pH 6 Farooq et al., 2011
Cd(II) Syzygium cumini Leaf powder Maximum adsorption was 29.08 mg/g at pH 5.5, Rao et al., 2011
35
conc. 100 mg/L
Cd(II) Nano composite silica aerogel
activated carbon
Givianrad etbal., 2011
Cd(II) Multi-functional membrane Zhang et al., 2011
Cd(II) Humic acid coated titanium dioxide Chen et al., 2012
Cd(II) Municipal solid waste leachate Wu et al., 2012
Cd(II) Orange peel and Fe2O3
nanoparticles
Gupta and A. Nayak, 2012
Cd(II) Modified Corncob Leyva-Ramos et al., 2012
Cd(II) Humic acid-immobilized sodium
alginate and hydroxyl ethyl
cellulose blending porous
composite membrane adsorbent
Chen et al., 2012
Cr(VI) selective adsorbents (2000 to 2012)
Metal
Removed
Adsorbent Remarks Reference
Cr(VI) Avena monida (Oat) biomass Cr(VI) is reduced to Cr(III) in polluted water Gardea-Torresdey et al., 2000
Cr(VI) Cow dung cake 90 % removal Das et al., 2000
Cr(VI) Sheep hair Maximum adsorption at pH 0.75-1.25 and 3.25-3.75 Sarvanam et al., 2000
Cr(VI) Black locus leaves Maximum adsorption at pH 3 Aoyama et al., 2000
36
Cr(VI) Coniferous leaves Adsorption increases with increase in pH Aoyama et al., 2000
Cr(VI) Hazelnut shell Cimino et al., 2000
Cr(VI) Rice straw Samanta et al., 2000
Cr(VI) Chitosan Tang et al., 2001
Cr(VI) Used tyres and sawdust Hamadi, et al., 2001
Cr(VI) Hazelnut shell activated carbon Kobaya, 2001
Cr(VI) Spirogyra species Gupta, et al., 2001
Cr(III) Fly Ash of Poultry Litter Kelleher et al., 2002
Cr(VI) Cone biomass of Pinus sylvestris Uncun, et al., 2002
Cr(VI) Dunaliella species Donmez and Aksu, 2002
Cr(VI) Low cost abundantly available
adsorbent
Dakiky, et al., 2002
Cr(VI) Soya Cake Danishvar, et al., 2002
Cr(VI) Distillery Sludge Selvaraj, et al., 2003
Cr(VI) Calcined Mg-Al-CO3 Hydrotalcite Lazaridis and Asouhidou, 2003
Cr(VI) Indigenous Low-cost Material Sharma, Y. C., 2003
Cr(VI) Ferrous Saponite Pandey et al., 2003
Cr(VI) Maple Sawdust Yu, et al., 2003
Cr(VI) Fe-modified Steam Exploded
Wheat
Chun et al., 2004
Cr(III) Chinese Reed (Miscanthus sinensis) Namasiyam and Holl, 2004
37
Cr(VI) Persimmon Tannin gel Nakajima and Baba, 2004
Cr(VI) Activated Rice Husk and Activated
Alumina
Bishnoi et al., 2004
Cr(VI) Hazelnut shell Kobya, M., 2004
Cr(VI) Chemically Modified Activated
Carbons
Zhao et al., 2005
Cr(VI) Brasilinesis Sawdust Activated
Carbon
Rajgopal, S. and Miranda, L.R., 2005
Cr(VI) Maghemite Nanoparticles Hu et al., 2005
Cr(VI) Rice Bran Singh et al., 2005
Cr(VI) Used Black Tea Leaves Maximum Cr(VI) adsorption achieved at initial
Cr(VI) concentration < 150 mg/I; initial pH of
solution 1.54-2; processing temperature <50oC
Hossain et al., 2005
Cr(III) Activated Carbon Lyubchik et al., 2005
Cr(VI) Live and Pretreated Biomass of
Aspergillus flavus
Deepa et al., 2006
Cr(VI) Brown Coals Gode and Pehlivan, 2006
Cr(VI) Chitosan Coated Montmorillonite Fan et al., 2006
Cr(VI) ZnCl2 Activated Coir Pith Carbon Namasivayam and Sangeetha, 2006
Cr(VI) Activated Hazelnut Shell Ash and
Activated Bentonite
Bayrak et al., 2006
38
Cr(III) Agave lechuguilla Biomass Romero-Gonzalez et al., 2006
Cr(VI) Fungi Biomass Louhab et al., 2006
Cr(VI) Li/Al Layered Double Hydroxide Wang et al., 2006
Cr(VI) Cassava (manihot Sculenta Cranz.) Horsfall Jr. Et al., 2006
Cr(VI) Tea Factory Waste Malkoc and Nuhoglu, 2006
Cr(VI) Pomace Malkoc et al., 2006
Cr(VI) Waste Acorn of Quercus
ithaburensis
Malkoc et al., 2006
Cr(VI) Manganese Nodule Leached
Residue Obtained from NH3-SO2
Leaching
Mallick et al., 2006
Cr(III) Spirulina platensis Li et al., 2006
Cr(VI) Grape Stalk Wastes Encapsulated in
Calcium Alginate Beads
Fiol et al., 2006
Cr(VI) Activated Carbon Yavuz et al., 2006
Cr(VI) Tamarind hull-based adsorbent Verma et al., 2006
Cr(VI) Sorel’s Cement Adsorpion capacity was 21.4 mg/g Hassan et al., 2006
Cr(III) Activated Carbon from Agricultrual
Waste Material and Fabric Cloth
Mohan et al., 2006
Cr(VI) Activated Carbo-aluminosilicate
Material from Oil Shale
Shawabkeh, 2006
39
Cr(III) Activated Carbon from Sugar
Industrial Waste
Fahim et al., 2006
Cr(VI) Acacia Nilotica Bark Rani et al., 2006
Cr(III) Tamarindus indica Seeds Agarwal et al., 2006
Cr(VI) Turkish Brown Coals The adsorption reached equilibrium in 80 min Arslan and Pehlivan, 2007
Cr(VI) Tea factory waste Malkoc and Nuhoglu, 2007
Cr(VI) δ-FeOOH-coated maghemite (δ-
Fe2O3) nanoparticles
Hu, Lo and Chen, 2007
Cr(VI) River bed sand Sharma and Wang, 2007
Cr(VI) Rhizopus arrhizus Preetha and Viruthagiri, 2007
Cr(VI) Activated carbon (Date palm seed) Ahmed El Nemr et al., 2008
Cr(VI) modified red pine sawdust Gode et al., 2008
Cr(III) Spirulina platensis biomass Lodi et al., 2008
Cr(VI) Raw and chemically modified
Sargassum sp.
Lei Yang and Paul Chen, 2008
Cr(VI) Activated neem leaves Babu and Gupta, 2008
Cr(VI)
Helianthus annuus (sunflower)
stem waste
Maximum Cr(VI) removal was at pH 2.0
Jain et al., 2009
Cr(VI)
Tropical peats
95 % adsorption at pH 4.0
Batista et al., 2009
40
Cr(VI) Pomegranate husk carbon Maximum adsorption occurs at pH 1. Ahmed El Nemr, 2009
Cr(VI) Lichen (Cladonia rangiformis (L.)) Bingol et al., 2009
Cr(VI)
and
Cr(III)
a newly synthesized chelating resin Tokalioglu et al., 2009
Cr(VI) Impregnated palm shell activated
carbon with polyethyleneimine
Owlad et al., 2010
Cr(III) Agro-waste materials Garcia-Reyes and Rangel-Mendez ,
2010
Cr(III) Orange (Citrus cinensis) waste Pérez Marín et al., 2010
Cr(VI) Methylated biomass of Spirulina
platensis
Finocchio et al., 2010
Cr(VI) Pistachio hull waste biomass Moussavi and Barikbin, 2010
Cr(VI) Corn stalks Maximum adsorption capacity was 200.0 mg/g at
303 K
Chen et al., 2011
Cr(VI) Onto alkyl-substituted
polyaniline/chitosan composites
Yavuz et al., 2011
Cr(VI) Modified tannery waste Kumar and Mandal, 2011
Cr(VI) Ethylenediamine-modified cross-
linked magnetic chitosan resin
Hu et al., 2011
Cr(VI) Macro and micro-vesicular volcanic Alemayehu et al., 2011
41
rocks
Cr(VI) Lyngbya putealis Kaushik et al., 2012
Cr(VI) Zeolyte Anthrobacter Rosalaes et al., 2012
Cr(VI) crystalline cellulose–ionic liquid
blend polymeric material
Kalidhasan et al., 2012
Cr(VI) aquatic macrophyte Potamogeton
pusillus
Monferan et al., 2012
Cr(VI) Baker's yeast Vasanth et al., 2012
Ni(II) selective adsorbents (2000 to 2012)
Metal Removed
Adsorbent Remarks Reference
Ni(II) Fly ash 96 % removal Ricou Hoeffer et al., 2000
Ni(II) Citrus reticulate (Fruit peel of
orange)
Ajmal et al., 2000
Ni(II) chlorella species, C. vulgaris and C.
Miniata
Wong et al., 2000
Ni(II) pretreated biomass of marine
macroalga Durvillaea potatorum,
Sep.
Yu and Kaewsarn, 2000
Ni(II) Steel Converter Slag Ortiz et al., 2001
Ni(II) Activated carbon prepared from Kadirvelu et al., 2001
42
coirpith
Ni(II) Flexible ion-exchange resin Spoor et al., 2001
Ni(II) C. Vulgaris
Ni(II) Stream Periphyton Gray et al., 2001
Ni(II) Sludge Ash Weng, 2002
Ni(II) Chlorella vulgaris Aksu, 2002
Ni(II) Adsorption onto hazelnut shell
activated carbon
Demirbas et al., 2002
Ni(II) Free and immobilized cells of
Pseudomonas fluorescens 4F39
Lopez et al., 2002
Ni(II) Sheep manure wastes Abu Al-Rub et al., 2002
Ni(II) Bentonite Tahir and Rauf, 2003
Ni(II) Penicillium chysogenum mycelium Su and Wang, 2003
Ni(II) Baker’s yeast Patmavathy et al., 2003
Ni(II) Activated carbon prepared from
almond husk.
Hasar, 2003
Ni(II) Cation-exchange resin Elshazly and A.H. Konsowa, 2003
Ni(II) Alumina particles Hong et al., 2004
Ni(II) Loofa sponge-immobilized biomass
of Chlorella sorokiniana
Akhtar et al., 2004
Ni(II) Clay-based beds Marquez et al., 2004
43
Ni(II) Crab shell particles Vijayaraghavan et al., 2004
Ni(II) NaOH-treated bacterial dead
Streptomyces rimosus biomass
Selatinia et al., 2004
Ni(II) Crab Shells Pradhan et al., 2005
Ni(II) Activated Carbon Prepared from
Waste Apricot by Chemical
Activation
Erdogan et al., 2005
Ni(II) Chitosan Flakes Adsorption being pH dependent Zamin et al., 2005
Ni(II) Modified Pine Tree Materials Argun et al., 2005
Ni(II) Sawdust Shukla et al., 2005
Ni(II) Clays Gupta and Bhattacharyya, 2006
Ni(II) Coir Based Adsorbent Nityanandi et al., 2006
Ni(II) Cone biomass of Thuja orientalis Malkoc et al., 2006
Ni(II) Bagasse fly ash
Srivastava et al., 2006
Ni(II) Dalbergia sissoo Habib-ur-Rehman et al., 2006
Ni(II) Cassia fistula (Golden Shower)
biomass
Haneef et al., 2007
Ni(II) Multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Kandah and Meunier, 2007
Ni(II) Na-mordenite Wang et al., 2007
Ni(II) An immobilized hybrid biosorbent Iqbal and Saeed,2007
44
Ni(II) Protonated rice bran Zafar et al., 2007
Ni(II) Enteromorpha prolifera Ozer et al., 2008
Ni(II) Black carrot (Daucus carota L.)
residues.
Guzel et al., 2008
Ni(II) Coir pith and modified coir pith Ewecharoenet al., 2008
Ni(II) Rice husk Krishnani et al., 2008
Ni(II) Activated carbon prepared from
Parthenium hysterophorus L.
Lata et al., 2008
Ni(II) Lignin Betancur et al., 2009
Ni(II) Waste pomace of olive oil factory Nuhoglu and Malkoc, 2009
Ni(II) Silica-gel-immobilized waste
biomass
Akar et al., 2009
Ni(II) Resin Gomathi Priya et al., 2009
Ni(II) Waste pomace of olive oil factory Yasar Nuhoglu and Emine Malkoc,
2009
Ni(II) Grape stalk waste Valderrama et al., 2010
Ni(II) Volcanic rocks Alemayehu and Lennartz, 2010
Ni(II) Treated alga (Oedogonium hatei) Gupta et al., 2010
Ni(II) Grape stalk wastes Valderrama 2010
Ni(II) Indigenous microorganisms Fosso-Kankeu et al., 2011
Ni(II) Cashew nut shell Kumar et al., 2011
45
Ni(II) Dead fungal biomass of Mucor
hiemalis
Shroff et al., 2011
Ni(II) Moringa oleifera bark Reddy et al., 2011
Ni(II) Cassava peel waste Kurniawan et al., 2011
Ni(II) AquaporinZ incorporation via
binary lipid
Sun et al., 2012
Ni(II) Oil cake Khan et al., 2012
Ni(II) RHA and carbon embedded silica Totlani et al., 2012
Ni(II) Activated carbon based on a native
lignocellulosic precursor
Nabarlatz et al., 2012
Pb(II) selective adsorbents (2000 to 2012)
Metal Removed
Adsorbent Remarks Reference
Pb(II) Recycled iron material Smith and Amini, 2000
Pb(II) Coirpith carbon Kadirvelu and Namasivayam 2000
Pb(II) Dried animal bones Banat et al., 2000
Pb(II) Aspergillus niger biomass Jianlong et al., 2001
Pb(II) Bentonite Naseem and tahir, 2001
Pb(II) Peat Ho et al., 2001
Pb(II) Nonliving biomass of marine algae Jalali et al., 2002
Pb(II) Natural Materials Abdel-Halim et al., 2003
46
Pb(II) Natural Condensed Tannin Zhan and Zhao., 2003
Pb(II) Sea Nodule Bhattacharjee et al., 2003
Pb(II) Chitosan Ng et al., 2003
Pb (II) Freshwater alga Chlorella kesslerii Slaveykova and Wilkinson, 2003
Pb(II) Recycled-wool-based Non woven
Material
Radetic et al., 2003
Pb(II) Tree fern Ho et al., 2004
Pb(II) Azadirachta indica (Neem) leaf
powder,
Bhattacharyya and Sharma, 2004
Pb(II) SO2-treated activated carbon Mac´ıas-Garc´ıa and Valenzuela-
Calahorro, 2004
Pb(II) Multicomponent ionic systems Pardo-Botello et al., 2004
Pb(II) Sea nodule residue Agrawal et al., 2004
Pb(II) Cellulose/Chitin Beads Zhou et al., 2005
Pb(II) Zeolite and Sepiolite Turan et al., 2005
Pb(II) Clays Gupta et al., 2005
Pb(II) Activated Carbon Zhang et al., 2005
Pb(II) Treated Granular Activated Carbon Goel et al., 2005
Pb(II) Palm Kernel Fibre Ho and Ofomaja, 2005
Pb(II) Coir and Dye Loaded Coir Fibres Shukla and Pai., 2005
Pb(II) Active Carbon Qadeer et al., 2005
47
Pb(II) Polymerized Banana Stem Noeline et al., 2005
Pb(II) Immobilized Pinus sylvestris
Sawdust
Taty-Costodes et al., 2005
Pb(II) Treated Granular Activated Carbon Goel et al., 2005
Pb(II) Decaying Tamrix leaves Zaggout, F. R., 2005
Pb(II) Crosslinked Amphoteric Starch
Containing the Carboxymethyl
Group
Xu et al., 2005
Pb(II) Polyacrylamide-bentonite and
Zeolite Composites
Ulusoy and Simsek, 2005
Pb(II) Palm Kernel Fibre Ho and Ofomaja, 2005
Pb(II) Tree Fern Ho, Yuh-Shan, 2005
Pb(II) Siderite Erdem and Ozverdi, 2005
Pb(II) Sea Nodule Residues Agrawal et al., 2005
Pb(II) Acidic Polysaccharide Gels Dhakal et al., 2005
Pb(II) Oryza sativa L. Husk and Chitosan Zulkali et al., 2006
Pb(II) Immobilized Pseudomonas
Aeruginosa PU21 Beads
Lin and Lai, 2006
Pb(II) Graphene Layer of Carbonaceous
Materials
Machida et al., 2006
Pb(II) Agricultural Waste Maize Bran Singh et al., 2006
48
Pb(II) Palm Shell Activated Carbon Issabayeva et al., 2006
Pb(II) Chemically-modified Biomass of
Marine Brown Algae Laminaria
japonica
Luo et al., 2006
Pb(II) Restricted Phyllomorphous Clay Giannakopoulos et al., 2006
Pb(II) Oryza sativa L. Husk Zulkali et al., 2006
Pb(II) Cross-linked Starch Phosphate
Carbamate
Guo et al., 2006
Pb(II) Peach and Apricot Stones Rashed, M. N., 2006
Pb(II) Kaolinite and Montmorillonite Bhattacharyya and Gupta, 2006
Pb(II) Wine-Processing Waste Sludge Yuan-Shen et al., 2006
Pb(II) Palm Kernel Fiber Ho and Ofomaja, 2006
Pb(II) Poly(ethylene terephthalate)-g-
Acrylamide Fibers
Coskun and Soykan, 2006
Pb(II) ZnO Loading to Activated Carbon Kikuchi et al., 2006
Pb(II) Syzygium cumini L. King et al., 2007
Pb(II) Pinus nigra Cabuk et al., 2007
Pb(II) Aspergillus parasiticus Akar et al., 2007
Pb(II) Powered waste sludge (PWS) Kargi and Cikla, 2007
Pb(II) Syzygium cumini L. King et al., 2007
Pb(II) Modified clay Adsorption capacity at pH 5.0 Guerra et al., 2008
49
Pb(II) Chitosan functionalized with
xanthate
Maximum adsorption was observed both at pH 4
and 5
Chauhan and Sankararamakrishnan,
2008
Pb(II) Biological activated dates stems Yazid and Maachi, 2008
Pb(II) Clay/poly(methoxyethyl)acrylamide
(PMEA)
Solener et al., 2008
Pb(II) Algal biomass Oedogonium sp. and
Nostoc sp.
Gupta and Rastogi, 2008
Pb(II) Candida albicans biomass Baysal et al., 2009
Pb(II) Gossypium hirsutum(cotton) waste
biomass
Riaz et al., 2009
Pb(II) 8-hydroxy quinoline-immobilized
bentonite
Ozcan et al., 2009
Pb(II) Candida albicans biomass Baysel et al., 2009
Pb(II) Pine bark (Pinus brutia Ten.) Gundogdu et al., 2009
Pb(II)
Pine cone powder
Ofomaja and Naidoo et al., 2010
Pb(II) Native and chemically modified
corncob
Tan et al., 2010
Pb(II) Fallen Cinnamomum Camphora
leaves
Chen et al., 2010
Pb(II) Bael leaves (Aegle marmelos) Chakravarty et al., 2010
50
Pb(II) Raw and activated charcoals of
Melocanna baccifera Roxburgh
(bamboo)
Lalhruaitluanga et al., 2010
Pb(II) Soya bean Hulls Maximum adsorption capacity was 217 mg/g, pH 7 Jia et al., 2011
Pb(II) Amine-terminated Fe3O4
nanoparticles
Zhang et al., 2011
Pb(II) Black carbon derived from wheat
residue
Wang et al., 2011
Pb(II) Posidonia oceanica biomass Allouche et al., 2011
Pb(II) Activated carbon developed from
Apricot stone
Mouni et al., 2011
Pb(II) Low-cost bamboo charcoal Huang et al., 2012
Pb(II) Polyaniline and multiwalled carbon
nanotube magnetic composites
Shao et al., 2012
Pb(II) Chitosan/poly(vinyl alcohol) Fajardo et al., 2012
Pb(II) Cucumis melo Akar et al., 2012
Pb(II) Integrate Electrodialysis Shaddy et al., 2012
Zn(II) selective adsorbents (2000 to 2012)
Metal Removed
Adsorbent Remarks Reference
Zn(II) Dried animal bones Banat et al., 2000
51
Zn(II) Alumina powder Trainor et al., 2000
Zn(II) Peanut husks carbon Ricordel et al., 2001
Zn(II) Bentonite Naseem and Tahir, 2001
Zn(II) Calcium silicate hydrate Ziegler et al., 2001
Zn(II) Disposal sheep manure waste
(SMW)
Kandah,
2001
Zn(II) Disposal Sheep Manure Waste Kandah, 2001
Zn(II) Activated carbon Ramos and Bernal, 2002
Zn(II) Activated carbons prepared from
solvent extracted olive pulp
Polymnia Galiatsatou et al., 2002
Zn(II) Scenedesmus Obliquus and
Scenedesmus quadricauda
Omar, 2002
Zn(II) Sargassum sp. (Phaeophyceae) De Franca et al., 2002
Zn(II) Aquatic bryophytes (Fontinalis
antipyretica L.ex. Hedw.)
Martins and Baoventura, 2002
Zn(II) Activated Carbon from Almond
Husks
92 % Zn(II) removal Hasar et al., 2003
Zn(II) Synthetic Zeolites Badillo-Almaraz et al., 2003
Zn(II) Montmorillonite-Al hydroxide Janssen et al., 2003
Zn(II) Low-Rank Coal (Ieonardite) Effective removal of Zn(II) was demonstrated at pH
values of 5-6
Sole and Casas, 2003
52
Zn(II) Chitosan Zhiguang et al., 2003
Zn(II) Biosolids Norton et al., 2004
Zn(II) Labeo rohita (Hamilton) Adhikari, 2004
Zn(II) Colloidal silica Phan et al., 2004
Zn(II) Bed sediment of River Hindon Jain, 2004
Zn(II) Multicomponent ionic systems Pardo-Botello et al., 2004
Zn(II) Bacterial Biofilm Toner et al., 2005
Zn(II) Bentonite Kaya and Oren, 2005
Zn(II) Solvent-Impregnated Resins
Containing Cyanex 272
Shiau et al., 2005
Zn(II) Rhizopus arrhizus Preetha and Viruthagiri, 2005
Zn(II) Surface Soils of Nuclear Power
Plant Sites in India
Dahiya et al., 2005
Zn(II) Zeolites Oren and Kaya, 2006
Zn(II) Granular Activated Carbon and
Natural Zeolite
Meshko et al., 2006
Zn(II) Purified Carbon Nanotubes Lu and Chiu, 2006
Zn(II) Palm tree leaves AlRub, 2006
Zn(II) Rice bran Wang et al., 2006
Zn(II) Chemically treated Newspaper Pulp Zn(II) loading on TNP was dependent on initial
zinc concentration
Chakravarty et al., 2007
53
Zn(II) Marine green algae—Ulva fasciata
sp.
Kumar et al., 2007
Zn(II) Crab carapace biosorbent Shuguang et al., 2007
Zn(II) Chemically treated newspaper pulp Chakravarty et al., 2007
Zn(II) Sodium dodecyl sulphate Jin-hui Huang et al., 2007
Zn(II) Azadirachta indica bark King et al., 2008
Zn(II) Ca-alginate beads Lai et al., 2008
Zn(II) Graft copolymer of cross-linked
starch/acrylonitrile (CLSAGCP)
Zheng et al., 2008
Zn(II) Clinoptilolites Coruh et al., 2008
Zn(II) Azadirachta indica bark King et al., 2008
Zn(II) Coal fly ash Removal of Zn increased with increase in dose Hong et al., 2009
Zn(II) Calcinated Chinese loess Tang et al., 2009
Zn(II) Coal fly ash and synthetic coal fly
ash
Hong et al., 2009
Zn(II) Ion exchange resin Shek et al., 2009
Zn(II) Vermicompost Jordao et al., 2009
Zn(II) Hybrid precursor of silicon and
carbon
Gupta et al., 2010
Zn(II) Zeolitic rock Lee et al., 2010
Zn(II) Functionalized SBA-15 Barczak et al., 2010
54
organosilicas
Zn(II) NaA and NaX zeolites Nibou et al., 2010
Zn(II) Dried activated sludge Chunping Yang 2010
Zn(II) Ca-Bentonite Zhang et al., 2011
Zn(II) Red mud Sahu et al., 2011
Zn(II) Chicken Feathers Maximum adsorption was 4.31 mg/g at 300C, pH 5 Aguayo-Villarreal et al., 2011
Zn(II) Natural Bentonite Tushar Kanti Sen and Dustin Gomez,
2011
Zn(II) Chicken feathers as sorbents Villarreal et al., 2011
Zn(II) Perlite Silber et al., 2012
Adsorbents selective toward multi-metal ions (2000 to 2012)
Metal Removed Adsorbent Remarks Reference
Cd(II), Zn(II) Natural bentonite Xia and He., 2000
Cd(II), Cu(II) Granular activated carbon Adsorption increases with increase in pH Gabaldon et al., 2000
Zn(II) and Cd(II) Peat Peat columns are able to retain the main
interferent on adsorption of Zn and Cd
ions in solution
Petroni et al., 2000
Hg(II), Pb(II), Cd(II),
Ni(II), Cu(II)
Activated carbon (agricultural waste) Adsorption increases with increase in pH
2-6
Kadirvetu et al., 2000
Cd(II), Cu(II), Fe(III), Serpentine 99 % removal Guo and Yuan, 2000
55
Pb(II) and Ni(II)
Cd(II), Cu(II), Ni(II) and
Zn(II)
Anaerobically digested sludge Affinity of the sludge was
Cu(II)>Cd(II)>Zn(II)>Ni(II)
Artola et al., 2000
Cu(II), Ni(II), Co, Pb(II)
and Fe
Acidic Manganese chloride Diniz et al., 2000
Ni(II) and Cr(III) Tea leaves Maximum adsorptions were 7.97 and
5.91 mg/g
Nishioka et al., 2000
Pb(II), Cu(II), Zn(II) and
Ni(II)
Effloresced coal Removal rate was 97 % at pH 4 and
200C
Mei, 2000
Ni(II) and Cu(II) Lignite-based Carbon Samra, 2000
Cr and Cu(II) Barks of eucalyptus and Cassia fistula Eucalyptus bark is more efficient in
removal of Cr and Cu then Cassia fistula
Tiwari et al., 2000
Heavy metal ions Polyhydroxyethylmethacrylate Maximum adsorption ratio was as high
as 99%
Arpa et al., 2001
Pb and Cr Red mud Gupta et al., 2001
Cd(II), Cu(II) and Zn(II)
ions
Bone char Sorption of Cd(II) and Zn(II) ions on to
bone char are primarily film-pore
diffusion controlled
Cheung et al., 2001
Pb(II) and Cr(VI) Solar thermal and Chemo thermal
Activated Carbon
Nagar and Singh, 2002
Pb(II) and Cd(II) Kaolinite Coles and Yong, 2002
56
Heavy metals Sawdust Shukla et al., 2002
Heavy metal ions Methacrylamidocysteine
Containing porous poly
(hydroxyethylmethaacrylate)
Chelating Beads
Maximum adsorption capacity 1058.2
mg/g was observed for Cd(II)
Denizli et al., 2002
Metal ions MgO (100) Campbell and Starr., 2002
Heavy metal ions Poly (N−vinyl formamide/Acrylonitrile)
Chelating Fibers
Lin et al., 2002
Heavy Metals Chicken Feathers Al-Asheh et al., 2003
Heavy Metals Na-montmorillonite Abollino et al., 2003
Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn Pseudomonas Putida 80 % removal for all metals Pardo et al., 2003
Cr(VI), Cu(II) and Cd(II)
Ions
Rhizopus arrhizus Sa et al., 2003
Cu(II) and Zn(II) Sepiolite Vico, L. I. 2003
Heavy Metal Ions Functionalized Silica Bois et al., 2003
Heavy Metal Ions Low-cost Adsorbents Wang et al., 2003
Cu(II) and Cd(II) Sheep Manure Kandah et al., 2003
Cu, Ni and Zn 2-aminothiazole-modified silica gel Roldan et al., 2003
Heavy Metals Mineral Matrix of Tropical Soils Fontes and Gomes, 2003
Cu(II), Ni(II) and Cd(II) Goethite Buerge-Weirich and Behra.,
2003
57
Cu(II), Fe(III) and Cr(III) Clinoptilolite Inglezakis et al., 2003
Metal Ions Humic Acids Extracted from Brown
Coals
Martyniuk and Wickowska,
2003
Metal Ions Chitosan Navarro et al., 2003
Heavy Metals Zeolites synthesized from Fly ash Adsorption capacity of zeolites
synthesized is higher than that of fly ash
Yanxin et al., 2003
Heavy Metals Zeolites synthesized from Fly ash Adsorption capacity of zeolites
synthesized is higher than that of fly ash
Yanxin et al., 2003
Heavy Metal Ions Fungus Penicillium canescens Say et al., 2003
Metal Ions Peat Ko et al., 2003
Cd(II) and Ni(II) Bagasse Fly Ash Gupta et al., 2003
Heavy Metal Aquatic Plant (Myriophyllum spicatum) Keskinkan et al., 2003
Cu(II), Zn(II), Ni(II) and
Cd(II)
Modified Activated Carbons Saha et al., 2003
Heavy Metal Thai Kaolin and Ballclay Adsorption by kaolin was: Cr > Zn > Cu
≈ Cd ≈ Ni > Pb by ballclay was: Cr > Zn
> Cu > Cd ≈ Pb > Ni
Chantawong and Harvey.,
2003
Cu(II) and Zn(II) Ions Chemically-treated Chicken Feathers Al-Asheh and Banat, 2003
Cu(II) and Pb(II) Grafted Silica Chiron et al., 2003
Heavy Metal Gellan Gum Gel Beads Lazaro et al., 2003
Hg(II) and Cd(II) Goethite Backstrom et al., 2003
58
Heavy Metals Alumina or Chitosan Cervera et al., 2003
Cu(II) and Ni(II) Turbid River Water Herzl et al., 2003
Cu(II) and Pb(II) Regenerated Sludge from a Water
Treatment Plant
Wu et al., 2003
Pb(II), Cd(II) and Cr(VI) Activated Carbon Rivera-Utrilla et al., 2003
Heavy Metals Sand Awan et al., 2003
Cu(II) and Zn(II) Bone Charcoal Wilson and Pulford, 2003
Cu(II) and Cd(II) Low Cost and Waste Material Ulmanu et al., 2003
Lead, Barium Clinoptilolite Mineral Cakicioglu-Ozkan and
Ulku, 2003
Metal ions Bone char Choy et al., 2004
Heavy metal ions Wood Saw dust Sciban and Klasnja, 2004
Zn(II), Cu(II) and Pb(II) Natural Zeolite Peri et al., 2004
Heavy Metal Cations Geothite Kosmulski and Mczka, 2004
Heavy Metal Ceratophyllum demersum Keskinkan et al., 2004
Heavy Metal Ecklonia maxima Feng and Aldrich, 2004
Pb(II) and Cr Bagasse Fly Ash Gupta and Ali, 2004
Cu(II) and Zn(II) Savanna Alfisol Agbenin and Olojo, 2004
Cr(VI) and Se(II) Zn(IV) substituted ZnAl/MgAl-layered
Double Hydroxide
Das et al., 2004
Co, Ni, Cu and Zn Mangenese Dioxide Complex Kanungo et al., 2004
59
Metal ions Bone char Ko et al., 2004
Cadmium and Phosphate Geothite Wang and Xing, 2004
Cd(II) and Zn(II) Fontinalis antipyretica Martin et al., 2004
Metal ions Moroccan Stevensite Benhammon et al., 2005
Cu, Zn, Ni, Pb and Cd ions Amberlite IR-120 Synthetic resin Demirbas et al., 2005
Pb(II) and Cd(II) Kaolinite Hepinstall et al., 2005
Pb, Cd, Cu, Ni and Zn Black gram husk (BGH) Saeed et al., 2005
Cd(II) and Zn(II) Bentonite Lacin et al., 2005
Pb(II) and Zn(II) Natural Goethite Abdus-Salam and Adekola,
2005
Heavy Metals Mulch Jang et al., 2005
Fe(II), Pb(II) Peat and Solvent-extracted Peat Minihan et al., 2005
Cu(II), Cd(II) and Ni(II) Chitosan Functionalized with 2[-bis-
(pyridylmethyl) amino methyl]-4-
methyl-6-formylphenol
Justi et al., 2005
Iron and Manganese Granular Activated Carbon Jusoh et al., 2005
Molybdate and Nickel Alumina Al-Dalama et al., 2005
Pb(II) and Cu(II) Pretreated Biomass of Neurospora
crassa
Kiran et al., 2005
Cu(II) and Cd(II) Corncob Particles Shen and Duvnjak, 2005
As(V), Pb(II)and Hg(II) Coconut fiber and sawdust waste Maximum adsorption occurred at pH 2 Igwe et al., 2005
60
biomass containing chelating agents and 12 whereas minimum adsorption
occurred at pH 6-8
Zn(II), Cd(II), Pb(II) Ions Maize Cob and Husk Igwe et al., 2005
Cd(II) and Pb(II) Low-rank Coal (Leonardite) Lao et al., 2005
Cu(II), Zn(II) and Co(II) Natural Kaolin Ceylan et al., 2005
Cu(II), Ni(II) and Zn(II) Modified Jute Fibres Shukla and Pai, 2005
Cu(II) and Cd(II) Mn Oxide-Coated Granular Activated
Carbon
Fan and Anderson, 2005
Pb(II) and Cu(II) Nipa Palm Biomass Wankasi et al., 2005
Pb(II) and Cd(II) Amine-Modified Zeolite Wingenfelder et al., 2005
Cd(II), Cu(II) and Zn(II) Bone Char Choy and McKay, 2005
Cu(II), Pb(II) and Ni(II) PEI-Modified Biomass Deng and Ting, 2005
Pb(II) and Cd(II) Shales belonging to the Proterozoic
Vindhyan basin, central India and a
black cotton soil, Mumbai, India
Paikaray et al., 2005
Cu, Cd, Zn Bone Char Cheung et al., 2005
Cd(II) and Pb(II) Vermiculite Abate and Masini, 2005
Cd(II) and Zn(II) Activated Carbon Leyva-Ramos et al., 2005
Co(II) and Ni(II) Peanut Hulls through Esterification
Using Citric Acid
The optimum pH for the adsorption of
cobalt(II) ions onto the peanut hulls
citrate was 7.0
Hashem et al., 2005
61
Cd(II), Pb(II) and Zn(II) Maize Cob Abia and Igwe, 2005
Cu(II) and Pb(II) Activated Carbon Machida et al., 2005
Pb(II), Ni(II) Natural Bentonite Donat et al., 2005
Copper, Silver and Zinc Polarized Activated Carbons Goldin et al., 2005
Cu(II), Ni(II) and Zn(II) Dye Loaded Groundnut Shells and
Sawdust
Shukla and Pai, 2005
Pb(II) and Cd(II) Caladium Bicolor (wild Cocoyam) Horsfall Jr. and Spiff, 2005
Ni(II) and Cu(II) Immature Coal (leonardite) Zeledon-Toruno et al., 2005
Cr(III), Cu(II), Zn(II) Carrot Residues Nasernejad et al., 2005
Lead, Mercury and Nickel Carbon Aerogel Goel et al., 2005
Cd(II) and Pb(II) Various Cereals from Korea Park et al., 2005
Pb, Cu and Cd Particulate Organic Matter in Soil Guo et al., 2006
Pb(II) and Ni(II) Chemically Modified and Unmodified
Agricultural Adsorbents
Abia and Asuquo, 2006
Cu(II) and Pb(II) Dried Activated Sludge Wang et al., 2006
Cu(II), Zn(II) and Pb(II) Calcite Elzinga et al., 2006
Cu(II) and Cd(II) Kraft Lignin Mohan et al., 2006
Cu(II) and Pb(II) Manganese Oxide Coated Zeolite Zou et al., 2006
Cr(VI) and Cr(III) Natural Clino-pyrrhotite Lu et al., 2006
Cd(II) and Pb(II) Seaweed biomass Kumar and Kaladharan,
2006
62
Cr(III), Ni(II), Zn(II),
Co(II)
Phenolated Wood Resin Kara et al., 2006
Cu(II) and Zn(II) Acid Soils Arias et al., 2006
Cd(II), Zn(II), Mg(II) and
Cr(VI)
Clay Mineral Fonseca et al., 2006
Cu(II) and Pb(II) Manganese Oxide Coated Sand Han et al., 2006
Cu(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) Pyrite and synthetic iron sulphide Ozverdi and Erdem, 2006
Pb(II, Cd(II) Kaolinite Clay Adebowale et al., 2006
Co(II), Cr(II) and Ni(II) Coir Pith Parab et al., 2006
Cu(II), Cd(II) Ceiba Pentandra Hulls Rao et al., 2006
Pb(II) and Cd(II) Polymer-grafted Banana (Musa
paradisiacal) Stalk
Shibi and Anirudhan, 2006
Cd(II) and Ni(II) Bagasse Fly Ash Srivastava et al., 2006
Cu(II), Ni(II) and Co(II) Methacrylic Acid/acrylamide Monomer
Mixture Grafted Poly (ethylene
Terephthalate) Fiber
Coskun et al., 2006
Cd(II) and Pb(II) Mesoporous Silicate MCM-41 Oshima et al., 2006
Co(II), Fe(II) and Cu(II) Modified and Unmodified Maize Husk Igwe et al., 2006
Zn, Cd, Pb Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Maize (Zea
mays L.)
Shen et al., 2006
Pb, Fe Vegetable Biomass Bun-ei et al., 2006
63
Cd(II) and Zn(II) Bagasse Fly Ash Srivastava et al., 2006
Cu(II) and Pb(II) Kaolinite-based Clay Minerals
Individually and in the Presence of
Humic Acid
Hizal and Apak, 2006
Cd(II), Cu(II), Zn(II) Cassava (Manihot sculenta Cranz)
Tuber Bark Waste
Horsfall et al., 2006
Pb(II), Cd(II), Cu(II) and
Ni(II)
Anaerobic Granular Biomass Hawari and Mulligan, 2006
Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II),
Pb(II)
Waste Tea and Coffee adsorbents Utomo et al., 2006
Cu(II), Cd(II), Zn(II),
Mn(II) and Fe(III)
Tannic Acid Immobilised Activated
Carbon
Ucer et al., 2006
Ni(II), Zn(II) and Fe(II) Modified Coir Fibres Shukla et al., 2006
Zn(II) and Cu(II) Sugar Beet Pulp and Fly Ash Pehlivan et al., 2006
Cu(II) and Ni(II) Solid Humic Acid from the Azraq Area,
Jordan
El-Eswed and Khalili, 2006
Cd(II) and Pb(II) Diatom Surface Gelabert et al., 2006
Cu(II) and Pb(II) Pretreated Aspergillus Niger Dursun et al., 2006
Pb(II), Cu(II), Cd(II),
Zn(II) and Hg(II)
Multi-amine-grafted Mesoporous
Silicas
The fresh dry samples were found to
show much higher adsorption capacity
than the aged ones
Zhang et al., 2007
64
Cd(II) Sugarcane Bagasse Ibrahim et al., 2007
Cu(II), Zn(II), Pb(II),
Fe(III) and Cd(II)
Degreased Coffee Beans (DCB) DCB behaves as a cation exchanger Kaikake et al., 2007
Cr(VI) Turkish Brown Coals The adsorption reached equilibrium in
80 min
Arslan and Pehlivan, 2007
Cd(II), Pb(II) and Zn(II) Unmodified and EDTA-modified Maize
Husk
Sorption process was found to be
physiosorption process
Igwe and Abia, 2007
Cu(II), Cd(II), Cr(VI),
Zn(II)
Coffee husks
Oliveira et al., 2008
Pb(II), Cd(II) Kaolinite clay and polyvinyl alcohal-
modified kaolinite clay
91 % Pb and 94 % Cd were desorbed for
kaonilite clay while 99 % Pb and 97 %
PVA modified kaonilite clay
Unuabonah et al., 2008
Cd(II), Pb(II) Sugarbeet pulp Maximum uptake was observed at pH
5.3
Pehlivan et al., 2008
Zn(II), Ni(II), Cd(II),
Cu(II), Pb(II)
Tobacco dust Qi and Aldrich, 2008
Cd(II), Zn(II), Pb(II) Orange wastes Maximum adsorption was 0.25 mmol/g
fir three binary systems
Perez-Marin et al., 2008
Cd(II), Zn(II) Rice husk ash Maximum adsorption at pH 6 Srivastva et al., 2008
Zn(II), Cd(II), Pb(II) Natural Clinoptilolitic zeolites and Minceva et al., 2009
65
commercial granular activated carbon
Cu(II), Mn(II), Pb(II) Pecan nutshell Maximum adsorption capacities were
1.35, 1.78, 0.946 mmol/g for Cu(II),
Mn(II), Pb(II)
Vaghetti et al., 2009
Cr(VI), As(V)
HDTMA- modified zeolite
Highest maximum efficiency was
observed at pH 3 and 8
Yusof and Malek, 2009
Cr(III), Cr(VI) Modified sorbent Memon et al., 2009
Cu(II), Ni(II) Food samples Tuzen et al., 2009
Cd(II), Pb(II), Ni(II),
Zn(II), Cu(II)
Chemically modified sugarcane bagasse Homagai et al., 2010
Cu(II), Cd(II), Pb(II)
Pb(II),Cu(II), Cd(II), Ni(II)
Acacia leucocephala bark powder
Natural Kaolinite clay
Optimum adsorption takes place at pH
6.0, 5.0 and 4.0
Adsorption is rapid; Maximum
adsorption within 30 min
Munagapati et al., 2010
Jiang et al., 2010
Cr(III), Cd(III) Illitic clay Ghorbel-Abid et al., 2010
Cu(II), Zn(II), Ni(II),
Cd(II), Pb(II), Hg(II),
Cr(VI)
Chitosan
Wu et al., 2010
Pb(II), Cd(II), Cu(II),
Zn(II)
Apricot stones Tsibranska and Hristova et
al., 2010
Cd(II), Cu(II), Ni(II), Montmorillonite Gu et al., 2010
66
Pb(II), Zn(II)
Cu(II), Pb(II), Cd(II),
Zn(II), Ni(II)
Green Coconut shells Sousa et al., 2010
Cu(II), Cr(III) Vermiculite6 Badawy et al., 2010
Cd(II), Cu(II), Pb(II),
Zn(II)
Soils and Vegetables Luo et al., 2011
Cu, Pb, Cr Na- Montmorillonite Zhu et al., 2011
Pb(II), Cd(II) Carpobrotus edulis plant Chiban et al., 2011
Zn(II), Cd(II), Pb(II) Calcite mollusk shell Du et al., 2011
Cr(VI), Cr(III) Tea industry waste activated carbon Percentage adsorption was 95-100 % Duran et al., 2011
Pb(II), Cr(III), Cu(II),
Zn(II), Cd(II), Ni(II),
Hg(II), Ba(II), Ag
Montmorillonite,Ca-Montmorillonite De Pablo et al., 2011
Pb(II), Zn(II)
Sulfured Orange peel Maximum removal capacity was 164
mg/g for Pb (II) and 80 mg/g for Zn(II)
Liang et al., 2011
Pb(II), Cd(II), Cu(II) and
Zn(II)
Natural Limestone It shows high removal efficiency. Ali. Sdiri et.al, 2012
Cu(II), Pb(II), Zn(II) and
Cd(II)
Morin functionalized Merrifield's resin It retained all the studied metals with
high efficiency (90–95%).
Georgina Pina-Luis et. al,
2012
Al, Cr, Fe, Mn, Sb and V. Carbon fly ash The addition of lime had different effects
on the column leach test (CLT)
Bora Cetin et. al, 2012
67
Heavy metals and dyes Natural bamboo sawdust Pznpc, Pzc and Iep of sawdust were
characterized.
Xue-Tao Zhao et. al, 2012
Cu(II), Ni(II) and Co(II). Chemically modified cellulosic
adsorbent
Adsorbent removes metal ions with
removal efficiency of 250 mg per 1 g.
Abdel Halim, 2012
68
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