Sex and Gender:A Cross-Cultural

Perspective

The BIG Questions To what extent does biology influence

maleness and femaleness? Are males dominant over females in all

societies? How similar are gender roles throughout the

world? Do women and men in the same culture

communicate differently? How can extreme gender ideology lead to the

exploitation of women?

Anthropology and Feminism

early anthropology mainly the domain of middle/upper class Euro-American men

as the discipline grew, more women became involved

the influence of feminism changed the very culture of

much of the West gave women more opportunities switched focus to androcentrism,

re-studying areas from a new perspective

Anthropology and Feminism feminism can be broken up into 3

waves 1st wave: late 19th, early 20th century

women's suffrage, property rights in the UK and US

2nd wave: late 20th century equality and ending discrimination

3rd wave: late 20th, early 21st century challenged concepts of the feminine switched focus to gender and identity critiqued the lack of attention paid to

working class women and women from different ethnic backgrounds in 2nd wave feminism

Anthropology and Feminism we can see how each wave not only affected

Western culture, but how it affected anthropology as well

some anthropologists use gender as a lens through which to study a given culture

anthropologists that don't focus solely on gender, still note the important role it plays in all forms of human social organization

the main focus of our discussion is 4-fold the cultural construction of gender the concept of multiple genders the sexual division of labor gender stratification

Gender, Culture, and Identity gender, like other subcultural markers, affect

how one perceives themselves and how they are perceived by others

this is referred to as one's self-identity and one's social identity

both are shaped by a person's culture how they are supposed to think and behave is

contingent upon that culture's ideas about gender and the roles, rights, and responsibilities inherent within

identity often serves as the basis for the formation of social groups, as well as the origins of social stratification and inequality

Sex versus Gender

sex refers to the biological differences between males and females based on physiological factors, including:

sex chromosomes, reproductive organs, hormones, secondary characteristics

gender refers to the way a society perceives, evaluates, and expects males and females to behave

all societies have gender categories but the traits assigned to each differ from culture to culture

Sex versus Gender there are two main biological differences

that are useful in a comparative study of sex and gender cross-culturally

sexual dimorphism physical differences based on genetic differences

between males and females ex: differences in size and strength

reproductive physiology women's ability to become pregnant, carry and birth

children, and produce milk to nurse them men's contribution of sperm

both areas are interpreted differently depending on the culture

The Cultural Construction of Gender

similar to the concept of “race as a cultural construction,” the construction of gender refers to how cultures take the framework set up by biology and add meaning and value to it

they do this in many ways what is manhood, or womanhood? masculinity and femininity? what roles are appropriate for each?

careers, members of a household, members of society what kinds of symbols are equated with each? what rights and obligations do each have? how distinct are the differences between each

biological sex?

The Cultural Construction of Gender

how do different cultures “construct” gender?

North American constructions

A man and his son were in a car accident. The man died on the way to the hospital, but the boy was rushed into surgery. The surgeon said “I can't operate, for that's my son!” How is this possible?

The Cultural Construction of Gender North American constructions

(continued) personality traits

females as caring, emotional, social, physically fragile, and family oriented

males as rational, physically strong, selfish, rational/non-emotional, individualistic

careers teacher, waitress, nurse, homemaker,

secretary, receptionist, nanny, representative

professor, chef, doctor, CEO, construction worker, truck driver, President, oil field worker, coach

The Cultural Construction of Gender Margaret Mead in New Guinea, different

cultural groups the Arapesh – everyone was cooperative,

nonaggressive, and responsive to the needs of others

the Mundugumor – both men and women were expected to be fierce, ruthless, and aggressive

the Tchambuli – females were dominant, impersonal, aggressive, and food providers; males were emotionally dependent, preoccupied with art, gossip, and appearance

are these "normal"?; what do they suggest to you about the concepts of masculinity and femininity?

Gender Identities

in the US, and much of the West, we conceive of gender as following the dichotomy of male and female

in other cultures there may be more than two genders

early social science studying the cultural construction of gender took an ethnocentric/etic approach and used Western categories and values to identify people outside of this dichotomy as acting or playing the role of the other gender

modern social science suggests that other categories of gender exist in other cultures and are just as “real” as our own

Gender Identities sometimes people do not conform to the

genders and gender roles already in place in a given culture

oftentimes these people choose to adopt behavior, dress, values, and mannerisms considered to be outside of their own gender

“gender crossing” occasionally this will be so prevalent that these

alternatives are institutionalized they become a part of that society's conceptions of

gender little to no stigma against them; not seen as deviants or

degenerates ex: tomboys, metrosexuals

Multiple Gender Identities

some cultures recognize more than two gender identities

they do this by constructing multiple gender identities

sometimes seen as women-men, men-women, notwomen-notmen, etc.

that is, they go beyond how the West would define males, females, homosexuals, transvestites, or transgendered people

most commonly found in Native American groups, but also present in India and other parts of Asia

Native American Two-Spirits Two Spirits is derived from the Sioux term for

people with both male and female spirits early anthropological emphasis on sexual

orientation instead of other aspects used more generally to refer a Native American

conception of an alternative gender other than male or female

can include what we would categorize as men who act like women or vice versa

when using category man or woman we need to make sure we understand it from perspective of people using it

we cannot use our own conceptions of femininity and masculinity to say whether a person in a given culture is fulfilling one or the other role

Native American Two-Spirits instead of focusing only on 1

dimension, anthropologists suggest we look at alternative genders as multidimensional, just like we do with the two gender we are most familiar with

4 of Nanda's widespread themes w/in gender variants, good analytic tools:

occupation or work roles tranvestism spirituality relationships

Occupation and Work Roles

what kind of work does a given culture find appropriate for alternative genders?

often characterized by adopting the work of the opposite sex from which one was born

sometimes emerged early in childhood; thought to be the sign of a potential Two Spirit person

examples: a Navajo nadleehi who is particularly good at weaving

blankets (generally female task) Sioux Two Spirit/winke who excel at quill and beadwork a Zuni lhamana who stayed at home with their birth family

instead of starting their own and doing double the work considered to be women's work due to lack of child birth

Transvestism is/was common to wear clothing of the

opposite sex in some tribes, especially of the Great Plains

not found in all cultures though often a fluidity of identity

wearing clothing of same or opposite sex depending on situation

Woman Chief of the crow maintained female dress, but took on other aspect of male role

once contact was made with the West, transvestism decreased

outward manifestation of two-spirit nature

Spirituality two-spirited peoples were often seen as highly

connected to spiritual realm thought to have special powers played the role of shamans, healers, medicine

persons, or other spiritual leaders examples:

fortune tellers – Winnebago and Lakota matchmaking – Cheyenne, Omaha, Lakota special ceremonial functions, Sun Dance – Crow,

Hidatsa, Lakota

Relationships information on sexual orientation often

unreliable due to ethnocentric perspective of colonists

orientation, of course, varied from culture to culture and from person to person

some refrained from sexual relations altogether others engaged in “homosexual” relationships

not considered homosexual by the group because the two-spirit person was considered a member of the opposite sex

others had fluid sexual orientations, changing throughout life

The Gendered Division of Labor

the patterned ways productive and other economic tasks are allocated to men and women

one aspect of a culture's gender roles the rights and duties individuals have because of their

perceived gender identity some have argued that gender roles and the

division of labor are connected highly similar division of labor based on gender (or

is it sex?) cross-culturally ex: males hunt large animals, conduct warfare, work

wood, stone, and metal; women care for children, collect water, gather and prepare foods, and make clothes

Patterns in the Division of Labor mostly males:

metalworking fishing clearing land, preparing soil tending large animals house building making rope, cordage, nets

mostly females: gathering shellfish and wild plant foods caring for small animals gathering fuel fetching water processing and preparing plant foods making clothing mat making, loom weaving and making pottery

Patterns in the Division of Labor

both males and females: gathering small animals planting tending and harvesting crops milking animals preparing skins making leather products

Theories for Division of Labor multiple theories have been set forth,

many adding to a more comprehensive explanation, but none ever fully explaining this phenomena on their own

men have greater body mass and strength and thus are better equipped at engaging in highly physical activities such as hunting and clearing land

counterpoints: East African women who routinely carry

enormous loads of firewood on their backs for long distances

the Agta of the Philippines; hunting is both a male and female activity

Theories another theory to explain the division of labor

involves the role of women in childbirth suggests that women do certain tasks because

they are compatible with pregnancy, breast-feeding, and childcare; women's tasks do not require them to leave the area near their homes

counterpoint: although pregnancy and childcare limit work roles,

sometimes women's economic obligations take precedence

in these situations, women rely on others for childcare needs

ex: in preindustrial societies, women leave children with older siblings or other family members; in the West, we often leave children at daycares or schools and use formula instead of breast-feeding

Other Considerations fertility maintenance

heavy, prolonged physical exercise by women results in lowered body fat and hormonal changes that reduce female fertility

most strenuous tasks are done by males counterpoints:

many female tasks quite strenuous “male” tasks like hunting less strenuous than portrayed

reproductive roles few males are needed to sustain population size societies protect their females by assigning

hazardous tasks to males counterpoints:

only when all else is equal, such as lack of warfare or external threats

The Answer! it is important to note that none of these

theories completely explain the gendered division of labor, but they also do account for some of it

like many things in anthropology and the world in general, the best explanation is a mixture of multiple theories and ideas

we also need to note how things change, in the US for example, the traditional American family isn't very common anymore, with both parents working, single parent homes, or stay at home dads, among other things

Gender Stratification the degree to which males and females are

unequal in dimensions such as: status, power, or influence access to valued resources eligibility for social positions ability to make decisions about their own lives

like anything else in reality, gender stratification is multidimensional

not simply based on one factor and not uniform cross-culturally

power relations in different facets of life status changing over time other identity markers that play a role in determining

status (class, ethnicity, religion)

Components of Gender Stratification

what determines the degree of stratification? the social roles men and women play in a society cultural value attached to the contributions of men

and women to both their families and society as a whole

access to positions of power and influence general ideas and beliefs (sometimes religiously

motivated) about the sexes many social scientists suggest the almost

universal existence of sexual asymmetry tendency of women to be in a subordinate position

in their social relationships with men we can then frame this discussion in terms of how

much power women have in a society

Gender Equality in contrast to many of the examples of gender

inequality, there are also examples of more egalitarian societies

the Mbuti of Central Africa do not differentiate between gender in parents

parents considered elders and are accorded that respect men and women see themselves as equals in just about

every way except that women have the important power of giving birth

reflected in the naming of the forest (that provides all resources) "mother," as well as in Mbuti women's ability to choose mates and maintain social power

among the Minangkabau of west Sumatra, decision making among wives and husbands is relatively equal and cooperative

Equality? despite examples of gender equality, there is a

general tendency toward universal male dominance (sexual asymmetry)

one suggestion for why this is so is that men tend to control resources of all types, whether it be physical goods like money or food, or social and political capital, or control over education and employment

again, the way this manifests itself in a culture varies

one way to see equality, or the lack thereof, is through the gender empowerment measure

based on political participation and decision making, economic participation and decision making, and power over economic resources

Areas of Gender Disparity similar to the gender

empowerment measure, we can also look at some dimensions of gender inequality in terms of how much access women have to:

education employment reproductive health

Education 2/3s of all the illiterate people in the world are

women in many countries women are not allowed to

be educated in the US however, there has been a trend

towards more women in higher education

Employment women are generally found

in the lowest paid positions and jobs

sweatshops more likely to be part time than

full time have less seniority and have

little upward mobility members of informal

economies, like prostitution according to the Bureau of

Labor Statistics, women in the US make 82.8% of what men do as of 2010

Feminization of Poverty the inequality in education

and thus employment has led to what is known as the feminization of poverty

refers to the high proportion of female-headed families below the poverty line

which may result from the high proportion of women found in occupations with low prestige and income

Reproductive Health in the developed world, women generally are

able to control the amount of children they have and prevent disease

however, in much of the world, women do not have access to reproductive health services

this not only includes contraception but also cancer, STD, and AIDs screenings, as well as pre and post natal care

in Africa, this is particularly problematic and in Zambia in particular, three quarters of women as of 2001 did not feel that they were able to refuse sex to their husbands, even if he has been unfaithful and may be infected with HIV

Influences on Gender Stratification

we have an idea of how asymmetry occurs, especially on a more material/tangible level:

the greater the contributions women make to the welfare of a group, the higher their status

ownership of resources and the control women have over the distribution of products of labor influences their status

but what are the more philosophical and/or intangible reasons?:

women have higher status in matrilineal and/or matrilocal societies

gender ideologies

Gender Ideology

thoughts and values that legitimize gender roles, statuses, and customary behavior

this is how roles are created and maintained

it is what decides how men and women are expected to behave, as well as their obligations and responsibilities to each other and society as a whole

often times stems from fundamental religious, social, or world views

Gender Ideology Cross-Culturally creation myths from many cultures

put emphasis on one gender over another

Judeo-Christian mythology has a male-termed God and blames Eve for sin

the Hopi creation myth has both a male and female aspect, but emphasizes the female's creative powers which is reflected in their matrilineal society

in Bangladesh, men are associated with the right side and women with the left side, a dichotomy that also denotes purity–pollution, good–bad, and authority– submission

Gender Ideology how strong are these gender ideologies? that

is, how much do they actually play a role in day to day life?

do people of a given culture unequivocally accept the ideological justifications for gender roles?

roles are often contingent on the situation at hand, for instance, in the Yoruba of Kenya, female subordination is also contextual

in many situations women show deference to their husbands, male family elders, and public officials

in other instances, like that of the marketplace, they wield great power, confidence, and control due to the contributions they make to their family and society by making money in the markets

Gender Ideology some cultures show marked

gender ideologies that can physically manifest and cause harm

gender bias in children and infanticide

preference found in some societies for one gender, sometimes to the point of killing infants and small children

most often preference for sons rather than daughters

ex: female infanticide in China and India nutritional deprivation

form of child abuse involving withholding food; can retard learning, physical development, or social adjustment

Gender Ideology honor killings

a euphemism referring to a practice found in various Middle Eastern cultures whereby women are put to death at the hands of their own family members because they are thought to have dishonored the family

dowry death the killing of a wife by her in-

laws if the wife’s parents fail to pay additional dowry

often occurs in rural India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh

Gender Ideology and Stratification in the U.S.

the cases discussed are horrific and we in the US often think of them as something that our culture would never be okay with, but domestic abuse in the U.S. is also an issue

according to a study from 2000, 1 in four women have suffered from domestic abuse

women account for approximately 85% of intimate partner violence, but men also suffer from this kind of abuse

more than three women and one man are murdered by their intimate partners in this country every day according to the Bureau of Justice Statistics in 2003

Gender Ideology and Stratification in the U.S.

gender stratification affects everyone, we have focused a lot on how it affects women, but there are also negative consequences for men

in the United States, for example, men have a higher mortality rate than women for the leading causes of death

professions that are predominantly considered male are often more dangerous (construction, mining)

it is less socially acceptable for men to admit they suffer from stress, depression, and other emotional issues

Key Themes

feminism has influenced social science's perspective on how to study gender and identity

sex and gender are different categories they interact with each other and differ in

meaning cross-culturally some cultures have more than two categories

different cultures also determine who works what jobs differently

gender stratification is how cultures rank different genders

involve both material and ideological factors