REVIEW ON DETERMINANTS OF HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY IN ETHIOPIA

Senior seminar paper

By:

Dinow Sharif Mohamed

College: Jimma University College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine

Department: Rural Development and Agricultural Extension

Advisor: Moquanent Muche (M.Sc.)

DECEMBER, 2015

JIMMA, ETHIOPIA

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents page

TABLE OF CONTENTS II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT IV

ABBREVIATION V

ABSTRACT VI

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1. Background of the seminar .............................................................................................. 1

1.2. Statement of The Seminar ................................................................................................ 3

1.3. Objective of the seminar .................................................................................................. 4

1.3.1. General objective of the seminar 4

1.3.2. Specific objective 4

1.4. Significance of the seminar .............................................................................................. 4

2. REVIEW ON DETERMINANTS OF HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY IN ETHIOPIA 5

2.1 Food security and food insecurity conceptual understandings and Definitions ............... 5

2.2 Concepts and Definitions of Food Security ..................................................................... 5

2.3 Concepts and Definitions of Food Insecurity: ................................................................. 6

2.3.1 Types of food insecurity: 7

2.4 Factors that causes food insecurity................................................................................... 7

2.4.1 Population growth: 7

2.4.2 Natural factor: 8

2.4.3 Economic factors: 9

2.4.4 Socio-cultural factors: 9

2.4.5 Institutional factors: 9

2.4. Indicators of food insecurity .............................................................................................. 10

2.5. Challenges in achieving food security in Ethiopia. ............................................................ 11

2.6. Coping mechanisms of food insecurity: ............................................................................. 12

2.7. Policy options to minimize food insecurity: ...................................................................... 13

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3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 14

3.1 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................... 14

3.2 RECOMMENDATION .............................................................................................................. 14

4. REFERENCE 15

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the name of ALLAH, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful Alhamdulillah, all praises to

Allah. He blessed me with good health, intellectual efficiency, talented teachers and sympathetic

friends, whose proper guidance, consistent encouragement and inspiration enabled me to start

this senior seminar paper. I feel great pleasure and honor to express my heartiest gratitude and

deep sense of obligation to my advisor Moquanent Muche (M.Sc.) for his keen interest,

encouraging guidance, for his valuable advice, insight and guidance from the initiation to the

completion of these senior seminar paper, his open-minded views, help and valuable suggestions

for the successful beginning of this senior seminar paper.

Last but not least, my deepest gratitude goes to my beloved parents, my family, my parents and

my friends who are always with me in all my life for their encouragement and assistant at day

and nights.

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ABBREVIATION

CSA Central Statistical Agency

FAD Food Availability Decline

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

GDP Gross Domestic Product

MDER Minimum Dietary Energy Requirement

RRC Relief and Rehabilitation Commission

UN United Nation

US United States

USAID United States Agency for International Development

USD United States Dollar

WB World Bank

WFP World Food Program

WFS World Food Summit

WHO World Health Organization

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ABSTRACT

Food security is a relative concept defined as the access to food by all people at all time to

enough food for an active, productive and healthy life. Food security can be achieved when

households produce enough staple food for their consumption or when they have enough income

to meet their food need from market. Like many developing countries, Ethiopian farmers in the

highlands predominantly practice subsistence farming and are often subject to food insecurity.

The main objective of the seminar is to review the determinants of households’ food security

Also this paper is going to review on the four pillars of food security which is availability,

access, stability and utilization. And also the causes of household food insecurity and food

security strategy. Now a day food security issues become one of the critical concern and top

priority area for developing countries. Having clear picture on food security status and its major

determinants helps policy makers and planners to devise new policies that enhance food security.

Hence, this study was reviewed to determine the status of food security in Ethiopia, to identify

the major determinants of food security among the rural household, and to identify coping

strategies employed by different food security status groups to cope with food insecurity.

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the seminar

. About 870 million people in the world are estimated to have been undernourished (in terms of

dietary energy supply) in the period 2010–2012. This figure represents 12.5 percent of the global

population, or one in eight people. The vast majority of these, 852 million, live in developing

countries, where the prevalence of under nourishment is now estimated at 14.9 percent of the

population (FAO, 2012).

Ethiopia’s economy has grown by 11 percent annually for the last five years, and Poverty

declined from 38 percent in 2004/05 to 29 percent in 2009/10. But it remains a least-developed,

low-income, food-deficit country, one of the poorest in Africa: gross domestic product of

US$472 per capita is much lower than the sub-Saharan African average of US$1,077. Despite

reduction in the food poverty index, the scale of food insecurity and malnutrition remains

serious: 23 million people have insufficient income to meet their food needs (WFP, 2011).

Nearly a quarter of the population in Ethiopia is malnourished where the largest proportion

suffers from chronic hunger. Some assessments indicate that the probability of crop failure in

certain parts of Ethiopia could reach 10 per cent (FAO, 2006). This can be much worse where

policies in attaining food security are underemphasized and the gap between per capita food

production and consumption is induced by the slowdown of the agricultural production growth

rates (FDRE, 2001). Researchers, planners, donors and international development agencies have

given high priority to the study of food system and the problem of food security due to

deepening food crises. Despite the available resources and the efforts made by governments in

different times, food insecurity remained one of the most crucial challenges to economic

development and has been aggravated by recurring rainfall shocks and wars (DERCON, 2004;

WHITE, 2005).

Ethiopia is one of the world’s poorest countries with indicators suggesting low levels of

development. Many Ethiopians live in conditions of chronic hunger with both a low average

daily energy supply (FDRE, 2002).

One stark indicator of the precariousness of food security in Ethiopia is the rising dependence on

foreign food aid (Berhanu, 2004). Food aid has kept people alive, but done nothing to address the

causes of food insecurity (EC, 2009). Over the course of the last decade, Ethiopia has received

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an average of 700,000 million ton of food aid annually, and the figure has risen dramatically in

recent crisis years (since 1996, the quantity of food appealed for has multiplied by 4.5, while the

number of beneficiaries has multiplied by 6). The unpredictable timing and level of relief

resources flowing through the emergency channel means there are few opportunities to do more

than addressing humanitarian needs (UNDP 2009).

There is no problem of underdevelopment that can be more serious than food insecurity (World

Bank, 1986). The majority of Ethiopians lives in rural areas and confronts similar challenges in

securing sufficient food, but given the topographic and biophysical variation throughout

Ethiopia, seasonal undernourishment varies across geographic space and time.

The performance of agriculture, however, in terms of feeding the country’s population, which is

growing at about 2.9 per cent per annum, is poor. Currently in Ethiopia, there are more than 10

million people who have been affected by drought. Some 4.6 million people are threatened by

hunger and malnutrition and require urgent food assistance. The deteriorating situation is

compounded by high food prices, the cost of cereals has more than doubled in many markets

since the beginning of the year, hampering the ability of many people to meet their most basic

food needs and impoverishing them further (WFP, 2009).

In the early 1980s, a paradigm shift occurred in the field of food security, following (Amartya

Sen 1981)’s claims that food security is more of a demand concern, affecting the poor’s access to

food, than a supply concern, affecting availability of food at the national level. Since then,

accepted wisdom has defined food security as being primarily a problem of access to food.

Farmers’ own production became viewed as a route to entitlement, either directly via their own

supplies of food, or indirectly via lower market prices for consumers (Maxwell S., 1996).

Ethiopia with an area of nearly 1.1 million square kilometers and population of 61.7 million in

July 1999 and an increasing population rate of 3.2% per annum (CSA, 1999), is the fourth largest

in size and the second most populous in Africa. The backbone of its economy has been

predominantly the agriculture sector when judging from the point of view of the people’s

occupation, its contribution to GDP, export of commodities and orientation of the industries.

The country is endowed with natural resources, 60% of the land mass known to have a good

potential for agricultural development. Out of this potentially cultivable land only 15% is known

to have been developed.

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1.2. Statement of The Seminar

Endowed with considerable agricultural potential, Ethiopia had been self-sufficient in staple food

and was classified as a net exporter of food grains till the late 1950. It was reported that the

annual export of grain to world market amounted to 150,000 tons in 1947. However, since early

1960s, the country’s domestic food supply situation has been declining and failed to meet the

food requirements of the people. Particularly, from the beginning of the mid-1980s, food

production has exhibited a downward trend. The inadequate growth in production has led to

increasing food insecurity in many parts of Ethiopia over the past decades. Some of the principal

causes of inadequate growth in food production, and increasing food insecurity, according to

FDRE (1996) are: inadequate and unreliable rain fall, soil degradation, civil war and ethnic

conflicts, poor transport and infrastructure in the rural areas, misguided economic policies such

as land tenure, geographical diversity, rapid population growth, outdated production technology

and small land holding, lack of storage, disease, inadequate nutritional knowledge, heavy

workloads for women, etc.

The country is also known to possess the largest livestock population in Africa. However,

poverty and food insecurity remain as the major challenges to achieve economic development in

Ethiopia and especially in the rural area of the country. This is due to the subsistence nature of

Ethiopian agriculture, its mere dependence on rainfall and the existing backward technologies,

has made peasants highly vulnerable to famine and food insecurity (Alem, 1999).This can be

substantiated by the UN release which indicated the proportion of Ethiopian population living

below a poverty line of one USD a day in 1998 was 50 % of the total population, which is

approximately about 29 million people (World Bank, 1992).

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1.3. Objective of the seminar

1.3.1. General objective of the seminar

To review the determinants of households food security in Ethiopia

1.3.2. Specific objective

To review on Causes of food insecurity in Ethiopia

To review on Indicators of food insecurity Ethiopia

To review on Challenges in achieving food security in Ethiopia.

To review coping mechanism and Policy options to minimize food insecurity in Ethiopia.

1.4. Significance of the seminar

A study of determinants of household food insecurity is vital because it provides with

information that will enable effective measures to be undertaken so as to improve food security

status and bring the success of food security development programs.

It will also enable development practitioners and policy makers to have better knowledge as to

where and how to intervene in rural areas to bring food security or minimize the severity of food

insecurity. The positive role of the agricultural sector in terms of ensuring national food security

is measured by the contribution of the domestic food production to the national food availability

and reduced dependence on food imports. Although food deficit in Ethiopia has never been

overcome during the last three decades, the domestic production is playing a significant role to

reduce the gap and dependence on food imports to a limited extent. The national food security

goal is to attain food self-sufficiency by increased use of package of modern farm inputs through

agricultural extension program, as well as improved husbandry conditions in livestock producing

areas. Improved domestic food production under Ethiopian context will have the following

positive social benefits:

Reduced dependence on food imports and saving foreign exchange; allocating the saved

foreign exchange for other alternative public uses will increase the social benefits;

It contributes to human resources development. This would be possible through

improved nutritional status and reduced health costs of the society (minimize poor health

conditions that arise from poor nutrition and health consequences);

It will enable the supply of healthy and productive labor force required for economic

growth.

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2. REVIEW ON DETERMINANTS OF HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY IN ETHIOPIA

2.1 Food security and food insecurity conceptual understandings and Definitions

2.2 Concepts and Definitions of Food Security

Food security is defined in different ways by international organizations and researchers. World

Food Summit, when the definition was broadly set as achieving food security “at the individual,

household, national, regional and global levels when all people, at all times, have physical and

economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food

preferences for an active and healthy life” (FAO,2010). Currently, a synthesis of these

definitions, with the main emphasis on availability, access, and utilization, serves as working

definition in the projects of international organizations.

Food security is a concept that has evolved considerably over time. Most definitions of food

security vary around that proposed by the World Bank (Maxwell, 1996); wherein, food security

defined as access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life (World

Bank, 1986).

The essential elements in this definition are the availability (adequate supply of food); access

through home production, purchase in the market or food transfer; stability, when availability

and access are guaranteed at all times; and utilization which refers to the appropriate biophysical

conditions (good health) required to adequately utilize food to meet specific dietary needs and

security, as the balance between vulnerability, risk and insurance; and time (Maxwell and

Frankenberger, 1992).

Food availability means that sufficient quantities of appropriate, necessary types of domestically

produced food, commercial imports or food aid are consistently available to individuals or are

within reasonable proximity to them. At the national level, it is the sum of domestic food stocks,

net commercial imports, food aid, and domestic production. Individuals have sufficient access to

food when they have “adequate incomes or other resources to purchase or barter to obtain levels

of appropriate foods needed to maintain consumption of an adequate diet/nutrition level”.

Finally, adequate food utilization is realized when “food is properly used, proper food processing

and storage techniques are employed, adequate knowledge of nutrition and child care techniques

exists and is applied, and adequate health and sanitation services exist” (USAID 1992).

Gradually, the concept of food security took on a more subjective meaning than at the outset,

integrating the quality and diversity of needs from one individual to another, respect for local

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eating habits beyond a purely quantitative approach. Food security is a multidisciplinary concept,

which includes economic, political, demographic, social, cultural and technical aspects (EC,

2009).

2.3 Concepts and Definitions of Food Insecurity:

Food insecurity is defined as a condition in which people lack the basic food intake necessary to

provide them with the energy and nutrients required for fully productive lives. It can either be

temporary (transitory food insecurity) or continuous (chronic food insecurity) (FAO, 2010).

Undernourishment exists when caloric intake is below the minimum dietary energy requirement

(MDER).The MDER is the amount of energy needed for light activity and to maintain a

minimum acceptable weight for attained height. It varies by country and from year to year

depending on the gender and age structure of the population (WFS, 2010).

Food insecurity, on the other hand, is a situation that exists when people lack secure access to

sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food required for normal growth and development and

an active and healthy life (WFP, 2004). It is a dynamic phenomenon: its impact varies depending

on its duration, its severity, and the local socioeconomic and environmental conditions (EC,

2009).

Food Availability Decline approach explains that famine or food shortage occurs when there is

an aggregate decline in food supply. According to this approach people starve because of a local,

national or regional decline in food availability to a level below the minimum requirement for

survival. However, FAD has been criticized for its only dealing with supply side which

disregards the demand side. It said nothing about people’s income and purchasing power.

Furthermore, it failed to address the vulnerability differences and access to food from outside the

affected area (Ejiga, 2006).

According to the Food Entitlement Theory, food availability at global or national level alone

could not bring food security at household level. Thus, according to the entitlement approach, a

growth in domestic production does not necessarily prevent famine or hunger as far as what is

produced is not equally distributed and the entitlement system that determines access to food is

not changed. Food insecurity affects people who cannot access adequate food (e.g. because of

poverty) irrespective of food availability food insecurity can occur even if food supplies are

adequate and markets are functioning well (Deveruex, 2001; and Vadala, 2009).

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2.3.1 Types of food insecurity:

Food insecurity can be transitory (when it occurs in times of crisis), seasonal or chronic (when it

occurs on a continuing basis). A person can be vulnerable to hunger even if he or she is not

actually hungry at a given point in time (Stamoulis and Zezza, 2003).

Chronic food insecurity means that a household runs a continually high risk of inability to meet

the food needs of household members. In contrast, transitory food insecurity occurs when a

household faces a temporary decline in security of its entitlement and the risk of failure to meet

food needs is of a short duration. Transitory food-insecurity focuses on intra and tine-annual

variations in household food access. It has been argued that this category can be further divided

into cyclical and temporary food insecurity (Maxwell and Frankenberger, 1992). Temporary

food insecurity occurs for a limited time because of unforeseen and unpredictable circumstances.

Cyclical or seasonal food insecurity occurs when there is a regular pattern in the periodicity of

inadequate access to food; this may be due to logistical difficulties or prohibitive cost in storing

food or borrowing.

Chronic food insecurity is commonly perceived as results of overwhelming poverty indicated by

a lack of assets. Both chronic and transitory problems of food insecurity are wide spread and

several in Ethiopia.

2.4 Factors that causes food insecurity

The factors that cause food insecurity are wide and vary from place to place but in this literature

the following major causes will be discussed,

2.4.1 Population growth:

There are two competing theories regarding the relationship between population growth and food

insecurity. According to Malthusian theory the growth of human populations always tends to

outstrip the productive capabilities of land resources.

In general, Population pressure has become a factor in accelerating food insecurity in situations

where: all accessible land is fully under cultivation; failure to improve upon the old methods of

cultivation; and opportunity for alternatives employment is absent (Brehanu, 2001).

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In Ethiopian case population growth is increasing at the rapid rate now it is estimated at over 80

million (WHO, 2008) and since 1960 the population has almost quadrupled (World Bank, 2010).

At current rates, the population is estimated to grow to 118 million by 2025, and to 170 million

by 2050, however, food production shows little increase (Ararso et al., 2009). So in Ethiopian

case since much of the Ethiopians livelihood is depending on agriculture and until people shift

from agriculture to other sectors of the economy for their livelihood, population pressure on

agricultural land can be cause of food insecurity in Ethiopia (Vadala, 2009).

The impact of population growth is manifested on farm size; and it leads to high land

fragmentation thereby small landholdings and finally reduces productivity.

2.4.2 Natural factor:

Natural disasters such as drought, climate change and flooding are said to reduce food

production for a particular period. In the case of Ethiopia, there is no doubt that droughts have

created severe food shortages. According to the World Bank (2006), the whole Ethiopian

economy is dependent on rainfall and data on rainfall variation and GDP growth from 1982 to

2000 illustrate that there is a positive correlation between the two. Thus, natural disasters have

obvious negative impacts on food production and even on the economic performance of the

country and thereby bringing food insecurity (Vadala, 2009).

A frequent drought which was occurred for long years ago is the major causes for the death of

many citizen and animals because of high shortage of food and forage. The famine which was

seen few years ago also threat for the people .because about 14 million Ethiopian people were

exposed to such famine in 1970 and 1980; famine was occurred in Ethiopia (Zerihun, 2005).

Drought is the major cause for the loss of food production in areas where agricultural activity has

been overwhelmingly dependent on rainfall. In cases like Ethiopia, the contribution of irrigated

land in agriculture is very minimal and the whole food production activity has depended on rain-

fed agriculture; the disruption of rain for a season has brought a massive food shortage and

consequently hunger and famine (Brehanu, 2001). Thus it is clear that drought and rainfall

variability constrain food security status of the rural agricultural dependent farmers.

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2.4.3 Economic factors:

Many studies conducted in different parts of Ethiopia showed that farm land, credit, livestock

holding and access to different productive assets are affecting food security status of rural

households in Ethiopia.

More land size holding means more cultivation and more possibility of production which in turn

increases farm income and improves food security (Tesfaye, 2003). According to Adugna (2008)

conducted his study in Boloso Sore district wolayita zone, shortage of oxen, lack of farm input

and land shortage are the most influential causes of food insecurity.

Similarly according to Amsalu etal.(2012) study done shashemene district oromia region logit

model result showed that total cultivated land , total annual farm income per adult equivalent,

total off farm income, and livestock size have positive and significant relationship with food

security.

2.4.4 Socio-cultural factors:

In our country Ethiopia gender division of labor due to cultural factors constrain productivity and

food security. According to the study conducted by McBriarty (2011), in all his study areas of

rural Ethiopia, it is not socially acceptable for women to plough. This is a major constraint to

preparing fields for planting on time for the season. Single women therefore had to resort to

begging neighbors and waiting until everyone else has finished their ploughing, otherwise they

must pay someone to do it for them.

Tsegaye (2009) reviewed that Socio-cultural events such as eating habit and food preference,

cultural ceremonies and festivals also influence the food security status of the given communities

and way of saving or expenditure, also directly or indirectly affects the food security situation of

that particular community.

2.4.5 Institutional factors:

A number of studies agree that poor infrastructure including roads; schools and health services

constrain productivity and thereby bringing food insecurity and dependence on food aid.

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One study conducted on factors contributing rural women food insecurity in Ethiopia showed

that The lack of roads and transport result in fewer market opportunities, less influence from

outside and added difficulty in acquiring medical treatment or access to information and it

seriously affect their attainment of food security(McBriarty, 2011).

2.4. Indicators of food insecurity

Assessment of food insecurity/security is a challenging work for researchers dealing with it as

there are no universally established indicators which serve as a measuring tool. It requires a

multi-dimensional consideration, since it is influenced by inter-related socio-economic,

environmental and political factors.

Because of this, analyzing food insecurity follows a variety of approaches ranging from mere

qualitative to a combination of both qualitative and quantitative measurements (Debebe H,

1995). In this context, a number of indicators have been identified. In most cases, the purpose

and the depth of the study influence the choice of the indicators.

In early warning studies conducted by the then RRC and now DPPC, have used three indicators

such as, food supply indicators (including rain fall, area planted and yield estimates), social

stress indicators (such as market prices, availability of food in the market, labor pattern, wages

and migration) and individual stress indicators (nutritional status, disease and mortality

variables) to identify food insecurity situations (RRC, 1990).

(Maxwell and Frankenberger, 1992).Food security indicators are generally categorized in to two

main categories: “process and outcome” indicators. Process indicators are divided in to two:

indicators that reflect food supply and indicators that reflect food access. Outcome indicators are

used to measure the status of food security at a given point in time and grouped into direct and

indirect indicators. Direct indicators of food consumption include actual food consumption rather

than to marketing channel information or medical status. The indirect indicators include storage

estimates, subsistence potential ration and nutritional status assessment (Alison and Slack, 1999).

However, there is no fixed rule as to which method to employ due to the diversified

characteristics of food insecurity and the different level of consideration. The decision to rely on

a particular method usually depends on resource and time constraints, objectives of the study,

availability of data, type of users and degree of accuracy required (Debebe, 1995).

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As also described by (Alem, 1999) indicated that the major supply indicators include

Agricultural production, access to resources, institutional development and market

infrastructures. According to his observation, these indicators are in most cases aggregated and

hardly serve to assess food insecurity at household level but it could provide a general picture of

an area or society (Maxwell and Frankenberger, 1992).

Unlike the supply indicators, access indicators are relatively effective to assess food insecurity

situations at household level. The most important issue related to food access indicator is the

households diversified coping strategies and their sequential responses they enter, the response

varies from the disposal of productive and non-productive assets to distress migration, to avert

decline in food availability at their disposal.

The outcome indicators such as level and changes in food consumption and the amount of food

stores serve as proxy estimates for measuring household food situation, it is capable of

disaggregating at household level, unlike the food supply indicators (Davies,S. 1994).

The major challenge in the use of these response indicators are the difficulty associated with

identifying the normal phenomenon of the household and the response of the household forced

by food stress or its response to avoid risks of food stress. On the other hand, indicators related to

food availability for consumption, level and change in food intake serve as measurement to

define household food insecurity (FAO/WHO 1992). Fluctuation in level of food production and

possession of productive capitals are also useful indicators.

2.5. Challenges in achieving food security in Ethiopia.

There are some drawbacks that need to be tackled in achieving food security in the country,

some among others are;

Misconception of food insecurity as it occurs in the general context of poverty and

vulnerability which doesn’t warrant any explicit focus on food security and the belief that

it can be solved in the normal course of development. This has reduced particular

attention that could be given to alleviate the food insecurity problems.

The complementarities and tradeoffs between achieving self-sufficiency through

domestic production and export of agricultural commodities in the long run and urgency

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and current reliance on external aid to meet the demand by the majority of food insecure

population.

Availability of inappropriate institutions and lack of effective instruments of the current

policies, in that the current policy emphasizes and gives advantages to the better potential

areas, its recommended inputs and technologies are appropriate to those productive

potential areas who are easier to serve and better able to take the advantages of the

services provided to them, leaving the drought prone vulnerable segment of the

population at disadvantage

At last but not least, is the lack of data to support effective policy formulation and

implementation in the area of food security (Senait, 2000).

2.6. Coping mechanisms of food insecurity:

Coping strategy defined as a mechanism by which household or community members meet their

relief and recovery needs and adjust to future disaster related risks by themselves without outside

support (Tesfaye, 2005).

The coping mechanism used by different households may be different from place to place. A

study conducted in three most deprived and poverty stricken regions in the Northern parts of

Ghana showed that households use a wide range of mechanisms and communal support networks

to cope with the situation which includes collection of wild foods, market purchases, in kind

(food) payment, support from relatives and friends, sales from livestock and household

valuables, migration and wage labor, reduction in the number of meals served each day,

reduction in the portions/ sizes of meals and consumption of less preferred foods

(Wilhemina,2008).

There are four types of coping strategies that food insecure households typically use: Changing

the diet to include less costly and less preferred alternative foods; Increasing food supplies

through non-sustainable means (e.g., borrowing money, consuming seed stocks, begging);

Decreasing the number of individuals being fed by the household (i.e., migration); and

Rationing available foods by reducing meal size or frequency (Maxwell et al. 2002).

Another study conducted by Negatu (2011) in southern Ethiopia found that a range of coping

mechanisms used by respondents which includes: minimizing the number of meals and amount

of food consumption; diversifying their livelihood; cultivating more crops, wage labor, seasonal

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migration to neighboring community during peak season; and inter cropping are some of

mechanisms used by households.

2.7. Policy options to minimize food insecurity:

Food aid, today, is mainly considered as an instrument in addressing for both transitory and

chronic types of food insecurity in low-income country. It is noted that the humanitarian

agencies, or donors, implement food aid programs in these countries in order to give immediate

response to the needy people, to increase income sustainability, to improve agricultural

productivity, and improvement in health and nutrition among the residents. Moreover it leads to

improvement in the availability of food supplies at the national or regional level, or to increase

access to food at household levels through higher home production of food crops, market

purchase and/or other means or to make more effective utilization of food at the individual level

to meet human biological needs (USAID, 1999).

According to African development bank food security brief (2011), creating Policies and

regulations that are conducive to enhancing regional trade, sustainable access, and use of natural

resources and private investments are also essential to the success and the sustainability of the

benefits derived from any intervention and thereby bringing food security.

According to Mukherjee (2008) the following strategies are appropriate to eliminate hunger

1.Strengthen productivity and incomes: Diversification and growth of the economy; low-cost,

simple technology (water management, use of green manures, crop rotation, and agro forestry);

rural infrastructure development (roads, electricity, etc.); provision for improved irrigation and

soil nutrition, natural resource management (including forestry and fisheries); market and private

sector development, Food safety and quality Agricultural research, extension and training.

2.Linkages maximizing synergy: Democratic Governance Vibrant Civil Society Strong “Fourth

Estate” Local food procurement for safety nets, Support to rural organizations; Primary health

care and reproductive health services; Prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS; Asset

redistribution (including land reforms); Education especially for girls and women Potable

drinking water

3.Provide direct access to food: Mother and infant feeding; Supplementary nutrition to children

(such as mid-day meals in Schools) and pregnant women; Unemployment and pension benefits

Food-for-work and food-for-education; Targeted conditional cash transfers Food banks and Food

Distribution System for the indigent people (Safety Nets); and Emergency ratio

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3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

3.1 CONCLUSION

Understanding the causes and determinants of household food security would help policy makers

to design and implement more effective policies and programs for the poor and thereby helps to

pave way to improve food security. Food insecurity is the most critical problem facing a large

number of both settled and pastoral households in Ethiopia. Temporary food insecurity occurs

for a limited time because of unforeseen and unpredictable circumstances. Seasonal food

insecurity occurs when there is a regular pattern in the periodicity of inadequate access to food.

Food insecurity: is a situation that exists when people lack secure access to sufficient amounts of

safe and nutritious food required for normal growth and development and an active and healthy

life. Food insecurity is not static but based on its duration, its severity, and the local

socioeconomic and environmental conditions

3.2 RECOMMENDATION

Government and NGO,s should Improve the understanding of interactions among food

systems operating at local, regional and global levels.

Government should address mismatches between the capacity of current institutions to

manage for both food security and environmental goals.

Improved food safety along the food chain reduces food losses, resulting in increased

food availability, stability , and utilization so both government and NGO,s should focus

improving food security improved safety and quality of food contributes to improved

nutrition and health, Gov.t and NGO,s should address the dimension of food security

using different food security measurement

Government should Raise awareness of the pressures of increasing population growth

and consumption patterns on sustainable ecosystem functioning.

In order to ensure stability in food supply, government should boost domestic food

production, efficient food-marketing system at all levels, and promoting good post-

harvest technologies are necessary.

Agricultural growth is one of the key means by which government can reduce its

incidence of food security. More specifically within the agricultural sector, growth in

food crops and livestock should be given priority because of their superior capacity to

contribute to ensure food security.

15

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