semiconductor (solid state) detectors
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Semiconductor (solid state) detectors. Introduction Principle of semiconductors Silicon detectors, p-n junction, depleted region, induced charge energy measurement, germanium detectors position measurement, silicon strip detectors, pixel detectors - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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Semiconductor (solid state)detectors
1. Introduction
2. Principle of semiconductors
3. Silicon detectors, p-n junction, depleted region, induced charge
4. energy measurement, germanium detectors
5. position measurement, silicon strip detectors, pixel detectors silicon drift detectors6. DEPFET
7. Photon detectors, APD, SiPM
8. 3D detectors
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1. Introduction
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Principle of semiconductors
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hole conduction
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-E -
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electron concentrationg(E) - density of electron state in the conduction band f(E) g( E) – electron concentration⦁ lowest energy level in the conduction band g() ≡ density of electron states in the lowest energy level
approximation : f ≈
electron concentration in the lowest energy level hole concentration - density of hole state in the highest energy level of the valence band hole concentration in the highest energy level
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Boltzmann constant k ≈ 8.6 ⦁ eV ⦁ E-
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= -
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= =
μ mobility, E external electric field
Current : J = e + = σ E, σ - conductivity R = 1/σ - resistivity
μ𝑒
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i) Direct recombination
Recombination and trapping of the charge carriers
ii) Recombination resulting from impurities in the crystal
a)
b)
iii) Trapping resulting from impurities in the crystal
iv) Structural defects in the lattice
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3. Silicon semiconductors, p – n junctionSi:
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n- type semiconductor
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p- type semiconductor
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Approximation of charge densities
Concentration of acceptors
Concentration of donors
Maxwell equations:
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Using resistivity of n-type
d=
d=
𝑹𝒏𝑹𝒑
R
For R≈ 20 000d= 75 μm
For reversed bias V= d ~ 300 μm
R = 1/(e + ) in n-type, = 0
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over-dopped p-type
dd
d
d
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depletion region HV
Ohmic contact : direct metal – p-type not possible, because of the barrier between metal and p-type instead heavily doped p-type and then a metal
metal
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Induced charge
Q - charge in the depletion region
page 25:
but different coordinate frame, zero at the junction
x ⟶ x - , ≡ d, E=-dV/dx
d - thickness of the depletion region
,resistivity R=1/( )
ε ⦁R
𝑡𝑑
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𝑞h (𝑡 )=¿
t ⟶
(
Induced charge at
i.e. If x(t) =0
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Ex. /pair
a good preamplifier needed, low noice
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DC direct coupling, AC
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4. Energy measurementConstruction of p-n junctions
• Diffused junction diode: diffusion of donors to p-type at the temperature 1000 C
• Surface barrier junction: junction between a semiconductor and a metal n-type Si with Au, p-type Si with Al sensitive to light
• Ion-implanted junctions: a substrate is bombarded by ions from an accelerator
Depleted region small ⟹ energy measurement for low energies
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Guard ring
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Compensating materials developed to increase the depletion region by lithium drifting process known as p-i-n junction
Li diffused to p-type, a narrow n-type is created electrons drifted to p-type, negative space charge application of HV ⟶ positive Li ions drifted to p-type for sufficient time to create
⟹ the same concentration of positive ions and electrons t ⟹ no space charge, i.e. compensated region resistivity up to 100 000 Ω width of compensating region 10-15 mm Si(Li) , the noise is much greater then in normal Si cooling is needed
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Energy resolutionFluctuation of energy losses in the depleted region
Landau fluctuation
most probable energy loss
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Germanium detectors suitable for γ detection,
Resolution at 1.33 Mev Ge detector 0.15 % NaI 8 %
-- High purity germanium (PHGe), depletion region~ cm, low temperature during - measurement only
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Shape of Ge detectors - planar, circular shape, diameter 1-2 cm, volume 10-20 coaxial , volume up to 400
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5. Position measurement, silicon strip and pixel detectors
i) Manufacturing of Si strip detectors
ii) Microstrip detectors
iii) Position resolution
iv) Pixel detectors
v) Silicon drift detectors
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i)
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R
ii)
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iii)
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analog readout
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iv)
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Advantages and disadvantages
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v)
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Application of strip, pixel and pad detectors
Trackers: precise determination of particle tracks (strips or pixels)Vertex detectors: in collider experiments, detectors situated around the interaction vertex
Topology: sensors mounted on a planar carbon frames or cylindrical carbon frames
Calorimeters: as active layers in sampling calorimeters
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forward and backward silicon tracker of the H1 experimentCollider HERA, DESY Hamburg, electrons (~26 GeV) vs protons (920 GeV) several layers of circular planes equipted with strip sensors
Interaction vertex
Beam pipe
electrons
protons
Emitted particle
electronics
Si sensors
sensor
particle
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Pad silicon detectors for the readout of the electromagnetic calorimeter CALICE
SiSi wafers 6 x 6 cm, 1 pad 1x1 cm, depletionregion 500 μm
calorimeter: absorber tungsten, active layers from Si wafers electronic layer above active layer
(calorimeter for linear collider)
W - layerSi wafers
readout board
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5. DEPFET
Bipolární tranzistor:
Nepřipojený k obvodu Připojený k obvodu
emitor báze kolektor
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FET tranzistor
Polem řízené (neboli unipolární či FET) tranzistory spínají/omezují protékající proud na základě toho, jaké napětí je na „drain“
řídicí se nazývá gate a značí se "G",spínaný proud vstupuje do drainu "D" avystupuje z source "S".
Tři jednotky FETu:
drain je zde jako kolektor, source jako emitor a gate jako báze
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FET
Proud teče mezi S a D mezi nimiž je napětí.Napětí na D mění vodivost substrátu, tj proud teče/neteče
Zdroj proudu je S, výstupní proud je v D.
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DEPFET je FET vytvořený na plně vyčerpanén substrátu. Působí současně jako senzor a zesilovač
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Top gate
P –channel FET on a fully depleted n-bulk
𝑛+¿ ¿
n-Si
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electrons from photon are collected at the internal gate the energy deposited by a photon is determined by the change of the FET conductivity
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clear mode - change of the FET conductivity,
This difference ~to the total amount of collected charge
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7. Semiconductor photon detectors APD - avalanche photodiodereplace e.g. photomultipliers in calorimeters, very small devices,can be connected with fibers
Usual photodiode
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avalanche photodiode
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HAPD - hybrid APD
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SiPM Silicon Photon Multipliers
1156 photodiodes on the area 1.1 x 1.1
depletion region
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SiPM detects individual photons, current ~ to the number of fired pixels
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Hadron calorimeter
Scintillation light from the tile is collected by a WLS fiber which is directly connected to a SIPM.
WLS fibre
SiPM were first developed for the readout of scintillation light of the hadron calorimeter within CALICE collaboration
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(pixel ≡ photodiode)Pedestal ≡ noise
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3D detectors