Semiconductor Revolution in the 20th Century

Zhores AlferovZhores Alferov

St Petersburg Academic University — Nanotechnology Research and Education Centre RAS

2

• Introduction

• Semiconductor research in 1930th

• Transistor discovery

• Discovery of laser–maser principle and birth of quantum optoelectronics

• Invention and development of the silicon chips

• Heterostructure research“God-made” and “Man-made” crystals

• Problems and future trends

3

Polytechnical Institute

Ioffe seminar at the Polytechnical Institute. 1916

4

Yakov Frenkel

5

One of the last Ioffe photo. September 1960

6

Schematic plot of the first point-contact transistor

Laboratory demo model Laboratory demo model of the first bipolar transistorof the first bipolar transistor

7

The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956

"for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect"

William Bradford

Shockley1910–1989

John

Bardeen1908–1991

Walter Houser

Brattain1902–1987

8

9

10

11

12W. Shockley and A. Ioffe. Prague. 1960.

1313

The Nobel Prize in Physics 1964The Nobel Prize in Physics 1964

"for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics,

which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle"

Charles Hard

Townes b. 1915

Nicolay

Basov 1922–2001

Aleksandr

Prokhorov 1916–2002

1414

1515

1616

• January 1962: observations of superlumenscences in GaAs p-n junctions (Ioffe Institute, USSR).

• Sept.-Dec. 1962: laser action in GaAs and GaAsP p-n junctions (General Electric , IBM (USA); Lebedev Institute (USSR).

Condition of optical gain: EnF – Ep

F > Eg

Lasers andLasers and LEDsLEDs onon pp––n junctionsn junctions

Wavelength

Ligh

t int

ensi

ty

“+”

“–”C leaved m irror

p

nG aAs

EnF

EpF

E gL

pD

LnD

h

1717

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000"for basic work on information and communication technology"

Zhores I.Alferov

b. 1930

Herbert Kroemer

b. 1928

Jack S. Kilby

1923–2005

“for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit”

“for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics”

18

19

20

First integrated circuit/notebook

21

Patent of the first Patent of the first integrated circuit integrated circuit by R. Noyceby R. Noyce

22

(a) Factory sales of Electronics in the United States over the past 50 years and projected to 1990.

(b) Integrated circuit Market in the United States. 22

Factory sales of Electronics and IC Factory sales of Electronics and IC

(a) Factory sa les of E lectronics

Sales in the United S tates

1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990Year

(b) In tegratedcircu its

D ig ita l M O S

D igita lb ipo larL inear

Inventionof transistor

Beginning of IC

Sal

es (

$ bi

llion

s)

0.1

1

10

100

1000

S.M. Sze, J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 22 (1983)

2323

Changing composition of work force Changing composition of work force in the United Statesin the United States

S.M. Sze, J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 22 (1983)

1860 1900 1950 1990Year

50

40

30

20

10

0

Period I Period II Period III

Agriculture

IndustryInformation

ServicePer

cent

age

2424

Penetration of technology into Penetration of technology into the industrial output the industrial output

1860 1900 1950 1990Year

Pen

etra

tion

of t

ech

nolo

gy

Electrom echanicaldesign

System organizationsoftware design

Electroniccircuitdesign

Logicdesign

Penetration of technology into the industrial output versus year for four periods of change in the United States electronics industry.

S.M. Sze, J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 22 (1983)

25251900 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

10 nm8

10 nm7

10 nm6

10 nm5

10 nm4

10 nm3

100 nm10 nm

Vacuum tube The first active e lectronic device to be invented w as the vacuum tube

First silicon transistor Texas Instrum ents in troduced the first

s ilicon transistor n 1954

The first Integrated circuit Jack K ilby developed the first in tegrated circu it in 1958

Size m atters Transistors in the first m icroprocessor (the In te l 4004) m easured 10 µm

Sm all talk The transistors in In te l's Pentium 4 processor are just 45 nm in s ize

Trade-offSm aller devices suffer from larger leakage currents

How low can you go? Further dow nsizing m ay not prove to be econom ically v iab le

Moore's law I: device downsizingMoore's law I: device downsizing

H. Iwai, H. Wang, Phys. World Vol. 18, 09 2005

2626

Moore's law II: chip densityMoore's law II: chip density

1970 1980 1990 2000 2004 2010 2020

104

105

106

107

108

109

1010

Gordon Moore C o-founder of In te l, w ho identified the trend for ch ip density 40 years ago

First m icroprocessor The Inte l 4004 conta ined 2300 transistors

Intel Pentium The first Pentium processor conta ined 5.5 m illion transistors

Intel Pentium 4 By 1995 the Pentium

chip conta ined42 m illion transistors

Intel Itanium The w orld 's m ost pow erfu l ch ip can perform hundreds of m illions of operations per second

The road ahead Further increase in chip density re lies on new technologies

Larger m em ory M em ory ch ips conta in m ore transistors than processors

H. Iwai, H. Wang, Phys. World Vol. 18, 09 2005

2727

1

10

100

1000

Feature size (µm )

Chi

p m

axim

um p

ower

den

sity

(W/c

m)2

1.5 1 0.7 0.5 0.35 0.25 0.18 0.13 0.1 0.07

H eating p latesurprassed( )

Itanium: 130 W

Pentium 4: 75 WPentium III: 35 W

Pentium II: 35 WPentium Pro: 30 W

Pentium: 14 W

I486: 2 W

I386: 1 W

Increase in the power density of VLSI chipsIncrease in the power density of VLSI chips

B. Jalali et. all., OPN, June 2009

28

Fundamental physical phenomena Fundamental physical phenomena inin classical heterostructuresclassical heterostructures

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fn

E c

E v

E c

Fp

Electrons

H oles

Fn E c

E v

Fp

Electrons

H oles

Electrons

One-side InjectionPropozal — 1948 (W. Shokley)

Experiment — 1965 (Zh. Alferov et al.)

SuperinjectionTheory — 1966 (Zh. Alferov et al.)

Experiment — 1968 (Zh. Alferov et al.)

Diffusion in built-in quasielectric fieldTheory — 1956 (H. Kroemer)

Experiment — 1967 (Zh. Alferov et al.)

29

(d)

(e)E c

E v

Fn

E c

E v

Fp

Electron and optical confinementPropozal — 1963 (Zh. Alferov et al.)

Experiment — 1968 (Zh. Alferov et al.)

Superlattices and quantum wellsTheory — 1962 (L.V. Keldysh)

First experiment —1970 (L. Esaki et al.)

Resonant tunnelling — 1963 (L.V. Iogansen)

In Quantum Wells — 1974 (L. Esaki et al.)

Fundamental physical phenomena Fundamental physical phenomena inin classical heterostructuresclassical heterostructures

30

Lattice matched heterojunctions

• Ge–GaAs–1959 (R. L. Anderson)

• AlGaAs–1967 (Zh. Alferov et al., J. M. Woodall & H. S. Rupprecht)

• Quaternary HS (InGaAsP & AlGaAsSb)Proposal–1970 (Zh. Alferov et al.)First experiment–1972 (Antipas et al.)

Heterojunctions — a new kindHeterojunctions — a new kindof semiconductor materials:of semiconductor materials:

5.40 5.56 5.72 5.88 6.04 6.20Lattice constant ( ) [300 K ]Å

Ene

rgy

gap

(eV

) [3

00 K

]

2 .8

2.0

1.2

0.4

A lP

G aP

G aAs

G e

InP

A lSb

G aSb

InAs

Long journey from infinite interface recombination to ideal heterojunction

31

Energy gaps vs lattice constants for semiconductors IV elements, III–V and II(IV)–VI compounds and magnetic materials in parentheses. Lines connecting the semiconductors, red for III–V, and blue for others,

indicate quantum heterostructures, that have been investigated.Nitrides have not been yet included.

5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.6

Ene

rgy

gap

(eV

)

3 .0

2.4

1.8

1.2

0.6

0

–0.6

Lattice constant ( )Å

32

Schematic representation of the DHS injection laser in the first CW-operation

at room temperature

250 µm

120

µm

200 m A

Copper

M etal

M etal

S iO 2

p A l G a As 3 µm0.25 0.75

p A l G a As 3 µm0.25 0.75

p G aAs 0.5 µm

p G aAs 3 µm+

n G aAs

33

Space station “Mir” equipped with heterostructure solar cells

Heterostructure solar cellsHeterostructure solar cells

34

Heterostructure microelectronicsHeterostructure microelectronicsHeterojunction Bipolar Transistor

NAlGaAs-n GaAs Heterojunction

Suggestion—1948 (W.Shockley)Theory—1957 (H.Kroemer)Experiment—1972 (Zh.Alferov et al.)AlGaAs HBT

HEMT—1980 (T.Mimura et al.)

Speed-power performances

J–J

100 nW 1 µW 10 µW 100 µW 1 m W 10 m W

10 ns

1 ns

100 ps

10 ps

Pro

paga

tion

dela

y

Pow er d issipation

E c

E v

E c

E v

F

F

E c

E v

E cE 1

E 0

E v

35

(by I. Hayashi, 1985)Heterostructure TreeHeterostructure Tree

HighPow er

E lectronics

LD

LED

APDPIN

DetectorA rray

FET

HEM THBT

G aAsIC

HSSolarCell's

PhasedArray

LD

M ulti-Wavelength

LDPIN-FETLD-Driver

O ne C hipRepeater

M onolith icO EIC

Sw itch O pticalConnection

Betw eenLSIs

O pticalW iringInside

LSISSI

MSI

LSIIntegrationof O ptica l

and E lectronicDevices

Integrationof O ptica lDevices

Integration ofB ifunctional

Devices

W ide BandO ptical Transition

Wavelength D ivisionM ultip lexity

A ll O ptica l L ink

Laser D iskLaser Printer

O ptica l Sensor

Advanced LAN

BidirectionalVideo Netw ork Super H igh Speed

Com puter

O ne C hipCom puter

IntegrationTechnology

Device Technology

ProcessTechnology

SubstrateCrystal

EpitaxiThin Film

MaterialCharacterization

36

Liquid Phase Epitaxy of III–V compounds

5 nm

InAsGaP thin layer inInGaP/InGaAsP/InGaP/GaAs (111 A) structure with quantum well grown by LPE. TEM image of the structure.

H 2Heater coils

Pull rod

SolutionG aAs

sourceG aAs

substrate

Q uartz reactor

37

e-gun

ion gauge

ion pum p

R H EEDscreen

shutters

effusioncells

substrateunit

residual gasanalyzer

Schematic view of MBE machine

Riber 32P

MESFET, HEMT

QCL, RTD, Esaki-Tsu SL

PD, LED, LD

....

MBE — high purity of materials, in situ control, precision of structure growth in layer thickness and composition

Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)III–V compounds

38

Schematic view of MOCVD chamber

Inlet

StreamlinesWaffer

Quartz sealing

Unique method of wafer rotation leads to high uniformity of structure in wafer and high reproducibility from wafer to wafer

Al O 2 3

HEMT LED LD

MOCVD — high purity of materials, large-scale device-oriented technology

Aixtron AIX2000 HT (up to 6 x 2” wafers) Production oriented growth machine for the fabrication of device structures

Epiquip VP50-RP(up to 1 x 2” wafer)Flexible growth machine for laboratory studies

MOCVD growth of III–V compounds

39

Impact of dimensionality ondensity of states

Lz

Lx

Lz

3D

0D

1D

2D

Ly

LzLx

E gap

E 00 E 01

E 0 E 1

E 000 E 001

Den

sity

of s

tate

sP

N

P

N

P

N

P

N

Energy

40

Band diagram Layer sequence

Emission spectrum at room temperature

Light- and Volt-current characteristics

Pulsedroom tem perature

8.5 8.6 8.7W avelength, µm

Opt

ical

pow

er (

log.

, a.u

.)

1

0.1

0.01

0.001

8K

150K

200K

250K

C urrent, A

Pow

er, m

W

Vol

tage

, V

12

0

4

8

80

60

40

20

00 0.5 1.0 1.5

Quantum cascade lasers

41

Quantum dot as superatom

Atom Semiconductor Quantum dot

photon

kT

photon

valenceband

conductionband

phonon

forb idden gaps

electronlevels

holelevels

42

• Evolution and revolutionary changes

• Reduction of dimensionality results in improvements

Milestones of semiconductor lasers

4.3 kA /cm(1968)

2

900 A /cm(1970)

2

160 A /cm(1981)

2

40 A /cm(1988)

2

6 A /cm(2002)

2

19 A /cm(2000)

2

Impact of SPSL QW

105

104

103

102

10

01960 00 200565 70 75 80 85 90 95

Years

J th

2 (

A/c

m)

Impact of DoubleHeterostructures

Impact of Quantum Wells

Impact of Quantum

Dots

4343

““Magic leather” Magic leather” energy consumptionenergy consumption

200 000

150 000

1 000 000

90 000

1 440 000

15 000 000

Energy Carrier

Tota l throughout the w orld

Reserves(know n andextractive)

(G Watt year)

Consumptionrate

(G Watt)

Period ofexhaust

(years)

Oil

Gas

Coal

Nuclear Power(therm al reactors)

Tota l

Nuclear Power(fast reactors)

4 600

2 200

3 000

750*

11 000

11 000*

40–50

60–70

300–400

120

130

1 500

*C alculated value

4444

Multijunction solar cells provide conversion of the solar spectrum with higher efficiency. Achievable efficiency of multijunction cells is > 50%

SiGaInP GaAs

Ge

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

0 0500 1000 1500 2000 2500 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Wavelength (nm ) Wavelength (nm )

Spe

ctra

l irr

adia

nce

(W/m

µm

)2

4545

The experimental PV installation with output power of 1 kW based on concentrator III-V solar cells and Fresnel lens panels arranged on the sun-tracker (development of the Ioffe Institute). The efficiency >30% can be ensured by such a type of installations if they are equipped by tandem solar cells with efficiency >35%.

4646

White light-emitting diodes:White light-emitting diodes:efficiency, controllability, reliability, life time

Today:Today:InGaN-QW/GaN/sapphirelight-emitting chip + YAG Ce phosphor

Outlook:Outlook:Monolithic microcavity LED with InGN/GN MQW active region

+ simple design

– phosphor loss+ monolithic nature

+ absence of additional loss

W hitePhosphor YAG C e

Sapphire

Buffer

n+G aN

InG aN -Q W

p+G aN

Ti/Ag/AuN i/Ag/Au

W hite

Sapphire

Buffer

n+G aN

Ti/Ag/Au

InG aN-Q W

p+G aN

Ni/Ag/AuBragg resonator G aN/A lG aN

4747

Nanostructures for high power Nanostructures for high power semiconductor laserssemiconductor lasers

Laser array output power > 100 WMatrix output power > 5 kW

Laser efficiency > 75%

Laser power > 10 W

5 nm

Band gap, eV

Thi

ckne

ss, n

m

Solid-state lasers pum ping

Atm ospheric and fibre optical

com munication

Navigation

Energy transport in the atm osphere

and fibre

Welding and cutting

Atm ospheric lidars

Medical apparatus

Fibre lasers

4848

Global nanotechnology market forecast:Global nanotechnology market forecast: More than 1 trillion USD annually in the nearest 8–10 years

Accelerants b illion100

N anom ateria ls b illion350

Transport b illion 70Ecology

b illion100

N anoelectronics b illion350

Pharm aceutics b illion180

4949

1. Heterostructures — a new kind of semiconductor materials:• expensive, complicated chemically & technologically but most efficient

2. Modern optoelectronics is based on heterostructure applications• DHS laser — key device of the modern optoelectronics

• HS PD — the most efficient & high speed photo diode

• OEIC — only solve problem of high information density of optical communication system

3. Future high speed microelectronics will mostly use heterostructures

4. High temperature, high speed power electronics — a new broad field of heterostructure applications

5. Heterostructures in solar energy conversion:

the most expensive photocells and the cheapest solar electricity producer

6. In the 21st century heterostructures in electronics will reserve only 1% for homojunctions

SummarySummary