self-esteem in youte relating to overall self- esteem...
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SELF-ESTEEM IN YOUTE AND FACTORS RELATING TO OVERALL SELF- ESTEEM
LISA PATIERSON MOUNT SAINT VINCENT UMVERSITY
A tberis robmitted to the Dcprrhaent of Edicitioa
in partial fallUwat
of tbe requirements for the degm of
Mirtcn of School Psycbology
Jily 12,2000
Copyright Q (2000) by Lisa Pattenon
The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une Licence non exclusive licence aliowing the excIusivc permettant à la National L i i of Canach to Bibliothtspe nationale du Canada de reprduct, loan, distn'butt or selî reprodpire, prêter, clistri%ucr ou copies of this thesis in microfm vendre des copies de cette th&se sous papa or electronic fomüie. la fanne de microfiche/film, de
reproâuction sur papier ou sur format électronique.
The author retains omerstup of the L'auteur conserve la propnCté du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thtse. thesis nor substantial extmcts from it Ni la &&se ni des rrtraas substantiels may be printed or otherwise de ccîic-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproâuced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation.
1 wodd like to thank Dr. Kicnapple for PU of his patience and guidance throughout this
thesis. I would also L e to thmk my othcr two thesis committtt membas Proftssor Logan-
Smith and Dr. French for their ideas and suggestions. Lady, my thanLs goes to those who
supported me throughout this process, especially my f@ly, fnc11ds and best niend Rajesh.
The main purpose of this research was to gain more insight into overail self-estecm and
the factors relating to o v d 1 self-esteem in adolescents, spacifically with a grade twelve -dent
sample. Two hmdreâ and ninety packages containing consent forms, questionriaires and
information letters rcgarding the study wcrc distributed to 30 grade twtlve clasmoms. The
studmts wen asked to return the packages as soon as possible and 36% (103/290) of the
packages were rehuneà. Thm were two questionnaires filled out by the student sample. The
first was the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), which indicated the overall self-esteem
levels of the students. The second measure distributed to the sample was a Factors Related To
Self-Esteem questionnaire which was consmcted by the researcher. There were seven factors
(Le., fmily, sports, academics, extracumcular activities, peers, after school job, and body
image) that were studied with respect to overall self-esteem. The other areas that were studied
were; cornparisons between male/ female sample & sel f-esteem, which facton posit ive1 y and
negativel y impact overall sel f-esteem, lowhigh sel f-esteem sarnple, and farnil y demograp hics
and overall self-esteem.
It was found that 72% of the student sarnple fell within the moderate range for overall
self-estemi, with few studmts falling within the high (14%) and low range (15%) of self-esteem.
Thm was no significant difference between the male and frmale sample's overall self-esteem.
Body image was the only significant factor impacthg the sarnple's overail self-esteem and it was
found that as adolescents amibuted a strongly positive impact of body image to their overall self-
tsteem, the higher their overall self-esteem. Maies did not have any significant factors impacting
their overall self-esteem. Where as the female sample amibuted after school jobs as having a
iii
strongly positive impact on their self-esttcm. With regard to the high self-estecm group,
academic and body image w m the two significant factors impacting their o v d l self-esteem.
More specincally, the high self-csteem gmup strongiy disagrcd that academics or body image
impactcd their overall seIfkstcem. The lowcl self-tsfecm p u p h d no significant factors
impacting their overail self-csteem. Family structure had no significant impact on o v d l self-
esteem. The results inâicated that the factors that the studcnt population perceiveci as aécting
their overall self-esteem d i M h m those that w m fomd through comlation findings.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
Statement of the Problcm 4
Purpose 4
Rationale 4
LITERATURE REVIEW 6
ûveniew of Self-Esteem And Related Componcnts 6
Self-Esteem in Adolescence 8
Factors Influencing Self-Estecm 9
Characteristics Of High And Low Self-Esteem 14
Male/Female Self-Estean 17
Measuremmt Scaies For Se 1 f-Esteem 19
Rosenburg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) 22
How Should Parents and Professionals Enhance Self-Esteem 23
Conclusion 25
Researc h Questions 27
METHOD 28
Subjects 28
Materials 28
Procedure 30
Ethical Considerations 31
RESULTS 32
introduction 32
Reseaich Questions 33-53
!!EE Summary, Discussions, Limitations, and Implication for fhher Research 54-70
S ~ W 54-58
Discussion 59-66
Limitations 67-68
Implications for further Research 69-70
Refcrences 7 t -75
Table IV. 1 33
Table IV.2 34
Table IV.3 40
Table IV.4 45
Table NS 48
Table IV.6 52
Graph N.1 34
vii
APPENDICES
Appcndix A - Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scalc 76 A m d i x B - Factors Relating to Self-Estean Scale 79 Appenâix C - Principal Letter 82 Appcndix D - Parent Consent Fomis 84
Appendix E - Youth Consent Forms 87 A w d i x F - Tcacher Consent Forms 89 Appendix G - Recommmdations for Enhancing Self-Estemi 91
The developmaitd pcriod "adolescencen is d d b d as a vital time where self-
esteem is devetoped (Küog, Hyde, Showers & Buswe11,1999; Allm, 1997). Harper &
ManhaU (1991) and Wenar (1 994) emphasizc that youth qmscnts the dmlopmcntal
period of transition nwi the dependent child to the rrspoasible duit. The early stages of
adolescence (1 2-14 years) is marked by the onset of pu-, while middle adolescence
(1 5-1 7 years) is charactcrized as the most sûcssful time in youth developmcnt (Harper &
Marshall, 1 99 1 ; Allen, 1 997). Brettschneider & H e h (1 997) and Allen (1 997) explain
that this stresshl t h e is Erikson's 5th stage of developmcnt, w h m the adolescent's crisis
is described as Identity vmus Identity Confusion. Allen (1 997) and Eûwards (1993)
report that identity pmblems for some youth predict maladjusmicnts with respect to
feelings of meaninglessness.
Wenar (1994) and Allen (1 997) emphasize the fact that adolescents ofien ask
themselves, "Who am I", which is influenced by the need to establish independence and
to take responsibility for making their own decisions regadhg adulthood. Therefore,
this tirne in adolescence can reprcsent a period with problems related to t h g initiative
for these responsibilities (Wenar, 1994). Tryiag to find theû role in society is often a trial
and enor experience, wherc failures may hurt their egos and they arc rcminded that they
are no longer childmi, but are not yct adults (Wenar, 1994). As a d t of this Wenar
(1994) stresses, "The adolescent is viewed as wild, disrrspccdul, and amoral, the parents
are seen as old-fashioncd, seIfkentend and lacking in understanding'' (p.42).
Adolescents fccl more distrrsscd about theu own inttrnalizing and emotional problems
and parents are more distresscd about the adolescents' extemal behavior problcms
(Phares & Compas, 1990).
What happcns to self- during this strrssful developmental perioà?
Coleman & HeDdry (1990) report that the foundation for s e I f - e ~ f ~ t ~ f l developmcnt in
youth rrmaias in theu own evaluation and socid cornparison 10 theu pecis. More
importantly, Men (1997) reports, estccm is the fourth highest of the five basic human
ne& in Maslow's hicrarchy of neeb. nKIc are two IaaQ of estecm ne&: The first
king pcrsod dcsircs for adquacy, mstery, compctcnce, achievemcnt, confidence,
independencc and W o m and the second arc the desires for respect h m others (which
include attention, prestige, fame, dominance, importance and dignity) (Maslow, 1954).
When people are satisfied in the estemi needs, they have feelings of self-worth, self-
confidence, psychological strcnah, cepability, and a sease of feeling wful and necessary
(Allen, 1997). On the othcr hanci, if these ne& are not met, there will be feelings of
discouragement or neurosis (Allen, 1997). Thus, youth who succecd in school, sports and
their interpersonal life will have esteem and youth who do not have these oppornuiities
do not succeed (Allen, 1997).
In order to have a M e r understanding of adolescence and self-esteem, research
has ban completed on various factors nlating to youth selfkteem. Areas that have been
related to esteem in the research literature are: the family (Dubois, Felner, Brand, Phillips
& Lease, 19%; Rosenberg, 1989; Atwater, 1992, Edwards, 1993), sports and
extracurricular adVities (Bar-Or, 19%; Sonstroem, 1997; Fox, 1997), school (Edwards,
1993; Rosenberg, 1989), peers (Atwater, 1992) and work (Atwater, 1992; Steinberg &
Dombusch, 1991; Mullis & Mulüs, 1997).
Thcre are various characterjstics associatcd with having high and low self-esteem.
By determinhg these characteristics, a cl- pictim is d e with respect to cach of
thes populations (highllow). There is a clifferrat experience for an adolescent who has
high self-esttcm to that of an adolescent with self-cstccm that is low (Rosenberg,
Schooler & Schocnbach, 1989; Fox, 1997; Edwards, 1993, Myers, 1993). For example,
hm are a few charaacnstics of individuais with low self~steem would include: fcelings
Youtb Self-Estcem 3
of inadquacy, lack of self-respect, pessimism about the fiiturt and have difficulties with
pem (Bar-Or, 19%). An individual with high scKcstecm is lilcely to have
characteristics such as: assertivenais, confidence, populanty, respectcd by peers and has a
hcalthy view of the self (Bar-Or. 1996; Pape, McHale & Craighcad, 1988; Fox, 1997).
More specifically, males and fernales have becn found to differ in their levels of self-
cstccm, where the major* of studies found that males have highcr seIfkstcem (Klien,
1995; Turner, Pickering & Johnson, 1998; Edwarâ, 1993; Overholser, 1993; Harpcr &
Marshall, 199 1).
Various instruments that maure self-estecm is a component of this nsearch and
the last section is dedicated to various strategies used to mhance youth self-esteem. This
section is included for teachm who are looking for ideas to enhance their studcnts' self-
esteem. The defuiing characteristics of programs that d a n c e self-esteem is discussed in
nfemice to recommendations that can be used in Physical Education classes (Fox, 1997),
as well as the regular classmm (Edwards, 1993) and pnvate self-est- groups (Dusa et
al., 1990). By finding out what youth rate as infiuencing their overall self-esteem,
teachers and other professionals can alter the mcthods that are employed in their
c l m m s to suit the needs of the youth. For example, if the majority of the youth rate
peers as affecthg their global self-estecm, teachcrs can implemmt more p u p work and
be aware of the necessity of peer relationship building.
The research areas that have ben mentioned set the foundation for this self-
est- study. In this study thcre was an inquiry into the overall self-estmn of youth and
the diffemce in the male and fernale samples. There was also an exploration hto the
factors that youth thanselves perceive as effeaing th& self-esteem (differmces between
males and fmales). This study added to the body of litcrature in male and fmale
âiffttcnces and provides vital feedback for parents and teachen with respect to which
factors are of most concern for this youth population (i.e., family, school, peers, sports,
extracurricular activities & work).
STATEMENT OF TEE PROBLEM
Adolescmce is a time of change and unity (Coleman & Hmdry, 1990). As far as
wlf-conceptfself-esteem is concaaed, in adolescence, there arc major physical changes
and intellectual p w t h during this pcriod (Colman & Henâry, 1990). Some
development of self-conceptlseIfkstccm occurs as a remit of Ecreasing motional
dependence, and the upcoming decisions nlating to occupation, values, sexual behavior,
fiienâship choices. (Coleman & Hcndry, 1990). Coleman & Hm@ (1990) explain. with
respect to youth self-esteern, that the ways in which youth understand and perceive
th an selve^, their pmonality and theu social situations impact on their reactions to life
events.
Research has been conducted in the area of youth and developing self-esteem.
Kling et al. (1999) believe men and women have somewhat similar levels of self-esteem,
but their self-esteem may depend on various sources (i.e., interdependence and perception
of one's attractiveness). However, studies have indicateâ that males have higher self-
esteem than females (Edwards, 1993; ûverholser, 1993; Tuma et al., 1998). Therefore,
it is apparcnt that investigation is needed in the area of gender and the sources of self-
esteem (Kling et al., 1999).
The purpose of this study was to determine the level of global self-esteem in a
high school population. More specifically, cornparisons wen done htwm the male and
fernale samples with respect to levels of global self-estecm. Also, a section was
dedicated to covering various factors influencing self-estean, where studmts rate which
f m contribute to their overall global self-esteem.
The rational for choosing this topic sterns h m an interest in which factors have
the greatest affect on youth global seW-esteem. Om of the most important attitudes we
have is our own attitude toward "self" and people having high scIf=csteem believe
thanselves to be gaod, capaôle and worthy and people with low self-esteem see
thcm~t1vcs as useless. inept and unworthy (Baron, Bymc & Watson, 1998). Thenfore, it
is ncccssary to hear tht voice of youth with respect to th& vicw on self-csicem and what
they se as impacting theu self-estcem. The rcsuits h m this rcscarch adds to the body of
knowledge in youth self-csfccm and the diffemccs betweeo mak and fernale estcern
levels. Finally, this shidy provides information for parents and teachers witb respect to
the dolescent view of various factors infîuaicing th& self-csttcm.
This section will provide a discussion of youth and self-esteem with respect to:
O An ovenim of self-estecm and relateci cornponents
O Factors rclated to youth self-estecm
Chinacteristics of individuals with high and low s e l f a t t m
O Male and f a a l e différences in selfaeem
O Measurements used for self-esteem
O Ways to enhance self-esteem
OVERVIEW OF SELF-ESTEEM AND RELATED COMPONENTS
Self-Concept
Self-concept has within it the concept of self-image @mon's description of the
self) as well as self-esteem @mon's evaluation of the self) (Colman & Hendry, 1990;
Germain, 1978; Bar-Or, 1996). An individual's self-concept is expressed in tenns of
ability, value, worth and limitations (Gexmain, 1978; Calhoun & Morse, 1977; Holland
& Anàre, 1994). Self-concept is a description individuals give thmwlves with respect to
the identity of their nature and the concept is useâ by individuals to compare themselves
to 0 t h (Calhoun & Morse, 1977; Baumgardner, 1990, Brtttschneider & Heim, 1997).
Rosenberg (1965) explains that self-estttm is relatad to gcneral social adjustment and
stability of the self-concept. Thus, the highcr the person's self-estccm, the more adjusted
and stable the self-concept (Coleman & Hmdry, 1990; Brettschneider & Heim, 1997).
Max made a living mbbing convcnience stores. He neva completcd high school and spent a considaable portion of his adult lik in a state prison penitentiary. Yet his pnde and self-confidence revded that he considercd himrscifa capeble, woithy penon, easily on par with those employcd in more rrspcctable traées. Gtne's was a very différent story. Afier graàuathg Phi Beta Kappa h m Harvard Law School, Gme bccame pmident of a large and succcssfiil law h. Yet Oene continuai to question his seKworib, as he had siDce his childhood. Plagued by womes and depression, one day he scribbld a note iadicating that hc rrgarded himself a failun and tooL his omi life (Pelham & Srnuin, 1989, p. 672)
in this example, thcre is question of how individuals shifi h m specific
knowiedge of their own ability and accomplisbments to overall global evaluation of tbeir
seLworth (Pelham & Swann, 1989). It is evident that Max and Gene propose that self-
esteem is not just the product of people's abilities and accomplishments. Dubois et al.
(1 996) and Pope et al. (1 988) explain that self4stem is an evaluation of the information
within the self-concept and it is derived h m the individual's feelings about the self. Max
was a person who was involved in crime his whole life, but he had pnde and self-
confidence in hirnself (positive self-worth) and Oene on the other band was a successful
lawyer who had negative feelings about himself (negative self-worth).
Similady, Pope a al. (1988) provide another secnario with refmnce to
individuais who feels that high marks are nprrscntativc of theu value. In this case king
an averagdpoor snident will jeopafdize selfesteem. Howevcr, individuals couid value
athletic ability and social ability over acadernic ability and they would have high self-
esteem (if tùst two areas arc met) (Pop a al., 1 988; Dubois et al., 1 996; Germain, 1 978).
Thacfore, an individual's s e l f " is dependent on both objective infomation about
oneself and subjective cvaluation of the information (Pop a al., 1988; Gcnnain, 1978).
Self-Esteem In Adolescence
Selfcsteem in youth developmmt is v i ~ e d as playing a critical role in
decreasing youth problems (Owens, 1 994). Klein (1 995) and Omos (1 994) explain that
youth with self- will khave in a more socially acceptable mmcr and will in
gcneral have highcr achicvcment in common p d t s and greatcr socio-emotionai well-
being. More specifically, high selfktecm or positive self-perception is the end goal of
the developmental process (Klein, 1995), whae "satisfaction" b m e s a vital cornponent
(Caihoun & Morse, 1977). It is apparent that y o d selfsstccm is affkcted by success and
failure, dong with relationships with ohers (Atwater, 1992; Oameia, 1978; Calhoun &
Morse, 1977). However, Atwater (1992) and Pope et al. (1988) agree that an adolescent's
self-esteem is dependent on how much motion is investeci in a specific task or
relationship. In the end, youth view themselves with respect to theù own expectations,
aspirations and ideals (Atwater, 1992; Cahoun & Morse, 1977).
There needs to k an understanding that self-esteern cm be affccted by various
situations and abilities, which is diffant h m one individual to the next. However, self-
esteem is known to evaluate the broder rcpresmtation of self and self-concept is a more
inclusive constniet (cognitive and behavioral components) (Blascovich & Tomaka,
1991). Blascovich & Tomaka (1 991) and Pelharn & Swann (1989) belicve that
cognitions about one's self (in the self-concept) could or could not influence scIf-estecm.
What are the various factors that could influence youth self-esteem?
FACTORS INFLUENCING SELF-ESTEEM
Selflesteem is spoken as a single entity, "global self-", but it varies with
respect to situations and abüities (Dusa et al., 1990, Atwatcr, 1992; Edwards, 1993;
Dubois, Buil, Sherman & Robcrts, 1998). Thercforc, it is nccessary to examine al1
aspects of adolescence when considering selfkstecm levels. A multidirnensiod
framework shodd be considexcd when assessing self-estcem, whm the content focus of
the various dimensions of self-esttem an mimed (Dubois a al., 19%; Klein, 1995;
Bagley , Bolitho & Bertrand, 1997; Mullis & Mullis, 1997; Hagborg, 1996; Fleming &
Cointney, 1984). Adolescents appear to have self-perceptions regarding global self-
worth, academic ability, job cornpetence, athletic ability, apparance, social acceptance,
close fiiendships and parent relationships (Harter, 1988). Family, sports, body image,
school (acadernic and exûacimicular), peers and employment will be the dimensions
discussed with regard to overall self~steem of youth. There is also an evaluative
component, where a pemn judges the peer feedback, for example for: 1) relevance to the
individual's self-concept, 2) how the value or quality of self-concept is mdified by the
information.
Atwater (1992) describes a family as two or more people relatcd by birth,
marriage or adoption. Atwater (1 992) and Baron et al. (1995) reportecl manied couples
make up just about 1/2 of al1 households in cornparison to 314 of the households in the
l96ûfs, th= is an increase in divorce, scparation, single parents and cohabiting couples.
Harper & Marshall (1991) state while difncultics youth are facing may minor what is
happening in society, f d l y mains the most important nsource for young people as
they are malring their transition to adulthood.
In vicw of the big piaim. whatevcr the f a l y dynsmics an adolescent is
experieacing, Atwaîa (1992) and Rosenberg (1989) stress that it is the quality of family
Me opposcd to the living anaugments that har an effcct on youth dcwloptnent. For
example, youth who do well in school and gct dong with their pccis usually nceive love
and support from home, whm youth who are smiggliag witb school and gct in trouble
arc ofùn abused or negledcd (Atwater, 1992).
O v d l , extrcme parenl indiffemce is associated with lowcr s c l f m m , while
the lack of love parents have for their youth is apsociatcd with a failure to treat theu youth
with respect and encouragement (Rosenberg, 1989). HoUand & Andre (1 994) explain
that the family component of self-esteem is reflective of feelings a person has about
himnierself as a member of the family. Youth who fe+l they are valued mcmbers of their
families, make their own contributions and are secure with love and respect, will have
high esteem in the family ana (Holland & Andn, 1994; Rosenberg, 1989; Atwater,
1992).
There has been an increase in the study of self-estttm development with respect
to youth sport (Bar-ûr, 1996; Edwards, 1993; Brettschneider & Heim, 1997).
Brettschmider & Heim (1997) and Fox (1997) advocate that cngaging in sports and
participahg in sports clubs gives youth the opportunity to express themsclvcs and
improve physicai activity, and provides for the dcvelopwnt of social and anot iod
relatiouships 4 th peers. Sonslr~em (1997) cmphasizcs that the Psychologid Mode1 for
Physical Activity Participation provides both skiU development and selfkhancement
avenues and offen that perceivecl physical cornpetence is riscd as a bridge baween
exteinal exercise and internal selflestcem. This mode1 rcprcsents interest in (attraction
towad) physid activity, whcre the mode1 statcs îbat peireived physical cornpetence
leads to an interest in physical d v i t y (Sonstiocm, 1997).
Edwards (1993) found that physid activity has not km an important fmot in
the lives' of the f d e population, whae therc is a 10% drop in participation in physical
activity h m early to late adolescence and another lû?! dccrcasc in late adolesceace.
Eâwards (1993) found by age 15, Canadian d e s ranlrcd rcgular physical activity as the
number one contributor to theù health. It is seen tbat f d c s do not have as much
experience with physical activity for thm is a lack of intaest. Males on the other hand
are more involved with sports and for this mson it is evident that males may sec sports
as coneibuting to their overall selfestccm (Sonstroem, 1997; Fox, 1997; Whitehead &
Corbin, 1997).
Body Image
The impact of body image on overall self-esteem has becn discussed more
fkequently in regard to females and their physical appearance and capabilities (Pope et al.,
1988; Edwards, 1993; Atwater, 1992). Body image in young women is how they p i c m
thaaselves with respect to their body and Edwards (1993) stresses the fm that body
image helps to form self-concept. The relatiomhip between M y image and seff'steem
is quite complicated and the dynamics may cliffer betwcen individuais (Edwards, 1993;
Atwater, 1992). Howeva, Mendelson, White & Mendelson (1996) found in their study
of self-est- and body image that regardless of actual weight, global self-worth was
relateci to positive feelings about apptarancc and not n d y to fœlings about weight.
What nceâs to k understd is that f d e s have ken more concemal with appearance
than males', and fCm81es1 overall selfestcm may k afftctcd more so by sewimage than
males (Pope et al., 1988; Harper & Marshaîi, 1991). Males have ken asmciated more
4 t h athlttic ability when taking about body image, but this may be diffmnt for
individual youth, whm traditional rolcs arc cbanging (Pope a al., (1 988).
Sehool (Academic And EI;trrcurric~r ActivWs)
The acadernic aspect of seIfktemn is an individual's own evaluation of
hidherself as a studmt (Pope et ai., 1988; Owens, 1994). The assessrnent of academic
ability and achievement is not as simpk as it sounds, whcre an individual needs to sce
himherself as "good ewugh" with respect to theu own standards for acadcmic
achievement (Pope et al., 1988; Owens, 1994; Mym, 1993). If the individual feels as
though this m a is met, then academic selfestecm will be positive.
Extracrirricular activities is ceitauily a broad terni, but it cm be described as youth
klonging to French club, chess club, dance club, music club and even sports clubs
(Rosenberg, 1 989). Rosenberg (1 989) found that there is a relationship between self-
esteem and club membership, where 3 6 of the highest esteem nspondents hed some
participation in a club or organization. There is a need to include extracUmcular
activities as a component of self-esteem for a major area of interpersonal relationships in
the life of a student is participation and leadership in the school cornmunity (Rosenberg,
1995; Atwater, 1992).
Peers influence overall selfesteem. This area is described as the individual's
feelings about him/herself as a fiend to others (Pope a al., 1988, Atwater, 1992;
Rosenberg, 1989). The questions that would be asked herc are: 1s the individual liked?,
Arr hider ideas valued?, Are they included in conversations and social gathahgs?
How an individual feels about himnierself and if their social nceds arc met, then they will
fa1 positive with regard to the social comporicnt of seIflestecm (Pope et al., 1988).
During adolesceace, social cornparisons start to chnnge and this is whcn youth
start to choose pccrs more like thmwlva (At-, 1992). To m e youth, king
njected or acceptecl by th& peer group is very important (Atwater, 1992; Mycrs, 1993).
To what extent do youth view par nlationships as a vitai component of o v d l global
selfestcem will k one of the questions m e t c d later on in this paper.
Work
Youth involvement in employment outside of school is the last section that will k
discwed as a possible contributor to youth o v d l self-worthlself~steem. Steinberg &
Dombusch (1991) and Atwater (1992) report that there has been dramatic changes over
the pst yean, when thm has been an increase of teenagers who work during the school
year. Through employment, youth are able to acquke skills which develop an individual
sense of responsibility and self-reliance (Steinberg & Dombusch, 199 1; Atwater, 1992).
It has been said that thex is also a negative side to youth employment, whm Stienberg &
Dombusch (1991) found that youth who work compared to their classrnates who do not
work, have a decrease in involvement in schooling, lower school performance, have
increased psychological distms, somatic complaints, increased rates of h g and alcohol
use and higher rates of delinquency. With little information on the relation of youth
employment and selfesteem, it is necessary to look at this component and its relation to
o v d l global selfatem.
It was essential to describe the various areas that may have a relationship to global
xlf-esteem. With thex factors in min4 it is possible to v i d k what youth,
thcmselves, perceive as contributing to their overail selfestcem. Now it is possible to
discuss the various c ~ c t i s t i c s asmciated with higb and low selfkstccm.
Yourh Self-Estecm 14
Rosenberg et al. (1989) and Owens (1994) shdied the rclationship betwcen global
seIflesteem and grades, depression, and deiinquency. Grades, depression, and
delinquency are known to be fhmed by the self-consistency theory and the rlfesteem
theory (Rosenberg et al., 1989). The self-consistency thwry states that people strive to
maintain their self~conccpts by bringing out self<onfirming fdôack and by
rcmernbering and ktcrpreting information to support their existing self-views (Rosenberg
et al., 1989; Owens, 1994). According to the seKesteern theory, people are highly
motivated to protect and enhance their se l f 'eem (Rosrnkrg et ai., 1989; Owens,
1994). Rosenberg et al. (1989) &ares that good students (those Who perform well in
school) receive more favorable feedôack h m 0th- than those who perfom poorly.
Good students should also benefit h m positive self-attribution and enjoy positive social
comparisons. With respect to the self-consistency theory, individuals with high and low
selfssteem perform in ways that support their positive or negative assessments of their
own abilities.
Rosenberg et al. (1989) stated that the self-esteem theory predicts that low self-
esteem can cause depression through frustration of the desire for positive self-regard.
The self-consistency theory also predicts that there may be sorne causality between
depiession and self-estcem (Rosenkrg a al., 1989; Owens, 1994). For example, if a
depresscd individual has an outlook on life that the world is a mean and rotten place, it is
probable that the depresscd individuai WOU judge the selfharshîy and negatively.
Similarly, Owens (1994) found in his study of youth and seIfktem that selfdeprecation
occumd in individuals who are et variance with themselves d 0 t h and who report
experiencing psychological and esnotional distress. On the other han& Owens (1994)
showed that positive self-worth is associatcd with pro-social attitudes and khanor and to
psychological well-being. M y , seifdcprecation and positive sewworth significantly
affccteâ school grades, wbcre grsdw bad a significant effect only on positive self-worth
and globai seLfksteem (Owens, 1994).
Rosenberg (1989) describes scIflestttrn as a positive or negative attitude towarâs
the self'. Selflestem, howevcr, bas two very différent connotations, whm high self-
estecm is whca the individual uiiaks they arc very good; a differcnt connotation is tbat
they think they arc good caough. Thacfore, it is possible for thesc individuais to think
they are superiot to ohm, but they feel inadquate in t m n s of specific standards they
have set for themselves (Rosenberg, 1989). Thus, a petson's self~cstcern may be hi@ in
one sense and in another sense may be medium or low. Mendelson et al. (19%) support
this finding, where they found that youth wîth high global self-woitb tended to fccl good
about their appearance and youth with high evaluation of their romantic appeal felt good
about their weight (no matter their size).
Edwards (1993) describes self-esteem as the foundation of well-king.
Individuals with high selfesteem tend to perceive thernselves as (Edwards, 1993):
- appreciating theu own abilities, potential and limitations
- dealing with demands and stress in an assertive, dignified and effective way
- pmenting with confidence and a sense of security and well-being
- open to new ideas, cxperiences and possibilities in life
- possessing a spirit of playfulness and handles challenges in a flexible way
- defending weli against thnats and negative social judgments
- pcrceiving that they are loved and respected by signifiant others
- tcnding to be popular and fœls pem respect theit point of view
- open to criticism and cornfortable acknowledging minaLes
Similady Pope a al. (1988) and Fox (1997) explain an individual with hi& selZksteern
has a hcaithy view of the seif', one that is awan of wcaknesses, but is not too critical.
Individuais who have positive sclf~stcem sce themselves in a positive way and fecl good
about their strong points. People with high self- arc selfanfident individuals and
are known to work bard at improviog weak anas, yet they are forgiving of themselves at
times when goals are not met (Rosenberg, 1989; Pope et al., 1988). Rosenberg (1 989);
Bar-Or (1996); Schlenker, Weigold & Hallam (1990) add that individuals with self-
estecm simply respect thcmselvcs, consider thtmselves worthy and do not consider
themselves ktter than others, but certainly do not consida themselves worse. Lastly,
Myers (1993); Brooks (1996); Tumer a al. (1998) indicate that personal and social
adjustwnt, and acadeMc success are related to high self-esteem.
Characteristics of Low Self-Esteem
Bar-Or (1996) explaias that an individual with low self-esteem feels that they are
inadquate and they lack self-respect. Edwards (1993) adds that individuais with low
self-esteem are:
- more passive and dependent in reacting to stress and demands
- more likely to conforrn to social pressures
- likely to worry more and to be anxiow and pessimistic about the futurr
- likely to exhibit fcelhgs of depression and othcr psychosomatic symptoms
- timid and shy, and self~onscious when talking to otbers
- likely to possess pessimistic views about themselves and theù abilities
- likely to experiencc difficulties in relationships with peers
- less likely to take on leadership roles.
Fox (1 997); Rosenberg (1 989); Baumgerdm (1 990) emphasize thst individuals
with low self-cstccm reject themsclvcs, whm they have a seIf4ssatisfaction. The
individuals lack respect fot the seifthey obacrvc and the self-picturc is disagrceable
(Rosenberg, 1989; Schlenker et al., 1988). Pope a al. (1988) and Schicnker et al. (1990)
state that Uldividuals with low self-estecm exhibit an artificiaily positive sewattinide to
othen in an attcmpt to p v c to othm that they arc an adquate person. On the 0th-
hand, individuais with low self-estcmi could rrtnat into themselves for th- is fear they
may be iejected (Pope et al. 1988). O v d , a -II who has low s e l f " fin& little
to k proud of.
The level of low selfesteem can be influead by the arcas of the self that are
affecteci (Pope et al., 1988). There are the factors that are related to self-esteem (i.e.,
sports, school, family, extracurricular activities, work) and these areas will influence
people individually. Lady, Wem (1994) and Rosenkrg et al. (1989) state that global
self-esteem is comlated with juvenile dclinquency, academic performance and
psychological depression.
Self-esteem of males and females are likely to difTer in some respects. Josephs,
Tafard & Markus (1992) and Overholser (1993) explain that the diffcrrnce in
malelfemale self-esteem arise kause of the différent patterns of social interaction and
interpersonal experience each gender has h m a young age. More specifically,
maledfemales diffa in what they believe about the relation bchrvecn self and othets, and
the degree they see themselves as separateci or connected with otbers (Josephs a al.
1992). Fernales, on one han& are more likely to have a collectivist, enscmbled or
wnnected schema for the self, whm relations with othcr people are critical elements, and
thus, 0th- are part of the self or included within the self (Joseph a al. 1992;
ûvaholser, 1 993). Haqm & Marshall (1 99 1) explain males, on the othcr hand, arc more
lîkely to have an individualist, indgndcnt or autonomous schema of the self, where
others are not part of the self, but rathcr separate h m it (Joscphs a al., 1992).
Overholser (1993) and Harper & Marshall (1991) add that males cmphask task success
as centrai to their sclf-e~fam, w k c thcy an sociabd towards cornpetitive tasks and
females emphasia interpersonai goais. Thus, it has been seen that girls and women
engage in many piocesses (in group cornparisons and sclective evaluation) to pmtect their
selfesteem. This perspective is more positive than the pmaiiing view that girls and
women are passive victims witb poor selflestcem. Themfore, Wing et al. (1999) suggest
that girls and women engage in processes that help mintain their seIflestecm in the face
of threats to their overall selfesteem.
Klein (1995) stressed that a positive self-perception or high self+steern is the goal
of the developmentai proeess in adolescence. As noted, thae is a diffmnce found
ktween males' and fernales' perception of ovaall self-estcmi and what are the main
contributing factors to overall self-esteem are. Klein (1995) found in his study tbat self-
perception diffmd significantly by gender. Males viewed themselves as more positive
with respect to cnativity, intellectual ability, athletic cornpetence and appearance (Klein,
1995). Overall, there has been a general trend that males have higher self-perceptions
than females (Klein, 1995; Martinez & Dukes, 1997; Chubb, Femnan & Ross, 1997).
With this in mind Harper & Maishall (1 99 1) indicate that when looking at youth
problems and their relationship to selfesteem, it is found that girls' problems are in the
areas of health, physical development, adjustmcnt to school work, aspects of home and
family and mattm involving curriculum and tcaching procedures. These areas were
signifiant in preâicting selfesteem and for boys only social psychologid relations was
sigdicant in predicting seiflestcem. More specifically, girls w m more concerned than
boys about social psychological relations; personal psycbological relations; cowtship, sex
and mamage; health and physical development (Harper & Marshall, 1991). The results
of this study indicated that the o v d self-estcem for f d e s was much lower than for
males. Howevcr, Haiper & Marshall (1991) and Bagiey et al. (1997) stress selflestcem of
girls when cornpend to boys declines dramatically mmd pu-, whae in middle
adolescence girls have sigdicantly lower selfacem than boys.
Bagley et al. (1997) found similm mults as Amdcan re~eafchers, where males
have higher scores on the Rosenberg Self Estecm Scale (RSES) than fernales. Similady,
Bagley a al!s (1997) findings support the notion of the declk in seIf-cstecm in fcmales
in mid adolescence (Alberta High School Population).
ûverall, individuals with low self-estccm tend to feel that they are inaâequate and
they lack self-respect. Individuais with hi& selfestean, on the other hand, are asseriive,
dignified and have a seme of sccunty and well-king. It has bmi found thiough the
tesearch provided that males do have a slightly hi* global self-csteem than femaies.
However, fendes work hard at maintainhg their self-esteem t h u g h many processes (in
group cornparisons and selective evaluation).
Mersurement Sales For ScUIEstcem
Self-esteem cm k measincd in various ways. Some studies use a minimal
numkr of measurements (1 -2), where others will use many (7-8) measurements.
Fleming & C o m e y (1984) state that there are many ways to approach the measwment
of self-esteem. Fleming & Courtney (1984) believe, through their study, that they had
pvided i n c d support for a hietarchical intcrprctation of seif-esteem. The
hienuchical mode1 proposes emotional, social physical and academic components of self-
esteem (Fleming & Courbey, 1984). Th- was an analysis completed on two
mC8SUrements: a Self-Rating Scale (self-regard, social confidence, school abilities,
physical appearanct and physical abilitics) and the Rosenôerg scale. Fleming &
Courtney (1984) indicated that the comlations bctwcen the Self-Rating nibscales and the
Rosenberg S d e were as follows: Self-Regard, .78; Social Confidence, .5 1 ; School
Abilities, .35; Physical Appcarance, .42, Physical Abilities, .35; and total, .66 (all
signifiant beyond the .O1 level). This stnngthcncd the wnsûuct intciprrtation for both
mcasms (Fleming & Couimcy, 1984). E i k measurcmcnt was found to be suitable for
measuring self-acceptance or anotiod selfconeept, which is v c y close to a global
masure (Fleming & Courtney, 1984). hibois et al. (19%) performed a similar study
looking at multidimeasionai, developmentaiccological fiamework for assesshg early
youth selfesteem using a new masiirr called the SeKEstcem Questionmire (SEQ)
(Dubois a al., 19%). This meElSUrtment was similar to the Self-Rating Scale (Fleming &
Courtney, 1984), where the SEQ masures globai feclings of seif-worth. In addition, the
SEQ looks at evaluation of the self-rating in each primary context of early youth
development (pers, school and fsmily), and adds two other domains of experience for
this age group (sports/athletics and body image). An important aspect taken h m this
study wes that a developmental-ecological hmwork and assessmtnt strategy codd
inctease the understanding of the linkages between the significant contextual experiences
and youth self-esteem. Through structurai modeling analysis the researchers were able to
fmd that body image and peer relations self~steem were much more important than the
other dimensions (family, school and sportdatbletics) (Dubois a al., 19%). By
investigating Iinkages ktween contexnial experiences and self-esteem makes it possible
to design and evaluate interventions for youth (Dubois et al., 1996; Fleming & Courtney,
1984; Mullis & Mullis, 1997). For example, an intervention can aim at enhancing youth
adjustment thugh the modifications of experiences associated with the family (specific
developmental h g ) . The p m ~ can bc formed around self-evaluations that cover
behavior and adaptation in the target setting (Dubois et al., 1996).
Tunm et al. (1988) used the Shdmts Perception of Control Questionnaire
(SPOCQ) to look at attributional bcliefs. Three constructs wac a d d d in a 60-item
questionnaire: generai control beliefs, strategy beliefs, end capacity beliefs. The control
beliefs refer to kliefs about the ability to rach a desired goal (i.e., 1 can do well; 1 cm
leam hard things etc.). Stratcgy kliefs rcfers to ways dccwd necessary to rcach a goal.
Then were five stratcpics whieh w m m d by the SPOCQ: effort, ability, luek,
poweiful others, and unhiam f8ctors. M y , capacity =fers to kliefs about thc aôility
to access the stmtqies of effort, ability, luck ad powcrfiil othas (Tumer et ai., 1988).
For example, a stuclent m y say tbat effort is important for suecess (stratcgy klief) but
that he or she cannot ûy bard (capaeity belief). Turner et al. (1988) iadicate by assessing
thtse thm consûucts a relatively complete pictue of amibutionai küefs can be crcateû.
nie Rosenberg Self-Estecm Scale @SES) was used in addition to the SPOCQ end the
intention of using the twa rnC8SUTemcIIt d e s togcthcr was to d a n m W the rclationship
of attributional beliefs to self-esteem (Turner et el., 1988). û v d l , d e n t s with high
setf-esteern had higher contml kliefs, whcre they reportai that they w m srnart and trieci
hard (Turner et al., 1988; Pelham & Swami, 1989; hibois et al., 1996)). ûn the other
hand, students with low selflestecm felt it was luck that wntributed to theu school
success (Turner et al., 1988; Pelbam & Swann, 1989; Dubois a al., 1996). Similarly,
Pelham & Swann (1 989) studied the structure and sources of global self-esteem with
d e s such as: The Rosenberg (Global Self-Esteem), PANAS Scale (used to measure
negative and positive affectivity) (Watson, Clark & Tellegen, 19881, the SAQ (the
researchm' mesure of specific selfanception) and the Self-Ideal Discrrpancy Measm.
With al1 of these measms in place, Pelham & Srnimi (1989) found that three factors
contributed to people's global self.estcem: a) pcople's teadencies to expcrience positive
and negative affective states (Dubois a al., 1996; Tinner et al., l988), b) people's spccific
self-views (i.e., their conceptions of their strmgths and weaûnessts, c) the way people
describe their self-views.
Rosenberg SeBEsteem Sak (RSES) (Rosenberg, 1966)
nie MES is the most pop& me- of giobai s e i f " (Blascovich &
Tomaka, 1991; Chiu, 1988). This d e is uiqucly unidimentionai and hss high face
validity (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991 ; Ch, 1988; Derno, 1985; Hagborg, 19%). Royse
(1998) explains that the d e conrsins only 10 Lkt-type items which contribute to its
easy administration, swing and intciprrtation. Blascovich & Tomaka (1991) statc that
the RSES has relatively high intcmal coasistmcy and test-rctest nliability artainly
contributes to its popularity.
Blascovich & Tomaka (1991) explain that the original sample was a grwp of
5024 hi& schwl juniors and seniors h m tcn rsndomly selccted New York State high
schools. With respect to reliability, Dobson, Goudy, Keith & Powcrs (1979) reported a
Cronbach a of .77 for their sample, while Fleming & Courtney (1984) obtained a
Cronbach a of .88 (intemal consistency). The test-retest reliability was sought by Silber
& Tippett (1965) and they obtained a test-retest comlation of -85 for 28 subjects afier a 2
week interval. Fleming & Courtney (1984) obtaineâ a test-retest comlation of .82 for
259 male and female subjects with a 1-weck intmal. With regard to convergent validity,
Blascovich & Tomaka (1991) report the RSES comlated -72 with the L m m Self-Esteem
Scale, -24 with the "becper" self-reports of self1csttcrn and .27 with pcer ratings for a
youth sample (Savin-Williams & Jaquish, 198 1).
It is clear why the RSES is a widely uscd selfeecxn mtssurcment. The
reliability and validity arc good and this is what a mearcher looks for when choosing a
tool for a study. Also. che easy admiaistrstion, S C O M ~ and intap*ation are other
positive points found in this scale. The main rrason why the RSES was wd in this study
is because of its immcnse popularity (uscd in ovcr 1,000 shdies).
Youth Self-Estam 23
It has kcn fomd tbat low sclfkstccm niscs tbt chances for dcprcssion and
dehquency (Owens, 1994). 'ilmefore, thac is a need to m i @ den, how, and for
whom self-esteem enhancing pgrams shodd k implcmmtcd. Owens (1994)
emphasizes that people conducting sclfktecm programs mwt rrcognizc that dancing
positive self-worth may bc important in some cases (is., school pafomance), while
demashg self-depmation may k addressed in o t h n (Le., delinquency and gming to
school). Germain (1978) advocates that a d i s t i c and c x i i v e self-concept leads
individuais to make appropriate choices in th& livts. This lcads to pcfsonal integrity,
where the exploration of one's potentid is supportcd by a d i s t i c and extensive self-
concept (Germain, 1978). Anective ducators will ernphasize self-concept and self-
esteem development, which is done through sbaring one's own impression of the other,
through active listening and helping others gain more awerrness (Germain, 1978).
Edwards (1 993) agrees with this notion that teachers play a vital role in shaping their
students' self-concept. Today, in order to create a class and school environment that
eliminates stereotypes, teachers and administrators need to share their views about
gender, race, social, class, sexuai orientation and able-bodyness. Edwards (1993) shares
four key aspects of interaction which have a positive effcct on self-esteem:
a) muhial respect
b) unconditional love
c) positive encouragement
d) reflective listening
Fox (1997) dso provided Physical Education recommendations that w m spccifically
recommended for the youth population: (p. 197-199)
a) Do help teens set persona1 rather than comparative staadards for fitness and fatness
b) Do help tccns undmtand îhc importance of h d t y to physid fitness and body
faaiess
c) Do help tans understand that many society and media standards arc unnalistic
d) Do help tecm to idtlltie aitcmative physical activitits
e) Don't base physical education class grades ou personal physical fitness scores
f ) Do create Fitness for Lifetype persanai fitncss courses
g) Do create a fitness centcr approach to physical education
h) Don't perpetuate the ncgative trappings sometimes assoeiated with school-based
physicai activity.
i) Do make physical activity attractive
Specific Recomrnendations: Girls and Young women (Fox, 1997)
a) Do help to change stereotypes of what are "girlt' and "boy" activities
b) Do help girls understand that cornpetition is O.K.
c) Do help girls and boys develop a sound self-reward system.
Having an actuai program implementing suggestions such as these as well as other self-
esteem enhancements could make the difference in the teaching comrnunity. One
program that has been implemented in the schools is the Sunburst Program @usa et al.,
1990). The goal of this curriculum module is that teachers and schools cm have a
positive impact on students' self-esteem (Dusa et al., 1990). The students' self-esteem can
be improved by systematicslly developing the skills students need to build and maintain
thcir own selfesteem. There are videos and various activities that wcre created to
promote self4iscovery and to build awarenes of self-estecm @usa a al., 1 990). The
Sunburst Program also will teach and provide p t i c e in the life skills that support self-
estCern: self~confidence, assertiveness skills, decision makiiig, goal setting,
communication skills, coping skills, problem solving, and teen-parent confiict. This
program has kai uscd as a tool for sekstecm prograns with d e n t school
psychologists in the Mastcrs of School Psychology at Mount Saint Vincent University.
Youtû Self-Estean 25
The studmt school psychologists nported success with this program and felt they would
definitely use it again in the fime.
Battle (1987) rcvinved a SesEstean Enhancement Program which was
implanentcd with a p u p of youth girls participating in the Big Sista Program. Here,
mutual respect and encouragement w m the interactive strategis that wcre taught by the
Big Sistm. It was fond that the little sistcn expcrimccd significant gains in total,
general and social selfiestecm (Battle, 1987).
Tachers and other profcssioaals have bem cautioned to give some thought to the
issues around treatment of low self-esteem (Pope et al., 1988). When working with self-
esteem, attention needs to be given to the type of person the individual is, what the
individual values and what their goals and drearns are (Pope et ai., 1988). As educatoa
we need to remember that thoughtful guidance can be very usefûl to an individual, but it
is essential to respect the individual's decisions and not impose our own values (Pope et
al., 1988). When deciding what emphasis should be takm in the self-esteem program, the
child should viewed h m various angles. The parents should be included in the process
to see what they fcel m t s their child's overall self-esteem. Also, teachers need to give
fecdback on the child's self-estecm and what they fccl influences this particular child's
overall self-esteern.
Conclusion
It is important for professionais working with youth to know their o v d l level of
self-estcem. Knowing if the students' level of selfetcm is high or low provides
important feedback with respect to whether the youths' needs are being met with regard
to their self-esteem. Research indicates that male self-esteem is higher than fmaie self-
estcem. This study provideci additional rescych on this topic. Aiso, research into factors
that youth sce as influencing thtir o v d l self-tsfoem aids school psychologists and
tcachers in creating self-estean pmgriuns that cater to youth noeds.
Tcachers and other profcs~ionols working with youth will nicornter youth with
high and low selfesteem. Tcacheis need to bc awaie of the factors that infiuence youth
to have a low or high se~estctm. In this study questionnaires were given to a youth
population to inquire about their global self=estcem and the factors that they feel impact
their o v d self-esteem. The nsults were detcimitled through statistical analyses and
teachers and other profcssionals will be dightened on the youth vim of self-estecm and
what they feel contributes to their overall self-esteem. Havhg pater attention to
domain-specific linkages between self-esteem and contextual experiences may help
teachm to evaluate and follow the adaptive impact of interventions for self-esteem.
RESEARCE QUESTIONS
1. What is the distribution of seIf-estccm in a grade twelve shdent ample?
2. Do the male and f d e snidents diffcr in s e l f ' ?
3. What are the fators that y o d paccivc as affecthg theu o v d l scIfetccm?
4. What self-esteem factors contribute to the seffksteern score in the male population?
5. What xlfesteem factors contribute to the self-esteem score in the female population?
6. 1s there a pattem of what factors are signifiant for eithci gender?
7. What factors contribute to the self-esteem score in the sample with hi& self-esteem?
8. What factors contribute to the self~steem score in the sampk with low self-esteem?
9. How do f d l y demographics impact o v d l s e K e s t ~ ?
PARTICIPANTS
Two hundred and nincty packages containing consent forms and q u e s t i o ~ s
wm distributed at one high school and 103 (39 malcd64 fernales) wae retumeà, for a
response rate of 36%. Through l w b g at the ceasus hdings for the area of this
particular hi@ school, it mis found that the mean family incorne fell within the lower to
middle range (Statistics Canada, 1996). The majority of the participants were Caucasian,
however, visible minorities were evident (Statistics Canada, 1 996). School Board
permission was p t e d before the study was presented to the principal. Letters of
permission were given to the principal and teachers in order to gain approval for the
study. Letters of permission were also sent home with the grade twelve students. The
nibjects were al1 grade twelve students in m urban hi@ school who had received
permission from theu parents to participate in this study.
MATERIALS
Rosenôerg Self-Estccm Seik (RSES)
nie RSES was used to measun the grade welve studcnts1 overall self-esteem.
The RSES is the most popular m e a m of global self-esttem (Blascovich & Tomaka,
1991; Cbiu, 1988). due to its easy administration, scoring and intcrphtation (Royse,
1998). The scde contains only 10 Likm-type items which contribute to its easy
administration, scoring and interpretation (Royse, 1998). Scores range fiam 10-40 with
the higher scores qresmting higher selflsteem.
Y& Self-Estam 29
Ficton Coatributing to Global SeifXsteem M e
There wcrc a set ofqucstions givcn to the participants what they wcre asked to
rate f-rs that contribute to th& o v d l self-. Statcmcnts mn prcsentcd in the
form of six items with regard to fsmily, sports, school, peers, work and body image.
There were two parts to each of the sevni questions in the Factors Relating To Self-
estecm Questionriah. 'Tbcrc wcrc four TCS~OIISCS that muid be chosen in the Part "A"
section (1 - Strongly A g m (SA), 2 - A- (A), 3 - Disagrec (D), and Strongiy Discigm
(SD). The Part " B asked the shidcnt population whcther thcy felt 1&se fa*on
negatively or positively contribute to theu o v d self-este-: 1 - Strongly Negative
(SN), 2 - Negative (N), 3 - Positive (P), and 4 - Strongly Positive (SP) (See Appendix
BI-
The principal was contacteci in February and the preliminary discussion was
complcted with die principal the end of Apnl. Momed consent was obtaiacd fiom the
principal, the parents and the kachers. Packages were sent home with the grsdc twclve
students containhg a consent fom, a letter with information on the purpose of the study,
the two questionnaires and an envelope to nhim the consent fonn and questioninlitCs to
k i r home m m tacher (See Appendk D). The teachcrs also rrceived a letter dcscribing
the purpose of the study (See Appendix E).
The nature of the study was explained in 27 grade twelve classtooms. There were
times that classes overlapped and students had alreaùy received a package in another
class. The students were asked to prescnt the packages to their parents, where their
parents decided whether they wanted their youth to participate. The youth then chose to
fil1 out the two questionnaires and were asked to return the package to thch homenmm
teachers. The teachers were then asked to return any packages to the main office where a
box was marked "Self-Esteem Study". The xcretary also put a daily reminder on the
amouncements at the end of each day for two weeks.
The data collected on the global self-esteem of the grade twelve subjects was
analyzed through looking at the score achieved on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. The
scoring was done through a scale range of 10-40 and then it was divided by 10 (1 - Low
and 4 - High) (Hagborg, 19%). However, before scoring the Rosenberg Self-Esteem
Scales (MES), questions (#1, #3, #4, #7, #10) needeâ reverscd scoring in order to find
the overall scores (1 4,2 3.3 2,4 1) (See Appcndix A).
The data collectcd on the fstors rclating to overall self-esteem w m anal-
with respect to the o v d 1 perception of which fmors relate to o v d l selflstcem, the
male and fernale comparisons, hi& and low seWestCern cornparisons and the analysis of
family demographics with regard to overall selfdecm.
Beforc the midy could start thc shdy d e d to be approvcd by the Graduate
Snidies Cornmittee at Mount Saint Vincent University and the Halifax Regional School
Board Ethics Cornmittee. Durhg thU sady th- was caution takcn with respect to
confidentiality. Thme was infornad consent collected h m thc priacipi, teachcrs and
parents. In the laters of permission, parents wem idorncd that thcir adolcsccnt's
identity would not k rwcalod throughout the thcsis. At the end of the w w n t forms,
contact numbm were pvided for the rcsearchcr, supmisor of the reseaicher and an
extemai contact so that any concems or questions could be pcfsonally addressai. Parents
were asked to give their permission for theu youth's participation in the study. In order
to help the principal, turhers and parents understand the shidy a letter with a description
of the study was distributed these individuals. In this study thm w m no evident nsks to
the individds who jmrticipated and there was no release of individual resuits.
In this chapter the data that mis collected h m the two questionnaires completed
by 103 grade twelve students will be d i s c d with respect to the nine rescarch
questions. The focus of the results section will k:
- The overall self-esteem of the youth population
- The difference between o v d l self-esteem in the male and f d e populations
- Factors that yo~th perceive as effecting their o v d l self-esteem
- Factors that males and females f e l contribute to theu self-esteem
- The factors that contribute to self-est- in the high/low self-m population
Youdi Self-Estemi 33
Descriptive statistics w m nin on the RSES data in order to get an understandhg
of the distribution of sekstecm in the grade twelve-dent sample ( S e Table IV. 1). It
was found îhat the = 2.356 and = .207. Th Min = 1.80 and the Max = 2.800.
For this study when lookhg at high and low selfaeem, 1 of .207 was added and
subtracted to the M of 2.356 to resdt in high self+steem mghg h m 2.56-2.80 and low
self- esteem ranging h m 1 .BO-2.149 (See Table IV.2). In order to have made these cut
off points for the high and low self-esteem ranges, the plus/minus 1 Se was used becaw
of the mal1 arnount of students falling outside of the 2 range.
Table IV.1- hcriptivt Staaitics of the RSES for the Student Popuhtion
M u n Std. Devirtion
I
Minimum Muimam
Miuiog O 2356 2066 1.80 2.80
Youth self-Esteem 35
b hmtian 2: Do the malt and femrk rtpdcnb duer in rclkteem?
Out of the 103 participants in Uiis study, 39 (38%) wmn male and 64 (62%) w m
fernale. In oidei to see if thm was a Wacnce between the d e and f d e sample, an
Independent Samples T-Test was used to Bnalyzc the &ta. The nul1 hypothesis in this
case is that thcre is no differcnce in o v d l selfeccm bctwecn this particular
male/femalc simiple. It was found that the M = 2.338 and = ,207 for the mele sample
and that the = 2.367 and = 207 for the fernale mple. With rrspect to these
results, both the males and females fell within the maderate range for overall self-esteem
on the RSES. Therefore, the nul1 hypothesis is accepteci, and this indicatcs that there was
no difference between the overall selfestecm scores for this particuiar maie/female high
school sample (t (10 1) = 9.683, p = .496), two tailed.
Rescanh Ouestion 3: Wbat i r e the facton that yortb perceive .s r f f i g their
overall self-cstccm?
Each question was statistically analyzod through a Chi-Square Test and the Kendall
Comlation Coefficients. Responses to whether family, sports, school, extmcunicular
activities, peers, job and body image have contributed to ovcrall sclf~~stctm will be the
focus of the next section (See Table IV.4):
1) 1 fwl that my famüy hm eonbibutd to my ovmll rdtatccm
( l - S h o a l l y ~ - 3 9 , 2 - ~ = 4 9 , 3 - D b . g c c - 12,4-StroigIy
Disagrcc - l), (a - 101)
Eighty seven percent of d e n t s felt tbat family had contributcd to o v d l self-
estecm witb 3% responding SA and 48% rtsponding A. Twelve percent of the students
of the students responded D and only 1% of students rrsponded SD. The chi-square
analysis confhed thai more rrspondents, than wouid k expcaed by chance, selectod
the SA and A categones and fewcr respondents selected the D or SD categones (2 (3) =
60.07, g = .ûûûû). 'This indicates that this sample has a relatively strong belief that family
contributes to theu overall self-e~ttcm. Howevcr, when this factor was comlated with
the RESE scores, the family component mis not statistically significant (r = .084, p =
.3 15).
2) 1 fml that my participation in sports hm intlueaced my ovmll seffksteem
(1 -Strongiy A~=2&2-Agn=26,3-Db~=26,4-Stmngly
Disagrte = 20), (n = 100)
The distribution of these ~sponses looked nlatively similar wïth 28% in SA, 26%
in A, 26% in D and 2OO/r in the SD areas. The chi-square analysis confirmeâ more
respondents, than would k expected by chance, selected the SA, A and D categories and
fewer respondcnts sclected the SD category (2 (3) = 1.44, p = .6%2). T'herefore, 54% of
the student population felt that sports inauenced theù o v d l sclf~stccm and 46% felt
that sports did not influence their ovedl sclf«tccm. It was indicated through the
comlation with the RSES tbat sports was not a signifimt factor affecthg overall self-
estmn (r = .0430, p = ,592).
3) 1 fcrl that rrhwl (radeaila) hm influead my o v e d rcllksteem
(l-S~n&Agcc-~,2-Apcc=S2,3-~pec=l6,4-Stiomrty
Disagrec = 7) (n = 103)
?ha were more mpows h m the dents in the SA (27%) and the A (5û%)
Thete werr 16% of lcsponses in the D category and 7% of rrspoiws in the SD category.
The chi-square analysis c o h e d more rrspondnits, tban would k expected by chance,
sclcctd the SA and A catcgories and fmei rrspondcnts s e l d the SD Md D categories
(x2 (3) = 44.30, = ,0000). It was indicated thet 78% of the studcnts fclt that d e m i c s
influenced their overall self-esteem and 22% of student felt that academics did not impact
theù overall selfisteem. The comlation with the MES score indicated that, statisticaily,
academics had no significant impact on their overall seIf-estctrn (r = .0647, p = ,462).
4) 1 léel that es~ctarricohr activitia bave impacteà my overiil seffettem
(1 -Strongly ~=29,2-Agrcc=46,3-Disagcc=4,4-Stmn~
Disagrcc = 1) (a = W)
Th- were more responses fiom the SA (36%), and A (58%) aras. Five percent
of the students responded to D and 1% responded to SD. The chi-square analysis
confhed more rrspondents, than would k cxpectcd by chance, sclected the SA and A
cetegories and fewa rcspondcnts stlectcd the SD and D categorks (2 (3) = 68.70, p =
.Oûûû). Thenfore, it was found tbat a signifiant amount of stuâents (94%) felt that
extracurricular activities influtnccd thcir overall seIf- and 6% felt that this factor
did not impact their o v d 1 selflestcem. Ho-, the comlation analysis fouad that this
factor did not signincantly impact o v d scKestecm (r = .l4l, p = .141).
1 f ~ l that my pccn have csntributcd to my o v d rclfeteem
( l - S t ~ i i ~ A g c c + 1 1 , 2 - ~ = 5 1 , 3 - M i i p # ~ J , J-Stn,~riy
Diugree = 4) (O - 103)
This was an ovawbelming fiading in fivor of students fctling that pms have
contributecl to theù overall self-estecm (SA = 43%, A = SPA)* For the other two
rtsponses the= werc only 4% in both the D and SD categories The chi-square anaiysis
c o h e d more rcspondeats, than wouid k cxpcted by chaire, selected the SA and A
categories and fewer nspondents selected the SD and D categories (x2 (3) = 74.44, =
.0000). Ninety three percent of this student sample felt that pcers contributecl to their
overall self'steem, but when statistically analyzed through the Kendaii Comlation
Coefficients, here was no si@cant impact on overall selfesteem (r = .1M, = ,205).
6) 1 fccl that my job dter ~chool bu certiinly impacteà my o v d seksteem
(1 -Stwn& t y = 2 S 9 Z - A g c r 1 4 5 , 3 -Diugcc40,4-Stroiidy
Diugree = 2) (n = 82)
This factor had more rcsponses in the A (55%) and the SA areas (3096)). Twelve
percent of the students with an &et school job felt that their job did not impact @) their
ovaall s e l f m m and 2% fell within the SD arca. The chi-square analysis confùmed
more respondents, than would k acpcctcd by chance, selectcd the SA and A catcgories
and fewer nspoadents s e l d the SD and D catcgones (2 (3) = 52.34, p = .O).
Therefore, of the students who do have jobs (n = 82), 85% felt that a job does impact their
o v d l sclf-esteem. When statistidy d y z o d through the Kmddl Comlation
Coefficients, an a b school job had no sionificant impact on o v d l selfksteem
(r = -.0072, p = .938).
7 ) 1 fwl thit body image h u Iailuend my ovtrrH dfkateern
(l-Stron~Apcc-39,2-AQ#=59,3-Db.pcc-5)(n-103)
Therc was a vey higb rrspoiw rate with respect to the SA (38%) and the A
(57%) matsanas. The only otha respow that was choscn was the disagrcc ttsponse which
hacl a 5% nsponse rate. The chi-square d y s i s wnfirmcd more nspondmts, than would
k expecteà by chance, s c l d the SA and A aategories and fewet nspondents selected
the D category (x2 (3) = 43.4 1, = .0000). Thus, an o v d l m i n g 95% of sadents felt
that body image bas a great impact on their overall seffkstem (Sec Table IV.3). An
interesthg outcome was found thugh the Kendall Comlation Coefficients.
Adolescents who tendcd to disagree that body image impacted o v d l self-esteem had
higher self-estecm (r = .185, p = .029).
Youtb Self-Estemi 40
Table IV3 - Frctom That ImpadDo Not Impact O v m U Seif-Esteem
1 fwï th8t hm contribotcd to my ovemli rcW ateem (SA + A)
sports: 54%
(Comhtion not 8btistieal)y dgdirrnt) School (rcademies): 78% **
Correlation not statisticrllv abitrcantl
Konrlrtion not statisticab rismifimat)
(Comhtion not sbtisticdy signibicant) m e r scbool job: 85% **
(Corrulition not strtisticalh, signüicint)
1 fml thrt b u mot contriboted to my o v e d wIfuteem (SD + D) (Pmntagea: Smnple'r ona perception) FimUy: 13% ++
(Comhtion not rtatbtidy sigiilleiat) Sports: 46%
(Cornhtion not statisticaUy signiCcant)
(Comhtion mot stitisticaily significant) Body Image: 5% **
The questions w m again statistically analyzeâ with the Chi-Square Test and the
K d l Comlation Coefficients. The m e n f8ctors will now k discussed with reg& to
the adolescents' view on whcthcr family, sports, school, extra-cunicular activities, pcm,
job and body image negatively or positively contributed to overail self-esteem.
1) 1 fccl my hdiy hm positive@ or nqpthrcly eontributtd to my o v e d global seif-
e8teem
(1 - Stroigiy Ncgtive = 2,2 - Ncytive = 13,3 - Pooitivc = 47,4 - Strengiy
Pooitive = 38) (n - 100)
ûverall, it is secn that the majority of the responses fell within the P (47%) and SP
(38%) areas, The other two rrsponses had 2% in the SN and 13% in the N amm. The chi-
square d y s i s wnfirmcd more respondents, than would be expecexpected by chance, sclected
the SP and P categories and fewer nspondents selected the SN and N categories (x2 (3) =
53.04, g = .O). Thmfore, 85% of the student population felt that family has had a
positive contribution to theu overall self- esteem and 15% felt thet f8imily has a negative
contribution to their global selfesteem. However, when statistically analyzed through
the Kendall Comlation Coefficients, farnily had no significaut impact (positively or
negatively) on overall self-esteem (r = 9.088, p = .294).
2) 1 felt that my participation in sports has positively or ncgtivtly co~tributd to
my overill seif'-cstetm
(1 - Stroogiy Negative = 12,2 - Ntgative = 19,3 - Positive = 41,4 - Stroogly
Positive = 28) (a = 100)
Here, 41% of students agreeâ and 28% sadent mngly agreed that sports
positively contributeci to their overall selflestem, The other two responses were found to
have 12% in SN and 19% in N. The chi-square anaîysis confjrmed more respondents,
than would k expected by chance, selected the SP and P categones and fewer
rrspondents x l d the SN and N categories (2 (3) = 18.80. p = .0003). It was found
tbat 6% of the shdcnt population f o u i that psrticipation in sports hs9 positively
contributecl to th& o v d t self~stecm and 31% felt that this f e r ncgatively
contributed to thcir o v d scif-estam. It was foimd througb the Kendall Comlation
Coefficients that sports had no significant impact (negaiive or positive) on o v d self-
estecm (r = -.030, p = -71 1).
(1 - Stmgh' Ncgrtive * 6,2 - N w t i v t 1 22,3 - P ~ i t h = 1 , 4 - Stm~gly
Positive = 17) (O = 103)
Fi@ six percent of students agmd that aca&mics positively con~buted to their
overall self-esteem. Six percent of the nsponses were in SN, 21% rcspoascs w m in N
and 17% of nsponses were in the SP category. The chi-square analysis confïrmed more
respondents, than would be expected by chance, selectd the A category and fewer
respondents selected the SP, SN and N categories (2 (3) = 59.06, Q = .O). Therefore,
73% of the students' felt that d e m i c s have positively contributed to their overall self-
esteem and 27% felt that acadtrnics have negatively contributed to theu o v d l self-
esteem. However, when statistically analyzcd b u g h the Kendall Comiation
Coefficients, acaâemics do not have signifieam impact die sample's overail self-estcem
(r = .O1 2, p = 379).
4) 1 fcd tbrt extirarrie9hr activitkr have pooitheiy or negativeiy wntributed to
my overd seIfksteem
(1 - Strongiy Negative = 4,2 - N v t i v e = 3,3 - Poritive - 4S,4 - Strongiy
Positive - 28) ((a = 80)
Of the d e n t s who participate in extracurricular activities, 56% rcsponded that
this factor has positively contributed to theu overail self-esteem and 35% of responses
were in SP category. The o k two arcas had 5% in SN and 4% in N. The chi-square
analysis c o n h e d more rcspondmts, than wodd be expected by chance, xlected the SP
and P categories and fewer respondents selected the SN and N categories (x2 (3) = 61.70,
= .OOOO). Overail, 91% of respondents (n = 80) indicated that extracUmcular activities
have positively contributed to their overall self-esteem and 9% indicate that this factor
negatively contributed to their overall selfisteem. It was found the adolescents who
tended to attribute extracurricular activities as having a strongly positive impact on their
overall sel f-esteem, had higher self-esteem (r = -. 1 85, p = .O5 1).
5) 1 fwl my pers have positively or ncytively contribiited to my ovelrll rtlfettem
(1 - Strongiy Negative = 7,2 - Ncgative = 16,3 - Positive = 53,4 - Strongly
Positive = 23) (a - 99)
The majority of responscs fell within the P (54%) category. The other three areas
had 23% in SP, 7% in SN and 16% in N. The chi-square anaiysis confhed that more
respondents, than would be expectcd by chance, selected the P catcgory and fewer
respondents sekctcd the SP, SN and N categories (x' (3) = 48.19, Q = .O). Therefore,
77% of the student population felt that pem positively wntributed to their overall self-
stem and 23% of stuclent's felt that this factor negatively contnbuted to their overall
seIflesteem. The Kendall Comlation Coefficients found thaî pcm h d no significant
impact (positive or negative) on ovaall sclfksttcm (r = .024, p = .769).
6) 1 fwl my job &et school h u pooitively or negativly contributcd to my o v e d
scHkstttm
(1 - Strondy Ncptive = 3,Z - Ncgtive = 12,3 - Positive = 49,4 - Strondy
Positive = 16) (n = 80)
Of the students who do have a job, 61% felt that their job positively contributed to
their overall self-esteem. There were 20% of d e n t s who mponded in the SA category,
4% in the SN and 15% in the N category. The chi-square analysis confirmed more
respondents, than would k expected by chance, selected the P category and fewer
respondents selected the SP, SN and N categories (x2 (3) = 60.50, = .0000). Overall,
8 1 % of students felt that theû &er school job has positively contributed to their overall
s e l f m m and 19.h responded that this factor negatively contributed to their overall
self-esteem. nie group of adolescents who amibuted their job as having a strongly
positive impact on self-esteem, had higher overall self-esteem (r = ,179, p = ,056).
7 ) 1 feel my body image hm positively or negativeiy contributcd to my ovedl self-
esteem
(1 - Strongly Neptive = 4 2 - Negative = 24,3 - Positive = S2,4 - Strongly
Positive = 18), (n = 102)
The majority of the responses fell within the P (5 1%) cacategory. The otba lhrae
categories had 23% in N, 8% in SN and 18% SP. The chi-square d y s i s conhned
more respondents, than would k expected by chance, selected the P category and fewer
cespondents selected the SP, SN and N categories (2 (3) = 41.84, p = .OMM). Thus, 6%
Ywdi Self-Estecm 4s
of the d e n t population felt that body image positively contributes to their ovedl self-
a e e m and 3 1% of the studait's felt that this faaot negatively contributcd to their overall
self-esteem. It was indicated through Kendall Comlation Coefficients that body image
had no significant impact (positive or negative) on the sample's o v d selfaeem
(r = .O3l, p = .706).
Table NA - Factors Poritiveiy or Ntgaüvely Impacthg O v m M SekEsteem
1 f e l that hm positively contributcd to my o v e d self- esteean (SP + P) (Ptrcenta~es: Srm~îe's Own Perceotion)
(Comlation not statisticiliy signincant) O ** Sports: 69 Ai
(Correlation not statistically significant) O ** School (academics): 73 h
(Comlation not itatiatically signifiant) Extracurricular Activities: 91% **
(Correlation statwticaliy signiîicant *)
(Comhtion not statisticdty significant) M e r scbml job: 81% *
- - Body Image: 69% **
(Comhtion not statwtiaüy dgnificant) *Q **QcW~
(Pmcnbgcr: Sample'r Own Perception)
Correlation not statWticrUv sinniiicantl
(Correhtion not sta t i r t i d y significan t)
(Correlation not statistically significant) Extrrcurriculir Activities: 9% +*
(Correlation not stitirtically signitiunt) Attcr rehd job: 19% **
(Correlation strtbticaUy signi8cant *) . ** Body Imrp: 31 h
(Correlation not statwtically signifiant)
h Oudaa 4; What aclf-utœm factors conhibute to the d k s t t t m score in
the male population?
To look at this question the Chi-Square Test and Frqwicy Tables w m used to
compare percentages ôctwecn which factors the male sample perceive as affccting their
overail selfecem. To statistidly analyzc the data, Kcudall Correlation Coefficients
wcre again implcmented to sec if thme is a relationship between the male samples'
perception of what factors impact their overall self-esteem and statisticai signifiuuice of
these factors. When looking at the most favonxi factors contributhg to the self-esteem of
the male population, the SA (Stmngly Agreeà) and the A (Agreed) responses were tallied
for each factor and the frequency for each factor was compared. The findings were as
such; 82% of the male student population felt that the family factor contributed to their
overall self-esteem (SA = 45% & A = 37%)' 73% nsponâeâ to sports (SA = 39.h & A =
34%), 75% felt acadernics contributed to their overall self-esteem (SA = 2 1% & A =
54%)' 94% responded to extracurricular activities (SA = 33% & A = 61%), 96% felt
peen contributed to overall selfesteem (SA = 36% & A = Wh), 88% mponded to their
job (SA = 25% & A = 63%) and 92% rrsponded to body Unage as impacting their overall
self-esteem (SA = 4 1 % & A = 5 1 %). The male sample perccived pcers, body image,
extracurricuiar activities, and an der school job as having a gmt impact on overall self-
estean. Family, acadernics and sports wcre the lower rated of the scven factors (See
Table 1V.5). The nsults of the male students' perception of factors that impact theù
overail self-esteem is quite ciiffernt h m the wmlation fhdings. It was found through
the Kmdall Comlation Coefficients that none of thesc sewn factors haâ a sipificant
impact on the male sample's ovcrall sclflstecm.
rreb Oucstloa 5; M a t stff'tetm facton contribute to the reWesteem score in
the fernile popdation?
Again to look at this question the Chi-Square Test and Fnquency Tables were
used to look at the percentage distribution bcnivcen each f m the femaîe sample
indicates as impacthg th& overall self-estcem. In order to statistically d y z the data,
the Kendall Correlation Coefficients were used to detcnnine whaher a factor had a
significant impact on the overall self-esteem of the female sample. The same procedure
was irnplemented for the female population, where the SA (Strongly Agreed) and the A
(Agreed) responses were tallied for each factor and the percentages were compared to the
other factors. The fïndings were as such; 90% of the female student population felt that
the f d y factor contributed to theu overall self-esteem (SA = 35% & A = 55%), 42%
rcsponded to sports (SA = 2 1 % & A = 2 1 %), 79% felt academics contributed to their
overall self-esteem (SA = 3 1% & A = 48%), 93% nspoaded to extracuiricular activities
(SA = 38% & A = 55%), 91% felt peen contributed to overall self~steem (SA = 47% &
A = 44%), 84% responded to theh job (SA = 34% & A = SV??) and 97% mponded to
body image as impacting their overall self-esteem (SA = 36% & A = 61%). Therefore, as
seen h m the distribution of percentages, fernales pmeive that body image,
extracurricular activities, peers, job, and femüy have a gnat impact on o v d l self-
esteem. Academics and sports wcrr the lowest ratcd of the seven factors (Sce Table
IV.5). The resuits of the f d e students' perception of factors that impact their overall
seksteem is quite diffaent h m tbe comlation hdings. It was found tbrough the
Kendall Comlation Coefficients that only the eftcr rhool job f m r had a sipnificant
impact on the f d e sample's overail xlf.est#m (r = .236, p = .O5 1). It was indicated
through this statistical analysis that as the f d e sample attributcd an a h school job as
having a more strongly positive impact on their ovaall seIfkstccm, the high theu self-
Table W.5 - Facton Tbat MikJFemiks Pemive h Effècting OvemJl Self-Esteem
1 fccl that b u contributcd to my ovemil sel& esteem (SA + A)
1 fecl thit b u conhibuttd to my ovmîi rcMuteem (SA + A)
Pcmntagcs: Mile's Ona Perception Peen: 96% **
Percenbges: Ferniles' Ona Perception Body Image: 97% **
(Comlation not statistieiilly significant) Esfncurricular Activities: 94%
(Comlrtion not statistically significant) Petm 92% ++
(Comlation not statistically signifiant) After school job: 82% **
(Cornlition iot statisticiüy significant) Family: 90 O /. ++
(Comlation not statistically signincint) 1
Family: 82% *
1 (Cornlition not statisticah rimificant~ 1 iComtition not statisticalh simifiuntl 1
( C o m h h not statisticrlly signifieint) M e r school job: 84 O /. ++
(Comlation not statisticilly rigniflcant) Acidtmics: 75% **
(Cornlition statbtiedly s i g n h n t *) 1
Academia: 7970 **
(Comlation not rtatisticiüy rignificant) *Q a!!, *+p .(O1
(Comlrtion not statisticaüy significant)
rch Ouutioi 6: b tbm 8 pattern of what hcton irc riphithnt for either
geader?
From l w b g at Table N.5, it is scen thst the peiccption that the male and fcmale
sample had similar ratings with respect to fwtors they prccive as impacting their o v d l
selfesteem. They bth bad pccrs, body image and cxtracurricular activitics as the fïrst
thme of the smi factors as impacthg their o v d l self-estecrn. The male d t s had
pers first, body image second and extrricurricular activities as innuencing their o v d l
selfesteem. The results for the females indicatcd body image as having the most impact
on theû overall self-esteem. Extracurricular activities w m the second and peea were the
third factor that most infiuenced femalcs overall selfesteem. Interestingly enough, an
d e r school job, farnily, academics and sports were in the same order with respect to the
impact on maie/female overall self-esteem. However, females rated family as having
more impact on theù o v d l self-esteem and sports did not have a F a t impact with
respect to their overail self-esteem. Fernales and males viewed their after school job and
academics very similar with respect to impacthg their o v d self-esteem. There was no
statistical significance indicated in the maie and f d e samples with respect to factors
impacting their overall sclf~stcems, with the exception of after school job for the fernale
sample (i.e., job + impact on self'eem = higher scif+steem). However, their
perception of how each of these f8ctors impacts theu o v d l sclfaecm was very similar
(Sct Table iV.5).
earch Oudon 7; Wbrt Eictom contribatcd to the aeif'teem =ore in Ut
To find the high and low points for selfesteem, one SB = ,207 was added and
subtracted to the bJ = 2.356, where low sesesteem was a score of 2.149 (2.1 1 n = 15)
and lower and high seksteem was 2.562 (2.6 / n = 14) and above. Therefore, there were
15 -dents in the low self-esteem group, 74 students within the modcrate selfesteem
group and 14 in the high self-esteem group. Of the youth with high self-esteem, the
factors that they felt influenced their overall selfesteem were as follows (Part "A":
Which factors have impacted theu overall self-esteem; SA + A):
- Family 86%
- Sports 36%
- Academics 78%
- Extracurricular activities 93%
- Peers 86%
- After schwl job 7 1 %
- Body image 86%
It was found h m this data that the adolescents with hi& s e l f a m tended to favor
exrnicunicuiar activities as idueacing their o v d l selftsteem at 93%. Body image,
pers and family were qua1 in theu eyes for impacting their overall rlfcsteem at 86%
for each. Academics (78%) and an &et school jobs (71%) aiso impacteû the high self-
cstcem group. Lastly, sports did not seem to impact the o v d l high self-esteem group at
36% (See Table IV.6). When statistically analyzcd through the Kendall Conelation
Coe5cicnts, cradmiics a d body image wac only two signifïcant f e r s fomd that had
a significaiit impact on the ovcraii high scIfltsfccm pup. With respect to acadcmics, it
was found that as the group with hi& sclf-estccm strongiy di@ that academics
influend thcir overail seIfeccm, tbcy showcd higher o v d l xIf-m (r = 5 6 9 , ~ =
,024). With regard to body image, it was found that as the group with high selfesteem
teaded to disagree that body image affiêcts o v d seIfkstccm, they showed h i e r overall
self-esteem (r = S52, Q = ,030).
Jtesearcb Ouestion 8: What factors contributtd to the sclfkstem score in the
samplt with low stlfattem?
In order to statisticaily analyze the data Crosstabs were again used with respect to
Case Processing Summaries. Of the participant with low selfesteem (2.1 and lower) the
factors that they felt impacted their overall self-esteem were as follows (Part "A": Which
factors impact overall self-esteem; SA + A):
- F d l y 93%
- Sporis 67%
- Acadcmics 73%
- Extracunicular activitics 93%
Peers 93%
- Afkr school job 93%
- Body image 1Wh
As seen h m the nsults, body image was a 1W/a facfot tbat thcy felt impactcd theu
o v d l self-m. Pcas, a h school jobs, ~ u x x i c u i a r 8Ctivitits and family were
factors tbat impactcd the low s e l f ~ t c m p u p at 93%. Acaûemics and sports had less
of an impact of the seven fators on theu overall low self-esteem (Sec Table IV.6). When
statistidly d y s e d thiough îhe Kendall Comlation Coefficients, thm wcre no
significant fkctors that had a significant impact on the o v d l low self- group.
Table IV.6 Factors Found To Impact Low/Wgb SeifX8teem
1 léel that b u contributcd to my ovenll se& esteem
1 fccl thit his contributtd to my ovtrrU wlfksteem
Pemntagcs: Hi@ ScüXsttem Ratings Extracurriculrr Activitits: 93%
Pemntagcs: Lon Self-Estccm Ritings M y Image: 108%
(Comlation rtatisticilly rignificant *) Peen: 86%
(Correlation not rtatisticaliy significant) M e r scbool job: 93%
(Comlatioa not statisticaliy significant) Family: 116%
(Comlition not rtatirtinUy sigiificant) Extrrctamc~lir Activities: 93%
(Comhtion not stitistically rignificant) School (academics): 78%
(Correlation not statistically rignificant) Famüy: 93%
(Comlation rtatisticdy signilicant *) Mer school job: 71%
(Cornlition not shtistically sigiüieint) Sebool (rcademiu): 73%
(Comlation not strtistirilly sigdicant) Sports: 36%
(Comlition mot statistidy rignificant) Sporcr: 67%
(Comlition not statbtically signüimnt) 'ec .O5
(Comhtion not rtatistimüy significant)
b Ouesthi How do family demognphia impact o v e d rchteem?
To look at family demographics, dme w m four areas the d e n t s could indicate;
1) Both At Home (641103)
2) Single Pamt F d l y (241103)
3) One ParenVone Step Parent (6/lO3)
4) ûther (3/lO3)
Overall, the majority of the rcspoiws fell within the both parents at home catcgory (62%)
and the second highest was the single parent family 23%. The one parenvone stepparent
had 6% and the other category had 3%. For statistical analysis the bth parents at home
and the single parent family were the family types analyzed. In order to see if there was a
difference between theses two faetors an Independent Samples T-Test was used to
analyze the data. This statistical analysis was used because it allows you to compare two
different groups on the same m e m . More specifically, it evaluates whether the mean
value of the test variable for one group differs significantly h m the mean value of the
test variable fiom the second group. The nuIl hypothesis in this case was that tLere is no
diffmnce in overall self-esteem between both parents at home and single parent families.
It was found that the M = 2.359 and = ,2143 for the both parents at home category
and that the M= 2.342 and = ,189 for the single patent families. With respect to
these resuits, both groups fell within the moderate range for ovedl selfksteem on the
RSES. Therefore, the nul1 hypothesis is acccpteà, and this indicates that there mis no
diffaence ôetween the o v d l self-esteem scores for students corning h m single parent
families or b t h parents at home (t (86) = .356, p = .723), two tailed.
Youth Self-Esteeln 54
The purpose of this study was to gain more insight into overall self-esteem and
the factors rclating to selfle~feem in youth, specifically grade twelve students. The Self-
Esteern Study began &et ethics appmval firom Mount Saint Vincent Uniwrsity and the
Halifax School Board. Also, consent needed to be p t e d by the principal and teachers
to enter classrooms and pass out the selfaecm packages. Two hunâred and ninety
packages containing consent foms, questionnaires and information letters regarding the
study were distributed throughout the month of May. Twenty-seven classrooms were
entered and the self-esteem study was explained each t h e to the students and questions
were answered by the nsearcher. The students were asked to retum the packages to their
teachers as soon as possible. With the consent of their pafentslguardians, there were 103
high school students who willingly participated in this Self-Estean Study.
The data collected h m the first questionnairr @SES) was adyzed with respect
o v d l rlf-esteem of this panicular grade twelve d e n t sample and whether there was a
difference in selflesteem levels in the male and f d e samples. Second, the data was
anaiyzed h u g h a questionnaire focushg on particular faeton effecting overall self-
esteem and whether these factors positively or mgatively influenced overall selfesteem
in this grade twelve sample. There was an analysis completcd on factors that males and
fernales pmeive as affecthg their overall self'-estecm and comparisons were made with
the male and fernale samples with respect to similarities and Metcllccs in mtings of
o v d l factors impacthg ovedi scW.esicem. Also, the high ancl low sclfkstam smpks
wcre studid with regad to factors they fcel impact theù o v d l self-estcem. Ovcrall
self-esteem in this &culsr high school population was studied with rrspcct to family
dernographics.
The overail mean seiflsicem score h m the MES for the grade twelve mident
population fell within the moderate self- range (n = 74). Thm wcre few d e n t s
who scored in the expeiimenter detcrmined low (n = 15) or high selflestecm range (n =
14), where the majority of this population scored within the moderate self-esteem range.
The male and female population both scored within the moderate selflestecm range and
there was no signifiant diffmnce between the two groups.
Of the factors (i.e., family, sports, school, extnrriiricular activities, peers, after
school job & body image) snidied with respect to contributhg to overall self-esteem in
the high school sample, the sample perceived that most of the faftors contributed to their
overall self-esteem. However, when statistically d y z e d , the only factor that
significantly impacted o v d l s e l f m m in this snident sample was body image. The
Factors Relating To Self-Esteem Questionnaire bad rathgs of; 1 - Strongly A g m (SA),
2 - A g m (A), 3 - Disagree @), and Strongiy Di- (SD). In order of factors the
sample perceived that had the most impact to the least impact on theù ovcrall self-estecm
wcre as follows (SA + A): ( See Table iV.3)
1) Body Image
2) ExtracllRicular activities
3) Peem
4) Family
5) ARer scbool job
a) School
7) Sports (not significaat)
With respect to the f a a o ~ the sample pereeived as negatively or positively contributhg
to theù overall sclf-csteem, there wen four possible responses: 1 - Strongly Negative
(SN), 2 - Negative 0 , 3 - Positive (P), and 4 - Strongly Positive (SP). The f8ctors that
were perceiveci as positively impacthg o v d selftstecm in the grade twelve student
sample were as follows (In ordei of highest percentage to lowest percentage; SP + P) (See
Table XV.4):
1) Exrra~urricular Activities
2) Family
3) After School Job
4) P m s
5) School
6) Body Image
7) spo*
High percentages were found with respect to moa of the factors ratd as impacting their
o v d l self-esteem, but when statisticaily analyzed, extracurricular activities and der
school job w m the only two factors significantly impacthg (positively) ovedl self-
esteem in this sample.
The factors that contributed to the male and female self-estecm scores was the
next area that was studied. Whcn looking at the d t s of what factors the male
population perccived as affêcting thtir o v d l seIf-estttm (SA + A), the percentqes were
high in most f&ctors. However, when statistically analyzcd, no f-rs wme found to
significantly impact overall self- in the mak sample. The f edes ' perception of
fwtors impacting theù overall self-estcem (SA + A) was similar to the males, with
exception of sports, which diâ not have a strong impact on o v d l f e d e selfesteem.
Again when statisticdly analyzed, no factors w m found to significantly impact ovedl
selfestecm in the f d e population except for an after school job. Wbm comparing the
female and male samples through their own perception of factors they felt conûibute to
their overall self=esteern, it was found that body image, extracurricular activities and
peers were rated as the top thm factors affécting overall self-esteem in both populations.
The remaining factors; after school job, family academics and sports w m in the exact
dexending order (4'976 ) of impact on overall self-esteem in the male and female
population (See Table IV.5). The statistical analysis indicated that there were no
statistically significant factors that impacted overall selfesteem in either the female or
male samples except for afkr school job in the female sample. Howevet, the male and
fernale simples' perception of what factors they felt impacted their overall self-esteem
was very similar.
The bigh and low sclf-esteem groups werc analyzed with respect to factors they
felt impacted their ovedl self-esteem. The overall high selfesteem group results
indicated that extracuiricular activities had the most impact on self-esteem, proceeded by
body image, pers , family, school, after school job and sports. However, when
statistically analyzcd, academics and body image were the ody two factors found that
signifïcantly impacted their overall selflesteem. The o v d l low selfesteem group had
results that indicated that body image haâ the most impact on theu overall self-esteem,
followed by peeis, after school job, extncllfTicular dvities f d y , school and sports
(Sec TableiV.6). Whcn statistidy analyaed then wcre no f-rs fond that
signincantly impactcd o v d l stlf-estcem in the low ocIfkstœm group.
Lastly, the family demographics of this high school population wme studied with
respect to their overail selfl~sfcern. Statisticaî aaalysis was nm on two family types (both
parents et home and single parent families). It was found that then was no statistical
diffmncc kwen these two p u p s with respect to overall seIf~stttm.
DISCUSSION
Youth self-estcem plays a critical mle in adolescent problcms and youth with
higher levels of self-esteem bebve in a more socially acceptable manne and will most
likely have higher achievement in cornmon p&ts and grcater socio-emotional well
king (Owens, 1994). Klein's (1995) findigs paiailel with this notion and he agrees that
high self-esteern is the end goal of youth developmnt. Most of the research nfcrs to
high or low self-esteem and it is understood t h u g h Rosenberg (1989) describing self-
esteem as a positive or negative attitude towards the self However, Rosenberg
emphasizes that an individual's selfssteem may k high in some areas and low in others,
thus resulting in moderate self-esteem. More specifically, to better understand moderate
self-esteem, Atwater (1992) and Pope et al. (1988) emphasize that adolescents with
moderate self-esteem will invest in a specific task or relationship and in the end they will
view themselves with respect to their own expectations, aspirations and ideals (Atwater,
1992; Calhoun & Morse, 1977). In this particder study the participating grade twelve
sample had an overall moderate level of global self-est- (n = 74) on the RSES with
few students falling within the experllncnter detenained high (n = 14) or low self-esteem
(n = 15) categories. It was determinecl through census findings that the particular area of
this high school had the majority of mean family income fdliag within the lower to
middle range (Statistics Canada, 1996). The majority of the participants w m Caucasian,
however, visible minontics were evident (Statistics Canada, 1996).
The rrscarch indicates that males and f d e s are likely to differ in some respects
to overall sclf-estecm. It is important to colkt data on this matter, for findings have
indicated that male sclf~steem is slightly hi@= than f d e s e l f ' (Rosenberg,
1989; Klien, 1995; Turner, Pickering & Johnson, 1998; Edwaid, 1993; Overholxr, 1993;
Harper & Marshall, 1991). Harpct & M d 1 (1991) a d Bagley a al. (1997) indicate
that selflestam in girls when comparai to boys declines amund pu- and in middle
aQkscence girls have signincantly lowcr self-esteem than boys. Klein (MW), Fertman
& Ross (1 997) and Harper & Marshall (1 99 1) agee that there bas been a general trend
that males have higher selfdcem than fernales. Similarly, Bagley et al. (1997) found
tbat males had higher scores on the RSES than f d e s . However, the d t s of this
study were opposite of the gened hdings in these studies. The overall results indicated
there was no signifiant diffemce between the male and fernale population with respect
to their overall global selfesteem. where the male/female self-esteem fell within the
moderate range on the RSES.
Global self-esteem has been described as a single entity, but it varies with respect
to various situations and abilities (Dusa et al., 1990, Atwater, 1992; Edwards, 1993;
Dubois et al ., 1998). Dubois et al. (1 996) indicate a multidimensional framework needs
to k considered when assessing self-esteem levels. More specifically it has been found
that adolescents' selfesteem is dependent on how much emotion is investeci in a specific
task or relationship (Ahmiter, 1992 & Pope a al. 1988). A large portion of the research
has been found to account for factors such as; family (Atwater, 1992; Rosenberg, 1989;
Holland & Andre, 1994). sports (Barsr, 19%; Edwards, 1993; Brcttschneider & Heim,
1997), body image (Pope et al., 1988; Edward, 1993; Atwater, 1992). school (Pope et al.,
1988; Owens, 19941, extracunicular activities (Rosenberg, 1992; Atwattt, 1 W2), peers
(Pope et al., 1988, Atwatcr, 1992; Rosenberg, 1989) and aller school jobs (Strcinberg &
Dombusch, 1991; Atwatcr, 1992) as impacting overail selflstam. With respect to the
family factor, adolescents who fa1 thcy arc valued m e m h of tbcir f d i i e s will have
high esteem in the f a d y a m @Iollmd & Andre, 1994; Rosenberg, 1989; Atwater,
1992). Sports and body image have been d i s c d with respect to bow males and
f d e s perceive these faors as infiuencing thcir overall self-estam. With regard to
school, an individual necds to sec him/hctself as "gwd enough'' with rcspcct to theu own
standards for demie achievement (Pope et al., 1988, Owens, 1994; Myers, 1993). The
peer factor to some adolescents is very important and adolescents who arc mjected or
accepted by theù pers will k impacted greatly (Atwater, 1992; Myers, 1993). The prior
research indicates that youth who are employed develop a s e w of responsibility and
self-reliance, which in tum affects overall self-est- (Atwater, 1992). The unique
aspect of this study allowed each student to rate these @cular factors with respect to
their overall self-csteem and then these results were statistically d y z e d to see if these
factors significantly impacted their overall self-esteem. The sample's most influential
factors to least influential factors which impacted theù ovedl self-esteem were (i.e., 1)
body image, 2) extracurricular activities, 3) pers, 4) family, 5) &et school job, 6)
school, 7) sports). lnterestingly mough, al1 factors but sports were indicated by this
sample as affécting theù overall selfesteem. Howevcr, what these students perceive as
affêcting their overall xlfestcem and what was statistically significaat mis not in
agreement. Body image was the only factor found to significantly impact tbc sample's
ovaall selfesteem, where as the group of adolescents who tcnded to disagrec that body
image impacted their o v d l self-, had higher overail seIfkstcem. Surprisiiigly,
Dubois a ai.3 (1996) d t s indicated through a Enuctural modeling adysis that body
image and peer relations scIfkstcm wcre much more important than the 0th-
âiiensions (family, school and sports/athlctics).
A second unique aspect to this shdy involved the stuâcnts rating whethcr thcse
seva factors negatively or positively contributcd to theu o v d self.estcmi. The factors
that positively affécted the student sample's o v d selfdecm w m analyzed to
detemine which factors had the most influcntial to lcast influcntial impact on th&
overall self-esteem. Intertstingly enough, body image wcnt h m having the most impact
on overall selfssteern to the out of the s m n fectors for having a positive impact on
their overall self-esteem. Extracunicular activitics, family and a f k school job were the
top thm rated factors the sample perceived as positively idueacing their overall self-
esteem and peers, school, body image and sports were the 4' through 76 most positively
influentid factors on their overall population (See Table W.4). When statistically
analyzed, extracurricular activities and after school job w m the only factors significantly
impacting (positive) overall selflesteem. More specificaùly, the group of adolescents who
attribute an after school job or extracUmcular activities as k i n g a strongly positive
impact on their self-esteem, had higher self-esteem. This parailels with what Rosenberg
(1989) has fond in his research, where extrachcular activities has a grrat impact on
overall selfesteem. As discussed earlier extracUmcular activities, family, after school
job, peers, school, body image and sports have ken found to impact adolescents' overall
selfesteem. However, this study has taken this investigation one step mer where the
participants had the opportunity to rate the f- as positively or negatively impacting
their overall self-esteem.
As rnentioned carlier, it has btm found that males and fcmales difftr in their
o v d l self-esteem. The male and female population has dso been found to diffcr with
respect to their view on what factors influence their o v d l self-cstctm. Harper &
Marshall (1991) found that peen had a significant impact on overall male self-esteem and
school (acadcmics) and family haâ an infiucnce on o v d l f d e self-estean. On the
contrary, Klein (1995) found that acadcmics, athletics, and self-image impacted o v d l
male self-esteem and pem had a significant impact on o v d l f d e self-estcem.
However, more mearch indicates that females rate body image as being a more
infiuential aspect of self-esteem than males (Pope et al., 1988). The male sample
perceived that the seven factors had an impact on theù overall self-esteem and the
fernale's perception of factors irnpacting their overall self-esteem were relatively similar
to the males, with the exception of sports, which did not have a great impact on the
overall female self-esteem. Body image, extracurricular activities and peen were rated as
the top three factors affécting their overall self-estecm in both populations. The rest of
the factors were prioritized in the exact same order (Le., 4) after school job, 5) family, 6)
academics, and 7) sports) for males and fcraalcs with respect to influencing their overall
self-esteem. When statistically analyzed, thm w m no factors impacting the overail
male and fmale sample's self-est- exccpt for an aAcr school job for the fmaie
sample. More specifically, as the femde population aîüibuted an after school job as
having a strongly positive impact on self-estean, the higher their overall self-esteem.
The hding in this female student sample is similar to othcr rcsearch, where it has been
found that having an after school job (Steinberg & Dombusch, 1991 ; Atwater, 1992),
dcspite being male or fnaaie, has been found to have positive effects on self-esteem.
Howeva, this study did not indicate any o t k Mors sionificsatly impacthg o v d l self-
estccm in the male and f d e population. Therc werc similarities of the pcrctptions tbat
males and females i n d i 4 as impacthg their o v d seksteem, w h m pcas (Haqer
& Marshall, 1991). and sports (Kkin, 1995) bad a signifiant impact on o v d l male sew
estecm (compareci to females) and females werc found to rate body image (Pope a al.,
1988) as significantly impacthg theh overail self~stecm (See Table IV.5).
Little nsearch bas becn done on individuals with high and low self~stcem and
factors they perceive as afkting their overall seksteem. A cornmon flnding in the
mearch indicates that adolescents with high selflestecm tend to k popular and feel peers
respect their point of view and adolescents with low selflestecm have difficulty with their
peers (Edwards, 1993). The high selfesteem group in this study indicated that
extracunicular activities had the most impact on theu overall self-esteem and body
image, pms and family had an qua1 amount of impact on their overall self-esteem. In
5' - Th place in having the moa impact over their high xlfksteem were school, an after
school job and sports. School and sports w m nited as having the least impact on ovedl
self-esteem for this group. When statistically analyzed it was found that academics and
body image were significant fators sffecting the o v d l selfcesteern in the high self-
est- group. For example, as the sample 6 th high selfaeem m n g l y disegmd that
d e m i c s or body image impactcd their selfkstecm, the higher theu overall seKesteem.
On the other hand, the low self-esteem group newed body image (lW?%) as having the
most impact on their o v d l self-estccm. Peers, an after school job, cxüacunicular
activities and family wcrc also found to have a sttong impact on the low ~c~esteern
group ( S e Table IWO), howcvcr, thme wme no si@cant f m r s fouad h u g h
statistical anaiysis.
Despite the f d l y dynamics an adolescent is cxpcriencing, it is the quality of the
family opposcd to the living arrangements tbat bas an e f f i on adolescent development
(Atwater, 1992; Rosenberg, 1989) and the rcsults h m this study support this finding,
when there was no significant diffemce in scIfkstecm between both partllts togcther
and single parent families.
.nie resuits of this study has led the rrsearcha to understand tbat the factors this
student sample perceived as affecthg theu overall self-m and what was found to be
statistically significant was very different. A possible reason why these results were so
different could be due to the narrow range of Rosenberg scores, where there were a large
amount of self-esteem scores in the moderate range and few in the extmne high and low
groups. This study attempted to correlate the seven factors to the Rosenberg's self-
estemi score but the conelations were washed out because the majonty of the scores fell
within the moderate range. If there had been higher levcls of selfesteem, there may have
been stronger correlations. However, having these two perspectives in this study
(sample's perception & statistid analysis) sheds new light on overall selfesteem.
However, it is important for turhers and profcssionals to be aware of youth self-
esteem and the various factors they perceive as impacthg theù o v d l self-esteem.
Pmfessionals worLUig with adolescents need to rcaiize the efféctiveness of enharicing
seksteem and how we can go about impacthg overall seIfkstecm in our youth.
Therefore, in order to do îhis, we nced to know what factors adolescents perceive as
irnpacting their o v d l seEesteem. The results in this shidy hdicated that males and
fernales do not differ a grcat desl in o v d l self-estcc~ll piid males and f d t s perception
of factors @acting their overall self-esttcm an quite sirnilar, with the exception of aAer
schwl job for the ftmaie sample (i.e., job + impact on s d f ~ t e m = hi* seIf-estcem).
It was found that the results of a sclccted samp1e of grade twelve's idcntified
extracunicular activities and an &cf school job as having a significant positive impact on
their overall self-estecm. Tbey hdicMed d i s a p e m a t with body image as a factor in
theu self-estecm and those who did so showed higha self-estcm. Significant fhdings
w m found with the experimentcr dctcrmined high self-cstcem sample whae the more
thcy disagreeâ that academics and body image impacted their overall self-esteern, the
higher their self-esteem. While extracurricular activities and an aAer school job were
positively comiateâ with overall self-esteem, what needs to be kept in mind is that
adolescents with high self-esteem may choose to participate in extracurricular activities
or go out and seek employrnent. However, research indicates that an d e r schwl job
(Atwater, 1992) and extracurricular activities (Rosenberg, 1989) have a positive impact
on overall sel f-esteem.
Professionals c m keep these rwlts this in mind when empowering our youth.
More specifically, as professionals working with adolescents' with self-estemi issues, we
can incorporate ideaslsuggestions into alnady existing self-estecm progrms with respect
to the results of this study. What can bc takm h m this study is that self-esteem in
adolescents is dependent on the love and support they meive at home, not whether or not
they corne h m a fPmily with both parents at home or a single parent home.
LIMITATIONS
1. In order to have taken the rtsearch on step fiirthcr, a qualitative aspect could have k n
addeû to the questionnaires. For mample, opcn-c11dcd questions could have k e n asked
in an i n h w format. It would have bcm bencficial to a& how t k y saw their own
bodies. If more time had ken dlocated for this rrscsich pmject this would have ben an
interesting wmponent to the study.
2. Out of the 290 packages that were distributecl, there were 103 that were retunied.
Here, there is the question whether the resweher received biased responses. Could the
retumed packages have corne h m snidents who had higher self-esteem rather uian the
low self-esteem group?
3. More measures such as the Self-Est- lnventory (SEI) and the Students Perception
of Control Questionnaire (SPOCQ) could have been wd in this study, which would have
reinforced the fmdings of the two questionmires used. This would have ma& the study
even ncher but in the interest of t h e and funding it was not possible.
4. The Rosenberg Self-Estecm Scale does not provide a cornpiete p i c ~ of the sample's
overall selfssteem, whcre it wodd have been more productive to expand on the 10
questions (is., Why do you fecl at times you are not good at dl). Also, the questions on
the Rosenberg codd be viewed as king vague. However, despite these limitations the
RSES, it is the most popular rneasiin of gloôal xlf.estcem (Blascovich & Tompka, 1991;
Chiu, 1988) and it smed its pinpose ml1 in this -y.
Despite the limitations in this study, the rcsults arc ncb and bmeficial to the rrsearch on
self-esteem and the f8ctors rtlatd to selfkstccm. It would have btcn idcal to have had a
larger sample siae and to use mon mC8SUltments. but duc to t h e constraints and the
nature of this gduate thesis, it was not possible. The daîa collcacd was sufncient
enough to mate a cl= p i c m of the overall self- (Le., malelfemak comparisons,
lowlhigh self-esteem comparisons) and factors rclating to overall self-esteem in this
particuiar graùe twelve student population.
IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCII
1. To improve the gendity of the rcadts of this stuây, the study should k rcplicated
with a larger sample suc of males and f d e s in more thm one school. It always helps
to have a larger sample siIt for the d t s can k mon rcprescntative of the tnie
population. By having a sarnple fiom one school, the data may not k as stmng as a
sample size of 1000 students tlnoughout five diffmt high schools.
2. More research is needed into selftsîcem with a qualitative aspect. Questionnaires are
still an important aspect to studying selflesteem, but an intewiewing component as an
addition component that would shed new light on the results that quantitative research is
not able to touch on.
3. In order to get a better understanding of the seven factors studied that impact o v d l
self-esteem, a more detailed analysis of each factor would add to the body of self~stcem
literature. For example, actual grade point average (GPA) could be an additional
question added ont0 the d e r n i c section to see if actual marks have a relationship with
high/low self-esteem or the students could specify where they actually work and it could
k deternained whaher there is a relationship with highnow seIf-estecm (Le., working at a
f a food place vs working retail). A third example pertains to students who agmd or
disagreed that pcer relations have impactcd their overail selfaeem. This could be taken
one step îùrther whcre actual observations of the students' interactions would take place
and compiuisons would be ma& bctwecn those Wb0 agreddisagned that that pcers have
had an impact on theù overall sclflstccm.
4. An interesthg possibility for fuairr rrsearch would bc to do a longitudinal study within
the grade twelve population starthg at grade 10 and then again at g d e 12. The grade 10
sample would cornpletc a couple of self- rnCaSUTes and wodd fil1 out a
questionnaire indicating which factors they perccivc as affccting th& o v d l self-esteem.
The mdy would then be repeated again in gade 12. Cornparisons could be made
between the grade 10 and grade 12 rating and the marcher could detennine if there is a
significant change in their perspectives fiom the start and end of their high school
experience.
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Ywth Self-Estecm 74
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BEFORE FaLMG OUT THE QUESTIONNAIRES PLEASE READ THE FOLLOWING:
Pltase Check: M- F
oseaberr Global Sc&- erle
1. On the whole, 1 am setisfied with myself
1-SA 2 - A 3 - D
2. At times 1 think 1 am no good at dl.
1 -SA 2 - A 3 - D
3. I feel that 1 have a numkr of good qualities.
1 - S A 2 - A 3-D
4. I am able to do things as ml1 as most other people.
1 -SA 2 - A 3-D
5.1 feel 1 do not have much to k proud of.
1 - S A 2 - A 3 - D
6.1 ccrtainly feel uscless at thes.
1 - S A 2 - A 3-D
7.1 feel that I'm a pcnon of worth, at least on qua1 plane with others.
1 -SA 2 - A 3-D 4-SD
8.1 wish 1 couid have more respect for myself.
1-SA 2 - A 3 - 0 4-SD
9. Al1 in dl, 1 am inciined to fetl that 1 am a film.
1-SA 2 - A 3 - D 4-SD
10.1 take a positive attitude toward myself.
1-SA 2 - A 3 - D 4-SD
SN - ShPagly Negativc N - Ncgtive P - Positive SP - Stmngly Positive
1. Family Demographics: (Please Check)
Both Parents At Home
Single Parent Family (Divorced ,NevaMamied ,Parent Deceased .)
ûne Paredûne Step Parent
2 a) 1 feel my family has contributed to my overall selfesteem.
b) 1 fecl my family bas positively or negatively contributeà to my overail selflesteem.
3 a) 1 feel my participation in sports has inauenced my overall self-esteem.
b) 1 fecl my participation in sports has positively or negatively contributed to my overall selfiesteem.
4 a) I fecl school (academics) bar influenced my ovaall seIf=esteem.
b) 1 fccl school (acaâcmics) has psitively or ncgatively conûibuted to my o v d i self- esteem.
5 a) 1 feel tbat exûaciimcular activities have impactcd my overall self-.
1 -SA 2 - A 3 - D 4-SD
NIA (Not Applicabk)
b) 1 feel extracurricular activities have positively or negatively antributed to my overall sel f-esteem.
NIA (Not Applicable)
6 a) 1 feel that my peers have contributed to my ovcrall selfesteem
1 - S A 2 - A 3 - D 4 - S D
b) 1 feel my peen have positively or negatively contributed to my overall selfssteem.
1 -SN 2 -N 3 - P 4 -SP
7 a) 1 feel that my job after school has certainly impacted my overall self-m
N/A (Not Applicable)
b) 1 feel my job has positively or negatively contributed to my overall self-esteem.
1 - S N 2 -N 3 - P 4 -SP
NIA (Not Appticabk)
8 a) 1 feel my body image bas influenad my overall seifkstccm.
b) 1 fcel my body image bas positively or negatively contributed to my overall self- esteem.
Dear Dr. Melville,
1 am a second year Mastas of School Psychology studcnt h m Mount Saint Vincent University. 1 am asking pemiission to conduct a rcscarch study at Rince Andnw High School. The main focus of the nseareh is on youtbs' global selfesteem and the f~ctors they feel impact theh o v d l s c i f " . The puiposc of this study is to gct a baier idca of where the self-estcem levels are within our youths and gain insight into arcas they fecl influence tkir o v d l s e l f ' . With this information we will be able to understand how children feel abu t thcmselves and how life events contribute to this fceling. This will help teachcrs and other pmfessionals bettcr understaad the dynamics of youtb selfecern and how it can be cnhanccd.
If permission is pnted, 1 will hand out the lcttcrs of consent and two questionnaires to eight to tm classes. 1 will then have them rcturn the consent fonns and questionnaires to their homerwm teachers. At the end of March, the lcttcls of consent and two questionnaires will be passed out to teachcls and parents. The students will be asked to ntum the packages as soon as possible. The information gathered on these individuals during this research will be confidentid and no individual msults will be reported.
1 can be contacted at 425-448 1. Further idormation about this study can be obtained by contacting my thesis supewisor at the nurnbcls below. If you wish to speak to someone not directly involved with this project, you may contact Dr. Jolaine States at the numkr pmvided below.
Lisa Pattemon
Student School Psychologist - Lisa Pattemon (425-4481)
Supmrisor - Dr. Kim Kienapple (4576199)
Dr. Jolaine States - (Coordinator of Masters of School Psychology Program): (457-62 12)
Pannt Consent Form
Dar Parent:
I am a second year Mapten of School Psychology studcnt h m Mount Saint Vincent University. The main focus of this rrscarch is on youths' global self-estccm and the factors they f d impact tbeir o v d selfkstem. nie purpose of this study is to get a bmer idea of w h m the self&tcm levcls am w i t b OUI youths and gain insight into aras they feel influence thcir ovcrall sclf-estam. This wiil k l p teachcrs and other professionais batet understand the dynamics of youth self- and how it can k enhanced. With this information we will be able to understand how childm feel about themselves and how life evcnts contribute to this fetiing. 1 will hand out the letter of consmt and two questionnaires to your youth and if permission is grantcd, 1 will then have them retum the consent fonn and questionnaires to their home m m teachm. 1 would like the packages rctuined as won as possible. If you approve of your youths' participation, your youths' results will main completely confidential and individual information will not be pvided to anyone.
Please indicate whether you approve your youth's participation by completing the attached fom and sending it with the completed questionnaires to theu homermm teacher in the envelope provided. 1 hope your youth will be able to take part in this study and 1 thank you for your response. If you would like any M e r information about this project, please do not hesitate to cal1 the nurnben below. If you wish to speak with someone not directly comected with this project about this rcsearch you may cal1 Dr. Solaine States.
Sincerel y,
Lisa Pattemon
Student School Psychologist - Lisa Patteison (443-9984)
Supavisor - Dr. Kim Kienapple (4576199)
Dr. Jolaine States - (Coordinator of Mastm of School Psychology Program): (45762 12)
- Yes, 1 give permission for my youth to perticipatc in this shuiy.
- No, 1 do not give my pemiission for my youtb to participate in this study.
Parent's signa-: Date:
APPENDIX E
Youtb Camnt Fom
CONSENT FORM TO BE RETURNED TO TEACHER WFLn PARENTIGUARDIAN CONSENT FORM
1, (student) a p e to fil1 out the self-esteem questionnaires presented to me.
Student's signature: Date:
in the process of answering these questions, if you have any questions or concems piease d l :
1. Rince George Guidance Counselor (435-8433)
2. Dr. Jolaine States (Registcrrd Psychologist) (457-62 12)
A m N Q m !
Teacber Consent Fonnr
Tacher Consent Foim
1 am a second year Marim of School Psychology studcnt h m Mount Saint Vincent University. The main facus of the nsecirch is on youihs' global self-estecm and the factors thcy feel impact their ovaall s c I f ~ , nie purpose of tbis sady is to get a better idea of whm the scIf=csteem levcls arc within our youths and gain insight into areas they feel influence thcu o v d l self-e~tccm. With this information we will k able to understand how childrcn fctl about thcmselves and how lifc events contribute to this faling. This will hcip kachers and otha pfcssionals ktra undastlad the dynamics of youth self-esteem and how it can be Mbanced.
If permission is granted, I will hand out the packages to students in your class and 1 will ask them to ntuni the consent fonns and questionnaires to you. At the end of March letters of consent and questionnaires will k passed out to teachers and parents and the students will be asked to rrtum the packages as soon as possible. The information gathered on these individuals during îhis rrsearch will be confidentid and no infonnation conceniing individual performance wiU k provided.
1 hope you will be able to take part in this study and 1 thank-you for your tirne. If you would like any fbrther information about this project, please do not hesitate to cal1 t i ~ nmbers below. If you would like to speak with someone not directly connected with this project about this research, you may contact h. Jolaine States.
Sincml y,
Lisa Pattcrson
Student School Psychologist - Lisa Pattenon (443-9984)
Supervisor - Dr. Kim Kienapple (457-6 1 99)
Dr. Jolaine States - (Cootdinator of Mastezs of School Psychology Program): (457-62 12)
Tbank-you for Ppiticipating in the s e l f ' study. The results indiEB1IiIA lhet the 0vcral.i self- of the grsde twelve studait sample was within the modaatc range and th= was no signiscant difbncacc ktwcen the o v d scIfkstccm in the male and f d e sampics. The icmaining ttSUIts, factors relatiag to o v d self- high aad low sew estam c o m ~ s o n s and fiimily danograph ic s l s c I f~ can be vicwcd at the kginaing of Octokr in the library at Mount Saint Vincent University.
H m me some ideas to k # p in mind whea dancing seif-cstecm in our youth:
Edwards (1993) &ares four kcy aspects of interaction which have a positive efkct on selfiesteem:
a) mutuai respect b) unconditionai love c) positive encouragement d) reflective listenîng
Fox (1 997) ais0 providecl Physid Education recommcndatioas that wcrc spccificaily recommended for the youth population (p. 197- 199):
a) Do help teens set personai rather than comparative standards for fitness and fatness b) Do help teens understand the importance of heredity to physical fitness and body fatness c) Do help teens understand that many society and media standards are inuealistic d) Do hejp teens to identifjr alternative pbysical activitics e) Try not to base physid education cl- grades on pasonal physid fitness scores f ) Do create Fitness for Lifetype personal fitncss counes g) Do create a fitness center approach to physical education h) Try not to ptrpcniate the negative trappings somctimts a~ociated with school-bascd physical activity. i) Do make physical activity attractive
Specific Recommendatiom: Girls and Young women (Fox, 1997):
a) Do help to change stemtypes of whai are "girln and "boyn activities b) Do help girls understand that cornpetition is O.K. C) Do help girls and boys develop a sound scEreward systcm.