self-concept and visual...
TRANSCRIPT
THE VISION IMPAIRED CHILD IN YOUR CLASSROOM:INDIVIDUAL, SOCIAL AND FAMILY PERSPECTIVES - large hand-out
Compiled by Geoff Bowen, Psychologist Statewide Vision Resource Centre
MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
• There are many misconceptions about all disabilities, mostly due to the fact that few disabilities are unitary in nature.
• There are multiple causes and effects of visual impairment therefore it is difficult to talk about the educational, social and emotional impact except in very general ways.
VI, Multiple Disabilities and Neurology
• Multiple problems are more common in children with congenital visual impairment than in children who become visually impaired later in life.
• 60–80% of vision impaired children have at least one other impairment or chronic illness.
• Approximately 75% of visual impairments result from some problem with aspects of the central nervous system. (retinopathy of prematurity, optic atrophy, optic nerve hypoplasia, septo-optic dysplasia, traumatic brain injury, tumours).
• Approximately 25% of visual impairments result from a "mechanical" problem of the eye (e.g. glaucoma, congenital cataracts, colobomas, aniridia, progressive myopia)
(Learning Disabilities and Visual Impairments Workshop Assessment Of Learning Disabilities In Students With Visual Impairment Texas School for the Blind)
• There may be greater likelihood of learning disability in other conditions that cause vision impairment or blindness – there is ongoing research.
• Being VI or blind does not preclude you from other problems – e.g. being dyslexic.
Therefore:
• If you have a VI you are immediately “suspect” for other issues that can effect a child socially, emotionally, behaviourally and educationally.
• Social skill development is severely affected by VI: “There is a wide range visual impairments, but at any level a visual impairment can create a loss of access to incidental learning.” It’s estimated that 75 to 80% of everything we learn, we learn visually”. VI students, at any level of vision, need direct and effective intervention and teaching to help them develop appropriate social skills.
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Tom Miller, SOCIAL SKILLS FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS Perkins School for the Blind (2006)
• NB: many VI students need assistance with coping with being different. Many students suffer rejection, endless questions regarding their difference and also significant teasing and bullying.
ARE VISUALLY IMPAIRED CHILDREN REALLY DIFFERENT?
“Visually impaired children have the same range of abilities, personalities and basic needs as their fully sighted classmates. There is no reason why nearly all visually impaired children should not be placed in the regular classroom and follow the same academic program as other children. Most of them can see, although not well, so that while methods of instruction need to be adapted, there is no need for overall content or aims to differ from the regular program. In fact, it has been stated many times by blind people that the biggest obstacle to their living and learning naturally is the attitude of other people who have normal vision. There is no special psychology attached to being blind. Blind children have the same fantasies and desires as seeing children: acceptance by their age-mates, sporting and academic achievement and personal satisfaction. The first task of the teacher should be to evaluate his or her own feelings about visual impairment and about the child who has joined the class. As with other mainstreamed exceptional children, the attitude of the teacher will more than likely shape the behaviour of the children’s peers and ultimately the child’s own feelings and self-concept.” (Bowd, 1986)
NB: BEING VISION IMPAIRED DOES, HOWEVER MAKE SOCIAL SKILL DEVELOPMENT DIFFICULT
DEALING WITH FAMILIES
“It is important to be sensitive to a family’s current emotional state and equally important to avoid categorising family members according to predetermined expectations that accompany traditional models. At any given point, families need opportunities to express themselves, and they need acknowledgment of their feelings by others. They also need specific, relevant information regarding their child, presented in an honest, empathic manner.” (Cohen et. al. 1992)
Non-finite Loss and Grief
“Professionals who are committed to supporting and helping children with special needs, and working closely with their parents, are no doubt fully aware of the challenges that this work entails. Staff often find themselves struggling to find just the right words when they are called upon to break confronting, often devastating, news or to recommend procedures which inevitably place demands, physically and psychologically, on their clients. We are in a position to empathise with these complicated predicaments from our own experiences as counsellors, educators and researchers………
Non-finite loss is enduring loss precipitated by a negative life event or episode that usually retains a physical presence, a psychological presence, or both (for example, diagnosis of congenital malformations, or life-threatening or degenerative disease,
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breakdown of a relationship, infertility or refugee status). Not always obvious in onset, more obscure forms of non-finite loss may have to do with, for instance, a crisis of self-identity or an experience that creates a lack of synchrony with one’s peers. Ultimately these experiences of non-finite loss generate a sense of disconnection from the mainstream. The reader who is interested in an elaboration of non-finite loss and the psychological context it creates for the people with whom they work is referred to Bruce and Schultz (2001a).”
From: Non-finite loss and challenges to communication between parents and professionals by Elizabeth Bruce and Cynthia Schultz Article first published online: 6 JAN 2003DOI: 10.1111/1467-8527.0023 The National Association for Special Educational Needs
Non-finite loss:
Parents have prior internalised expectations for their child and life. But now there is a discrepancy and tension between world that should have
been, might have been and “what is” emerging (i.e. there is a “death” of the child that should have been).
The sense of loss is contingent on development, time and disynchrony with hopes, wishes, ideals and expectations
An enduring presence of grief. An intense period of grief/stress is precipitated by a negative life event or change (e.g. transition to school).
Dreams, fantasies, wishes – loss is captured in other people’s lives (i.e. seeing other parents and children - e.g. birthday parties)
NB: 20% of mothers reached criteria for diagnosis of PTSD (a general finding among victims).
(Elizabeth J. Bruce Parents of children with chronic conditions: The urgency of psychological first aid http://www.awch.org.au/pdfs/conferences/2005/03_Elizabeth%20Bruce.pdf & Nonfinite Loss And Grief: A Psychoeducational Approach by Elizabeth J. Bruce)
“GRIEVING”: HELPING PARENTS OF DISABLED STUDENTS
Be aware that all responses to the loss are ways of coping. This is anything the person does, thinks or feels.
Denial can be useful! Don’t take it personally. Individuals will move through the process at THEIR rate. Try and be patient. It is every parent’s right to make mistakes and “stuff up” their children within the
limits of care and protection that the law provides. Be with the person, not solve their problem (give advice when asked for). Communicate information in an honest and empathetic manner. Involve the client in collaborative problem solving. “Let us work together in the
best interest of the child.” Listen and hear what is really being said (Learn some basic counselling skills). Ethnic differences. Be aware that different groups deal with disability in different
ways. Information should be provided from a culturally relevant perspective and in
language understandable to the client.
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Our attitude can be disabling particularly when we don’t encourage independence.
Be aware of the needs of the siblings. Ethnic differences. Be aware that different groups deal with disability in different
ways. Information should be provided from a culturally relevant perspective and in
language understandable to the client. “Therapeutic nagging” of the parent over time: The best thing you can do for your child
is to be a happy well-adjusted human being! Individuals and members of their family do not finish adjusting to disability any
more than they finish adjusting to growing up. Adaptation is a continuous process.
Successful adaptation, however, always involves four parts: A focus on abilities, not disabilities; realistic expectations of strengths and weaknesses; expression of a wide range of acceptable emotions.
WORKING WITH CHILDREN WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS
You need to be aware of the dangers of the “slippery sided sympathy pit”. You need to gain an awareness and understanding of VI students rather than be overwhelmed by a feeling of sympathy and feeling sorry for them or any other student with problems. The same or at least very similar requirements should be made of VI students regarding their performance and behaviour in the classroom.
The most significant factors in the behaviour management of students in the classroom are the non-verbal discipline skills of the classroom teacher. The facial expressions, particularly, "the look" the teacher gives, confident body posture, the use of eye contact and the location of the teacher in the classroom are very important in the student's management. Also for the students, seeing what the other students are doing is an important part of their self-management. Many students do not and have not listened to the instructions that a teacher gives and rely on observing the behaviours of other students to get the gist of what they are supposed to do. The VI student, depending on the degree of vision loss, misses so much of this information and can get into to trouble because of this. Often vision impaired students, particularly at a Secondary level, have said to me that they are confronted with an angry, raging teacher about their misbehaviour with absolutely no warning and with little idea what they have done wrong. They just have not seen the signs from the teacher and the other students. Often also the Integration Aid is forced into being the discipline interpreter thus compounding a students dependency on them and dis-empowering the classroom teacher.
Vision impaired students need their teachers to give more verbal statements of where the child is “at” regarding their behaviour in the classroom. The VI student will need to be cued in regarding their status of behaviour: “Rachel you were asked to get to work without talking. What were you asked to do?” “I was asked to get to work without talking.” “Thank you Rachel, now follow the instruction.” “Thank you Rachel you got straight down to work without talking.” NB This is done as quietly as possible, with eye contact if possible. It is part of the Moving in Approach. This approach is also very useful with some of your sighted students, particularly some boys, who are often “blind” to body language.
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THE 'MOVING IN' APPROACH
1. Get close to the child and gain their attention i.e. arms length, eye contact and say their name.
2. Tell your child specifically what you want them to do in calm clear voice.3. Give your child time to cooperate and encourage them if they do. If they argue stay
calm and even drop your voice level and say something like: I hear what your saying but I want you to do……(Repeat the instruction). If the argument continues move to step 4.
4. Back up your instruction with a consequence.5. If they do what they are told after the consequence, use lots of praise.
The proximity praise technique is also useful for VI students. In this approach you praise a student who is very near to the VI student for the behaviour that the VI student should be displaying. You may have to draw the VI student’s attention to the one who is compliant E.g. “Jessica, who is sitting next to Rachel, thank you for getting down to work with no talking”. This also repeats the instruction for all. In Secondary school such overt praising is difficult and the use of a much quieter approach to all students may be justified. Just thanking students for compliance is as far as some higher Primary or some Secondary students will accept from a teacher in front of their peers. The Canter “Marbles In Jar” or class wide reinforcement can be useful to bring about positive encouragement for the VI or any other student to comply in a Secondary setting.
* YOU MUST PLAN FOR EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT IS THE KEY. BEFORE YOU RULE REMIND, WARN OR GIVE A CONSEQUENCE, PRAISE AT LEAST TWO STUDENTS FOR COMPLIANCE. YOU CATCH MORE FLIES WITH HONEY THAN WITH VINEGAR.
“Down time” when you are explaining a task that the VI student cannot do to the rest of the class is inevitable, particularly when the Integration Aid is not present. As the kids would say “stress less” they can cope. You can relieve this situation by training the VI student to go on with a number pre organised activities that they know they can go on with. This is again useful with all students.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND THE VI STUDENT
“There is considerable evidence that non-disabled peers tend to react less favourably towards disabled children, whether the disability is cognitive, sensory or physical in nature. Non-disabled peers are less likely to initiate social interaction with disabled classmates and are less likely to respond positively to the approaches of disabled peers. This limits the positive learning experiences that children with disabilities have in their social interaction with other children. On the one hand they tend to have fewer chances to interact with peers and on the other hand their attempts to use appropriate social skills are often not rewarded. It is not surprising therefore to find that disabled children often have social skill deficits. Furthermore, the lack of success from social interaction may, in turn, produce poor self-image on the part of the disabled child.” Spence, 1995.
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FRIENDSHIP: THE SIGHTED AND VI STUDENT
VI students list two significant criteria for friends: “they don’t make fun of my eyesight” “if I have problems they help me out”
Sighted students the most important criteria for friends: “they hang around with you” “they are fun”
FRIENDSHIP DIFFICULTIES AND THE VI STUDENT
VI students have limited access to information regarding their social competence. Therefore they often see sighted students as superior. They do not receive accurate feedback regarding their competencies.
VI students often are reluctant to join in activities that are considered too difficult, dangerous or requiring a high level of skill. Boys therefore often play with girls and usually play with students outside the most popular group.
Vision impairment can be source of shame for VI students. They often get subtle negative messages from a range of ‘others’ in their lives.
VI students generally see that their likes and dislikes are the same as others. They tend to believe that their academic hardships, created by vision loss, hindered the process of making friends. Even those students with very obvious mannerisms didn’t see their behaviours as different from their peers.
THEY ARE THEREFORE NOT GETTING ACCURATE FEEDBACK FROM THEIR PEERS.EVERYONE IS SO NICE.
VI students often sensed they had a degree of impunity regarding the explicit and implicit rules of social interaction. They can see themselves as “special” and entitled to privileges not available to sighted peers. Reciprocation in relationships is critical for effective social interaction. VI student’s perceptions in this area differed somewhat from peers:
1. They perceive that peers are not as harsh in their treatment of them.2. They perceive that that assistance that was received as a consequence of being
vision impaired to be different from help obtained to complete a task unrelated to the consequences of being vision impaired. In the former they may not thank a peer when they do in the later.
3. VI students perceive they have little opportunity to reciprocate assistance from peers.
SELF-PERPETUATING INTERVENTION PROGRAMS FOR SOCIAL SKILLS
Changing the attitudes of non-disabled peers towards their disabled classmates, through discussion and education.
Teaching non-disabled children to initiate interaction with disabled peers and/or rewarding them for doing so.
Teaching non-disabled children to respond positively towards the social initiations of disabled peers and/or rewarding them for doing so.
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Teaching non-disabled peers to train children with disabilities to use social skills. This method assumes that the training process will carry over into naturalistic situations and that peers will become naturally occurring triggers for socially skilled behaviour in real-life settings.
From Social Skills Training by S Spence, 1995
Students with visual impairments are more rejected by peers than students with hearing impairments. Teachers are too casual about focusing on the development of social skills in students with visual impairments. There is too much accommodation. Teachers and other adults appear to be apprehensive about drawing attention to social skill deficits. Correction of inappropriate social behaviour is not enough. There must be direct teaching of appropriate social skills.
RELEVANT QUESTIONS TO EVALUATE SUCCESS WITH SOCIAL SKILLS
1. Does the VI student play with and talk to peers as much as do his/her classmates?2. Do students talk with VI classmates in the classroom, play with them on the
playground, and invite them to after school and weekend activities?3. Does the VI student show affection and display preference for classmates?4. As an educator, do you go out to observe interactions during recess, and intervene
when necessary, so the VI student is not isolated in the playground?5. How does the status of the VI student among his/her sighted classmates change
during the school year, and how do interactions between the VI student and sighted classmates develop?
WHAT VI STUDENTS MISS OUT ON:
Visual modelling Visual cues to regulate social interaction E.g. Eye contact regulates conversation Turn taking. Visual feedback after their behaviour. Incidental social engagement. Freedom from the “prying eyes” of “caring adults”. Honest feedback from peers.
COMMON SOCIAL DIFFICULTIES OF VI STUDENTS
THEY:
Focus too much on themselves rather than the interest and concerns of others. Are not good listeners. Have poor gaze direction. Use inappropriate smiling. Avoid conflict. Have low levels of risk taking Don’t understand peer group rules and what’s “cool”. Make inappropriate movements, which emphasises how different they look.
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Demonstrate a lack of peer preference and affection. Give low levels of peer reinforcement. Have limited or no opportunities for reciprocity- they are always the ones who need
assistance. Are unresponsive to overtures from others. Ask more questions and more irrelevant ones. Suddenly and abruptly change a conversation topic. Are often over involved with adults. Miss contextual cues. Make too many demands on others. Show too much dependent behaviour (independence is confidence in action) Play with toys inappropriately or with inappropriate toys. Have low levels of collaborative skills for group work. Look different and seem low in confidence. Stand too close. Are passive and unassertive. Use echolalic speech. Frequently have poor motor skills.
SKILLS AND BEHAVIOURS TO FOCUS ON WITHIN VI STUDENTS
Gaze direction and appropriate body posture. Controlling inappropriate movement. Active listening. Assertiveness (proactive and reactive). Sharing and taking turns. Cooperation. Joining in and approaching. Giving and receiving compliments. Focussing on the interests and concerns of others. Expressing preference and affection. Conversational skills. Identifying peer group norms and what’s “cool”. Giving peer reinforcement. Demonstrating competence. Demonstrating independence. Conflict resolution. “Tease proofing” by learning internal emotional control. Learning to be open and “cool” about their disability.
THE FOUR STEPS IN TEACHING SOCIAL SKILLS:
1. Discussion2. Identification of the steps.3. Role-play practice with feedback.4. Real-life practice with rewards.
In addition to academic success, the mainstreaming of VI students must be evaluated against social criteria.
STRATEGIES TO USE WITH VI STUDENTS:
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Cooperative activities and games. Direct teaching of social skills. Provision of social descriptions for students to work from. Peer prompting. Musical and sound games. Changing seating and grouping. Setting up a buddy system. Discussing the skills of friendship. Developing independence. Giving opportunities for the students to demonstrate competence. Develop a risk-taking program. Setting up situations where the student helps others. Setting up opportunities for social interaction. Sharpening listening skills. Using the same discipline system as is used with the other students. Involve parents in the development and implementation of the program. Have more regular PSG meetings where the student’s social development is a high
priority. Encourage the spread of the development of social skills to all students within the
school. Self-monitoring of inappropriate movement. Positive, positive -encouragement, reward.CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK AND APPROPRIATE RESPONSES:
Could you look at me when you talk to me? Okay, it’s your turn. If you face me I know you are listening to me. When your face is pointing to the ground, up in the air or side-to-side, I don’t know if
it's me you’re talking to. People face each other when they speak. When you pull faces like that people will think you’re strange.
SELF-PERPETUATING INTERVENTION PROGRAMS
Changing the attitudes of non-disabled peers towards their disabled classmates, through discussion and education.
Teaching non-disabled children to initiate interaction with disabled peers and/or rewarding them for doing so.
Teaching non-disabled children to respond positively towards the social initiations of disabled peers and/or rewarding them for doing so.
Teaching non-disabled peers to train children with disabilities to use social skills. This method assumes that the training process will carry over into naturalistic situations and that peers will become naturally occurring triggers for socially skilled behaviour in real-life settings.
(From Social Skills Training by S. Spence, 1995)
TRAINING PEER MEDIATED SOCIAL SKILL
Peer-mediated training seems produce change that is maintained over time and generalised to other situations.
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1. Develop role-play scenarios that are representative of the student’s experience in school, at home, and in the community.
2. Use sighted or visually impaired age-mates who have a core of friends and who are interested in interacting with the visually impaired student.
3. Provide opportunities for peers to give feedback to the visually impaired student, monitored by the teacher of visually I impaired students or the social-skills trainer in a constructive manner.
4. Develop social-skills training activities that take place in natural environments.5. Provide environments and situations in which the visually impaired student can learn
to play and understand the rules of an array of games and activities.6. To ensure consistency, communicate closely with parents or care givers, classroom
teachers, or employers regarding the student’s social competence.7. To promote the acquisition and maintenance of targeted social behaviours, teach the
student such self-monitoring strategies as the use of skills checklists, interactive videos, or verbal discussion.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING
(Friendly Kids friendly Classrooms by Helen McGrath and Shona Francey)
1. Social skills are related to all aspects of school behaviour.2. All students, not just those who are troubled benefit from learning social skills. 3. Students with disabilities will be more successfully integrated into a regular classroom
if they are taught social skills.4. Confidence comes from acceptance by others, self-acceptance, successful
experiences, and taking risks.5. Leaning is most effective when it is fun and when students practise what they have
learnt.6. Always think social skills in the classroom and playground.
MODELING, MODELING, MODELING.KIDS ARE MORE LIKELY TO DO WHAT YOU DO THAN WHAT YOU SAY!
Social Skills and Self Advocacy (Geoff Bowen)
Note the following important goals for VI students in their development of social skills and self-advocacy skills:
1. Ask for help when you really need it and say no politely when you don’t need help. When you are left to do it by yourself or given help remember to say “thank you”.
2. Courtesy, politeness or having good manners are all about respecting others and yourself. Learn the manners that are appropriate for the group you are in.
3. Show interest in what other people say and have good chatting skills. Learn about what is fashionable and cool to kids your own age even if you are not interested in it. It can help you “blend” in.
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4. Know as much as possible about your vision impairment and be able to answer questions quickly and simply about your vision. Learn to be relaxed and calm with questions about your VI. If the teasers learn you are not relaxed and calm about your VI they will tease you about it.
5. Remember that if you want a friend you have to be a friend. Smile, be fun to be with and give back to your friend as much as you take.
6. Give things a go, particularly sport, and if don’t do well at something, for example a ball his you head and you didn’t see it, laugh and say: “I am as blind as a bat” or something similar. The more “cool”, relaxed and open you are about your vision impairment the more relaxed other people will be. Don’t be “precious”.
7. Don’t play the “I am blind/VI card” to get you out of trouble (or at least not too often!). Remember the boy who “cried wolf”.
8. Stand up for yourself politely and assertively.
9. When faced with the prejudice and craziness of the world a good sense of humour and the ability to laugh at yourself and the world can be your best defence and survival tool.
A recording of the presentation made by Dr Karen Wolffe at “Skills for Success: Parenting Children with Vision Impairment” conference held in October in Dublin and Galway. NCBI site. http://www.ncbi.ie/news/press-releases/2012-01-30_listen-to-dr-karen-wolffes-presentation
Self-Concept and Visual Impairment Focus: School years Topic: Inclusive EducationDolors Forteza Forteza Department of Educational SciencesUniversity of Illes [email protected]
1. Introduction
Although the importance of having a positive, well-adjusted self-concept is clear, we must accept that anyone may find this difficult, regardless of whether they have a disability or not. We also accept that a visual impairment may, in itself, affect the formation of someone’s personality. With this in mind, we would like to establish the basic framework for an integral, individualized intervention programme.
From the knowledge we have acquired on the development of visually-impaired children, a series of general tendencies can be mentioned that affect these children’s development (Warren, 1994; Ammerman, Van Hasselt, Hersen, 1986; Frailberg, 1977; Ochaíta, 1993; Leonhardt, 1992, Díaz-Aguado, 1995):
A difficulty in making generalizations. The major role that adults play.
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The social significance of blindness. The perspective of development.
Research into questions of self-concept and visual impairment has centred mainly on comparative studies between people with or without a visual impairment. Of these, we should highlight:Research that finds lower levels of self-concept in people with a visual impairment (Meighan, 1971; Beaty, 1991). Research that finds lower levels for specific areas related to the visual impairment (Obiakor & Style, 1989, 1990; Díaz-Aguado et al. 1995). Research that finds a tendency for people with visual impairments to present extreme opinions and attitudes about themselves, both positively and negatively (Jervis, 1959; Zunich & Ledwith, 1965). Research using schools as the context for the study, leading to diverse results (Schindele, 1974; Bauman, 1964; Coker, 1979; Head, 1979; Díaz-Aguado et al. 1995; Alexander, 1996). Research that finds levels similar to sighted people (Obiakor & Stile, 1989, 1990; Martínez & Sewell, 1996).
How can the results of studies and research carried out to date be incorporated into educational practice in a way that is clear and effective? We believe that this type of action cannot be focused on a specific area or contained within a specific programme, but must instead be based on a number of different, interrelated focal points.
2. Self-Concept
Self-concept can be defined as “the perception one has of oneself with regards to different facets of that perception (i.e. cognitive and emotional) that vary in importance during the person’s life (the evolutional and temporal facet), influenced by social interaction which, in turn, is conditioned by the fact that the person belongs to certain social groups (the importance of the social structure)” (Rodríguez Cao, 1993, as quoted in Rodríguez et al, 1995, page 67). According to Burns (1990), a number of basic factors can be emphasized that contribute towards the formation of a person’s self-concept:·
Body image Language The acquisition of a sexual identity and the role of gender The interpretation of information received from the surrounding environment: how
others see me. Educational practice.
A person’s self-concept will gradually be reformulated during different stages of development, increasing in its degree of organization, complexity, consistence and stability. We can observe an evolution that ranges from a self-concept based on physical appearance, to a whole system of beliefs that appear in adolescence and a single sense of self-discovery. This process continues developing during the person’s entire life. (L’Ecuyer, 1985).
3. Self-Concept and Visual Impairment: Basic Aspects
The development of a child’s self-concept, when they have a visual impairment, follows similar steps to that of a sighted child, although the visual defect will influence this
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process. However, we have no evidence that the lack of vision has a general effect on visually-impaired children. Warren (1994) highlights the major roles that body image and language play in the case of these children.
Clock-Clampert (1981, 233) underlines the importance of a blind child’s self-concept: “The most fundamental aspect of the blind child is his self-concept. The manner in which the child learns to view himself has a tremendous impact on his future ambitions, accomplishments and personal happiness”. The author emphasizes that, among the background work that has been used to contribute towards current studies, we should also bear in mind the descriptive research carried out, which has offered practical information to both parents and professionals:
a. Parents’ reactions to blindness.b. Lack of eye contact.c. Person and object permanence.d. Body image.e. Overprotection.f. Self-acceptance.g. Imitation of the sighted.
Brazelton (1993) considers parental attitudes to be fundamental in the early years of a child’s life, as it represents one of the aspects that most influences the development and consolidation of the child’s self-confidence and positive self-concept.
Following the stages in the development of a sense of self-awareness proposed by Stern (1985), Inghsholt (1990) describes what difficulties a blind child can encounter in the development of his or her identity: fewer reciprocal and also shorter relationships with which to organize his or her world; difficulty in benefiting from the necessary amount of experiences involving a high degree of regulated excitement and difficulties when intentional communication is attempted, all of which would lead to problems in the development of a progressive understanding of intersubjectivity. From all this, we can see how necessary it is to stimulate the child by offering him or her a large variety of different experiences with which to create his or her own personal sense of identity.
During the phase of developing a verbal sense of identity, language will provide the blind child with new forms of contact with others and will be the key to the world. The person’s image of their body, orientation and mobility, specific aspects of language, the acquisition of a sexual identity, the role of gender, play, interaction with their peers and an acceptance of the impairment can, among other things, be areas of special difficulty for children who are visually impaired. This is why early action is needed. Uttermohlen (1997) speaks of the risks that the adolescent stage of life can represent for young people who are visually impaired and he reminds us that, throughout their entire lives, people with a visual impairment have to deal with the challenge of how to reach a balance between the need for help and the need to regard themselves as competent, independent people and for others also to see them as such.
During the adult stage of life, the process of integration into the labour market and the emotional facet of a person’s life can be a determining factor in what they make of their lives.
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4. Case Histories
“Personal identity is the result of presenting each of the events in one’s life as parts of a meaningful whole and, in consequence, of presenting oneself to others as the protagonist of a unique story” (Widdwershoven, 1994, as quoted by Perinat, 1998, page 278).
A substantial amount of the research carried out into self-concept makes use of instruments like: the question “who am I?”, life stories or personal autobiographies based on the stories recounted by the subjects involved.
Using L’Ecuyer’s “who are you?” method, the study on self-concept by Ruíz and Esteban (1996) highlights the fact that, in general, the description blind people make of themselves is very much an inner one, i.e. it is focused on themselves, on their qualities and defects, their aspirations, feelings, interests and abilities, with less emphasis on externally-related assessments, i.e. the things that surround them and that they possess, their relationships with others and their ability to adapt to their surroundings. Using this same method, we have compiled a number of descriptions that visually-impaired people have made of themselves during different stages of their lives. We will now quote some extracts as an illustration of real life stories.
Alicia7 years old, low vision. I’m very good at sport and I can run a lot, play basketball and throw balls.I like joking a lot. I have a great time playing jokes on my brother and my mother and I laugh a lot. I also make other people laugh by clowning around. I’m very brave. My mum always tells me that. I help my mum and my family a lot, my friends and the teachers. I’m not lazy.
María11 years old, blind. I’m friendly, calm, happy and very emotional. I’m very curious to know what’s going on around me. I’m so curious that sometimes they even have to tell me “I’m sticking my nose into things that don’t concern me”. And my mother tells me that I’m nosy!I have to admit that I’m a bit naughty, because sometimes I call the telephonists of a telephonic service and I hang up on them. I enjoy myself by making them waste their time. I’m too much! And I begin to invent jokes about a new product.
Luis18 years old, low vision. I’m good at studying. I’m among the best students and I want to continue getting good marks to go to university and get a good future. I’ve realized that, as regards my level of intelligence, I’m among the best and I’m anything but resigned to my fate. You might say that my studies are my strong point and I want to keep it that way. But I don’t like it at all if other people see me as a swot or as someone with a special facility for studying. I’m very timid and a bit insecure. I prefer to have a few very good friends to a lot of acquaintances. I don’t carry a stick or anything to differentiate me from the rest but I find it quite difficult to move about in places that are dimly lit and naturally, when people see me walking hesitantly or slowly or knocking into someone or something, they don’t think I’ve got a problem with my eyesight but that I’m a stupid twit with his head in the clouds! I’ve come to terms with it and it doesn’t worry me. I have to
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admit that I prefer people to know about it and that’s why I feel much more at ease with the people who know me. I don’t consider I’m a social success. I find it very difficult to build up confidence and talk to people, as well as dealing with everything to do with beginning something new. I love a healthy life and I don’t really like going out at night at all. That’s where I have visual problems. My problem is clearly a nocturnal one. At night or in dark places, I can’t see anything or hardly anything and I feel very ill at ease in discotheques or bars where I can’t see anyone or anything that’s going on. In addition, because of the noise, I can’t hear anything they’re saying to me.
Catalina29 years old, low vision. The truth is that I don’t know who I am. I feel different because I’m worse. In other words, that I’m a waste of space, that I don’t fit in, that I’m out of place and that I’m useless. I’ve always been apart from the rest. I saw myself as being ugly and different from the other girls. As well as being ugly, I couldn’t see well. I found it very difficult to admit to others that I couldn’t see well and that I had to sit near the blackboard. It was enough being ugly to be the butt of other children’s jokes. There have been other situations in which I’ve decided to keep quiet and pretend that I’m someone that can do things just like the rest, without help, rather than making my problems known. At secondary school I was always alone, without girlfriends and of course without boyfriends. Then I found small group of people where I could be more myself. I went out with them and I behaved in a more uninhibited way with them. I was the “studious” one (I don’t dare say intelligent) of this group of three friends. They were the friendly, pretty ones. I began to go out with friends late in life, partly because they didn’t let me go out alone and partly because I didn’t have friends. At home they were afraid of letting me cross the streets alone and someone always went with me. I caught this fear off them (and I’ve still got it). It made me dependent on the people around me for things I could do alone. I found it more and more difficult to go out alone, so I gradually learnt to feel comfortable at home. At university, all kinds of things happened to me too and I always felt afraid of making a fool of myself. My life only revolved around that, the university, there was nothing else. Now the excuse not to go out was my studies. The acceptance of my visual impairment and beginning to ask for help have helped me a lot these last few years, but even so my problem is still not accepting my physical defect, to the point of looking at myself in the mirror and not recognizing myself.As regards my family, with a total of eight brothers and sisters, I was the one born with problems: the daughter that was different. I remember going out with my mother and her favourite topic of conversation was her daughter’s physical problems. I remember hearing her use the word ugliness when referring to my defect. Now I continue to see myself as a woman who isn’t a woman, ugly, cowardly, lazy, someone who isn’t sure that she can do anything useful in her life. I believe that everyone else must see me this way too.
5. The Keys to Intervention Programmes
From the earliest moments of life, affectivity is a key factor that will have a decisive influence on family interaction. The family is the main source of social and emotional support for many years and, although one’s peers will gain in importance as one grows older, parents continue to be important. The role that school and teachers play is also decisive in the development of a person’s self-concept.
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Tort (2000) reminds us that we are less tolerant than we would imagine towards people who are different and towards atypical behaviour. In this author’s opinion, what contemporary education needs is “an education that accepts and acknowledges different background histories or ‘personal biographies’” (Tort, 2000, 13), appealing to common sense and the acceptance of the fact that the quality of learning is associated with affectivity and thus with the self-confidence and security of the student.
Continuing with this idea of personal biographies, Puig Rovira (2001, 9) examines this subject in depth in relation to success at school, “which depends upon whether it is possible to live a satisfactory personal life within a community with an optimum moral culture”. For the author, a satisfactory personal life means that “the subject is able to imagine him or herself achieving the goals he or she desires, i.e. he or she has an acceptable level of self-esteem: a self-esteem that allows the person to envisage the possibility of achieving something and, in consequence, of having the strength to aim for this goal”. (Puig Rovira, 2001, 11).
Within this context, by way of conclusion, we will now summarize a series of aspects to be taken into account if we are to encourage the harmonious development of a visually-impaired child’s self-concept: Early intervention programmes. Encouraging autonomy and independence from the earliest stages. Making it
possible for children to take part in experiences in which they can be successful, in order to reinforce their sense of personal worth and competence.
Encouraging systems of social comparison among peers from a realistic viewpoint,
respecting individual differences. Planning intervention programmes that influence social attitudes to disability, above
all in schools (Pelechano, 1994). Enabling different reference groups to live together in harmony.
Providing clear information on one’s own disability and strategies and experiences
that contribute towards its acceptance. Directly influencing the acquisition of communication skills, interpersonal skills and
strategies to recognize non-verbal aspects of language. Taking advantage of the opportunity offered by schools to encourage cooperative
learning habits, dramatizations and classroom reflection, via tales and stories related to the theme of diversity that encourage acceptance and a respect for individual differences (Díaz-Aguado, 1995).
Encouraging the use of games in different stages of education as a tool for the
development of communicative strategies and a self-awareness and awareness of others.
Facilitating the process of sexual identification by supplying children with information
and experiences, as the lack of visual input limits the variety of models that can
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assist this process. Providing a sex education and affective education with the participation of the family and school.
Promoting the social dimension of self-concept, encouraging children and
adolescents to feel part of their different reference groups so that they feel accepted, loved and valued.
If we start out from the premise that self-concept is multi-dimensional and that hierarchies are conditioned by idiosyncratic and personal values, it is in our interest to promote integral, global, preventive intervention programmes from the earliest stages of development or, at the very least, individual intervention programmes designed to compensate for those areas of a person’s self-concept that are most in need of reinforcement. Díaz-Aguado (1995) and Pelechano (1994) both suggest the introduction of intervention programmes in schools aimed at encouraging interpersonal skills, self-esteem and an acceptance and regard for individual differences. The key lies in good planning and coordination in order to integrate all these aspects into the curriculum, together with the necessary complementary backup and support.
ReferencesAlexander, F. E. (1996). Self-concepts of Children with Visual Impairments. RE.view, 28 (1), 35-43.Ammerman, R.; Van Hasselt, V.; Hersen, M. (1986). Psychological adjustment of visually handicapped children and youth. Clinical Psychology Review, 6 (1), 67-85.Bauman, M.K. (1964). Group differences disclosed by inventory items. International Journal for the Education of the blind, 13, 101-106.Beaty, L.A. (1991). The effect of visual impairment on adolescence self-concept. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 85, 129-130.Brazelton, T.B.; Cramer, B.G. (1993). La relación más temprana. Padres, bebés y el drama del apego inicial. Barcelona: Paidós.Burns, R.B. (1990). El autoconcepto: Teoria, medición, desarrollo y comportamiento. Bilbao:EGA. Títol original: The self-concept. Theory, measurament, development and behavior. Longman: London, 1979.Coker, C. (1979). A comparison of self-concepts and academic achievment of visually handicapped children enrolled in a regular school and in a residential school. Education for the Visually Handicapped, 11, 67-74.Cook -Clampert, M.A. (1981). The development of self-concept in blind children. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, Vol. 75(6), 233-238.Díaz-Aguado, Mª.J. (Dir.). (1995). Todos iguales, todos diferentes.(I,II,III,IV,V). Madrid: ONCE.Fraiberg, S. (1977). Insights from the Blind. Londres: Souvenir Pres. Trad. cast. Niños ciegos. Madrid: INSERSO, 1990.Head, D. (1979). A comparison of self-concepts scores for visually impaired adolescents in several class settings. Education of the Visually Handicapped, 11, 51-55.Ingsholt, A. (1990). How does a blind child develop an identity? Proceeding of the International Symposium of Visually Handicapped Infants and Young Children. Edinburgh, 1988. Jervis, F.M. (1959). A comparison of self-concepts of blind and sighted children. In C.J. Davis (Ed.), Guidance programs for blind children (pp. 19-31). Watertown, MA: Perkins.
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L’Ecuyer, R. (1985). El concepto de sí mismo. Barcelona: Oikos-Tau.Leonhardt, M.(1992). El bebé ciego. Barcelona: ONCE-Masson.Martínez, R.; Sewell, K. (1996). Self-Concept of Adults with Visual Impairments. Journal of Rehabilitation, 62 (2), 55- 58.Meighan, T. (1971). An investigation of the self-concept of blind and visually handicapped adolescents. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.Obiakor, F.E., i Stile, S.W. (1989). Enhancing self-concept in students with visual handicap. Journal of visual impairment and blindnes, 83, 255-257.Obiakor, F.E.; Stile, S.W. (1990). The self-concepts of Visually Impaired and Normally Sighted Middle School Children. The Journal of Psychology, 124 (2), 199-206.Ochaíta, E. (1993). Ceguera y desarrollo psicológico. En A. Rosa y E. ochaíta (Comp.), Psicología de la ceguera (pp. 111- 202). Madrid: Alianza.Pelechano, V. (1994). Actitudes hacia la integración de invidentes y habilidades interpersonales: Planteamiento y resultados de dos programas de modificación. Integración, 15, 5-19.Perinat, A. (1998). Psicología del desarrollo. Un enfoque sistémico. Barcelona: EUOC.Puig Rovira, J.M. (2001, septiembre). Educación en valores y fracaso escolar. Comunicación presentada en la Conferencia “Valores sociales y fracaso escolar, Madrid (documento no publicado).Rodríguez, L.; Sabucedo, J.M.; Arce, C. (1995). Aproximación al autoconcepto. Revista de Orientación Educativa Vocacional, vol.6, nº 9, 57-68.Ruíz, C.; Esteban, M. (1996). La percepción del ciego sobre sí mismo. Un enfoque multidimensional. Integración, 22, 50- 56.Schindele, R. (1974). The social adjustament of visually handicapped childen in different educational settings. American Foundation for the Blind Research Bulletin, 28, 125-144. Stern, D.N. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant. A view from psychoanalysis and development psychology. New York: Basic Books. Traducido al castellano: El mundo interpersonal del infante. Una perspectiva desde el psicoanálisis y la psicología evolutiva. Barcelona: Paidós, 1991, 1ª reimp.1996 Tort Bardolet, A. (2000). Identitat i afectivitat en l’aprenentatge dels sabers escolars. Escola Catalana, 371, 12-14.Uttermohlen, T.L. (1997). On “passing” through adolescence. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 91 (3), 309- 314.Warren, D.H. (1994). Blindness and children. An individual differences approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Zunith, M.; Ledwith, B.E. (1965). Self-concepts of visually handicapped and sighted children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 21, 771-774.
Please send comments or questions to [email protected].
Beyond Ms. Manners' Preferences: Improving Social Behavior Patterns
Text only version of poster session presented at AER International Conference in Atlanta, July, 1998
Most social skills interventions in schools today are actually manners training.
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Many children with visual impairments can benefit from the development of better manners. But the majority need concrete and direct instruction in appropriate social interaction in very basic areas such as:
greeting other people looking like they are paying attention looking like they are being respectful maintaining an appropriate conversation controlling one's own mannerisms respecting another person's personal space
Inappropriate Behaviors:
hitting eye poking tantrums interrupting distracting noises
An underlying principle: There are no "bad" behaviors. All behavior is useful...in the right context. Some behaviors are not socially acceptable.
Behavior must be controlled before social skills can truly be developed. Minimize behaviors before considering their elimination. Work on one inappropriate behavior at a time Practice the desired behavior, ignoring other undesired behaviors, if possible and
feasible
First: You must have compliance
Getting Compliance Teach children to listen and comply with your commands. Break down expected behavior into parts:
e.g. Pay attention=1) look at me, 2) listen to me, 3) do what I ask. Give positive directions: Tell the child what you want him to do, not what you
want him not to do.
Train the child to listen for your commands. Let’s assume the child’s name is Joe. Use very simple one or two word commands such as:
"Joe, come here." "Joe, stop." "Joe sit down."(Not: "Don't you think it would be good idea if you stopped that" or "You know you're not supposed to do that".)
Give the command "Joe, come here."(Your tone should say: Hear me, do this, I expect it)
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As soon as he lifts or turns his head showing he heard you, give him a stroke:"Yeah, good, Joe, I said come here"(Your tone should denote correction)
a. Brag on his hearing you and complying "That's good Joe." (Your tone here is one of praise-bragging on him)
b. If he does not comply, move to him, get his attention, give the command again, make him do what you said, don't drag him— expect it.
Get him in the habit of responding to commands. Don't tell him what he shouldn't be doing. Then you can intervene at potential problem times and say "Now, Joe, come over here and __________." (not as a punishment but as a redirection.) When he has learned to respond to your commands he will be more cooperative and you will not have to nag or fuss (since that doesn't work anyway).
General Guidelines for Helping Students Change Behaviors Don't say "don't" Give positive commands for the behaviors you are seeking. "Do this", then
redirect to an appropriate activity. Set written limits and expectations Allow children to experience the consequences of their decisions Teach self-control and self-monitoring
Self-Control Monitoring Form with Teacher Input
(A Generic Model used at Diamond MInds School)
Time___________
____Right now, I am doing what I am supposed to be doing. Time___________
____Right now, I am controlling my behavior. Time ___________
____Right now, I am controlling my voice. Time ___________
Social Skills
Children with visual impairment often have trouble making friends because:
no eye contact talk only about themselves talk about only one topic; at cross purposes unaware of what different voice tones mean make too many demands on others unresponsive to others socially inappropriate behaviors
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Create opportunities for practice of appropriate behaviors and social skills
Provide verbal models of what is going on in peer interaction Describe social relationships Teacher taught and peer practiced social skills training works better than taped or
teacher taught instruction alone Teacher/Parent still needed for support and direction
Teaching Social Skills to Children with Visual Impairment
(Just a few ideas)
Find other visually impaired children for them to play/socialize with for some of the time.
Arrange the best quality of social interaction for your child. They need very good models. It is not sufficient to mix visually impaired children and sighted children and expect their social skills to develop. Arrange for successful social encounters.
Listening to tapes and role playing is of only minimal help in teaching a child good social skills. The most effective is training with input from the visually impaired student, given by the teacher and reinforced by peers.
Practice scenarios similar to what happens at school, at home, at church, and other parts of the community. Set up successful play experiences at home.
Model positive self-talk. Think out loud. For example, "Gee, it's hard for me to wait, but if I can, people won't get mad and I'll have a better time".
Use mealtimes to practice conversation skills and manners
© Kim Paynter 1998Freelance Writer for Business & Nonprofits865-385-5753 800-555-6159www.kpfreelancewriter.com
FUTURE REFLECTIONS VOLUME 15, NUMBER 3 BARBARA CHEADLE, EDITOR SUMMER 1996 A TEACHER'S CREED(Ruby Ryles, A Teachers Creed: www.nfb.org/fr/fr1/96sum.ht.)
Foremost, I believe a blind child must have at least the beginnings of a positive attitude about her blindness before any formal instruction in the skills of blindness can really be effective. Since the home environment will have the most influence on her attitudes, I consider it part of my job to help her parents understand that blindness need not be the tragic debilitating handicap that most people believe it tobe.
Next, it is my task to show them that there is nothing unusual about a blind child leading a normal child's life washing dishes, learning to skate, walking to school, cheerleading, etc. Although friends, teachers, and others around her will consider her extraordinary when she does the most commonplace things. My, she does that well for a blindChild the family and the child should never measure her accomplishments by this false standard. I must help them understand the ceiling this attitude puts on the youngster's true potential.
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I believe all blind children have the right to experience the untold joys and dignity of a lifetime of literacy. Fluency, efficiency, and comfort are the determinants of reading medium, not eye charts or contrived assessments and evaluations. I must teach my young student that Braille is not inferior to, nor a substitute for, print. It is no harder nor easier to learn than print reading. I have the responsibility to insist that classroom teachers and others hold blind students to the same standard of academic achievement and social behavior as their sighted peers. I need to impress on my student that her future academic excellence will be determined by her degree of literacy, perseverance, and study habits, not her visual acuity.
I believe it is my job to insist she learn to advocate for herself from a young age and to speak up with indignation when others regard her as second class or inferior. I want her to discover early that she is capable of learning and successfully accomplishing new tasks without my intervention or assistance. I should not consider myself her tutor, for then she will be restricted to the breadth of my own knowledge of a subject. This is the most challenging aspect of my job to make my role obsolete in her school life as soon as possible.
I believe it is my responsibility to introduce her to competent blind adults, so she will neither fear nor question her own abilities and quality of life as a blind adult. I believe that it is my obligation to encourage her to dream the dreams of the young, while instructing her in the nature of discrimination and the very real impact it can have on her dreams.
Finally, I sincerely hope I never become arrogant enough to think that degrees and certificates qualify me as an expert in blindness. And should I cease to listen and learn from the National Federation of the Blind and the countless blind adults who have taught me how to teach, I hope I am wise enough to recognize that it is time to retire, for I truly will no longer be qualified to teach blind children.
The Blind Child in the Regular Elementary Classroom (Carol Castellano)
Most sighted people believe that blind people need a lot of help. It's almost always the first reaction people have when they meet my daughter "How can I help this dear, sweet, helpless child?" I have even seen so called sensitivity exercises, designed to develop awareness and understanding of blindness, which have as their explicit goal, "the understanding of what it is like to be helpless."
What do you believe about blindness? How do you feel about blindness and the blind child you will be working with everyday? Do blind people need a lot of help? Are blind people limited in certain ways? Can blind people know as much as sighted people? Can they be competitive? Is blindness a tragedy? Do blind people need compassion?
Our beliefs are important because what we believe affects the way we behave. Our beliefs about blindness will affect how we act toward the blind children with which we work, our expectations for them, the way we teach them, the messages we give them. I strongly encourage you to examine your feelings and beliefs about blindness frequently as you work with your blind student this school year.
Why do sighted people believe blind people are helpless? I think it is because sighted people can't imagine doing things without eyesight. We use it almost all the time. And we
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tend to think that anyone who can accomplish tasks without it is extraordinary or amazing.
Even professionals in the blindness field who work with and write about people often base their conclusion on what they believe blindness must be like and on ideas about the difficulties, deficiencies, and frustrations they believe blind people must have. I have come to think of these negative assumptions about blindness as "sighted bias." Unfortunately, you will encounter it in much of the professional literature you read.
What if I were to lose my eyesight tomorrow? If I were to lose my eyesight tomorrow, I would be relatively helpless. What would I need to do? I would need to learn how to function as a blind person, how to use the tools and adaptations that allow the accomplishing of tasks without eyesight. The skills and tools of blindness are the key to being able to function competitively without frustration and with success. And the more you learn about them, the more you will be able to help your students be successful in school and in life.
Now I'd like to tell you what I know about blindness. Every year my husband and I attend the National Convention of the National Federation of the Blind. At this convention there are about twenty five hundred blind people. Now, you can learn a lot about blindness by spending a week with twenty five hundred blind people! And what we have learned is that blind people are a cross section of humanity that there are tall ones and short ones, bright ones and not so bright ones, very dear people and pretty obnoxious people. And what does that say about blindness? That blind people are just like everyone else. There is no one "blind personality," no "psychology of blindness."
At Federation conventions, my husband and I have met or heard speak a blind mathematician, lawyer, college professor, industrial arts teacher, elementary school teacher, NASA engineer, chef, car body mechanic, transmission mechanic, Foreign Service Officer, triathlete, and a man who sailed solo in a race from San Francisco to Hawaii, twice, and came in third!
So, what do I believe about blindness? I believe that everything's possible. We (parents and teachers) need to have high expectations, provide good training and education, and keep all the doors of opportunity open for our blind children. I know that blindness certainly does not have to stop a person from accomplishing goals and fulfilling dreams.
I believe that our job as adults is to assist the children in becoming independent, self sufficient, competent adults who will have a job, a family, friends, options for leisure time, and the ability to go where they want to go when they want to go there.
WHAT TEACHERS AND TEACHERS’ AIDES CAN DO?
Teachers and teachers' aides who adopt this goal of Self sufficiency will expect their blind students to participate fully and independently in the class. To achieve this goal they will:
Keep expectations high.
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Provide the same or equivalent information, experience, and education for the blind child as for the sighted children in the class.
Build in the expectation, the instruction, and the practice time for independence in all areas academic, social, and personal.
The classroom teacher will assume the same responsibility for the education of the blind child as he or she assumes for the education of the sighted children in the room, i.e. speak directly to the child at all times, grade the child's papers, know the child's work, interact with the child daily, discipline the child, and so forth.
Understand and respect the alternative skills the child will be learning, i.e. the use of Braille, cane, sound, touch, memory, various special tools and so forth.
Communicating effectively with people who are blind or vision impaired
When speaking with a person who is blind or has low vision, be yourself and act naturally. You should also consider the following tips:
Identify yourself - don't assume the person will recognise you by your voice. Speak naturally and clearly. Loss of eyesight does not mean loss of hearing. Continue to use body language. This will affect the tone of your voice and give a
lot of extra information to the person who is vision impaired. Use everyday language. Don't avoid words like "see" or "look" or talking about
everyday activities such as watching TV or videos. Name the person when introducing yourself or when directing conversation to
them in a group situation. Never channel conversation through a third person. In a group situation, introduce the other people present. Never leave a conversation with a person without saying so. Use accurate and specific language when giving directions. For example, "the
door is on your left", rather than "the door is over there". Avoid situations where there is competing noise. Always ask first to check if help is needed. Relax and be yourself
SOME SPECIFICS FOR THE CLASSROOM TEACHER
After you work with a blind child for even a little while, you will probably find these simple adaptations have become second nature to you. Many classroom teachers report that they enrich the classroom experience for all the children. Here are some specifics:
1. Be more verbal. Verbal description will help the child interpret what is going on in the classroom.
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Use names when calling on children.
Provide precise verbal description in place of vague statements and/or motions when modeling an action. "Fold the paper lengthwise" instead of "Fold the paper like this."
Explain your routine a bit to help the blind child interpret situations which he/she cannot see. "I'm so glad you're all being quiet as I get the snack ready."
Verbalize what you write on the board or on overheads; spell out words when appropriate.
Add a few words of explanation when the illustrations in a storybook carry the plot (the blind child will not have access to the picture). When referring to objects, think about attributes other than color, such as shape, weight, texture, size, and location.
Use normal language such as "look" and "see."
2. Help the child learn the workings of the classroom. Blind children in the early grades, like all children, have much to learn about classroom routine. You may need to teach the child:
to focus on the teacher;
to respond quickly to instructions;
how to respond (raising the hand, answering aloud, answering in unison, etc.);
when and where to move in the classroom;
how to determine what others in the room are doing; and
to work at an appropriate pace (please see the section on pace at the end of this list).
3. Organize the child's desk area and materials storage area for maximum independence.
4. Adapt materials or parts of the lesson when necessary.
5. Provide hands on opportunities. These will make experiences more meaningful for the blind child.
6. Model movements for songs, finger plays, etc. that you want the whole class to learn by moving the blind child through the motions. Sighted children get the benefit of watching and the blind child can learn by experiencing his/her own movement.
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7. Offer information instead of help. Instead of getting an object for the child, for example, give the child a chance to find it by describing its size, shape, and location. Then give the child enough time to explore and correct mistakes before you give more prompts.
8. Understand and respect the skills of blindness. Learn the general sequence of the skills, provide opportunities in the class for the child to practice, and offer appropriate support as the child is working toward mastery.
Braille reading and writing is the equivalent of print reading and writing.
Information can be reliably perceived through the sense of touch.The blind child should be moving about more and more independently as time goes on using orientation and mobility skills.
The child will learn to use sound, memory, mental mapping, and various special tools and will learn to ask for information when needed.
PACE
Here are a few ideas for helping your blind student learn to work at an appropriate pace if you find that he/she is working more slowly than the others in the class. The sighted children have visual cues that tell them how fast they should be moving. They might look at the clock on the wall; they might glance at their classmates' papers to see who is still working on the first side of the page and who has gone on to side two. You can provide equivalent non visual cues for your blind student. Point out to the blind student the rustling sound of pages turning so he/she can listen for how fast classmates are going. If the child can tell time, a Braille watch or a talking clock could help. Periodically give verbal cues such as "About half of our time is up. You should be on number four or five by now."
Here is another aspect of pace to consider. Classroom teachers are often told that the blind student will take longer to accomplish schoolwork and therefore should be expected to do only part of the assignment. Teachers are often advised, for example, to have the blind child do only the even numbered problems or every other row only enough to demonstrate that he/she understands the concept. It is true, especially in the early grades that blind students might take longer to complete an assignment. This is so because the student is also in the process of mastering a specific blindness skill necessary to the performance of the assignment.
For example, the student might be learning how to set up math problems in Braille with his/her Braille machine (Braille writer) or the child might be physically doing more moving from a workbook page on the desk to an answer sheet in the Braille writer while their sighted classmates are simply writing in the answers on the workbook page.
Sometimes it might seem sensible to cut back a little on one part of the workload while the child is learning or mastering a new skill. If you do, make sure you build in a plan to get the child working up to speed as soon as possible. When blind children become adults and go out on job interviews they won't get the job if they have to say, "I can only
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do half the work" or "I can only do the even numbered problems!" Again, we must keep in mind that we are preparing children for adulthood.
Another situation in which a child might work at a slow pace is if the child reads print slowly and/or painfully. Perhaps the child requires a closed circuit television (CCTV) for magnification of all print work. If a child works at a slow pace for this reason then you might want to consider Braille for this child. Again, think of the future.
A person has to be competitive, efficient, and versatile in this information age. Will slow reading, inadequate self communication skills, and generally sub standard literacy skills be adequate when the child competes as an adult in the job market? This is not, by the way, an either/or choice.
Children can learn and use both print and Braille. For further specifics for teachers, please see "Tips for Classroom Teachers," Future Reflections, Volume 10, Number 3, Fall, 1991.
THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER'S AIDE
A teacher's aide can truly enhance a blind child's educational experience, especially when she or he understands the goal of independence. The aide can help ensure that the student gains a firm understanding of basic concepts, experiences, and situations and is not missing chunks of information. If the blind student's foundation is solid, then he/she will be able to learn higher level material in later years without (or with very little) assistance. In addition, the aide can help the blind child learn the skills of blindness which enable the student to work and move about independently.
The various functions of an aide can be divided into fourgeneral categories:
behind the scenes work, direct assistance,
facilitating, and enrichment.
Behind the Scenes Work
The behind the scenes work is probably the most important work a teacher's aide can do. It consists of the background planning and coordinating that enables the child to function independently in the classroom. If the behind the scenes work is done well, the child will be able to participate on an equal footing with his/her sighted classmates and will have the opportunity to learn all of the concepts and skills presented.
Here are some specifics:
1. Set up the desk area for maximum independence and organization. The blind child needs to know where books and papers will be kept, where to put completed work, where any special items will be, and so forth. Items should be within the child's easy reach.
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Use poster board to make oversize folders which can accommodate large Braille sheets; label folders in Braille.
Vertical snap together bins from the stationery store can be used on the child's desk to organize and hold books and folders.
Place the correct volume of each Braille textbook at the child's desk. Later the older student will take over this task.
Make sure special supplies, such as Sticky Wick, tactile dice, Braille labeler, etc., are ready and in logical places for the child's use.
Remember, the desk must be set up for use of the child, not the aide! If the aide has a desk in the room, it should be in another part of the room, not next to the blind child's. This way the teacher and the other children view the blind child as a real part of the class and the child learns to focus on the teacher and not the aide.
2. Continually reevaluate the situation to keep pace with the child's progress. Identify tasks that are being done for the child which the child could begin doing for him/herself.
3. Keep track of any special items that come in. Know where they are and learn their uses.
4. Coordinate and plan in advance with the classroom teacher and teacher of the visually impaired. Have a copy of the lesson plans so materials can be adapted in advance and will be ready when the teacher teaches that lesson.
5. Organize Braille or large print worksheets in advance and give them to the teacher to hand out along with those for the other children.
6. Adapt materials for classroom subjects, music, and art. Often adaptations will be quite simple; at times you'll need to analyze the lesson to be learned and then decide upon a good way to present it. Collect materials useful for adapting, such as Glu Colors, Sticky©Wikki, Braille labeler, various self stick textures, drafting taping, tracing wheel, and so forth.
7. If an adaption for a lesson consists of something entirely different than what the other children will be using, let the teacher know about it. It might be appropriate for you show it to the blind child during the lesson and unobtrusively supply information or instructions.
8. Check Braille books to see if diagrams, charts, or maps were omitted (they often are). If you have learned Braille (many school districts provide tutoring courses in Braille for aides), check to see if charts, etc. which have been transcribed make sense and are usable. Plan appropriate alternatives if needed.
9. Collect any special materials or manipulatives required for the day's lessons; transport them to other rooms if the children change classes.
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10. If Braille worksheets are going home for homework, staple a print copy on top for the parents.
11. If you have learned Braille, transcribe the child's work by writing the print above each Braille line. The classroom teacher can then mark and grade the blind student's papers along with all the rest of the children's papers. This is preferable to waiting for the Braille teacher to transcribe the work.
12. If the school has a reliable Braille printer and a good Braille translation program, the aide can use a computer to produce many items in Braille. Worksheets, tests, last minute items, school announcements, programs for assemblies, the lunch menu, and any other materials not Brailled by the transcribing service can be produced. The aide does not need to know Braille (although some rudimentary knowledge is suggested) to produce Braille by computer.
13. A Braille printer can also be used to Braille out the teacher's comments and corrections. These may be attached to the child's papers so that he/she gets feedback on schoolwork in the same manner and at the same time his/her classmates get it.
14. Use Glu Colors, bits of Sticky Wikki, or other tactual materials to mark mistakes on papers that the teacher has graded so the child can analyze his/her own mistakes. Remember, the teacher must know the blind student's work as well as he/she knows the work of any other student in the class.
Incidentally, the behind the scenes work is automatically done for sighted children so that they can perform at their best. Desks are designed so that books and pencils fit and can be put in logical places. Books, manipulatives, and other learning tools are all ready on the first day of school. Diagrams, maps, and charts are included in their books in usable formats. Posters and bulletin boards in the classroom provide additional learning opportunities. The behind the scenes work for a blind student serves to set up an equivalent learning environment. As time goes on, less and less behind the scenes work will need to be done provided that the blind student has had a strong base in elementary level academics and blindness skills. With a strong foundation in these skills the older blind student can be expected to learn how to take on the behind the scenes tasks him/herself. Direct AssistanceWhen people think of the function of an aide in a classroom with a blind student, they most often picture the aide sitting at the child's side helping with every task. While the child may indeed need assistance in the early years, it is crucial to keep in mind the goal of independent participation in school (and in life). The child must learn to do tasks for him/herself and should be expected to learn to do any task that is going to be repeated every day, such as opening the milk carton in the cafeteria or placing homework papers in the homework basket.
What is appropriate help? In general, appropriate help is the kind that teaches the skill. One way to think about it is to ask yourself, "Is the help I am giving the kind that will teach the child how to do the task on his/her own? Or am I doing the task for the child?" For example, putting the child's papers into his/her backpack at the end of the day is one form of help, but teaching the child to pack the bag is a much better form of help.
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Another useful way to judge the kind of help you are providing is to think about age appropriateness. It might be appropriate for an aide to help a preschooler locate the hook in the cubby and hang up the backpack or to help with zipping up the child's jacket. However, this would no longer be\ appropriate for a fourth grader.
Other appropriate times for direct assistance might be in art and gym. In gym, for example, an aide could help the child locate a certain area of the room that is not tactually marked or could help the child participate in activities such as soccer or basketball. Even then, an aide should be as unobtrusive as possible. They should also be alert at all times to ways they can promote interaction between the blind student, the teacher, and other students in the class. Of course, in all cases, when the child is able to participate on his/her own, the aide should not interfere. When an aide does directly assist a child, they should make sure they respect the child's personal space (see "My Body Belongs to Me,"
Future Reflections, Volume 14, number 3) . In general, if the planning is built in for independence and if sufficient instruction and practice time are provided, less and less help will be needed as time goes on. From the beginning there should be a plan for the time when the aide will no longer be present or providing direct assistance. Facilitating
Facilitating involves helping the child learn to perform tasks as a competent blind person. Facilitating requires the aide to have an understanding of the goal of independence, familiarity with the skills and tools of blindness, an overall sense of where the child is in the development of these skills, and an idea of what the next logical step would be. Here are some ways an aide can facilitate:
1. Encourage appropriate exploration. The young blind child especially needs certain information about the environment in order to function independently. Guide the child so the child can make discoveries.
2. Help the child understand the classroom scene and learn how to respond appropriately.
3. Give cues rather than help; keep stepping back.
4. Serve as a reader. A reader is someone (paid or volunteer) who reads print material to a blind person either directly or by recording it onto tape. Blind adults use readers on the job and in their homes for personal mail and other material. A child's need for readers will increase in the higher grades and in college. In order to direct and use a reader effectively, the blind student must be familiar with various print page formats, headings, captions, contents, indexes, etc.
5. Facilitate social interaction and friendships.
6. Give the child discreet feedback on appropriate postures and behaviors. Correct the blind child the way you would a sighted child who was facing the wrong way or was otherwise situated incorrectly.
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7. Help the blind child learn and do what is expected in activities requiring partners. For example, cooperative learning activities in the classroom; square dancing in gym; or preparing for a concert or a play in music.
8. Remind sighted children (and adults) to identify themselves to the blind child "Hi, Sarah, it's Jennifer." Remind the blind child to ask the identity of those speaking to him/her or those next to him/her at lunch or in line. "Hi. Who's this in front of me?"
9. Give the blind child information about what classmates are doing during in class and playground recess. If needed, teach appropriate responses to what other children say and do.
10. If necessary, teach the blind child how to play the games classmates are playing. Teach the blind child ways to get into games. Teach them playground manners and protocols children (and adults) expect everyone to follow. For example, Jennifer has just gone down the slide. She walks around back to the steps. A line has formed. Does she know she is supposed to find the end of the line and wait? Does she know how to ask for the end of the line? Do the other children know they should call out and let her know where the end of the line is? It's a simple matter to stand back and teach this when the opportunity occurs. "Jennifer, there are five kids in line. You need to wait your turn. John, call out so Jennifer knows where you are so she can find you and wait behind you for her turn."
11. Teach the sighted children how to get the blind child's attention. "Mike, Jennifer can't see you wave your arm to her. If you want her to come over you need to say, `Over here Jennifer, by the big swing set.'"
12. Be matter of fact about blindness. Teach everyone to think, "Let's figure out a way to get a blind kid into this game."
13. Facilitate independent mobility. Go to orientation and mobility lessons; follow through when the cane teacher is not there.
14. Help the child master daily routes such as changing classes, trips to the school office, going to the bathroom, getting a drink of water, and so forth. First talk the child through the route, then follow at a close enough distance to give verbal cues if needed, next watch from a distance. Don't always rush to help. Be sure to allow time for independent problem solving. Finally, get out of the picture as soon as possible. The goal is for the child to move about within the school with the same degree of independence as their sighted peers.
15. Don't lead the child around!
Enrichment
A teacher's aide has the potential to enrich the blind student's educational experience in meaningful ways that can deepen the child's understanding and appreciation.
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An aide, for example, can ensure that the blind child is exposed to the many concepts presented through "environmental print," the posters, bulletin boards, announcements, children's work, etc. that surround them in the classroom. Once the blind child is aware that this kind of information exists, then he/she is on the road to learning how and when to get it for him/herself.
Here is another way in which an aide can enrich the child's experience. Print books are full of photographs which illustrate many concepts for the students. At times, the aide might be able to provide real objects for the blind child to examine or could mention the need to the classroom teacher, teacher of the visually impaired, and family, one of whom might have access to the item. An aide might also notice an area in which the child has incomplete information and could alert the teachers and family to this.
Other examples of enrichment are providing verbal description of videos, school assemblies, school programs, plays, and school field trips. Showing special objects related to the assembly or trip to the child before or after the activity is also an important enrichment experience. The Importance of Good Judgment
As an aide, you will find yourself making decisions every few minutes throughout the day. Should I intervene in this situation or not? We're running out of time, should I do this for the child this one time? Would this be a good time to interrupt the teacher? Should I run into the classroom and give the child this information right now? When can I find some time to fit in these "extras" I've been saving to show the child?
A good understanding of the teacher's routine and priorities and of the functioning of the classroom will help you make these difficult decisions. Another aid to decision making is gauging your decisions against the goal of independence. In general, over the course of time, make sure that your decisions are helping the child to progress in independence. Don't fall into the habit of assisting too much. Try to develop a good feel for when to step in and when to step back.
Another useful exercise is to think about the consequences of the decisions you make. How will what I am about to do affect this child? What unspoken messages are my actions sending? Watch for these common danger areas!
1. Learned Dependence
The most common pitfall of having an aide in the classroom is that instead of learning more about independence each day, the blind child learns more about dependence. It is easy to assist too much to open the book for the child; to find the page; to lead the child around. The appropriate role for the aide is to teach opening the book, to give the child practice in finding the page quickly, and to encourage independent movement. If the aide gives too much help, the child will not learn to do the tasks and will not develop an inner expectation that he/she should be doing them.
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Don't hover. Don't overprotect. Keep a watchful eye. Use good judgment. Step in when necessary, but base your interventions on the idea of an independent future for the child, not on the idea that blind people cannot be expected to do certain tasks.
How is the aide referred to at your school? Is she considered a personal aide to the child or an aide to the teacher? If the aide is referred to as the child's aide, then the blind child and his/her classmates might get the impression that the blind child is helpless or in need of constant protection or supervision. You might want to use the term "teacher's aide" or "classroom aide" instead. As always, think of the future the child must be encouraged in normal steps toward independence and responsibility for him/herself.
It is important, too, that the school principal understands the goal of independence and that this goal means that there may be times (more and more as time goes on) that the aide is not giving any assistance at all to the blind child. At all times when the child is able to work unassisted, the aide must feel free to "do nothing." If the aide feels that she will be criticized for "doing nothing" she will be more likely to hover near the child, thereby interfering with the process of independence.
With school administrators' input and approval, a plan could be set in place for the gradual and sensible lessening of the time the aide spends with the blind student. For example, if the child is able to participate in music class unassisted, then the plan could be for the aide to leave that room and use the time to consult with the teacher or adapt materials. At first, the aide might walk with the child to and from the class. As time goes on, she would help the child learn the route. Next, as the child became more and more able to handle classroom activities unassisted, the aide could begin to spend less time in the classroom, again using that time to prepare materials and plan.
When the time came that the aide was only rarely needed in the classroom and all materials were prepared, the plan could be for her to spend her "free" time assisting in another room. Better yet, if the school has had the foresight to provide Braille training to the aide, the aide may take on more and more Braille transcribing tasks. As the child gets older and the print reading demands get heavier and more varied, Braille transcribing needs increase.
If the principal consciously supports the blind student's movement toward independence, then he/she will not inadvertently edge the child toward learned dependence.
2. A Private Conversation
Another pitfall to avoid is a private conversation developing in the classroom. The aide and the blind child become a separate class in the back of the room. The teacher teaches the class; the aide teaches the blind child. Occasionally this might be appropriate, for example when the blind student is using completely different materials from those of sighted classmates. But the goal is always for the child to be a full participant in class. The child needs to learn to focus on the teacher, to listen to the instructions, translate them if necessary into what would make sense for Braille or other adaptations, and then get going! Conversely, the teacher needs to focus on the student and direct all questions, statements, instructions, and so forth to the student, not the aide.
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The aide might enjoy the private conversation; the child might enjoy it. But it won't get the child where the child needs to go.
3. Special Relationships
A related danger area is that of special relationships. Blind children can develop extremely close bonds with the people who work with them one to one. These are often warm, enjoyable relationships, but they can interrupt the process toward independence. A special relationship can keep a child from mastering a task. From the time my daughter was in Kindergarten, for example, a sixth grade "big sister" walked her down the long hill outside their school. Each year a wonderful relationship developed between Serena and the older girl. But Serena never learned her way down the hill! At the beginning of third grade we finally realized that we had to tell the girls to come down the hill without chatting until Serena learned her way. Serena did learn her way down the hill, but not until we intervened.
Special relationships can be a problem in another area. Because they are usually with adults or older children, these relationships can prevent friendships with peers from developing. Everyone gets used to seeing the blind child with the aide. The adults at school get used to it and, of even greater concern, so do the other children. It also becomes so normal and comfortable to the blind child that he/she does not develop the self expectation for normal social interactions with peers.
It is very tempting to let special relationships Develop they come out of the goodness of people's hearts but they are not, in the long run, in the best interest of the blind child.
4. The Special Helper
Sometimes a teacher cannot think of a way to include a blind student in an activity or does not think the blind child is capable of doing a certain task. To solve the dilemma this presents, the teacher might make the child a special helper. All the other students are doing an academic task and the teacher says to the blind student, "You sit next to me and help me pass out the pencils." When situations like this occur, the blind child is not getting the equivalent educational experience. Occasionally this might be acceptable, but certainly not if it occurs frequently.
If you are having trouble figuring out how to include your blind student in an activity, analyze what is to be learned and think about possible ways to get the message across. There is almost always a simple adaptation that can be made. If you can't think of a way, ask someone else the teacher of the visually impaired, the parents, a blind Adult for ideas. But don't leave the child out.
5. Acting on Assumptions of Help Needed
So many times sighted people assume that the blind child cannot do something independently. The assumption is usually based on that old idea of the helpless blind person or the idea that eyesight is necessary to accomplish the task. So often the assumption will not be true; the child can actually do the task. Perhaps you think the child will be unsafe on the stairs. Perhaps you think the child lacks the ability to find the door handle to open the door, or you can't imagine how the child will be able to carry a lunch tray and a cane.
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But believe me, working blind people do all of these things every day. We've got to get our blind children to be able to do all of it, too, so that they will be working blind people someday! So question your assumptions. Read the literature provided by the National Federation of the Blind and the National Organization of Parents of Blind Children for guidance. Proceed carefully on what you assume are areas where the child will need help. And always be open to changing and raising your expectations.
Again, the best source for practical and accurate information about blindness is the National Federation of the Blind (NFB). To request free literature send requests to: NFB Materials Center, 1800 Johnson Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21230. Calls are taken at (410) 659-9314 between 12:30 p.m. and 5:00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time.
BRINGING THE DAY OF INDEPENDENCE CLOSER
Remember that the goal is for the child to be a full, independent participant in class and in life. The child should become more and more independent as time passes. The balance must shift from more individual help and less independence in the early years to less individual help and more independence as the child grows older. Think of it this way, the job should be done by the time the child is eighteen. After high school we want our children to go to the next step. For other children this means a job, vocational school, their own place, or college.
If by age eighteen, a blind student cannot take care of him/herself, travel independently, make his/her own arrangements for readers or transportation or whatever else he/she might use, then that student is not going to make it in the "real" world. And all of us want these children to be able to make it. So somewhere between the assistance we might give to the preschooler and the independence the student must have by the senior year, the shift must occur. Build it in; plan for a future of independence.
The job of a blind child sometimes seems huge to sighted people because we just can't imagine doing things without our eyesight. But I think the kids take it in stride. Life as a blind person is no more frustrating or stressful to them than life with eyesight is to us as long as they are taught the skills and given the tools they need to accomplish tasks with independence and with success.
If the adults in the child's life understand the progression of the skills the blind child is learning, they can help move the child along and bring the day of independence closer and closer. The bottom line is, we've got to work ourselves out of a job!
Author's Note: With heartfelt thanks to Debbie DeHaven, instructional assistant, whose creative ideas, good judgment, and spirit of partnership enabled my daughter to speed along on that road to independence.
My References – Geoff Bowen:
Carol Castellano The Blind Child in the Regular Elementary Classroom: www.nfb.org/fr/fr1/96sum.ht.
Clark, L. (1998) SOS HELP FOR EMOTIONS. MANAGING ANXIETY, ANGER AND DEPRESSION. Parents Press.
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Laurel Hudson Nineteen Ways to Step Back A poster available through www.afb.org
Peter Korn’s Weblog: blogs.sun.com/roller/page/korn Seligman, M. (1992) Learned Optimism. Random House Ruby Ryles, A Teachers Creed: www.nfb.org/fr/fr1/96sum.ht. Title: SHAM, Self Help and Actualisation Movement: How the Gurus of the Self-
Help Movement Make Us Helpless Author: Steve SalernoPublisher: Nicholas Brealey Publishing, 2005 The following is a url for the Radio National Program The Spirit of Things: http://www.abc.net.au/rn/spiritofthings/stories/2006/1783002.htm
Seligman, M et al (1995). The Optimistic Child. Random House. Severe, S. (1997) How to Behave So Your Children Will, Too! Bantam Books.
REFERENCES AND USEFUL INFORMATION RE. ANXIETY & CHILDREN
Publications
Fear – free children Author: Dr. Janet HallPublisher: Finch Publishing Sydney 2001
Helping your Anxious Child: a step by step guide for parents Author: Ronald M. Rapee, Sue Spence, Vanessa Cobham, Ann Wignall Publisher: New Harbinger Publications 2000 Written by a team at the Macquarie University Anxiety Research Unit (MUARU)
Worry by Edward M. Hallowell, M.D., especially “The Worried Child” chapter.
Worried No More: Help and Hope For Anxious ChildrenAuthor: Aureen Pinto Wagner Ph.D.Publisher: A Lighthouse Press Book 2002
Worried No More: Teaching Tools and Forms on CDAuthor: Aureen Pinto Wagner Ph.D.Publisher: A Lighthouse Press Book 2005
Other books on particular topics
Teaching the Tiger: A Handbook for Individuals Involved in the Education of Students with Attention Deficit Disorders, Tourette Syndrome, or Obsessive- Compulsive Disorder by Marilyn Dornbush and Sheryl Pruitt.
The Boy Who Couldn't Stop Washing: the Experience and Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder by Judith Rapoport, M.D.
Freeing Your Child from Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder by Tamar E. Chansky, Ph.D.
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School Refusal: Assessment and Intervention within School Settings by Mary B. Wimmer, Ph.D.
Websites
ADAVIC: Anxiety Disorders Association of VictoriaThis is an excellent website with lots of suggestions and advice for anxiety suffers, good professional Psychology and Psychiatry practitioners in Victoria and they give regular excellent talks about anxiety and related problems around Melbourne and Victoria.http://www.adavic.org/index.htm
Reach Out! Award winning Australian website for young people http://www.reachout.com.au/home.asp
Australian Infant, Child, Adolescent and Family Mental Health Association Ltd (AICAFMHA) http://www.aicafmha.net.au/index.htm
MUARU – Macquarie University Anxiety research Unit This page has resources plus a collection of Australian and international links to child anxiety resources.http://www.psy.mq.edu.au/MUARU/sitemap.htm
Panic and Anxiety Disorders Assistance (PADA) Melbourne based non-profit organization. PADA offers individual and group counselling sessions. http://www.pada.org.au
Some Other Useful References and Programs
1. Biddulp, S. (1995). Manhood. Finch Publishing.2. Biddulp, S. (1997). Raising Boys. Finch Publishing3. Bruce, Elizabeth J. and Schultz, Cynthia L Nonfinite Loss and Grief: A
Psychoeducational Approach. Elsevier Available through The Emotional Health Centre 9/148 Chesterville Rd., Cheltenham VIC, 9553 7127
4. Cairns, W. (2008) How To Live Dangerously – Why We Should All Stop Worrying And Start Living Macmillan
5. Clark, L. (1998) SOS HELP FOR EMOTIONS. MANAGING ANXIETY, ANGER AND DEPRESSION. Parents Press. (excellent for adults to help them manage their emotions more effectively and thus parent more effectively)
6. Greene, R. W. (2005) The Explosive Child a New Approach for Understanding and Parenting Easily Frustrated and Chronically Inflexible Children Harper
7. Grose, M. (1992) One Step Ahead. A guide For Parents. Text Publishing Co.8. Hall.J. (2001) Fear-free children Finch Publishing9. Irvine, J. (1994). Coping With the Family. Sun Australia.10. Montgomery, B and Morris, L. (1988) Getting On With Your Teenagers and
Getting On With Your Oldies (Companion Volume For The Teenager). Lothian. 11. Salerno, S (2006)Sham: How the Self-Help Movement Made America
Helpless Paperback 12. Seligman, M. (1992) Learned Optimism. Random House.
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13. Seligman, M et al (1995). The Optimistic Child. Random House.14. Severe, S. (1997) How to Behave So Your Children Will, Too! Bantam Books.15. Shure, Myrna B. Ph.D. with Theresa Foy Digeronimo, M.ED (2007) Raising a
Thinking Child - Help Your Young Child to Resolve Everyday Conflicts and Get Along with Others The "I Can Problem Solve" Program. FSB Associates
16. Shure, Myrna B. Ph.D (2004) Thinking Parent, Thinking Child How to Turn Your Most Challenging Everyday Problems into Solutions The "I Can Problem Solve" Program. FSB Associates
17. Turecki, S and Tonner, L (1989). The Difficult Child. Bantum Books.18. Williamson, P. (1990) Good Kids Bad Behaviour. Helping Children Learn Self
Discipline. Simon and Schuster.
Bullying and Teasing
1. Field, E (2007) Bully Blocking Six secrets to help children deal with teasing and bullying (An Australian Publication!)
2. Freedman, J (2002) Easing the Teasing Helping your child cope with name-calling, ridicule and verbal bullying
3. Schab, L (2009) Cool, Calm and Confident A workbook to help kids learn assertiveness skills
There are good resources available through the Victorian Parenting Centre (Phone: 96394111). This centre in Victoria coordinates the excellent Positive Parenting Program produced by Department of Human Services. Parentzone, also, is a useful resource and they run excellent parenting programs (Peoplemaking 375 Camberwell Road, Camberwell (Phone: 03 98132533) and The Human Condition Bookstore Level One, 288 High Street Kew (Phone: 03 9855 2220) have the best collections of self help books and books re. children in Melbourne.
Self-Determination (http://www.washington.edu/doit/MathSci/self.html)
When teachers work with students who have disabilities in their classes, they should talk with them about how their disabilities affect their learning and performance and discuss accommodation options. These students are (or should be becoming) experts on their disabilities. Including them in the accommodation process will help them develop skills that are essential as they transition to self-determined adult lives.
Listen to the Experts
Participants in the DO-IT Scholars program develop problem-solving skills while still in high school. Following is an example of an activity that helped them develop self-determination skills during a Summer Study session at the University of Washington.
After a long day of activities on a hot summer afternoon in the DO-IT Summer Study program at the University of Washington, DO-IT Scholars came together to discuss learning strategies. All of the participants in this group were dealing with learning issues as a result of their disabilities. Disabilities represented included specific learning disabilities, Attention-Deficit Disorder (ADD), Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Tourette's Syndrome, and head injury. First, Scholars shared ways in which
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their disabilities have impacted their ability to learn. Impacts Scholars mentioned included that they
are slow at taking tests, read slowly, have messy handwriting, have difficulty expressing thoughts in writing, feel frustrated, are unorganized, are easily distracted, feel stupid, and feel overwhelmed.
They all agreed that although their disabilities impact their ability to learn in a typical classroom, they have the ability to learn. They listed strategies that help them succeed in academics in spite of their learning challenges. These strategies allow them to work to their full potential and demonstrate their abilities. Solutions Scholars mentioned during this brainstorming session include
asking the instructor to suggest strategies for succeeding in the class, working in an environment with a minimum of distractions, studying during times of the day when they have the most energy, arranging for extended time on tests, taking tests orally, outlining ideas and information while reading or reviewing notes, using different colored pens to highlight key points, using colored transparent screens to cover pages or computer screens while
reading, using a computer (especially word processors and spelling checkers), using a large-print font on the computer, using a grammar checker, utilizing study groups, taking breaks from reading to keep their minds fresh, taping lectures, reading out loud or having someone else read to them, getting notes from the teacher or another person in the class, and using a class planner.
The participants in the group discovered that they have some shared solutions and some unique solutions. They found that a solution that makes a difference for one person might not help another. They also learned that they need to be active in helping to figure out what works for them and in determining which strategies they can implement and which accommodations need to be requested from a teacher. Although others can make suggestions, it's important for students with disabilities to try out accommodations and decide whether or not they are effective. They need to become experts on their disabilities and the unique accommodations that will work for them. Additionally, it is critical that educators work with them to further develop accommodation and self-advocacy skills.
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Teaching Students to Take Charge
We often hear about the problems young people with disabilities face—physical obstacles, social rejection, academic failure, and medical crises. Yet some people do overcome significant challenges and lead successful lives. What does "success" mean to them, and how do they achieve it? What internal characteristics do these individuals possess, and what external factors have been present in their lives? What advice do they have to help young people build personal strengths to overcome the challenges they no doubt will face?
Read the publication and view the video presentation Taking Charge: Stories of Success and Self-Determination for insights from successful young people and adults with disabilities. These insights can help you understand how people can learn to lead self-determined lives.
What is self-determination? There are many definitions to choose from. The following definition is concise and incorporates a number of common themes found in other definitions.
Self-determination is a combination of skills, knowledge, and beliefs that enable a person to engage in goal-directed, self-regulated, autonomous behavior. An understanding of one's strengths and limitations together with a belief in oneself as capable and effective are essential to self-determination. When acting on the basis of these skills and attitudes, individuals have greater ability to take control of their lives and assume the role of successful adults (Field et al., 1998, p. 115).
Gaining control over your life involves learning and then successfully applying a number of self-determination skills, such as goal setting, understanding your abilities and disabilities, problem solving, and self-advocacy. The personal process of learning, using, and self-evaluating these skills in a variety of settings is at the heart of self-determination.
The content of the Taking Charge: Stories of Success and Self-Determination publication and video is organized around the following advice synthesized from hundreds of responses of the successful young people and adults with disabilities who contributed:
1. Define success for yourself.
2. Set personal, academic, and career goals. Keep your expectations high. 3. Understand your abilities and disabilities. Play to your strengths. 4. Develop strategies to meet your goals. 5. Use technology as an empowering tool. 6. Work hard. Persevere. Be flexible. 7. Develop a support network. Look to family, friends, and teachers.
Young people with disabilities can find the experiences of others useful as they set their course toward successful, self-determined lives.
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Mentoring
Most of us can think of people in our lives, more experienced than ourselves, who have supplied information, offered advice, presented a challenge, initiated friendship, or simply expressed an interest in our development as a person. Without their intervention, we may have remained on the same path, perhaps continuing a horizontal progress through our academic, career, or personal lives.
Along the way, adult mentors can help students with disabilities achieve success in STEM. Mentors provide direction and encouragement. They instill values and promote achievement. They can also help students develop self-advocacy and leadership skills. However, constraints imposed by time, distance, and disability make such relationships difficult to initiate.
View the video presentation and read the publication Opening Doors: Mentoring on the Internet to hear firsthand about the value of mentoring and about how using the Internet for communication can overcome challenges imposed by time, distance, and disability. View the video DO-IT Pals and read the publication with the same title to learn about a DO-IT program for online peer or mentor support available to any teen with a disability.
DO-IT has conducted a research study on the nature and value of electronic mentoring (Burgstahler & Cronheim, 2001). More than twelve thousand electronic mail messages were collated, coded, and analyzed; surveys were distributed, and focus groups were conducted. Results of the study suggest that computer-mediated communication can be used to initiate and sustain both peer-peer and mentor-protégé relationships. On the Internet, young people can receive support from peers and adults otherwise difficult to reach, as well as connect to a rich collection of science and math resources. Participants experience benefits over other types of communication, including the ability to communicate over great distances quickly, easily, conveniently, and inexpensively; the elimination of the barriers of distance and schedule; the ability to communicate with more than one person at one time; and the opportunity to meet people from all over the world. Students with disabilities also report the added value that people treat them equally because they are not immediately aware of their disabilities.
To help teenagers with disabilities meet other students with disabilities and develop mentoring relationships with adults who have disabilities, encourage them to join the DO-IT electronic community. They can check into the DO-IT Pals program, in which teens with disabilities communicate year-round with each other and with mentors via the Internet. For information about these and other programs, select Programs at http://www.washington.edu/doit/, or send electronic mail to http://www.washington.edu/doit/Brochures/mailto.html.
For more information about self-determination and related topics, consult AccessSTEM at http://www.washington.edu/doit/Stem/.
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Preparing Students for College and Careers
Because of their disabilities, some adults have lives that do not include many of the experiences of their nondisabled peers, including attending college and attaining a career. Increased awareness of the rights and contributions of individuals with disabilities has resulted in a growing concern about expanding their postsecondary options.
Transitions from high school to college and careers include three phases:
preparing for college, including preparations that occur in high school; staying in college, which requires numerous self-management skills; and preparing for moving beyond college and to a career.
Read the publication and view the video presentation College: You Can DO-IT! for ideas regarding how you can help prepare students for college. For guidance on preparing students for successful transitions from two-year to four-year postsecondary institutions, view the video and read the publication Moving On: The Two-Four Step.
In addition, the videos and handouts Learn and Earn: Tips for Teens and Learn and Earn: Supporting Teens (relevant to precollege programs), as well as It's Your Career and Access to the Future (relevant to college programs) provide guidelines for helping students with disabilities prepare for careers and on making career development services accessible to students with disabilities. Information about fully including students with disabilities in work-based learning programs can be found in the video and publications titled Finding Gold: Hiring the Best and the Brightest.
View the videos Working Together: Faculty and Students with Disabilities and Building the Team: Faculty, Staff, and Students Working Together and read the publications Working Together: Faculty and Students with Disabilities and Working Together: K-12 Teachers and Students with Disabilities to learn about how students with disabilities can work with K-12 and college instructors in order to achieve success.
Helpful Communication Hints
Treat people with disabilities with the same respect and consideration with which you treat others. There are no strict rules when it comes to relating to people with disabilities. However, here are some helpful hints.
General Guidelines Ask a person with a disability if he/she needs help before providing assistance. Talk directly to the person with a disability, not through the person's companion
or interpreter. Refer to a person's disability only if it is relevant to the conversation. If so, refer to
the person first and then the disability. "A man who is blind" is better than "a blind man" because it emphasizes the person first.
Avoid negative descriptions of a person's disability. For example, "a person who uses a wheelchair" is more appropriate than "a person confined to a wheelchair." A wheelchair is not confining— it's liberating!
Ask for permission before you interact with a person's guide dog or service animal.
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Visual Impairments Be descriptive for people with visual impairments. Say, "The computer is about
three feet to your left," rather than "The computer is over there." When guiding people with visual impairments, offer them your arm rather than
grabbing or pushing them.
Learning Disabilities Offer directions/instruction both orally and in writing. If asked, read instructions to
individuals who have specific learning disabilities.
Mobility Impairments Sit or otherwise position yourself at the approximate height of people sitting in
wheelchairs when you interact.
Speech Impairments Listen carefully. Repeat what you think you heard and then ask the person with a
speech impairment to clarify and/or repeat the portion that you did not understand.
Deaf or Hard of Hearing Face people with hearing impairments so they can see your lips. Speak clearly at a normal volume. Speak more loudly only if requested. Use paper and pencil if the person who is deaf does not read lips or if more
accurate communication is needed. In groups raise hands to be recognized, so the person who is deaf knows who is
speaking.
Psychiatric Impairments Provide information in clear, calm, respectful tones. Allow opportunities for addressing specific questions.
Tips for Preservice/Inservice Instruction in Self-Determination
When instructing preservice or inservice teachers, emphasize the importance of promoting self-determination for all students but particularly for students with disabilities. Teachers can help students prepare for postsecondary studies and adult life by:
involving students in the accommodation process, thereby helping them become experts on their disabilities, good problem solvers, and self-advocates;
keeping expectations high for students with disabilities; talking to students about college and career goals and steps for reaching them;
and encouraging students to actively participate in academic and career preparation
activities and use assistive technology as an empowering tool.
Geoff Bowen Psychologist
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BSc (Hons.), Dip. Ed., Dip. Special Ed., MAPSAHPRA Registration Number: PSY0001118289Statewide Vision Resource Centre
2016
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