selected papers from the 25th international conference on college teaching and learning

SELECTED PAPERS

from the

25th International Conference on College Teaching and Learning

The Center for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning

SELECTED PAPERS from the

25th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE on

COLLEGE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Florida State College at Jacksonville

Selected Conference Papers

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Copyright 2014, Florida State College at

Jacksonville. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form by any means without prior written permission from the publisher, with the following exceptions: 1) authors of papers published in this volume may reproduce copies of their own articles as indicated in the Publishing Agreement; and 2) reviewers may quote brief passages in review.

ISSN 2333-391X Center for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning Florida State College at Jacksonville 501 W. State Street Jacksonville, FL 32202


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CONTENTS Foreword vi

Using a Multi-Perspective Design Team to Develop and Manage Multi-Layered Online Courses

Nella Bea Anderson Lori Poole Stephanie Quinn Carrie L. Schlicht Colorado State University—Global Campus 1

Using Cooperative Learning in the Changing Environment of Education

Chip D. Baumgardner Penn College 27

Creating New Business Models— Powered by Technology, Driven by Learning

Chris Birch University of Greenwich Jessica Lichy IDRAC, Lyon 46


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Social Emotional Identity in Cognitive Learning for University Students Fifty to Seventy-six Years as a Precept to Developing Critical Thinking Skills

Martha Anita Connelly 67 The iPad Classroom Experience: Implications for Teaching and Learning

Ronda G. Henderson Middle Tennessee State University 98

The Functionality and Feasibility of Flipping* Jennifer G. Hoffman University of Charleston 112

Developing an “Active” Workshop on . . . Active Learning

Eva Olysha Magruder Santa Fe College 127

A College Education: Is It Worth It?

Bud McClure University of Minnesota, Duluth 142


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Student Exam Performance in a Flipped Class Module

Richard Pierce Shenandoah University 163

Envisioning Success: Results from an Exceptionalities Awareness Campaign at an Urban-Serving Midwest University

Donna M. Sayman Mandy E. Lusk Wichita State University 179

Exploring the Lab and Its Role in Online STEM Courses

Bobbie Seyedmonir Marshall University 214

Using Virtual Models as Visualizations in a Freshman Nursing Chemistry Course

Weslene Tallmadge Betty Jo Chitester Gannon University 233

Contributors 247

* Best Paper Award from the Conference


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FOREWORD

The Center for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning (CATL) was developed in 1987 when the College accepted K. Patricia Cross' challenge to use the classroom as a modern laboratory for conducting experiments to gauge the impact of teaching on student learning.

The philosophy of the Center for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning is that teachers are a vital key to improving student learning; the Center is therefore composed of faculty members under the guidance of a steering committee which consists of faculty from each of the five major campuses of the College. Part of the Center's success can be attributed to the numerous opportunities given to faculty to test their ideas on how to improve learning and to put research results into practice.

Center Steering Committee members serve as Campus Mentors and as sponsors of faculty development programs, both college-wide and on each campus. The Center also supports professional development and sponsors a number of awards honoring teaching faculty. The Center itself has been the recipient of an award—the Theodore M. Hesburgh Certificate of Excellence—for its faculty development programs.

In an effort to stimulate creative discussion and promote experimentation to improve the teaching/learning process, as well as to honor those who have already significantly improved learning in higher education, the Center annually sponsors an international conference. The conference features recognized


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educational leaders in diverse areas of teaching, learning and technology. Since its inception, the conference has grown steadily and now attracts nearly 900 scholars annually from around the world. This publication, Selected Papers, was created as a result of Center interest in honoring faculty who develop some of the most outstanding contributions to the conference. It also preserves and makes available the contributions made to the teaching profession as a whole.

Many people are responsible for the success of the annual conference. We would like to thank all participants, including featured speakers and workshop leaders; presenters from universities, liberal arts, and state and community colleges throughout the world; faithful attendees; and Florida State College faculty and staff who give so generously of their time and efforts each year to help the conference continue its success.

Both the international conference and the Selected Papers journal have increased in growth and focus over the years. This year's publication contains articles selected as the best papers of those submitted to the 25th International Conference on College Teaching and Learning; they represent a cross-section of several hundred faculty presentations. All papers submitted for consideration in this year's journal were reviewed by the Florida State College faculty members listed below. Papers were judged on the following criteria:

• Quality of content • Quality of writing and presentation • Focus of the paper (i.e., teaching, learning,

technology • Discipline


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• Appeal to an audience of professional, post-secondary educators

• Theoretical or practical applications We hope you will find the ideas presented here

applicable and inspirational to your own teaching, learning and research. Please plan to join us at the 26th International Conference on College Teaching and Learning.

Marilyn Metzcher-Smith Susan Reilly

Professor of English Professor of Economics

Jason Gibson Jacqueline Mack Professor of Humanities Professor of Dental Programs


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Using a Multi-Perspective Design Team

to Develop and Manage

Multi-Layered Online Courses

Nella Bea Anderson Lori Poole

Stephanie Quinn Carrie L. Schlicht

Colorado State University—Global Campus

Introduction Online distance learning has the potential to

transform higher education more dramatically than any of its predecessor technologies. It opens discussion on long institutionalized practices in higher education, practices that largely determine its cost and effectiveness (Olsen, pp. 221-222).

The educational trend toward online learning began

more than three decades ago (Perry & Pilati, 2011). Since then, this shift in the pedagogy paradigm from the physical classroom to cyberspace has tried numerous ways to keep up with the ever-changing needs of the instructor, student, and educational institutions. Developing courses to meet the needs of online learners has become imperative in the transformation of higher education. But how is this goal best accomplished?


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Through group discussions, critical thinking papers, multiple-choice quizzes, or group assignments, students who opt to take online classes are offered a myriad of methods to learn. But are they really learning? Is online education leading to student achievement? The method outlined in this position paper presents the course development model successfully being used at Colorado State University’s Global Campus and illustrates the critical actions this institution has taken that have led to a multi-level method for designing courses to ensure continued student achievement and satisfaction, as well as instructor involvement and pedagogy.

Colorado State University—Global Campus (CSU-GC) is the premier provider of innovative, higher learning opportunities for nontraditional students in Colorado and beyond. CSU-GC was established on Aug. 24, 2007, by the Colorado State University System Board of Governors with a central purpose of meeting the educational needs of adult learners in the state of Colorado and beyond by providing high quality online programs (CSUglobal.edu, 2013). CSU-GC is the first statutorily defined 100% online public university in the United States. It has a distinctive focus on the success of adult, non-traditional learners. From its first class of almost 200 students in 2008, CSU-GC has now grown to have a student body of over 7,051 students with more than 500 new enrollments admitted each term (CSUglobal.edu, 2013). The university specializes in providing access to students who cannot take part in a traditional campus setting.

CSU-GC’s mission is to invest in human capital, expand the state economy, and enhance the quality of life for citizens in the state of Colorado and beyond by


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providing access to dynamic degree programs characterized by courses that are practice-based, industry-relevant, and interactive. It achieves this mission through an instructional model that, while not necessarily unique in contemporary online college design components, is constant in its ongoing commitment to the execution of those components. The instructional model is, indeed, the heart of CSU-GC’s success, driving its culture in a symbiotic relationship that parallels no other online institution of higher learning.

Background: CSU-Global Standards

CSU-GC is committed to the development of

quality online courses and processes. All courses are designed and implemented to ensure that CSU-GC promotes student engagement and provides learners with the tools and information they need to be successful. Courses are based on the best practices identified in the research literature as well as sound instructional design principles and standards. The process of maintaining and upholding courses to these standards involves continuous quality improvement that is faculty-driven and implemented via a peer-review process. Alignment of learning objectives, assessments, resources, student engagement, and technology all contribute to the success of CSU-GC students. Additionally, faculty play a pivotal part in the execution and delivery of the learning.

Methodology: Multi-Dimensional Course

Development


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Although Dewey (1916) wrote a century ago about meaningful education and “hopeful alternatives to the regime of standardization and mechanization,” his work has never been more relevant than today, as traditional schools turn more and more to the online environment to deliver instruction. CSU-GC has crafted an instructional model that not only fits nicely into Dewey’s classical mantra of “education as life itself” with its dedication to practical, applied learning, but also supports Darling-Hammond’s (2001) belief that good instruction is connected not only to practice but also to theory. CSU-GC’s multi-dimensional approach to learning, its strategies for implementing the approach, and the process by which it achieves the institutional mission drive the instructional model, which is inherently progressive and undeniably effective (See Appendix A).

CSU-GC understands that the life of the working adult student is often filled with complex demands ranging from job and family responsibilities to other life issues, which can impede the learning process. CSU-GC’s course schedule is crafted around a dedicated mantra: any course, any semester, any session. CSU-GC’s purposeful approach to learning includes a curriculum with a streamlined format; all courses are eight weeks in length, with eight learning modules, eight discussion board assignments, six to seven critical thinking assignments, and one final portfolio project. This repetitive design helps students be familiar with the format of every course so that time can be spent not on platform navigation and style acclimation but rather on concept attainment. The purposeful learner with steady course and swift degree completion in mind finds compatibility and satisfaction with CSU-GC, a


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purposeful institution of higher learning committed to the process of continually improving student learning and the teaching and learning process. The strategic curriculum further supports the purposeful learner.

Dimension One: Students

The curriculum at CSU-GC is student-centered, resulting in both problem-based and project-based learning, making this a student-centered approach. The curriculum at CSU-GC offers opportunities for learning that is relevant to students, where students engage in finding solutions to complex and challenging problems. CSU-GC students connect disciplinary knowledge to real-world problems, thus increasing students’ motivation to learn.

The curriculum at CSU-GC presents students with similar challenges to those they might encounter as a practitioner in the discipline. Discussion board questions offer a two-pronged approach to the course content. The first component of each question asks for content knowledge; the second asks for practical application and allows students to share either hypothetical or actual personal, business, and/or community-related experiences. Critical thinking assignments ask students to apply their theoretical and working knowledge of the course content to specific industry-relevant scenarios in order to improve processes and increase efficiency for said organizations. Final portfolio projects require students to weave all course concepts into one comprehensive presentation to demonstrate their competence in core learning outcomes.


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Perhaps one of biggest opportunities for CSU-GC was the realization that course offerings needed significant revision. Through focus groups consisting of faculty and students, student semester course evaluations, and efforts of the Online Teaching and Learning (OTL) teaching team, significant improvements have been and continue to be made to the OTL courses. The ongoing review of this culminating course and associated project parameters helped CSU-GC develop a comprehensive instructional design process resulting in an instructional model steeped in participatory tenets. This revision process led to the creation of new courses and revision of existing courses that are now more participatory in nature.

All courses undergo a full review and revision cycle every 12-18 months to determine content relevance to student and industry needs as well as technology innovation. Quality Matters Standards play a significant role in the development and revision process at CSU-GC. Knowing that student success is heavily related to building community in an online program, Spinks (2007) recommended that designers build in opportunities to create community and academic self-efficacy. The Instructional Design Team at CSU-GC considers compatibility with all student learning styles, and seeks ways to increase interactions between students and instructors, students and their classmates, and students and the technology. This participatory model results in a cross-cultural, media-infused yet human-driven, positive sense of community.

Recognizing that students need to be prepared for success in a global society, the incorporation of advanced interactive modules, infused multi-media,


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content with international flair including current industry and problem-based case studies, and reduced students costs through text-book free courses have resulted in courses that are intellectually stimulating and participative in nature (See Appendix A). Students are expected to use problem-solving, critical thinking, and questioning skills during course interaction with colleagues and instructors and with content designed to make learning rigorous and relevant. Consequently, student and faculty engagement, overall satisfaction, and success rates remain high.

Dimension Two: Courses

The course structure in the Master’s in Teaching

and Science Degree is structured to align with the Quality Matters online course standards. Each course is offered for 8 weeks, with a new section beginning every 4 weeks. The course is designed around one learning module per week. Within each learning module are an overview that includes the learning outcomes for that module, required readings, module content, and critical thinking discussion questions. The number of assignments within a course is dependent on the course content but all courses are required to culminate in a portfolio assignment.

CSU-GS instituted a course revision initiative in summer of 2013 to ensure that all courses are developed to include internationalization, interactivity, multimedia, 800-1,500 word module content length, course readings and materials that are current—no more than 3-5 years old, practice-based assignments, and rubrics directly aligned to assignment requirements. Each program


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within the University will undergo a comprehensive assessment, in addition to the on-going program assessments, that includes multiple stakeholders (e.g., Program Coordinator, program faculty, program students, Program Dean, University Provost, current industry professionals, current industry professional organizations and businesses, etc.). Teaching and Learning is the first program to go through this comprehensive revision process, including all required CORE courses and all specialization options (32 courses). This comprehensive program revision process, versus individual course revisions, has allowed for more cohesion between courses in the CORE and specializations.

Dimension Three: Revisions

To begin the comprehensive revision process stakeholders were engaged in conversations around skills needed to be effective educators. The stakeholders involved in these conversations were Program Coordinator, program faculty, program students, Program Dean, University Provost, current industry professionals, current industry professional organizations, and businesses. In addition, on-going program assessment was analyzed for patterns or trends around the revised University-wide course development goals and educator effectiveness standards. Literature relevant to K-12 educator effectiveness in their daily practices was also used to assess current curriculum and learning outcomes. During the revision process, the Program Coordinator and Instructional Designer remained consistent leads across all 32 program courses.


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This consistency allowed for a unified message to be communicated across Instructional Designers and Content Experts to ensure that the course revisions result in purposeful, participatory, and project-based courses throughout every course in the Teaching & Learning Program. The Program Coordinator in collaboration with the Dean of Professional Studies, Provost, and Instructional Designer developed a Program Analysis Report (PAR) and Program Design Document (PDD). The purpose of these documents is to gain a variety of perspectives that will guide the current program design and proposed program scope and direction.

The PAR and PDD also allowed for an identification of courses and/or specializations that needed to be sent back through the Governance Council and the University’s Curriculum Committee in order to meet the needs of students at different points in their careers as educators and determine how best to differentiate the learning experience to make the learning relevant to each of them. For example, the current program had a common capstone experience that is seen in many education master’s programs. In making the curriculum more project-based and relevant to educators, the Action Research course was revised to focus on educators making evidence-based decisions in their process, programs, and practices and using that evidence to guide their daily actions. Also, in the revised program students are given the choice for a culminating experience, allowing for more differentiated and personalized learning options. In the revised program, students can have an opportunity to integrate and synthesize their learning across the program curriculum in various ways that best match their career goals (e.g.,


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Research-Based Professional Project or Researching Effective Educational Programs).

Based on the level of revisions courses were identified as needing, Content Experts were hired to develop the course content based on the program scope and direction. During the course design there are multiple levels of expertise involved. In addition to the Program Coordinator, Instructional Designer, and Content Expert, there is a Finisher, Multimedia Designer, and Quality Assurance Reviewer.

Table 1. Course Design Roles and Responsibilities

Course Design Steps

Expertise/Role Responsibility

One Content Expert (CE)

Writes course content, develops assessments and discussion questions, and any other needed items for class

Two Instructional Designer (ID)

Works with the CE to ensure outcome alignment, provides suggestions for interactivity and multimedia, reads modules for student perspectives, copy edits, and provides general support and project coordination


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Three Program Coordinator (PC)

Approves the Course Design Document (CDD) and typically module 1; may help hire the CE or provide recommendations for the CE, acts as the final reviewer/approver of the course. **If the PC is also the CE, someone else is hired to fill the role of reviewer/approver

Four Finisher Does the first round of quality assurance checks after all of the course documents are completed; manages the copy and APA/copyright compliance edits and processes the final documents that are sent in for production

Five Multimedia Designer (MMD)

Builds the course in the LMS and implements any necessary changes after the QA reports come back


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Analysis and Findings

Hattie (2012) found that determining if students have attained success on the identified program outcomes requires using evidence of student learning from the student’s perspective, instructor’s perspective,

Six Quality Assurance (QA) reviewer

Does QA on the course after it’s built in the LMS; two levels of review: Instructional, which looks at everything from a design/instruction stand point (do things make sense; are they in the right spot; are there glaring errors on the page, etc.). and Functional (where every link is clicked and each document opened to ensure it all works properly for the student)

Seven Development Team (i.e., CE, ID, PC)

Looks at the course in the LMS and provide sfeedback

Eight Multimedia Designer (MMD)

Implements all changes discovered in the QA review


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curricular perspective, and a formative and summative perspective.


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Table 2. Formative and Summative Program Assessment Results from Fall 2012, Spring 2013, and Fall 2013 MSTL—A Comparison

Fall 2013 MSTL Program Assessment Data The data reveal that students’ performance on

program outcomes 1-5 has remained consistent. The students were able to meet learning expectations across three semesters—fall 2012-spring 2013, with none of the outcomes being less than 91%. Outcome 6 has had a steady decline in students’ ability to meet expectations, with a three semester low of 70% in fall 2013. Further analysis of program data aligned with outcome 6 reveal 12 areas where the ratings fell between 80-89%.


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Table 3. Student Evaluations

When analyzing the program assessment data, across all program courses, the students were able to demonstrate an ability to analyze content, critically think, demonstrate college-level proficiency in organization, grammar, style, and use research to support their thinking. The skills were demonstrated above 90% in all program courses, with the exception of OTL568 Action Research and OTL599 Capstone. Based on the assessment data, it appears that the course content in these two courses needs to be analyzed and revised.

In addition to student perceptions and program assessment analysis, courses are also reviewed to ensure alignment with research-based, rigorous, and relevant curriculum to prepare educators to meet educator quality expectations. All Teaching and Learning courses (with the exception of the capstone course) in the CORE program are rated 3.50 or higher from a student perspective as being both rigorous and relevant to their professional careers as educators.


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Students also provided comments about how the course could be improved from their perspectives. Some examples of comments included the following:

• “Would love to have a choice for final assessments as students have diverse levels of experiences.”

• “The course could be improved with more interactive or applicable assignments.”

• “Provide examples of what is expected.” • “Videos or real world examples.” • “This course was well designed and very relevant

to my practice. I appreciate the real world application of the critical thinking assignments.”

• “I noticed an improvement in my comprehension level of the material when the weekly critical thinking assignment was altered from a typical paper to a more interactive assessment.”

• “Choice in assignments.” • “I think that the assignments were beneficial and

applicable to my work. I never felt like I was wasting my time… each assignment was thought provoking in a different way.”

The instructor’s perspective was also assessed by providing them with a Google Form for all of the courses in the Teaching & Learning Program for them to provide input for needed revisions based on student learning. Instructor feedback consisted of content, research-based effective teaching practices, ordering of instruction of concepts, project-based ideas, collaboration approaches that would facilitate learning, and more relevant educational practices and processes to address issues that schools are currently facing.


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Research on effective instructional practices, relevant standards, and educator effectiveness criteria were used to assess the program from the curricular perspective. Examples of this include analyzing the work of John Hattie (2012). He synthesized over 800 education articles that included 200+ million students and identified various influences on student achievement. The 12 Touchstones of Good Teaching by Goodwin & Hubbell (2013) was reviewed. A gap analysis of the curriculum was performed using the components of The Framework for Teaching by the Danielson Group, which is a research-based set of components of instruction, aligned to the INTASC standards. In addition to relevant content, the curricular perspective also included assessing for internationalization, interactivity, multimedia, student costs, module length, currency of case studies and materials, practice-based assessments, rubric alignment, and certification and/or industry alignment.

Based on the feedback and analysis of the curriculum from the various perspectives of all courses in the Teaching & Learning CORE program curriculum, course descriptions, outcomes, and content are being revised to increase expectations around students’ ability to write professionally, critically think, and implement evidence-based practices around what they are learning in all program courses. The courses were updated to include these elements:

Internationalization. Internationalization will be integrated into every course through assignments, discussions, multimedia, and/or content. Specifically the core courses will address educational practices,


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standards, and progress in other countries with successful educational programs.

Interactivity. All modules, in all courses, will include interactive opportunities to engage with course content developed in our new HTML5 interactive templates, making the content both engaging and mobile-friendly.

Multimedia. Relevant, market driven multimedia content will be used in all courses and the majority of modules. When possible, these media will provide classroom examples of teachers applying the concepts being taught in the module. There will be opportunities for teachers to differentiate their learning with these videos because we have pre-service teachers, experienced teachers, IT/technology coordinators and administrators in our master's degree program, and they have very different learning needs and educational goals. Each course will also provide students with a variety of web-based resources that they can bookmark for future use.

Reduce Student Costs. Courses will be textbook free when possible, especially if the multimedia content that we find and/or purchase is of high quality. Videos of teachers modeling the strategies that are being taught in the module in K-12 classrooms can help to replace textbooks and still provide students with a “content” rich resource. If textbooks are used, they will be textbooks that teachers will be able to reference when teaching instead of traditional college textbooks.

Module Length. The modules will stay within the suggested limits of 800-1,500 words.

Currency of Case Studies and Materials. Materials in the MSTL courses will be current (less than


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5 years old) where appropriate, realizing that some education-based theories and resources that were developed previously are still relevant in the industry today. Great care will be given to each course so that students are utilizing relevant materials in their coursework for future use.

Assessment. Practice-based assignments that are market relevant will be the norm for all courses. Every course will provide students with an opportunity to implement and practice the skills and competencies they are developing in that course. Students who are not presently teaching or who are in an educational role outside of the classroom will be given support in finding a network in which to complete their practice-based work. This work will hold students to a high standard to truly develop the skills they need in order to become master educators.

Rubrics. Rubrics will be directly aligned with assignment requirements, and every assignment will have a rubric.

Certification and/or Industry Alignment. All course outcomes will be aligned with national standards for teaching and corporate training (e.g., Educator Effectiveness Rubrics, research based effective instructional practices, standards, etc.). For a culminating experience students with be provided with two course options, a Research Based Professional Project or Researching Effective Educational Programming. Throughout all courses students will learn to analyze student-learning data in order to make evidence-based program, process, or instructional decisions.


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Conclusion

As the number of students taking at least one online course increased by over 570,000 to a new total of 6.7 million in 2013 (Allen & Seaman, 2013), CSU-GC understands the importance of providing the highest possible level of instruction to students. Committing to a solid instructional model steeped in best practices research and utilizing historical data on the University’s student success rates have proven invaluable. The P-3 Instructional Model has yielded enrollment growth that is unprecedented and which continues to increase at astounding rates.

One thing is certain: in less than a decade, the Colorado State University-Global Campus has created and developed an Instructional Model that is purposeful, problem and project-based, and participatory. As Dewey (1916) stated, “Arriving at one goal is the starting point of another.” The future holds tremendous possibilities for CSU-GC.


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Appendix A CSU-GC Participatory Course Components

Consideration Components

Internationa-lization

• Internationalize 1-2 Critical Thinking assignments, when possible

• Case studies on non-U.S. companies (located outside of the U.S.)

• Interviews (video or text) with organizations in a non-U.S. location

• Discussion Board (DB) or Critical Thinking (CT) assignments that require incorporation of a non-U.S. born person, a non U.S. company, and/or published research by non-U.S. researchers

• Interactive simulations that were created outside of the U.S.

• Inclusion of quotes, statements, perspectives from non-Americans

Interactivity • Look for opportunities to increase

interactivity within course modules, examples include:

• Drag and Drops • Flip Cards • Timelines


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• “Click to Reveal” Content • Practice-based assignments and

additional options for interaction within module content

Multimedia • Incorporate additional

multimedia/video elements into courses, including “off the shelf” and CSU-G produced elements

• Voice-over narration (animated hand on chalkboard)

Textbook-Free Courses

• All courses should be evaluated to be textbook free if possible

• Cannot copy textbook chapters • Cannot use coursepacks • Article and case studies must be

accessed through library resources

• Modules may be expanded for courses without textbooks


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Current Case Studies

• Cases should be no more than 5 years old, preferably no more than 3

Reduce Student Costs

• Ensure we're not burdening students with unnecessary costs for materials and textbooks

• Establish a standardized process that will initiate a mandatory approval process for courses that contain student costs in excess of $150 unless authorized by the Provost

• Costs include textbooks, required software, lab kits, etc.

Assessments • Rubrics should be clear and aligned

with assignment requirements

Rubrics • Rubrics should be clear and aligned

with assignment requirements

• Every assignment will have its own rubric

• Gradebooks for all courses will total 1000 points


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Certification and/or Industry Alignment

• Analyze program and course learning outcomes to ensure scope tightly align with the discipline’s best practices and current industry needs

• Determine if there are any related certifications to consider regarding outcome alignment


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References

Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (2013). Changing course: Ten

years of tracking online education in the United States. Retrieved from www.onlinelearningsurvey.com/reports/changingcourse.pdf

CSU-Global Campus. (2013). CSU-Global Campus: A Public Online University. Retrieved from www.csuglobal.edu

Darling-Hammond, L. (2001). Constructing 21st-century teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 57(3), 300-314.

Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York, NY: Macmillian.

Goodwin, B., & Hubbell, E. R. (2013). The 12 touchstones of good teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development.

Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. New York, NY: Routledge. Olson, J. E. (2001). Distance learning and the transformation of higher education. Reference Librarian, 35(74), 221.

Perry, E. H., & Pilati, M. L. (2011). Online learning. New Directions for Teaching & Learning, 2011(128), 95-104. doi:10.1002/tl.472

Spinks, K. N. (2007). Predictors of success in asynchronous learning with a focus on the role of sense of classroom community. (Order No. 3277919, Walden University). ProQuest Dissertations and


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Theses, 130. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304769113?accountid=38569. (304769113).


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Using Cooperative Learning in

the Changing Environment of Education

Chip D. Baumgardner Penn College

Introduction

When fiscal tightening results in less spending on education, stakeholders clamor for inexpensive ways to improve learning. One general approach is to seek alternatives to the standard lecture. A main focus is to look for inexpensive, yet effective, strategies. Quite often this eliminates technology-based methods which tend to be somewhat expensive to implement in the classroom. A long-used but sometimes forgotten strategy is cooperative learning. In such practice, students of various abilities incorporate individual responsibility into learning as a group. The general approach has existed in various forms for a century, has a lengthy track record of success, is noted in many sources of literature, can be utilized at all levels of education, and has many champions.

In evaluating cooperative learning, it is imperative to consider its many benefits as well as reasons for utilizing it in today’s environment. Additionally, it is important to note why one can say that now is a great time for cooperative learning. A number of significant


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factors will be addressed. At that point, a series of data points provided by two years of using cooperative learning in the classroom will be offered as a basis for analysis. These class scores will serve to compare cooperative learning to other graded activities used in a number of courses. Finally, conclusions and ideas for future research should be divulged to provide a comprehensive approach to looking at this useful tool of education. The overall goal is to provide reasons for implementing cooperative learning into the strategic plan for effective education. This can be accomplished by looking at some of the benefits of cooperative learning as well as statistics obtained from using cooperative learning in various courses.

Background Information on Cooperative Learning

At a time when all educational strategies are being considered, there are many theories to be employed in the learning process. Cooperative learning has come to the forefront in many circles because of its group approach, adaptability, and easiness in promoting communication. At the present time, teachers are being trained in a number of new or revisited formats of education such as constructivism, alternative assessment, and cooperative learning (National Research Council, 2000). There are three basic ways students can interact with each other as they learn (Johnson and Johnson, 2007). They can compete to see who is “best,” work individualistically toward a goal without paying attention to other students, or work cooperatively with a vested interest in each other's learning as well as their


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own. The third idea is being touted in order to generate plenty of interest in cooperative learning.

Today’s cooperative learning can be traced back to a century of work from various individuals. For example, Kurt Lewin, considered a pioneer of modern social psychology, devised the notion of group interdependence in the 1930s and stressed the importance of interdependence from common goals in groups (1948). Additionally, he pioneered many ideas entailing key goals of groups and ways to utilize interdependence in attaining such goals (Robbins, Decenzo, and Coulter, 2013). Starting in the 1960s, David and Roger Johnson were able to build on many ideas. Because of their great efforts, the modern approach to cooperative learning came into existence. From kindergarten through college, cooperative learning has evolved into a popular strategy for education (Tsay and Brady, 2010).

One gains insight into cooperative learning by considering the myriad of definitions of the subject. Slavin (1963) notes that cooperative learning makes each group member responsible for part of the group’s task as well as being responsible for individual learning. Webb (1991) stresses individual and group accountability with equal participation. Additionally, Johnson and Johnson (2007) see it as small groups working together to accomplish shared goals (as a form of collaboration, which entails both large and small groups). Touted as an inexpensive yet viable alternative to lecture, cooperative learning seems to have potential as an effective tool for learning and teaching. It is a highly communicative group approach to education that can lead to increased learning while developing useful


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skills. Also, it is possible to work with students of different learning and knowledge levels in making significant contributions to the outcomes of a group (Webb, Nemer, & Chizhik, 1998).

With the needs of both professors and students in mind, today’s teaching and learning must be less structured and more informal, interactive, and collaborative (Dietz, 2010). With much emphasis on technology and cost-effectiveness, alternatives to traditional lecture are significant to education. Dietz notes that any form of collaboration is beneficial in meeting the challenges for teaching and learning organizations.

Benefits of Cooperative Learning

The reemergence of cooperative learning is due to the great number of benefits offered to both faculty and students. Higher education has seen a wide-reaching resurgence of cooperative learning in the classroom (Johnson, et al., 1998). In the perfect world, cost wouldn’t be considered but is important when evaluating alternatives to lecture. With cooperative learning, expenses are minimal as additional technology or other aids aren’t required for effective implementation in the classroom. In fact, numerous professors report no additional expenses when incorporating cooperative learning exercises into the typical class. In addition, cooperative learning requires minimal training for faculty members. This provides another rationale for a low-cost approach to improved education. With low cost, minimal faculty training, and easy implementation in the


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classroom, one would assume little argument is needed to defend cooperative learning.

Results from a multitude of research shows that if implemented properly, cooperative learning allows students to feel good about the learning process, increase productivity by working in groups, participate in communication, and retain more of what is learned in the experience (Johnson and Johnson, 2007). Such insight has been gathered from years of research in using cooperative learning as a formal process in education. Studies show that critical to the practice is consideration of learning objectives as part of the process, shared ownership by students in the learning process, and provision of rewards at both group and individual levels (Johnson and Johnson). In the meantime, it is also important for the educator to serve as a guide and not just as a teacher in the learning activity. One soon finds that additional results of effective cooperative learning are great retention of what is learned, communication among all members of the group, a sense of fun in the learning process, and in many cases, the desire to learn more about the topic in the future. Cooperative learning should be seen as an effective tool where all students are involved in the amount of learning that takes place. In the meantime, instructors shouldn’t see it as a day off from teaching! Cooperative learning allows students to learn from other students while having the instructor serve as both a sounding board and overseer in the procedure. As noted by Getty (2013), it is imperative to allow students to take the lead in part of the learning, as student-led discussions are paramount to education.

A plethora of strategies can be employed within cooperative learning, such as visible quiz, jigsaw, and


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send-a-problem. Cooperative education is dissimilar to lecture-based learning, as it requires a number of components that are somewhat different from the traditional lecture. According to Johnson and Johnson the widespread use of cooperative learning is due to multiple factors. Three of the most important are that cooperative learning is clearly based on theory, validated by research, and operationalized into clear procedures educators can use—all with a number of expectations, including the following:

• Positive interdependence (a sense of sink or swim together)

• Individual accountability (each of us has to contribute and learn)

• Interpersonal skills (communication, trust, leadership, decision making, and conflict resolution)

• Face-to-face interaction, and • Team processing (reflecting on how well the

team is functioning and how to function even better).

Cooperative learning fosters positive self-esteem, intrinsic motivation, and helpfulness towards peers (Johnson and Johnson). Cooperative learning also fosters greater social support and positive interpersonal relationships among adults than either competitive or individual efforts. Cooperative learning increases motivation and can facilitate higher levels of critical thinking (Hiler and Paul, 2006). Given the individual accountability, students enjoy the opportunity to work in groups with the emphasis on interdependence and the notion that cooperative learning offers such options.


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Now Is the Time to Utilize Cooperative Learning

Noting the various benefits, one can make a great argument for cooperative learning. In today’s complex environment, there are compelling reasons to utilize it as a great alternative to lecture. Along with the previously mentioned low cost, minimal faculty training, and a myriad of other traditional benefits, a number of current themes provide for an “implement it now” philosophy. This necessitates relating cooperative learning to many contemporary factors such as online education, student-centered learning, effective communication, government and stakeholder expectations, critical thinking, self-esteem, group activities, know-everything mentality, and for-profit institutions.

With online education, technology has created an environment in which work can be completed on an individual or group basis. Such technology allows for the tracking of both individual and group work so as to ensure that both take place. Ultimately, communication promotes a healthy environment where ideas can be shared, compared, and evaluated at both the individual and group levels. This bodes well for the use of cooperative learning where both individual and group work can utilize online technology. Hence, now is a great time to utilize cooperative learning as it becomes a true complement to online education.

With an emphasis on student-centered education, cooperative learning becomes a viable alternative to the traditional lecture. When used effectively, student-centered learning creates an environment that is conducive to successful learning. Educators are warming to the request for more student-centered learning. With


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cooperative learning, students can work individually and then in groups to promote ideas, share information, and gain knowledge from each other. Effective student-centered education provides critical thinking and doesn’t detract from faculty-centered education as cooperative learning can be embedded within the confines of the traditional lecture. Therefore, one can argue that now is the time to utilize cooperative learning in today’s desire for student-centered education.

At a time when stakeholders complain that technology takes away from personal communication, effective communication is promoted through the use of cooperative learning as individuals must share information at the group level. By requiring students to share ideas, all members of the group partake in communication. Additionally, professors can select specific group leaders in a way that promotes self-esteem for students who may otherwise lack in such areas. In a day where educators and employers clamor for effective communication, cooperative learning can fill the void by offering ample opportunities to gain effective communication skills. Such skills are vital to self-esteem and success in life.

As noted before, various government and stakeholder entities are looking for cost-saving measures that can improve education. Such duality is difficult as one assumes that additional expenditures are needed to improve education. Cooperative learning solves this dilemma as it allows for improved education that promotes communication and group-skills while, at the same time, not requiring additional expenditures. Whenever an effective strategy can be incorporated with


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little or no cash outlay, government and stakeholder entities approve the use of such practice in the classroom.

As employers clamor for students with critical thinking skills, Hiler and Paul (2006) remind us that cooperative learning can facilitate higher levels of reasoning. Interdependence promotes critical thinking skills that can be shared among students. Johnson and Johnson also noted that cooperative learning promotes high-level critical thinking (1998). Of course, not all students display the same level of thinking, but there can be a positive effect on all members of the group. By requiring each student to participate, critical thinking skills can be developed and communicated through cooperative learning. Students learn by testing in the small group different ideas they might not share with an entire class and by realizing there may be multiple solutions to a specific problem (Willis, 2007). As this methodology creates gains in critical thinking, one can argue that now is an opportune time to use cooperative learning.

Ideally, self-esteem wouldn’t be an issue as all students would possess sufficient amounts throughout their years of education. Regardless of age, reality tells us that self-esteem is lacking in many students. With the effective use of cooperative learning, a significant outcome is that students gain in self-esteem (Slavin, 1980). Because of individual contributions to the group process, each student realizes that value has been added. Therefore, it can be argued that the level of self-esteem rises for all participants. Subsequent cooperative learning activities could increase students’ self-esteem.

In a similar pattern, effective group skills can be attained through the use of cooperative learning. As


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students provide individual ideas within a group, such ideas become critical to the success of the group. Hence, the interdependence creates a synergy effect on group skills. Gibbs (1995) notes that students obtain a greater level of such skills when they talk and analyze as a group. In noting the definition of cooperative learning, students create interdependence where each person contributes to the outcome of the group; hence the long-term effect is that students develop group skills as a result of the activities of participating in the group.

With participants’ instant access to information, it may not be feasible for a professor to utilize the “I know everything mentality” when teaching course content. Like never before, students have access to plenty of legitimate information in all subjects. Professors soon realize that it is important to allow students to share knowledge and information, thus, making a more constructive class environment. Professors soon realize that they aren’t the sole “owners” of content and information and that they should rely on students to reciprocate information (Welmer, 2013). Cooperative learning allows for such exchange of information.

Finally, an environment of competition promoted by for-profit educational institutions creates a situation where all institutions are looking for advantageous strategies for teaching and learning. The reality is that both for-profit and not-for-profit colleges can utilize cooperative learning in an online or in-class environment. With this complex utility, one would expect many educators to consider such learning when comparing methods as part of a long-term strategy of improved education. This would hold true regardless of the profitability factor of the institution.


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Multi-Course Study of Cooperative Learning

In order to validate the use of cooperative learning

in the classroom, a sample study was conducted by using basic economics courses over a two-year period. Each course contained approximately thirty-five students (mostly freshmen). Courses were offered in both fall and spring semesters thus minimizing any seasonal and other time-based effects. The goal was to compare results of cooperative learning exercises to other grading components of the courses. Additionally, attendance was evaluated to see if cooperative learning served as an encouragement to attend class.

Three cooperative learning exercises were implemented into each of four courses. In order to create consistency, the jigsaw method was utilized for each exercise. Course mean and standard deviation scores for cooperative learning exercises are noted in Table 1. Table 1 Course Scores from Cooperative Learning Activities

Semester Course Mean SD

Spring 2012 Microeconomics 90.17 6.51

Fall 2012 Macroeconomics 95.25 3.52




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Results for all other graded activities are listed in Table 2. Table 2 Course Scores from Non-cooperative Learning Activities

Semester Course Mean SD



Spring 2013 Microeconomics 74.7 20


Results from the four classes show that students

performed better in the cooperative learning exercises as opposed to the average of all other graded activities in the classes. One may assume the interest in interdependence played a role in the scores as the cooperative learning exercises required both individual and group work. Additionally, students had to attend class in order to gain credit for the group aspect of the assignment. Thus, both participation and attendance improved as a result of the cooperative learning exercises. Would more be gained by offering additional cooperative learning exercises?

Finally, one could look at the coefficient of variation in comparing the cooperative learning exercises to those of all other activities in the courses. Such results, noted in Table 3, provide insight into


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cooperative learning offering a tighter pattern of fit in grades (less dispersion) than those of the other activities. With higher mean, lower standard deviation, and lower coefficient of variation, the cooperative learning scores appear to be quite favorable to the other scores provided in the courses. Table 3 Coefficient of Variation for all Activities

Semester Course CV CV

Cooperative All other





Drawbacks of Cooperative Learning

All strategies of teaching and learning entail a benefit and limitation comparison. With the many stated benefits, cooperative learning involves a number of limitations. One major limitation is that independent and introverted learners may feel uncomfortable when involved in the group component of cooperative learning. This should be expected for students who are distracted in group-based activities. When using a full-fledged


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cooperative strategy, part of the activity requires group interaction. Although it may not be possible to eliminate the problem, it can be minimized when using strategies where two is the maximum group size. Students with such issues tend to find it less intrusive if the group is limited to two people.

Other students may have problems relating to the cooperative approach to learning. For example, a number of instructors noted that gifted students may feel restrained by the group component of cooperative learning (Robinson, 1990). It is difficult to overcome the notion that there is nothing to gain from others in the group. The most successful argument is to remind gifted students that interaction, communication, and group problem-solving are skills that are important to personal growth. Additionally, it is of great benefit to remind students of the helpfulness when sharing personal “gifts” with others.

One other group involves the students who see nothing to gain from group activities as these students would rather accomplish things on their own in order to be in control of their own destinies. Such individuals don’t see the merits of group work and want to be in control of the ultimate outcomes. Students in this category often fail to see the true benefits of cooperative learning and generally aren’t “team players” in other activities.

In a similar fashion, introverts must be considered when offering cooperative learning exercises. Quite often such students may prefer to work completely alone and discover their best ideas in solitude; these students may also enjoy the comfort of the lecture hall over group-based assignments (Monahan, 2013). Introverts


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look at participation, group assignments, and other activities in a fashion different from the typical student. By no means do we look down upon such students, but we should consider their needs as we design activities for our courses without putting specific students at a disadvantage.

Past experience shows that educators pose a limitation in that cooperative learning, if administered improperly, offers few gains and can be a hindrance to education. Various workshops, seminars, and experiences provide numerous examples of misrepresentation of what is considered cooperative learning. This is most widespread when educators mistake group work for cooperative learning. A critical divide exists between these two tools of education as individuals shouldn’t misinterpret one for the other. If group work is misconstrued as cooperative learning, it could trivialize the many benefits associated with using cooperative learning in the classroom.

Finally, educators who are sold on the lecture method will argue against the use of cooperative strategies. One would expect such resistance as the pedagogical focus on teaching has been in existence for centuries (Weimer, 2013). It is possible to look at teaching from another focus, that being the excessive dependence on the lecture as the primary method of instruction. According to Weimer, the reality of so many students coming to college without important learning skills has forced individuals to stimulate an interest in learning and help us to realize that we place too much emphasis on teaching. This allows us to consider many of the student-centered strategies such as cooperative learning. Additionally, it is important to remind the


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lecture-insistent educators that they should continue as active participants in the cooperative learning process (Willis, 2007).

Conclusions And Ideas For Future Research

With government budgets that are limited and

stakeholders who demand results, educators are required to incorporate alternative strategies of education that offer effective results. Cooperative learning is an alternative where individuals work interdependently in a process that promotes communication, group work, and responsibility in order to solve problems via critical thinking. In addition, cooperative learning requires little expenditure or faculty training and is easy to implement within the classroom. As with all alternatives to lecture, one must look at limitations. However, it is important to note that various factors of the education environment offer compelling arguments for the “implement it now” philosophy of cooperative learning. This includes ideas relating to online education, student-centered learning, effective communication, government and stakeholder expectations, critical thinking, self-esteem, group work, and competition from for-profit institutions.

Past research is quite persuasive as many studies defend the use of cooperative learning as a successful strategy of education. A two-year study of economics courses adds to this research. Future research should focus on evaluating specific factors that augment the “adopt it now” call for cooperative learning. Additionally, more ideas should present examples of strategies that allow for widespread opportunities for bringing cooperative learning into the standard


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classroom. Finally, studies may be employed in looking at the effectiveness of cooperative learning in online education as it relates to communication and output.

References

Dietz, G. (2010). Unified learning and

collaboration:Meeting the needs of education and training in the 21st century. Elluminate, Calgary, AL: 1-12.

Getty, A. (2013). Letting the students lead. The Teaching Professor, 27, 2.

Gibbs, J. (1995). Tribes. Sausalito, CA: CenterSource Systems.

Hiler, W. & Paul, R. (2006). Active & cooperative learning. Foundation for Critical Thinking. 13, 3.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. (1998). Cooperative learning returns to college. Change. 30 (4). 26-35.

Johnson, R. T., & Johnson, D. W. (2007). The Cooperative Learning Center at the University of Minnesota. Retrieved from www.co-operation.org

Johnson, R. T., & Johnson D. W. (1998). Learning together and alone: Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning. 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall.

Lewin, K. (1948). Resolving social conflicts. New York, NY: Harper Row,

Monahan, N. (2013). Keeping introverts in mind in your active learning classroom. Faculty Focus. Retrieved from facultyfocus.com.


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National Research Council (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school, Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Robbins, S. P., Decenzo, D. A., & Coulter, M. (2013). Fundamentals of management. New York, NY: Pearson Publishing.

Robinson, A. (1990). Cooperation or exploitation? The argument against cooperative learning for talented students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 14(3), 9-27.

Slavin, R. E. (1963). When does cooperative learning increase student achievement? Psychological Bulletin, 94, 429-445.

Slavin, R. E. (1980). Cooperative learning. Review of Educational Research, 50-2, 315-342.

Tsay, M. & Miranda, B. (2010). A case study of cooperative learning and communication pedagogy: Does working in teams make a difference? Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10(2), 78-89.

Webb, N. (1991). Task-related verbal interaction andmathematics learning in small groups. Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, 22, 366-389.

Webb, M. W., Nemer, M. N., & A. Chizhik (1998). Equity issues in collaborative group assessment: Group composition and performance. American Educational Research Journal, 17, 601-651.

Weimer, M. (2013, September 4). Fostering the reciprocity of learning. Faculty Focus., 1-3.

Weimer, M. (2013). Teacher-centered, learner-centered or all of the above. Faculty Focus Teaching Professor Blog. Retrieved from


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www.facultyfocus.com/articles/teaching-professor-blog

Willis, J. (2007). Cooperative learning is a brain turn-on. Middle School Journal, 38(4), 4-13.


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Creating New Business Models—

Powered by Technology,

Driven by Learning Chris Birch

University of Greenwich Jessica Lichy IDRAC, Lyon

Introduction

This paper outlines the challenges that face most

Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) as the world around them changes rapidly, and sometimes unpredictably. There are opportunities for those that are able to adapt quickly. Taking a Darwinian perspective, arguably only the fittest are likely to thrive, perhaps seven survive, in what will be an increasingly competitive and difficult re-thinking Higher Education Capacity, Capability and Commitment.

Operating environment. The essence of the argument, illustrated in figure 1, is that HEIs need to re-think the commitment, capacity, capabilities and culture upon which they have traditionally been built. This situation will necessitate a fundamental review of what resources are invested (or divested), how they are used and how to respond in a global world where the learner will become sovereign, as higher education becomes a consumer market.


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Literature Review

Traditionally, much of Europe continues to maintain a relatively low-cost higher education system compared with the U.S., but many European higher education institutions (HEIs-for the purpose of this paper, HEIs refer to all institutions of higher education that deliver education at UK level 4 and above) are currently struggling as cash-strapped governments across the continent have made significant cuts to public service budgets and are now charging end-users for services that were once free at the point of delivery. As discussed by Pitman (2000) and Eagle and Brennan (2007), the net result is a change in the relationship between provider and user, redefining the modus operandi of HEIs with


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greater emphasis on learner (or customer) satisfaction. This relationship is being re-enforced through published league tables, in which student satisfaction is measured and heavily weighted, thereby materially influencing final ranking. Eagle and Brennan (2007) emphasize that this situation, to many in academia, represents the antithesis of the core values of the purpose of higher education, and is leading to conflict, confusion and discontent.

The introduction of quasi-market economics into the system creates a new dynamic with many repercussions. In the mid-nineteenth century, John Henry Newman (1858) in a volume of lectures entitled “The Idea of a University” challenged the then orthodox theological role of the university in the context of the political, economic, social and technological change that was being driven by rapid and pervasive industrialization and urbanization, and argued that places of higher learning needed to adapt to new conditions in order to maintain their standing and relevance in an emergent society. The same may be argued now. The global information and communications revolution that has occurred over the past twenty years, and continues, has redefined where, what and how we now do things, and HEIs perhaps need to reflect upon this in terms of their societal role, in the way that Newman did.

Cuthbert (2010) found that the push-pull impact of market change manifests itself in many ways and the consequences can create many tensions, often unintended, that lead to organizational dissonance. For example, significant budgets are now allocated to marketing, regulation, compliance, complaints, litigation and employment-related services, all of which absorb


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resources that could otherwise be spent on other academic activities, including research and scholarship, which many academics might prefer. In terms of teaching and learning, Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) data (www.hesa.ac.uk) and other research, such as that by Court (2012) indicate that staff/student ratios have increased over the past two decades. This has perhaps encouraged a more mechanistic approach to assessment, the provision of less personalised support and less frequent feedback, the sum of which does not necessarily enhance deep and reflective learning. These issues are borne out annually in the National Student Survey (NSS, http://www.thestudentsurvey.com/) in which most HEI learners participate, as required by the funding council (www.hefce.ac.uk). Walker (2012) identified that now, for many students, doing a degree involves an investment decision whereby the cost of study is weighed against potential future earnings. This new dynamic influences subject choice, the perceived added value of the brand of the university and the individual focus on gaining a well classified degree – often at the expense of a more rounded education and experience.

In the light of these ongoing changes, the primary purpose and raison d’être of HEIs is called into question; the challenge is to find an innovative business model that fits the new market conditions. This paper traces the changes taking place in UK HEIs with the intention of creating debate around the theme of higher education business models for the 21st century. It is not intended to provide answers, as in reality, it is unlikely that there will be a one-size fits all solution. If so, the paper will argue that this environment could provide the


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opportunity for organizational creativity and innovation in new product development and service provision.

Questioning the Traditional Model

Higher education has traditionally

fulfilled individual, organisational and societal needs, wants and desires to generate, disseminate and apply knowledge; the hunger and need to find out more; to discover, create or re-interpret knowledge which leads to deeper understanding of our universe, sometimes resulting in the emergence of new ideas and technologies which positively impact everyday lives. Arguably, the current modus operandi has provided a structural framework and some continuity between generations, ensuring that traditional, often tacit knowledge is systemically captured, codified, made explicit and further developed, creating an ongoing cycle of improvement. In HEIs, this process is underpinned by the principle of academic freedom, a fundamental tenet to ensure that existing knowledge, and its interpretation, can be challenged without fear of retribution on the individual or their host institution.

A number of fundamental points need to be made. The first relates to the principle of the creation and ownership of knowledge. The original university model assumed that it was within and through HEIs and their academics that substantial new knowledge was created– in terms of both quantum and importance. While this may still be the case, more recently, other non-HEI supported research organizations, nationally and internationally based, including large corporations, invest in large, dedicated research and development


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budgets which position them to compete with traditional HEI knowledge creation activity.

With modern information infrastructure, access to knowledge is no longer dependent on libraries or other place-based repositories. The complexity and sophistication of today’s knowledge base increasingly necessitates inter-, intra- and cross-disciplinary working, beyond geographic borders, through newly constructed and often commercially oriented collaborations and partnerships. These may be the antithesis of the rigid domain-based organizational structures that characterize many HEIs, and larger organizations, today. As organizational agility, and speed to market become evermore important, smaller knowledge-based businesses are emerging and playing an important part in the creation and application of useful knowledge.

It is also important to consider the cost and funding of the legacy system. It could be argued that where the state pays for the significant costs of running HEIs, albeit indirectly, there has to be a political quid pro quo. Future HEI business models will need to take into consideration ever-changing and sometimes unpredictable government agendas, compounded by the speed of change and fuelled by 24/7 media coverage. Political responses can become expedient, resulting in decisions that lack coherence, consistency and continuity.

In the current turbulence, it is increasingly difficult to grasp the real purpose of higher education. Institutions are trying to make sense from the ensuing chaos which perhaps further exacerbates the situation. In the UK, for example, the position of HEIs is made worse by virtue of the fact that on the one hand, they are fiscally and legally autonomous institutions. On the


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other hand, most are dependent on funding sources which, irrespective of the quasi-market that has been created, the state regulates because they ultimately underwrite the liabilities. Some HEIs have become more opportunistic and agile, often seeking competitive advantage by responding to incentivized initiatives, such as the Higher Education Funding Council England’s (HEFCE) Strategic Development Fund (SDF), 2007-2012, designed to stimulate and sustain ‘employer-engagement’ with HEIs. In this period, £150m was distributed to influence participant HEIs culture and responsiveness. Such a commitment is not without organisational risk, but one where future benefits can be substantial. What is becoming clear is that HEIs are increasingly characterized by difference, and to talk homogeneously of a singular business model might be conceptually flawed. The end of the baby-boomer generation

One of the biggest challenges of our time relates

to a rapidly ageing population; HEIs could become a long term, sustainable part of the solution. According to the Office for National Statistics, the demographic structure of the UK is rapidly changing. The post second world war baby boomer generation is gradually retiring; medical and health care advances have led to average life expectancy increasing by over twenty years in a fifty year period, from ages 67 to 87. When added to other factors such accelerated migration and the ability of families to choose when - and indeed whether - to have children, and with birth rates falling to less than 1.4 from nearly 3 in 1945, it is easy to anticipate multifarious


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economic and social consequences. In the UK, the population is projected to grow to 67 million by 2020. Those aged over 65, a traditional proxy for retirement, will increase by 33% in this period, taking this sector of traditionally economically inactive groups to 21% of the total population. If life expectancy continues to rise as predicted, then this percentage will further increase.

In 2010 the UK government commissioned a review, led by Lord Hutton of Furness, to investigate the impact of the parallel issues of demographic change and state support for public pensions and benefits. The remit was to recommend a politically, socially and economically sustainable system that was fair, unbiased and affordable. The Independent Services Commission Report was published in March 2011.

The Report made clear that whilst underpinning and long established core values relating to provision in old-age should not change, policy application and delivery would have to, if a sustainable approach was to be achieved. Furthermore, parallel policy development regarding employment law would be required to balance economic and social need. Subsequently, no longer is there a legal requirement ‘to retire’ in the UK; Statutes have been passed which legally treat ageism in a similar way to discrimination based on race, gender, sexual orientation and disability. This outcome is a positive element per se, but it changes the fundamental relationship between the ageing person, the state and the employer, and in its wake it will give rise to new needs and requirements – not least the need to re-skill and up-skill older people for longer. Assuming that developed economies remain dependent on the creation of high value-added goods and services, founded on knowledge-


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related infrastructure, then there will be a need to educate older people to a much higher level, for much longer than is currently the case. This view infers a philosophical re-adaptation of the rhetoric relating to lifelong education, for the greater good, to the necessity and reality of lifelong learning for lifetime working. What is certain is that HEIs have a key role to play in this – indeed older learners may well become primary markets for them. However, currently, most HEIs are both geared and resourced to educating younger people, and have far less expertise in the andragogy needed to deliver to older learners. Space management

Alongside these challenges are other systemic

changes that have a material impact on the affordability and access to our current system, and the medium term sustainability. The UK Universities Space Management Group has collected data over the past ten years to evidence the huge financial investment has been made in university real estate, and which continues to be (www.smg.ac.uk). The operating cost per square metre is significant, averaging, at full cost in the UK, close to £400 per m2. Many universities have tens of thousands of square metres of space, and therefore a medium sized university (115,000 m2) can easily spend £45m per annum on the capital, revenue cost and debt servicing of this estate. By any standards, this is a considerable investment and often represents nearly 30% of the turnover of a typical university. With staffing costs running at an average of 55% of turnover, that leaves only 15% to invest in other resources, including


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investment in the opportunities provided by new technology. At the very least, this huge and inflexible cost base renders the typical British HEI somewhat rigid, cumbersome and potentially unresponsive to new demands that require demand-led engagement. Clearly, costs need to be viewed in relation to utilisation. With high usage, the rationale for the expenditure may be easier to make.

Reliable and robust usage statistics are difficult to ascertain, but given that many HEIs operate only two academic semesters for full time under-graduates, constituting the biggest segment of their learning community, which equates to circa thirty two weeks per calendar year, it follows that for a third of the year, much teaching space will not be well used well or at all. Usage rates of academic staff offices are relatively low (they teach and have other duties that do not require fixed office presence), and ‘void’ spaces compound the inefficiency. Arguably, this may boil down to a median real annualised usage rate of teaching space of 25% or less (SMG, 2006). At the very least, questions need to be asked about any investment that consumes 30% of turnover and yields a 25% usage rate.

It is hard to see how the current system is either economical or efficient, even if effective when in use. The concept and reality of learning effectiveness itself raises a further question concerning pedagogy. Is real estate, and specifically classrooms, lecture theatres, seminar rooms and other learning spaces, designed to meet not only place-based teaching input needs, but also generate creative and effective learning environments? For example, do they have adequate power for students to plug in their laptops, electronic notepads and other


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digital devices? Do they have ubiquitous, fast and reliable wireless connectivity? Are the lines of desks in most classrooms really conducive to participative learning as opposed to more traditional didactic teaching? If higher education is genuinely moving from ‘sage on the stage’ towards ‘guide on the side’, then it can be argued that what HEIs have historically invested so heavily in is no longer appropriate to the creation of an effective learning environment that develops, nurtures and measures not only knowledge, but a wide variety of skills, competencies, behaviours and mindsets, all of which are increasingly regarded as important employability attributes for graduates (Pegg et al, 2012). Efficiency, effectiveness and value for money

As public and private finances become tighter

over the coming years, in direct consequence of the impact of the banking crisis and subsequent economic collapse, efficiency, effectiveness and value for money are likely to become more important in all walks of life, not least in HEIs. In the UK and across Europe, learners and beneficiaries, including current and future employers are likely to have to pay a much bigger proportion of the cost of their own education, from which they derive many benefits both directly and indirectly. Despite government-sponsored funding support packages for tuition fees, it is clear that graduate debt levels will increase and this is likely to lead to different consumer behaviour involving brand choices, academic course selection and re-prioritization of choice criteria. The decision process is likely to be characterized by very high involvement, with families,


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friends and future funders engaged. Future employment, employability and prospects will be critical to individual investment decisions, irrespective of whether academics like such an instrumental approach or not.

There is great political and societal concern over the impact of those from families with no history of involvement with higher education who may well be more debt adverse than those who have more income and inclination to invest in HEI education. The Office for Fair Access (OFFA, http://www.offa.org.uk/) has the role to monitor this, and make appropriate recommendations as are required. Potentially, this could reduce social mobility still further, which politically remains a very sensitive issue. Given the demographic changes already alluded to, this could have profound and negative impact upon the workforce of the future and the knowledge, skills and competencies that will be needed to sustain a knowledge-based economy.

Potentially, the current environment could provide new opportunities for HEIs and other private providers that can deliver a recognized and credible higher level award, such as Phoenix, BPP and Kaplan, to think innovatively, be more demand-responsive and offer a better value for money proposition to potential learners. Modular Online Open Courses (MOOCs) might also challenge the status quo. This context is likely to involve more technology-enhanced delivery; less face-to-face interaction; more work-based and work-related learning; less campus-based; greater emphasis on business-related benefits and higher return on investment; shorter payback periods; less on intrinsic educational value; potentially a greater demand for shorter units of higher level learning; less constraints


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imposed around academic coherence, and full degree programmes of study.

The ability and flexibility to earn and learn may well become a defining trait for the learners of tomorrow. The purpose of this paper is not to debate whether these changes are good or bad, but to indicate that there may well be markets that will pay if such an approach is adopted. Price competitiveness, global competition, and comparison will become critical variables in the marketing mix of those providing higher level qualifications (in the UK), and with current pricing constraints being relaxed and removed, the dynamic of the market place is likely to change considerably. How and whether established HEIs will be able to respond to this potential is open to question, and new private providers and indeed companies themselves, are evaluating options that may now be open to them.

Pedagogy, the crucial variable

The marketing mix includes what marketers

refer to as the ‘P’ variables, of which there are seven commonly referenced – product, price, place, promotion, people, process, physical resources. Given the complexity of the buyer decision process in choosing a HEI, Birch (2010) suggests that further marketing variables be considered. These can be seen in figure 2 below. It is suggested that pedagogy might be the key variable in influencing eventual choice. Tagg and Barr (1995) discuss the need to focus on learning, and the ways that HEIs might facilitate and nurture better learning outcomes with using creative pedagogy.


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The Extended HE Marketing Mix The opportunity might be to look at the whole

landscape as it now is, gaze ahead and then innovatively re-think how courses are delivered, how learning is distributed, what the role of technology intervention in this and how (and what) is assessed, and learners supported. It could be that this approach will attract those that the system has always missed, or who might start to opt out on a perceived cost/benefit basis.

It is hard to ignore that the time is right to challenge our long established academic delivery and quality assurance mechanisms, which originated in a totally different era, where opportunities and constraints were very different. Mobile technology has been widely


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adopted over the last few years. Cheaper and better laptops and tablet computers and faster and more reliable mobile Internet connections are changing consumer behaviour. As the nature of work and employment changes, people have different learning requirements. Technology provides the flexibility to accommodate these changing patterns. Our lives are less dominated today by the fixed concept of place and space; people multi-task and fit things in around other activities; sometimes they have more time than others and need to be able to accelerate and decelerate as time permits. In 2005, the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) discussed the growing importance in the future of flexible mobile learning, focused on e-distribution of content. They identified that learners need a system or process that is adapted to ‘anytime, anyplace’ and to that could now be added ‘anypace’, as learners need to be able to accelerate or decelerate learning activity according to other pressures on their time. Faced with new learner requirements, HEIs need to start considering how they can present their products and services to meet the needs and expectations of the future. Academics need to embrace the opportunities in order to creatively deploy their expertise to benefit all potential learners, taking into account the current environment and the resources available. Most other service industries have had to adapt their business model, and successful HEIs need to do likewise

HE Flexibility Matrix Figure 3 shows a matrix which conceptually

captures this new dynamic. It maps time and place


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against rigidity and flexibility. Modern information and communications technology with better implementation will enable HEIs to develop effective online learning and supporting pedagogy, thus driving the argument in favor of more online course delivery and support, potentially reducing that delivered, relatively inflexibly, on-campus.

Given the existing high fixed cost structures of a

‘traditional’ HEI, particularly that of space, it would not be surprising if some, indeed many, do not start to invest more in technology and online support, and less in campuses and place-based academic support with a view


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to gaining competitive advantage in emerging new markets, both home and abroad. In addition to this, especially with older and non-traditional learners, who may well not have had a good experience of traditional education, either at school, at college or elsewhere, making learning relevant, enjoyable and fun is also vitally important. The matrix shown in figure 4 plots work and leisure against obligation and fun, and visually illustrates how effective learning needs to be positioned as a leisure pursuit, even if work-relevant, and part of achieving this is allowing flexible access and support at times that they can more easily fit into busy life-schedules.


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For too long, learning, especially if related to work, has been seen as a compliance-driven, or needs-obligated activity, done because it has to be. There is scope for a scenario where the pedagogic design, quality and flexibility of the offer makes it both satisfying and enjoyable to participate. One can only think that this makes for a very powerful learning environment, where it has a realistic chance of becoming an up-skilling and re-engineering of knowledge for life. With the challenges that economies and societies face, those that can achieve this vision are likely to be sustainable and successful.

Conclusion

It is time to go back to basics and reconsider the

role and purpose of a HEI. It is likely that individual institutions will become defined as much by difference as similarity, with only a core set of values giving coherence to participation in higher level activity. In many ways, as we lead more sophisticated and complicated lives, as the systemic challenges ahead become more complex, as our life aspirations and expectations evolve and as technology provides new choices, a deeper and more widely educated person needs to be equipped to cope with the emerging tensions, challenges and opportunities that ride in the wake of change. In a knowledge-based world, there is certainly a critical place for HEIs, but this has to be earned on merit and not be based upon past performance and reputation. If existing players cannot rise to this challenge, new players (physically and virtually) will emerge, and quickly.


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Innovative providers need not fear the future. They should embrace change and play a leading role in developing and defining the future in a world where the sustainability of developed and developing economies is predicated on creating and commercially exploiting knowledge; where the threshold for skills and competencies rises ever-higher; where creativity and enterprise are key sources of competitive advantage; and where societies and individuals have instant access to vast arrays of data and information, from which they need to build personal meaning and understanding. The opportunity for HEIs to engage with so many, for so long has never been greater. HEIs can, and should, be the thought leaders of future generations, but this can only be achieved by thinking differently and producing new business models, looking ahead and focussing outwards. The question then becomes whether this is what they really want to do?

References

Barr, R, & Tagg, J. (1995). From teaching to learning –

a new paradigm for undergraduate education. Change, 27, 12-25.

Birch, C. J. (2010). Re-thinking the marketing mix for universities: New challenges, new opportunities and new threats. Vistas, Education, Economy, Communities, 1, 8-25.

Court, S. (2012). ‘An analysis of student staff ratios and academics use of time and potential links with student satisfaction.’ University and Colleges Union. Available at:


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http://www.ucu.org.uk/media/pdf/p/p/ucu_ssranalysis_dec12.pdf [accessed: 1 March 2013]

Cuthbert, R. (2010). ‘Students as customers?’ Higher Education Review, vol 42, pp3-25

Eagle, L. and Brennan, R. (2007). ‘Are students customers? TQM and marketing perspectives.’ Quality Assurance in Education, Vol 15, Iss 1, pp44-60

Hutton, J. (2011). ‘Independent public service pensions commission – a final report.’ Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130129110402/http://cdn.hm-treasury.gov.uk/hutton_final_100311.pdf [accessed: 23 March 2012]

JISC. (2005). ‘Anytime, anyplace learning’ Available at: www.jisc.ac.uk/uploaded_documents/southampton.doc [accessed: 3 June 2013]

Newman, J. H. (1858). ‘The idea of a university.’ Re-printed Longman, Green and Co, 1907. Available at: http://www.newmanreader.org/works/idea/ [accessed: 1 July 2013]

Pegg, A, Waldock, J., Hendy-Isaac, S., & Lawton, R. (2012). Pedagogy For Employability. York, UK: Higher Education Academy. Available at: http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/assets/documents/employability/pedagogy_for_employability_update_2012.pdf [accessed: 3 June 2013]

Pitman, T. (2000). ‘Perceptions of academics and students as customers: a survey of administrative staff in Higher Education.’ Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, Vol 22, pp165-175


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Space Management Group. (2006). ‘Space Utilisation: practice, performance and guidelines.’ Available at: http://www.smg.ac.uk/documents/utilisation.pdf [accessed: 6 June 2013]

Walker, P. (2012). ‘Six out of ten sixth-formers opting out of University do so because of fee worries.’ The Guardian, 31st October, 2012. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/education/2012/oct/31/sixth-formers-university-fee-loan?INTCMP=SRCH [accessed: 3 June 2013]


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Social Emotional Identity in Cognitive

Learning for University Students

Fifty to Seventy-six Years

as a Precept to Developing

Critical Thinking Skills

Martha Anita Connelly

Introduction

Students fifty to seventy-six years are currently at the university; the number is rising. These students have a driving need and commitment to that need. Part of that need is to be allowed to obtain a degree in order to get on with life. A large number of older students are still a very small population compared to the traditional student population. However, the goals the older students have are indeed important and should be important to professors. This paper is critical because the older students had their primary education possibly in a closed, linear, and deterministic system and will be possibly sitting in classrooms that are created around an open, non-linear, and non-deterministic system. Linear applies to step by step learning; the brain does not learn


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that way. Deterministic applies to nature as being determined, and nature is not determined.

There are two streams of research paralleling each other which fill in gaps that appear in stages of Erikson’s theory for adults. Erikson’s (1968) integrity in older age can be extrapolated for older university students as one that reflects on past life with a feeling of integrity; a life that has been lived with success, contentment, and filled with meaning as a contributor to society.

1. Levinson (1986) in the seasons of life showed that each stage of adulthood begins with a transition; Levinson found young adults construct a dream of what they want their life to be and also construct a relationship with a mentor.

2. Vaillant (1977) in the adaptations of life felt that if there is a departure from a social timetable for major life events there can be self-esteem and personality issues. Vaillant contributed to the theories and research on adults and was instrumental in filling in some of the gaps found in Erikson’s theory.

Vaillant and Levinson are appropriate for this paper because both research projects took place in the later years of the 20th century or at the time when fifty to seventy-six year old students would have been young and going into young adulthood.

Kroger (2006) reported that “Even though Erikson presented a sobering view regarding the psychological impact of the aging process it is important to note that, in the United States, a substantial proportion of adults over the age of 80 years do function reasonably effectively. Indeed, the majority continue to live in the


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community, and of these individuals, more than one-third report that their health is good to excellent.”

Kroger demonstrates that university students aged fifty to seventy-six years old ought to be healthy enough and cognitively aware enough to be more than capable of digging through the rigors of a university degree. That being the case then what else do they need? Perhaps to learn how to question their own assumptions beginning the transition that individually leads to new understandings and beliefs. One of the most important pieces of critical thinking development is for students to question their own assumptions.

This paper discusses social emotional identity in cognitive learning as a precept to developing critical thinking skills. Development of critical thinking skills presents a new reality of how to succeed in life. This new reality provides success with a clear, accurate, precise, relevant, and logical system enabling a student to ask and answer deep questions. This is enlightening for older students working toward a university education leading to the world of work. Social emotional identity and cognitive learning support development of critical thinking skills. We turn to social transitions which this writer feels leads to identity growth. Levinson (1986) showed that each stage of adulthood begins with a transition followed by a stable phase during which an adult eventually questions current structure of behavior leading to a new transition.

Perlmutter and Trist (1986) told readers that transitions begin with emotions that lead to question(s). Once questions are answered there is a perturbation or a process of change in path or belief, which can end in identity growth. O’Conner and Wolfe (1991) believe


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transitions do not always end in identity growth. During perturbation new emotions and questions appear. Identity growth leads to change in belief in how the world works for the student. Understanding that lifetime identity growth occurs works to help the professor support the student. This takes us to social learning.

Social learning is intricate in the process of development of critical thinking. However, one cannot forget a student’s self-regulation, stamina, and ability to work through the rigor of a university degree as part of cognitive learning, and that is the responsibility of the student.

Deaux (2001) reported “Social identification is the process by which we define ourselves in terms and categories that we share with other people. In contrast to characterization of personal identity, which may be highly idiosyncratic, social identities assume some commonalities with others.”

Hence, the university classmates and the professor can support the social growth of an older student who may be reticent about being in a class, chided by family, friends, community, and traditional students. Social and emotional identity may be tied to the closed, linear, and deterministic system the older student, perhaps, experienced during primary years.

What does all this mean for students aged fifty to seventy-six years old? Fischer, Yan, and Stewart (2003) answered “Accumulated evidence indicates that the cognitive development in adulthood is rich, complex and dynamic perhaps even more so than in infancy and childhood, with many factors acting together in various contexts to produce systematic, dynamic variation.”


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In summary, Kroger (2006) stated “Among younger old adults (66-79 years), the majority will experience relatively good health and find new roles as providers of experience and wisdom,” and “Americans are growing older and at an accelerating rate. Living into very old age (80 years and older) now means that many will have a few if any role models for how to cope with the identity adjustments.”

This paper is not advocating that professors must stop progress in their teaching and teach critical thinking skills, but rather that they should support students in developing critical thinking skills.

In order to provide understanding of social and emotional identity, a small amount of this paper will be devoted to the discussion of what is meant by identity and identity growth. Identity involves self-identification.

Paper

This paper focuses on the development of critical thinking and is created around questions that cause the professor to think about critical thinking skills and the students in their classroom aged fifty to seventy-six years old and the ‘so what’ statements that help to clarify. In the discussion section, professors will find a toolbox list of what professors can do to support students in developing critical thinking.

What is meant by identity and identity growth?


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Identity is the distinguishing character of personality, which makes an individual unique. Identity consists of countless pieces, each forming self-knowledge such as mental state, beliefs, values, desires, and sensations, giving one the first-person authority leading to autonomy

There are several themes of thought on how identity or picture of self is defined. Choosing to conceptualize identity rather than choosing to categorize identity stems from different views of what identity actually is. The traditional view from McCarthey (2002) focuses on “Identity as a unified, cohesive essence belonging to an individual, where the core develops in stages.” “Social constructive and postmodern view emphasizes the dynamic and constructive nature of identity” (McCarthey, 2002, 11-12).

How then does one recognize self? How does one identify self as “me?” Self-identification research falls into two major categories. Gertler (2011) gave two strains of thought: 1) Evans (1982) believed there is no error in self-identification or otherwise, “I recognize myself directly without any identifiers,” i.e., “I know who I am; I am a genuine agent.” 2) Rovane (1987) and Howell (2006) believed we identify ourselves through some form of description (2011). Descriptors are partly formed from the individual environment—‘who’ I am in this environment. Evans would assert that self-reference is identification-free, while Rovane and Howell (2006) would express there can be errors in our identification, which can be avoided. Through self-reference, we know ‘who’ we are through understanding our place in the world. Throughout a life, self-identification, reflection, and interpretation play significant roles. As such,


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persons who do not have a clear picture of who they are may deceive themselves, and there can be a major blur between the knower and the known in that a self scrutinizes self.

Hogg (2008) found “People do generally feel they have an integrated and enduring sense of unique individuality of an overall personality who differentiates them from all other people and provides them with a unique autobiography and stable sense of who they are.”

Hogg (2008) told readers “The social context brings into play different experiences of self.” Dombeck and Wells-Moran (2006) stated that whatever a person associates him or herself with is ultimately who that person is, for all identity is ultimately in relation to something else. Going further, Dombeck and Wells-Moran (2012) stated, “People's values define what they want personally, but morals define what the society around those people want for them.” These are core values—how the core values relate to and influence environment and culture or, in other words, one’s innate personality. These are autobiographical issues.

Autobiographical issues or episodic memory come from memories of special events and dates in life—a stabilizer for life. Social and emotional identities help develop the innate core of a student and play a major role in learning for that student.

Nyberg, Persson, Habib, Tulving, McIntosh, Cabeza and Houle (2000) found that during episodic memories “Systematic changes of functional connections between material-specific regions and several other brain regions, including medial temporal, right prefrontal and parietal regions . . . These findings provide evidence for large-scale neural interactions between material-specific and


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process-specific neural substrates of episodic encoding and retrieval.” All part of a student’s autobiographical memory.

So What?

When we hear the term “identity growth,” we think it only occurs in childhood. However, identity grows all life long, just as identity growth in a child can be thwarted, so can that occur in an adult. The subject of identity is of significant importance today.

A professor recognizing that the support of a student’s identity growth supports the student in deep learning.

Following is a discussion of social and emotional identity wrapped in autobiographical matters or the stories of an individual life. What is social identity?

Coleman and Williams (n.d.) stated “Social identities are organizing constructs allowing individuals to understand and unify their everyday actions.” “Social identity is self-evaluative and derives its value from the evaluative properties of the ingroup, social comparisons between groups are focused on establishing evaluatively positive distinctiveness for one’s own group” (Hogg 2001).

Since social identity is developed within a social group, it stands to reason that social identity can change from one social group to another.

Deaux (2001) warned “The cognitive aspects of social identity can be extensive and varied, including


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personality traits, social and political attitudes and memories of identity-related events.” Therefore, it stands to reason there are different types of social identity depending on what environment one is in, such as ethnic, mother, student, or political.

Deaux (2001) spoke about quintessence of negotiating social identities, fluctuations in social identity, “Rather than evidence of instability or whimsy provide knowledge of ways in which people respond to their environment and choices that seem most appropriate to that setting.”

Gallardo (2006) stated from “Me to We” (Otten, 2002) group behaviors (e.g. conformity, stereotyping, ethnocentrism, ingroup favoritism, ingroup cohesion) occur when social identity is the salient basis for self-conceptualization, and the content of group behavior rests on the specific social identity that is salient. Saliency is defined as quality or state of being.

Hogg (2001) asked what causes social identity, as opposed to personal identity or one social identity rather than another, to become the contextually salient basis of perception, thought, and behavior? He answers that question with the understanding that “Categorization becomes salient, which best accounts for relevant similarities and differences among people in the context (structural or comparative fit), which best accords with the social meaning of the context (normative fit), and which best satisfies self-enhancement and self-evaluative concerns.”

So What?

The self provides an anchor for judgments and reactions to the ingroup, and indeed the


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ingroup becomes a part of the self (Otten, 2003). ”Because one’s self-concept and one’s social identity are overlapping cognitive constructs people will tend to use the self concept as an anchor or evaluative base to form judgments of the group (Sherman and Cohen 2006).”

The professor can extend a bridge to older students and in so doing may find that older students bring a lifetime of living into class. The professor may also find that there are tensions from family and friends aimed at an older student who has opted to work on a degree, which seems out of focus to the family. An older student may feel odd and alone in a classroom.

If social identity is created from social groups, then the classroom becomes a social group, which can support or thwart the social identity of an older student. Will a classroom satisfy self-enhancement and self-evaluative concerns? What attracts an older student to the university classroom social group? Research shows older students are in university classrooms to learn in order to achieve whatever they want to achieve. This is an opportunity for the professor to bring an older student into the social group creating a bridge and support in the academic path for that student. Bottom line, an individual self works to protect self identity in a social world; this can be supported or thwarted by the social group of a university classroom.

What is emotional identity?


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One may look at emotional identity from an individual perspective with personal values or from a collective perspective with cultural and societal values. Emotional identity includes a value system of personal, cultural, and societal values, which help define identity through how one feels. Personal core values are what one can’t live without, those items that bring happiness, cultural, and family values as well as societal and environmental values, all of which form a part of emotional identity. The ‘I’ to Walt Whitman contained multitudes; all sense of self. Whitman might ask what is really important, and how does it relate to the environment self is in?

Coleman and Williams (n.d.) proposed “Emotions are not merely evaluations of self (self as object), but rather an intrinsic part of performing identities (self as an experiment) such that specific emotions are connected to the knowledge structures of particular social identities.”

“People tend to think of emotion as innate, but sociologists have known about the more social aspects of emotion for a long time . . . People feel stress because they see themselves as being overwhelmed . . . People feel anger because they perceive a slight in a face-to-face interaction . . . People feel embarrassment because they sense they have acted foolishly in front of a friend or colleague (Lively, 2013).”

Underneath emotions lies a belief system that filters what is seen, heard, and felt. This belief system can become unbalanced and during that time cause major issues to the student. Emotions can affect health and how one thinks and can control how the body works.


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Some people express emotions well while others bury them deep, causing really serious issues. Some don’t understand their own feelings; if they did, they could rely heavily upon those feelings during their academic paths. It takes an enormous amount of energy to bury emotions deeply. Students committed to improvement of their own emotional health will have some rough patches during the struggle for their emotional health, but will end up in better shape to continue working on their degree.

So What?

When considering emotional identity in older age, the theory Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (SST; e.g., Carstensen, 1993, 1995) has the core assumption that in that age; that being there is a greater salience of emotional information and an increased emphasis on emotion regulation relative to early adulthood (Carstensen & Turk-Charles, 1994).

Therefore, “Older age seems to be associated with improved emotion regulation abilities and a diminished prevalence of negative emotions in everyday life” (Kliegel, Jäger, & Phillips, 2007).

An older student may feel alien in adjusting to a classroom of traditional-aged students and in need of support from a compassionate professor who constructs a bridge toward easing the adjustment for this student. Should a professor be able to answer the question “how does the self develop emotions?” Professors who are adaptable and reflective will more than likely be able to answer this question.


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What is cognitive learning?

For centuries, researchers have been debating how learning occurs. Darling-Hammond, Austin, Orcutt & Rosso (2001) reported it was Piaget who first provided information that learning is a cognitive developmental process. It is a process in which students create their knowledge rather than rely upon teacher delivery. Vygostky extended Piaget’s developmental theory of cognitive development with the idea of sociocultural cognition, i.e., all learning occurs in a sociocultural context (2001). Dewey and Rosseau agreed that learning takes place in education and cannot be separate from the life of the student (2001).

Learning changes the physical structure of the brain through continuous interactions between the learner and the external environment. Therefore, the learning environment makes a difference as learning occurs in social and cultural context. We learned from the section on identity that during autobiographical learning the brain is dramatically changed.

Zull (2006) explained “Educators may need to revisit our roles, as we learn more about the biological basis of learning.” Professors can provide support for students with new experiences allowing the students the responsibility of their own learning, their own interpreting and own creation. Zull brought the topic of emotions into cognitive and critical learning development with thoughts that students should be allowed to make their own statements while educators must refrain from providing too much information.


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Turning to Bruner’s suggestion that when a professor presents new material, it should follow a progression from enactive or knowledge that comes through action (action based) to iconic (image based) to symbolic (language based) representation. Bruner’s progression theory agrees with Bloom’s concept of learning, but disagrees with Piaget’s statement of continuous process in learning. French (2007) stated “Piaget’s key contribution to child development is his teaching that learning is a continual process of meaning making. However, learning is not a linear input/output process as favoured by behavioural theorists (Pavlov, Skinner). . . Information is not simply absorbed into a memory bank but must be worked on by the child in order for it to make sense in terms of the learner’s existing frame of reference.”

So What?

Fischer, Yan and Stewart (2003) reported “Accumulated evidence indicates that the cognitive development in adulthood is rich, complex and dynamic perhaps even more so than in infancy and childhood, with many factors acting together in various contexts to produce systematic, dynamic variation.” Further, Fischer, Yan, and Stewart stated adults do not always follow a simple forward progression in transition. Fischer, Yan, and Stewart continued “Adults think more flexibly, dynamically and contextually than children and the upper limit of cognitive functioning continues to increase beyond what Piaget called formal operations.” In other words, “The limitations of traditional


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cognitive analysis (Fischer, Yan, and Stewart) have been viewed as such adult cognitive development is often treated like child cognitive development, as a static progressive process unfolding along a series of fixed linear ability scales.” Thoughts are changing on step-by-step or linear learning, and some think that the brain does not learn in a linear way at any age. Critical thinking is not step-by-step learning.

With new research and information on lifelong learning and brain health for very older adults, professors now can see that an older student is more than capable of learning anything that is being taught, so much so that often the older student can deeply learn better than a traditional student.

What is critical thinking?

Often, when one hears the term “critical,” thoughts bring forth a critic, someone who is critical, negative, or has pejorative assumptions. That being said, just exactly what does it mean to ‘think critically’? Brookfield (1987) defined critical thinking as productive and positive activity, a process, not an outcome, that varies according to context, triggered by positive as well as negative events, and emotive as well as rational. Knowing how one knows provides that soul control and power.

Behar-Horenstein, Schneider-Mitchell, and Graff, (2009) told readers that researchers have debated whether critical thinking skills are learned or developed in a process regulated by motivations, dispositions, and


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personality traits. Critical thinking can be thought of as “Purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which judgment is based” (2009).

Meyers (1986) called critical thinking one of the primary aims of college education, while Paul (1992) called his book Critical Thinking: What Every Person Needs to Survive in a Rapidly Changing World.

Kuhn (1999) helped readers understand critical learning in that there are three types of meta-knowing. These three types are 1) metacognitive, 2) metastrategic and 3) epistemological, all central to critical thinking. Metacognitive understanding is central to critical thinking because critical thinking by definition is reflection of what one knows and how one knows. Metastrategic understanding is central to critical thinking because those with this skill apply consistent standards of evaluation across time and events and do not succumb to “local interpretation.” Epistemological understanding is essential to critical thinking because professors and students must understand the need to think in order to indulge in thinking. This is a worthy thought for the student and the professor to work on together for the good of student learning.

Van Gelder (2005) discussed critical thinking from the realm of cognitive science and the many biases and blind spots, which can turn into traps. One major trap is belief preservation or the tendency to use evidence to preserve one’s opinion rather than to guide one’s opinion. Older students will come to class with a belief system possibly mired in how they learned when they


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were young. It is hard to unlearn something and then learn again.

Critical thinking can and probably does include self-directed learning. Loyens, Magda and Rikers (2008) suggested that the self-directed learning and self-regulated learning are developmental processes, that the ‘self’ aspect is crucial. Problem-based learning can foster self-directed learning. Conceptual clarity of what self-directed learning entails can provide guidance for both teachers and students and help learning to bring forth self-directed learners and critical thinking. Chances are that older students, because of who they are and what they are trying to accomplish at the university, are self-directed learners.

The American Dental Education Association (n.d) reported that “From a philosophical perspective, critical thinking is the norm of good thinking, from a psychological perspective, critical thinking is a higher order thinking skill and from a sociocultural perspective, critical thinking skills are the capacity to recognize and overcome social injustice.

Brookfield, (1987) explained “Civically, a critically informed populace is seen as more likely to participate in forms of democratic political activity while economically a critically active and creative work force is seen as the key to American economic resurgence in the face of crippling foreign trade competition.”

So What?

When a professor supports development of critical thinking skills, that professor allows students to know how they know and provides control in their learning. There are three types of


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meta-knowing: metacognitive, metastrategic and epistemological, all central to critical thinking

Lipman (1988) blanketed her paper with this thought: That if schools are going to succeed in teaching students to think critically, professors must have a clear indication of what critical thinking is; it relies upon criteria, is sensitive to context, and is self-correcting.

This writer is not advocating that a professor take time out of teaching to teach critical thinking skills to students, but rather to help the student, and especially an older student, begin to develop critical thinking skills.

For older university students, Brookfield elaborated (1987) that critical thinking should be taken outside of the classroom and placed firmly in the context of adults’ lives: “in their relationships, at their workplaces, in their political involvements, and in their reactions to mass media of communication.” This actually sounds like 21st century learning to this writer.

How do university students develop critical thinking skills?

Gillman (2008) presented posits (set forth as a basis

for thought) for developing critical thinking skills: • Ask for evidence, clarify • Consider source, accuracy and relevance • Consider motivations, breadth • Challenge premises; when asking the right

questions, we succeed as thinkers


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• Be open to changing mindset, thinking independently

• Consider personal experiences, taking thinking apart in order to understand

• Look for common logical fallacies, informed knowledge

• Admit ignorance, logic • Look for alternative explanations, precision

So What?

Professors can support the academic path of an older student by presenting the student with knowledge of how to think rather than force feeding information; never allowing the student to have control in their learning. Older students don’t want to be singled out, but do need mentoring (Connelly, 2013) and that mentoring could involve helping students develop critical thinking skills and the ability to think in learning.

How does a professor educe development of critical thinking skills in older students?

Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined

process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness. It is actively challenging


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one’s beliefs through reflection and analysis in order to come to the conclusion of the possibilities toward truth.

Sousa (2003) presented a list of six strategies for critical thinking that professors can use:

• Pose open-ended questions requiring higher thinking and problem solving

• Model decision making and evaluation • Accept ideas and suggestions from students

and help students expand on ideas • Facilitate independent and original problem

solving and solutions • Present necessity of rules, principles, and

relationships in society • Allow errors up front; help students to

understand the nature of errors and how to adjust.

The world is filled with superficiality, prejudice, bias, distortions, lies, deception, manipulation, short sightedness, close-mindedness, righteousness, hypocrisy, on and on, in every culture and in every country throughout the world. These problems in thinking lead to untold negative implications—fear, anxiety, sadness, hopelessness, pain, suffering, injustices of every imaginable kind. Yet humans have a great capacity for rationality and reasonability. Parents teach their children what to think but often not so much how to think.

The American Dental Education Association (n.d) presented a toolkit checklist for professors to help students develop critical thinking skills:

1. What percentage of time do I encourage students to explain or demonstrate what they know?


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2. What percentage of time do I dominate teaching in the classroom with teacher-talk?

3. What percentage of time do I include teacher-student discussion in the classroom?

4. What percentage of time do I devote teaching time in the classroom to having students provide rationale for what they think and explain how and why they know?

5. What percentage of time do I use questions to check for student understanding?

6. What percentage of time do I ask students to rephrase what I have just presented?

7. What percentage of time do I explicitly explain a thought to a student?

8. What percentage of time do I ask students to explain what they have learned?

So What?

What does this mean for university students aged fifty to seventy-six? Behar-Horenstein and Lian Niu (2011) related that “Changing instructional approaches from what to think to how to think would require a major shift in thinking about instructional paradigms . . . This type of change would require academics to think about how they could develop student’s critical thinking skills through teaching disciplinary content.”

Hansten and Washburn (2000) told readers that critical thinking skills can thwart errors made when the student or anyone makes a critical decision that is wrong. The professor who helps students understand the critical thinking process


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helps students determine what choices are the best choices.

Critical thinking is foundational to teaching and learning any subject. An educational environment characterized by the discipline of critical thinking develops self-directed, self-disciplined, self-aware, and self-corrective learners. United States Dental school faculty find they must model critical thinking not only in their pedagogy—what and how they teach—but also in their learning. Critical thinking as a guiding theme allows the professor to form the continuous process of curriculum renewal.

Halpern’s (2001) critical thinking assessment in dental school includes verbal reasoning or ability to comprehend and defend argument analysis and hypothesis testing or, in other words, 21st century learning.

So what does all this mean for students aged fifty to seventy-six years old?

Students who are fifty years and over in higher education, wishing to keep on learning regardless of what is happening in the university, may be at a great disadvantage because of the primary education they obtained. However, a greater disadvantage may come in the form of societal prejudice towards an aging mind—the community and family can put up barriers to the aging student.

Education of society is necessary, including the education of professors and traditional students. Research shows that the brain can remain healthy and


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active, continuing to learn throughout life. Studies show that the old paradigm of the brain dying after the age of forty has been buried by researchers. We now know that new neurons are produced throughout life and that a healthy brain can learn all through life. We know that older students can perhaps do better in a university classroom than traditional students, as a result of increased motivation. Professors and traditional students, as well as admissions and student services personnel, all are part of society and may be prejudiced to the aging mind.

That being said, an adaptive, creative and compassionate professor will be able to guide and direct an older student, constructing support bridges in the academic path. It may mean extra work, but such rewarding extra work.

Discussion

“One of the primary aims of college education,” Chet Meyers wrote in Teaching Students to Think Critically, “is to move students from a self-centered universe, based on limited personal experiences and concrete realities to a richer, more abstract realm where a multiplicity of values, visions, and verities exist.” Hansten and Washburn (2000) told readers that development of critical thinking skills can thwart errors made when the student or anyone makes a critical decision that is wrong.

Professors are the crux on the academic path of a student. The professor can either construct bridges or barriers in the academic path of the student. So what can the professor do to support students?


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1. The professor can support the student if they understand critical thinking development in the student and the social, emotional identity of the student.

2. The professor can support the academic path of an older student by presenting the student with knowledge of how to think rather than force feeding information or never allowing students to have control in their learning

3. The professor now knows there are three types of meta-knowing: metacognitive, metastrategic and epistemological, all central to critical thinking

4. The professor can support the academic path of an older student by presenting the student with knowledge of how to think rather than force feeding information, never allowing the student to have control in the learning. The professor can help the student learn by not presenting too much information.

5. The professor might think about the primary education students fifty to seventy-six years received. Most likely it was closed, linear, and deterministic. However, at the university, these same students are being asked to change their belief system in a classroom that is most likely open, nonlinear, and nondeterministic.

6. The professor can learn what older students bring into class—a lifetime of living. There may be tension from family and friends aimed at an older student because they have opted to work on a degree, which seems out


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of focus to the family. An older student may feel odd and alone in a classroom.

7. The professor should know an older student is more than capable of learning anything that is being taught, so much so that often the older student can deeply learn better than a traditional student.

8. The professor should be able to answer the question “How does self develop emotions?” The professor who is adaptable and reflective will more than likely be able to answer this question.

9. The professor who understands Levinson’s ‘transitions’ will be able to support students while creating bridges in the academic path for older students. Levinson developed a description of successful aging (1986) that promoted one of the only theories that showed adults personally develop well into adulthood.

10. The professor who recognizes that support of a student’s identity growth supports the student in the development of critical thinking skills.

11. The professor who helps students understand the critical thinking development process helps students determine what choices are the best choices.

Conclusion

Fifty to seventy-five year old students are already at

the university and the number is growing. While the


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number is not in the range of traditional students, the number of older students working on a degree is growing.

A university student of any age will necessarily be able to work through the rigors of any degree. A university student should have the stamina and cognitive ability to finish a degree, barring organic health issues or any brain issues.

In this paper, this writer has attempted to show that identity can stop growing at any time of life. This is important since identity and identity growth is core to critical thinking development.

The social identity of a student is an identifier of who the student is and how that student fits in the society.

Emotional identity includes a value system of personal, cultural and societal values, which help define identity through how one feels in their personal environment.

When learning occurs, there are changes in the physical structure of the brain through continuous interactions between the learner and the external environment. Therefore, the learning environment makes a difference as learning occurs in a social and cultural context. The reader learned from the section on identity that during autobiographical learning the brain is dramatically changed.

Gillman, (2008) presented posits for developing critical thinking strategies that university students can use to develop their critical thinking skills. The American Dental Education Association presented a toolkit checklist, and Sousa (2003) presented a list of six strategies for teaching critical thinking, helping


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professors educe development of critical thinking skills in older students.

Finally, this paper is not finished. This is the story of critical thinking development, social and emotional identity, and the professor and the older student who is more than young enough to work on a university degree, but who is chronologically fifty to seventy-six years old. Society generally looks only at the chronological age and often constructs barriers in the path of an older university student. It is this writer’s belief that older students who travel the academic path of a university degree have the entire package necessary to do very well in the work needed to make it through the rigors involved with a university degree. The classroom at the university can be overwhelming for an older student. The adaptable and compassionate professor can support the path in academics for an older student. This is their story and they will write the rest of this paper.

References

Behar-Horenstein, L. S., Schneider-Mitchell, G., &

Graff, R. (2009). Promoting the teaching of critical thinking skills through faculty development. Journal of Dental Education.

Behar-Horenstein, L. S. & Niu, L. (2011). Teaching critical thinking skills in higher education: A review of the literature. Journal of College Teaching & Learning 8 (2)

Brookfield S. (1987) Developing critical thinkers: Challenging adults to explore alternative ways of thinking and acting. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.


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Carstensen, L. L. & Turk-Charles, S. (1994). The salience of emotion across the adult life span. Psychology and Aging, 9: 259-264.

Carstensen, L. L. (1993). Motivation for social contact across the life span: A theory of socioemotional selectivity. In J. Jacobs (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: 40. Developmental perspectives on motivation (p. 209-254). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Carstensen, L. L. (1995). Evidence for a life-span theory of socioemotional selectivity. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4: 151-156.

Coleman, N. V. & Williams, P. (n.d.). The emotional self. Chapter 4. Retrieved from https://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/files/?

Connelly-Nicholson, A. (2013). The aging mind in higher education: Mentoring and differentiation of curriculum. Not published.

Darling-Hammond, Austin, K., Orcutt, S., & Rosso, J. (2001). How people learn: Introduction to learning theories. The Learning Classroom: Theory into Practice. A Telecourse for Teacher Education and Professional Development. Retrieved from http://www.stanford.edu/class/ed269/hplintrochapter.pdf

Deaux, K. (2001). Social Identity. Encyclopedia of women and gender (Vols. 1-2). Academic Press. Retrieved from http://www.tiftonfumc.org/Content/11200/389646.pdf

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.


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Fischer, K., Yan, K., and Stewart, K. (2003). Adult cognitive development: Dynamics in the developmental web chapter 21. In Handbook of Developmental Psychology. Ed Jaan Valisner and Kevin J. Connolly. London: Sage pub.

French, G. (2007). Children’s early learning and development: A research paper. NCCA 2007.www.ncca.ie

Gallardo, E. T. (2006). Social Identity Theory. Retrieved from.www.slideshare.net/edentamayogallardo/social-identity-theory-

Gillman, S (2008). Cultivating critical thinking skills. Retrieved from www.increasebrainpower.com/critical-thinking.html

Halpern, D. (2001) Assessing the effectiveness of critical thinking instruction. Journal of General Education 50: 270-86.

Hansten, R. J, & Washburn M. (2000) Facilitating critical thinking. Journal of Nurses in Staff Development 16: 23-30.

Hogg, M. A. (2008). Personality, individuality, and social identity. In F. Rhodewalt (Ed.), Personality and social behavior: 177-196. New York: Psychology Press.

Hogg, M. A. (2001). A social identity theory of leadership. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5:184-200.

Kliegel, M., Jäger T. & Phillips, L. H. (2007). Emotional development across adulthood: Differential age-related emotional reactivity and emotion regulation in a negative mood induction procedure. International. J. Aging And Human Development, 64(3): 217-244.


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Kroger, J. (2006). Identity Development: Adolescence through Adulthood. Chapter 8. Identity in late adulthood, Sage pub.

Kuhn, D. (1999) A developmental model of critical thinking. Educational Researcher 28: 16-26.

Levinson, D. J. (1986). A conception of adult development. American Psychologist, 41:3–13.

Lipman, M. (1988) Critical thinking: What can it be? Educational Leadership: 38-43.

Lively, K. J. (2013). Giving yourself the gift of good cheer. Psychology Today. Retrieved from www.psychologytoday.com/blog/smartrelationships/201311/givingyourselfthegiftofgoodcheer

Loyens, S. M. M., Mirada, J., & Rikers, R. M. M. P. (2008) Self-directed learning in problem-based learning and its relationships with self-regulated learning. Educational Psychology Review 20 (4): 411-427.

Meyers C. (1986). Teaching students to think critically. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Nyberg, L., Persson, J., Habib, R., Rulving, E., McIntosh, A.R., Cabeza, R., & Houle, S. (2000). Large scale neurocognitive networks underlying episodic memory. Journal Cognitive Neuroscience12 (1):163-73.

O’Conner, D. & Wolfe, D. (1991) from crisis to growth at midlife: Changes in personal paradigm. Journal of Organizational Behavior. 12:323-340.

Otten, S. (2002). ‘‘Me and us’’ or ‘‘us and them’’? The self as heuristic for defining minimal ingroups. European Review of Social Psychology, 13: 1–33.


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Paul, R.(1992) Critical thinking: What every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing world. 2nd ed. Santa Rosa, CA: Foundation for Critical Thinking,

Perlmutter, H. & Trist, E. (1986). Paradigms for societal transitions. Human Relations, 39 (1): 1-27.

Sherman, D.K. & Cohen G.L. (2006). The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38:183-242.

Sousa, D.A. (2003). How the gifted brain learns. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press Inc.

The American Dental Education Association. (n.d.) Critical thinking skills toolbox. Retrieved from http://www.adea.org/adeacci/Resources/Critical-Thinking-Skills-Toolkit/Pages/default.aspx

Vaillant, G.E (1977). Adaptation to life, Boston, MA: Little, Brown.

van Gelder, T. (2005) Teaching critical thinking: Some lessons from cognitive science. College Teaching; 53(1): 41-46.

Zull, J.E. (2006) Key aspects of how the brain learns. New Directions for Adult and Continuing

Education 100: 3-9.


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The iPad Classroom Experience:

Implications for Teaching and Learning

Ronda G. Henderson Middle Tennessee State University

Introduction

Technology has played a vital role in higher education in recent years (Henderson, 2008). Mobile learning (m-learning) evolved from the concept of electronic learning (e-learning) in the early 2000s. Wang, Wu, & Wang (2009) defined m-learning as the “delivery of learning to students anytime and anywhere through the use of wireless Internet and mobile devices, including tablets, personal digital assistants (PDAs), smart phones and digital audio players”. While the size and limited access of these devices hindered its use in the classroom, the invention of the iPad in 2010 opened up a host of opportunities for learning in the classroom.

While some higher education institutions such as Abeline Christian and Freed-Hardeman have employed iPad initiatives where students are equipped with personal iPads upon enrolling at the institution, many institutions have been hesitant due to the lack of financial resources and evidence of a return on investment. Instead institutions such as Pepperdine,


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Duke, and others all across the country have launched iPad pilot studies (Vedantham & Shanley, 2012). In the fall of 2012 the administrators in the Jones College of Business at Middle Tennessee State University elected to conduct a pilot study to gather research on the perceptions of students using the devices prior to investing valuable funds on a college-wide initiative.

Purpose of Study

Mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets

have become ubiquitous in our global society increasing access to information and collaboration. According to the 2012 NMC Horizon Report, mobile applications and tablet computing were expected to be adopted in higher education within the next year or less (Johnson, Adams, and Cummins). The purpose of the study was to determine perceptions of Jones College of Business (JCOB) business students regarding iPad technology in the classroom. The study also helped to identify typical activities of students using the devices in the classroom as well as outside of the classroom.

Significance and Contribution to the Field

M-learning is an innovative approach to learning

that has the potential to change the way we deliver instruction. Similar to the PC (personal computer), the iPad has the potential to be an invaluable resource to educators and students. More research is needed to determine how mobile technologies can and is being used by business students. Because of its technical and pedagogical nature, business faculty should become


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forerunners in the field of m-learning. To assist in this effort, more research is needed to encourage business students and faculty to adopt the use of mobile devices in their classrooms.

Research Questions

The main purpose was to provide an opportunity

for the instructor and students to use innovative, engaging and interactive technologies to advance teaching and learning in a real classroom setting. The research questions guiding the study were as follows:

1. What are the perceptions of business students

regarding the use of iPads in the business classroom?

2. How often are business students using their iPads in and out of class?

3. How are business students using their iPads in and out of class?

Limitations

This pilot study was limited to students in one

business course. Due to time and financial constraints in providing all business students with iPads, all business students were not used.

Methodology

Survey research and descriptive statistics was

used to assess student perceptions of iPads in class. According to Glatthorn (1998), survey research is used


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to seek to assess attitudes, perceptions, and opinions. The study included providing iPads to 30 business communication students and one instructor to be used for one semester.

Population

Participants of this study consisted of business communication students at an AACSB-accredited school of business in the southeast region of the United States. Students enrolled in a class taught by the researcher were the selected sample.

Instrumentation

A web-based survey was determined to be the most effective way to collect data from the population. A survey instrument developed by the researcher was used to determine student perceptions regarding iPad use in and out of the classroom. The survey instrument was completed by each student at the end of the study. Part one included questions concerning demographics. In part two of the survey, a five-point rating scale was used with the response range: 1 = “strongly disagree,” 2= “disagree,” 3 = “unsure,” 4 = “agree,” and 5 = “strongly agree.” Part three of the survey open-ended questions regarding the advantages and disadvantages of using the device as well as student usage of the device.

Data Collection

The instructor obtained permission from the Institutional Review Board at the university in which the


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study was conducted. The research data were collected using a Web-based survey administered to the students during the 2012 fall semester. The pre-loaded iPads were issued to 30 students in a business communication course. Of the 30 students participating, 28 completed the survey resulting in a 93% response rate.

After the iPads were issued to the students, they were instructed to bring the iPads to class every session. The following class activities using the iPads were expected of the students:

• Access the business communication e-book • Access class lectures, notes, and assignments • Compose writing assignments using a free word

processing app • Submit assignments electronically • Complete online quizzes • Participate in real-time polling to stimulate class

discussions • Complete collaborative activities • Provide feedback using an end-of-course survey

to gauge student perceptions of the activities and the course

Analysis of Data

Descriptive statistics were used to determine the personal student demographics of the business and their perceptions of iPad use in learning.


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Findings

Research Question One

Research question one sought to determine perceptions of business students regarding the use of iPads in the business classroom. As outlined in Table 1, the majority of the students (90%) enjoyed using the iPads in class, and 79% would recommend using them again. Approximately 70% of students felt more included in the class as a result of the iPad use, and 64% felt that the iPads increased their interaction level with other students in the course. Roughly half of the students (54%) believed that using the iPads helped to improve their understanding of the course material, and 50% felt that the devices helped them improve their exam grade. Only 29% were willing to pay for their own personal device.


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Table 1 Questions Regarding iPad Classroom Participation (n=28)

iPad Participation Questions

Percent Agreed or Strongly Agreed

I enjoyed using the iPad classroom. 90%

I would recommend using the iPad again in this course. 79%

Participation with the iPad increased my feeling of belonging in this course. 71%

Participation with the iPad increased my interaction with other students. 64%

Participation with the iPad improved my understanding of the subject content. 54%

Participation with the iPad improved my grade on the exam. 50%

I would be willing to pay for my own personal iPad to be used in other classes. 29%

Research Question Two

Research question two sought to determine how often students use their iPads in and out of class. Table 2 displays the number of hours per week students used


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their devices for class purposes. Seventy-eight percent of the students used their iPads for class activities between 1-6 hours per week. Notably, 4% didn’t use their device at all for class.

Table 2 Question Regarding Amount of Time iPad Used (n=28)

Hours a week students used iPad for class purposes

Percent

0 hours per week 4% 1-3 hours per week 46% 4-6 hours per week 32% 7-9 hours per week 11% 10-12 hours per week 7%

Table 3 reveals the number of hours per week

students used their devices outside of class for personal purposes. Sixty-eight percent of the students used their iPads between 1-6 hours per week for personal reasons with the majority (43%) using the devices between 1-3 hours per week. Eleven percent never used the devices outside of class and 7% used the mobile devices 12 or more hours per week.


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Table 3 Question Regarding Amount of Time Ipad Used (n=28)

Hours a week students used iPad for personal purposes

Percent

0 hours per week 11% 1-3 hours per week 43% 4-6 hours per week 25% 7-9 hours per week 11% 10-12 hours per week 3% 12+ hours per week 7%

As stated in Table 4, when asked whether having

the iPads changed their technology consumption, 39% revealed that having the iPads did not change their behavior. Twenty-nine percent of the students reported being online more. Only 18% spent less time in front of a PC and 14% spent less time in front of a TV.

Table 4 Online/Offline Behavior (n=28)

How did the iPad change your online/offline behavior? Percent

More time online 29% Less time in front of a PC 18% Less time in front of a TV 14%

It didn’t change my behavior. 39%


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Research Question Three

Research question three sought to identify how students use their iPads in and out of class. As outlined in Table 5, the majority of the students (93%) used the device to browse the web, engage in interactive class activities (89%), and check/read emails (79%.) Roughly half (54%) used the iPad as a study tool, while almost one-third (32%) used it as a presentation tool. Thirty-six percent of students used the device as an e-reader and only 32% used it to create documents or presentations.

Table 5 iPad Activities (n=28)

I used the iPad for the following activities Percent

E-Reader 36% Browsing the Web 93% Developing Documents/Presentations 32%

Interactive Class Activities 89% Study Tool 54% Reading/Composing email 79% Presentation Tool 32% Other 11%

When the students were asked specifically how they

were using the iPads outside of class, the following responses were provided:

• Social Media—Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest • Online homework


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• Research • Gaming • Reading the newspaper • Surfing the web • Study notes for exams • Check the weather • Daily planner • Take pictures • Record videos • Check learning management system (d2l) daily • Listen to music • Read ebooks • Watch YouTube • Send emails • Use apps • Watch TV (Netflix) • Take online quiz • Increase my websites productivity • Nothing • Watch ESPN • Access online books for other courses • Homework for other classes • Reading assignments for other classes • Drawing

Conclusions and Implications

The findings revealed that business communication students have positive perceptions regarding the use of iPads in the classroom. In this study, students enjoyed using the devices and felt a greater sense of belonging as a result of having them. It can be


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concluded from these preliminary findings that these mobile devices may have a positive impact on student motivation. More quantitative research should be conducted to explore this possible implication.

Although student perceptions were positive, only half of the students felt that using the devices in class helped them to better understand the course content and perform better on the course exam. These findings are consistent with Hoover and Valencia (2011.) In addition, the majority of them were unwilling to use personal funds to purchase their own device. Thus as iPads continue to grow in popularity, empirical research should be conducted to determine whether the positive perceptions are merely due to novelty.

Much of the student activities using iPads in the classroom involved interactive classroom, reading, checking emails, and following along with lecture presentations. Many of the in-class activities which involved composing and creating content was difficult due to students’ inability to use the virtual keyboard. There was an unexpected learning curve when the researcher assigned a writing activity in class. Investing in Bluetooth, detachable keyboards so students are able to compose using the iPads is highly recommended for educators expecting students to create content using the iPads in the classroom. Otherwise, educators must account for the time needed by students to become comfortable with using the virtual keyboard.

Student activities using the iPads outside of class mainly involved social media, checking emails, surfing the Web, gaming, watching TV and movies, and completing assignments for other classes. The use of specific apps was limited because students were leery of


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purchasing and downloading apps using the university-created iTunes account. Allowing students to use iCloud and their own personal iTunes account to purchase and download their own apps may increase iPad usage outside of the classroom.


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References

Glatthorn, A. A. (1998). Writing the winning dissertation: A step-by-step guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Henderson, R. (2008). Bridging from digital divide to digital equity. Georgia Business Education Journal, 26(1), 1-4.

Hoover, D., and Valencia, J. 2011. iPads in the Classroom: Use, Learning Outcomes, and the Future. Presentation, 2011 EDUCAUSE Annual Conference. Philadelphia, PA. October 20.

Johnson, L., Adams, S., & Cummins, M. (2012). The NMC Horizon Report: 2012 Higher Education Edition. Austin, Texas: The New Media Consortium.

Vedantham, A. & Shanley, C. (2012) iPads in the Classroom Pilot Project. Report retrieved from http://wic.library.upenn.edu/multimedia/docs/ipadpilotreport.pdf

Wang, Wu, & Wang. (2009). Investigating the determinants and age and gender differences in the acceptance of mobile learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(1), 92-118.


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The Functionality and Feasibility of Flipping

Jennifer G. Hoffman University of Charleston

Introduction

A student gets a homework assignment to watch a short video on the internet. The following day, under the supervision of his teacher, that student works with other students in the classroom to practice the concept that was presented in the video. This is one of many possible scenarios for the concept of flipped learning. Also referred to as reverse teaching, inverted classroom, backwards classroom, or flipped classroom, this pedagogy takes the traditional method of teaching and turns it inside out. This report will define the concept of flipped learning, explore the potentials and pitfalls, and provide a guide of best practices for those who dare to try it.

Questions for Exploration

The purpose of this literature review is to attempt

to answer several questions that need further exploration surrounding the topic of flipped learning, such as:

1. What is flipped learning?


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2. What positive potentials can flipped learning offer students and instructors?

3. What are the possible pitfalls of flipped learning for students and instructors, and how might they be avoided?

4. What are some best practices that should be used to create a successful flipped learning environment?

Literature Review

The Concept of Flipping

There are many models for flipped learning, but the main idea is to flip traditional learning so that the material that is typically learned in the classroom is completed at home by the students, and the work that is typically done at home is completed in the classroom. Teachers provide students with content materials, such as videos, presentations, or readings, to be completed at home. During the subsequent class time, students work through simple or complex problems and ideas, with the ability to work with the teacher or other students to enhance their understanding of the material

Although flipped learning is a hot topic in education right now, it is not a new idea. In the early 1800s, General Sylvanus Thayer created a system at West Point where engineering students were given content materials and were held responsible for learning the subject matter before coming to class. The class time was then used to stimulate critical thinking and problem solving discussions (Musallam, 2011). Although the development of technology has made the dispersion of


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content materials much easier, the concept is generally the same: “What is normally done in class and what is normally done as homework is switched” (Herreid & Schiller, 2013, p. 62). The humanities and social sciences have used the flipped learning concept for some time, as students are typically required to read material outside of the classroom and prepare to discuss those readings inside the classroom. This idea is more foreign for STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) disciplines, which are traditionally taught by disseminating content information in the classroom and requiring students to practice this information outside of the classroom. Subsequently, these disciplines are ripe for a change to flipped learning (Berrett, 2012).

The concept of flipped learning can sometimes cause apprehension in teachers because the class time does not follow a set outline. “The flipped teaching method moves the classroom from a deterministic form (the essence of the traditional approach to instruction, in which cause (lecture) gives rise to effect (learning)) to a more stochastic or probabilistic form (in which the outcomes for the individuals are more uncertain and varied)” (Moroney, 2013, para. 34). With flipped learning, anything can happen. It is important, therefore, to consider the potentials and pitfalls before deciding to use this pedagogy.

Positive Potentials for Flipping A review of the literature demonstrates that there

are many positive aspects of flipped learning, for both students and instructors. These benefits create a huge potential for the effectiveness of flipped learning.


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Potentials for students. Students who are given internet videos to watch can access them on their own terms. The ability to access those videos anytime and anywhere makes the assignments more convenient for the students (Hill, 2013). Also, students can pause and replay these videos when they don’t understand a concept or they want to hear something again. If the information were being given in a typical classroom lecture, that same student would have to ask the teacher to re-explain the concept, which could disrupt the flow of the lecture and the learning of the other students (DeFour, 2013). Rather than causing this disruption, many students in the traditional classroom will choose to simply not ask questions and therefore not gain clarification. An additional benefit to videos found on the internet is that they may provide students with alternative teaching styles or even supplemental lessons on a topic with which their teachers are not experts (Hamdan, McKnight, McKnight, & Arfstrom, 2013).

Another flipped learning benefit for students is the ability to construct their own knowledge about material, rather than having the teacher tell them the knowledge (Miller, 2012). Since the knowledge dissemination is done outside of the classroom, active learning activities inside the classroom can be used to lead to greater student engagement (Hamdan, McKnight, McKnight, & Arfstrom, 2013). And, with greater student engagement comes a greater eagerness to learn, which leads to “greater gains in conceptual understanding” (Berrett, 2012, pp. 3-4).

The collaboration that students get during the flipped learning classroom time provides several benefits as well. Students who work with their peers get


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to hear multiple ways of thinking about concepts, instead of just hearing the instructor’s way of thinking (Berrett, 2012). Also, collaboration with peers can assist students in developing real-world team-work skills that will benefit them in their future careers (DeFour, 2013).

Potentials for instructors. Flipped learning gives instructors the opportunity to correct any misconceptions that students have before they show up on an assessment. “Rather than sending students home to struggle with a new concept, the instructors can hear – and correct – misunderstandings as they arise” (Berrett, 2012, p. 3). Actively engaging with students in the classroom gives the opportunity for constant feedback and correction (Hamdan, McKnight, McKnight, & Arfstrom, 2013).

Instead of using their classroom time to deliver information, the flipped learning model allows teachers to use that time to help students understand and develop meaning for that same information (DeFour, 2013). It also allows for coverage of more material. In one case involving electrical engineering courses that were being taught with flipped learning pedagogy, professors observed that “students progressed faster enabling them to cover more material at a greater depth” (Hamdan, McKnight, McKnight, & Arfstrom, 2013, p. 8). Many instructors are finding that flipped learning is providing a great way to reach students and develop greater mastery of content (Kachka, Understanding the Flipped Classroom: Part 1, 2012).

Another benefit for instructors is that flipped learning gives them a greater opportunity to address individual student learning needs (Sebolt, 2012). By interacting with students during class time, teachers can


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more easily learn what topics cause confusion for students and provide further assistance and instruction on those topics (Kachka, Understanding the Flipped Classroom: Part 2, 2012).

According to Berrett (2012), flipped learning leads to greater gains in conceptual knowledge. At the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, the math program has been using flipped learning in its calculus classes since the mid-1990s. In 2008, in an attempt to measure the success of the flipped calculus classes,

Michigan gave concept inventories to students before they started calculus and after they finished, and calculated the difference relative to the maximum gain they could have made. Students in Michigan’s flipped courses showed gains at about twice the rate of those in traditional lectures at other institutions who took the same inventories. (p. 4)

Possible Pitfalls for Flipping

As with any educational pedagogy, the positive potentials have to be balanced with the possible pitfalls. A close examination of the literature reveals several possible pitfalls for both students and instructors, along with some ways that these pitfalls might be avoided.

Pitfalls for students. Since flipped learning usually requires the use of technology to access content material outside of the classroom, one of the biggest concerns is whether or not all students will have the ability to access the content. Students who have poor or no internet access outside of the classroom may have a disadvantage in this learning model (Kachka,


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Understanding the Flipped Classroom: Part 2, 2012). This may not have to be a pitfall, though. Creating equitable access to content material for students may simply require more planning on the part of the instructor. For students who do not have good quality internet access at home, there are other options, such as “burning DVDs for students with no computers, but DVD players; and providing additional access to computers either in class or before, during, or after the school day” (Sebolt, 2012, para.8).

Some students may be resistant to flipped learning. Students who have done well with “receiving information and spitting it back out” (Berrett, 2012, p. 6) may have little desire to participate in the flipped learning activities. Also, some students who have mastered the ability to complete homework assignments without actually learning the material may be opposed to trying this new pedagogy (DeFour, 2013).

Another concern involves the age-old problem of students who do not complete their homework. As any educator can tell you, no matter what rewards or consequences are in place, there will always be those students who choose to forego homework assignments. Since this is a possibility with any pedagogy, it should not be a reason to dismiss trying the flipped learning approach. Instructors have to be willing to build assignments that provide greater encouragement for students to complete the out-of-class work so they are adequately prepared before coming to class (Kachka, Understanding the Flipped Classroom: Part 2, 2012).

Pitfalls for instructors. The biggest pitfall for instructors is the amount of time and labor that is required for flipped learning to be successful. Some


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teachers choose to make their own videos, since those found on the internet might be questionable when it comes to quality and accuracy. Creating original videos, though, can be labor-intensive and some teachers may need training to help them learn how to create these videos. The upside to this is that once these videos are created, they can be reused with only minimal revising in the future (DeFour, 2013).

Another labor-intensive aspect of flipped learning is evaluating the assessment tools that are used to guarantee that students are actually watching the videos or reading the materials that are provided outside the classroom. For example, an instructor might require that students submit questions before class about concepts that are still confusing for them after completing the out-of-class materials. These instructors must find time before class to read those questions so they can provide more instruction on the topics with which the students are struggling, which is a concept known as just-in-time teaching (Berrett, 2012). This added work may be a hindrance for some teachers in trying flipped learning.

Another concern for teachers is that flipped learning will diminish the role of teachers (Sebolt, 2012) and the instructional videos will replace the need for teachers (Hamdan, McKnight, McKnight, & Arfstrom, 2013). However, if flipped learning is done correctly, the role of teachers will be more important than ever. Sebolt (2012) argues that “if the role of the flipped classroom teacher is to interact and meet the unique learning needs of each and every student in every class every day, then the need for qualified, caring, professional educators increases” (para. 13). Their roles, however, may change.


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Miller (2012) says that instead of being the “sage of the stage,” teachers who use flipped learning will become the “guide on the side” (para. 2). Similarly, Haman, et al (2013) says that teachers are more important than ever in the flipped classroom, because instead of lecturing to students, they will “lead from behind” (p. 11) by observing learners and guiding their thinking through feedback and assessment.

A specific concern for instructors at the college level is how students will evaluate teachers who use flipped learning compared to those who stick with traditional methods since student evaluations typically play some part in advancement and performance appraisals. According to Melissa E. Franklin, chair of Harvard’s physics department, “The average score on a student evaluation of a flipped course is about half what the same professor gets when using the traditional lecture” (Berrett, 2012, p. 5). Colleges that want to encourage faculty to experiment with new learning models for the possible enhancement of student learning must be willing to weigh student performance against student evaluations until students adjust to the flipped learning pedagogy.

Best Practices for Flipped Learning

After examining the potentials and pitfalls for flipped learning, it is important to understand the best practices that are suggested in the literature for those who choose to attempt flipped learning in their classes. First, consideration must be given for whether or not flipped learning is appropriate for all classes, especially in higher education. Hamdan et al. (2013) suggests that


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flipped learning may not be best for introductory courses because “most students who enroll in those courses may not have developed deep interest in them…they may not have the skills they need to solve problems that are not clearly defined” (p. 8). Somewhat to the contrary, Collins and Nunley (2013) believe that flipped learning is an ideal model for liberal arts math courses, which are typically introductory courses, because instructors can use classroom time to discuss the relevance of math instead of spending time on terms and basic concepts.

Once it has been determined that flipped learning will be used, it is important to decide whether to use bottom-up teaching or top-down teaching. Using Bloom’s taxonomy, bottom-up teaching starts with Lower Order thinking and works up, and top-down teaching starts with Higher Order thinking and then works down. A teacher using the bottom-up approach will lead with instructional material that is completed outside the classroom and use other learning activities in the classroom to build up from the video. With the top-down approach, teachers will use class time to introduce the material, and then use video or other activities to provide “extension, application, or even skill assessment” (Sebolt, 2012, para. 15).

Next, if videos will be used to provide instruction outside the classroom, they must be created or found on the internet. These videos should not be “epic videos that last for hours” (Miller, 2012, para. 8). It is a good idea to “keep the videos at or less than 10 minutes” (Kachka, Understanding the Flipped Classroom: Part 2, 2012, para. 3) and to engage students with multi-media videos. It is also a good idea to build in some method to ensure that students are viewing these videos and


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adequately preparing for class. Sample verification methods include quizzes, reflection questions, or even using course management software to verify that the videos have been viewed (Kachka, Understanding the Flipped Classroom: Part 2, 2012).

After students have completed the out-of-class preparation, it is important to have classroom activities in place that will allow the instructor to help students “unpack the content” (Kachka, Understanding the Flipped Classroom: Part 2, 2012, para. 5). Some sample activities include mastery learning activities, active learning activities, problem-solving sessions, and project based learning (Collins & Nunley, 2013). Students can work independently or in groups, while the teacher provides guidance and feedback.

To culminate the flipped learning experience, it is important for instructors to “build appropriate assessment systems that objectively measure understanding in a way that is meaningful for students and the teacher” (Hamdan, McKnight, McKnight, & Arfstrom, 2013, p. 4). This assessment will allow the teacher to determine the effectiveness of the flipped learning activities and how to move forward with subsequent material.

Conclusion

Through this literature review, flipped learning

has been defined, scrutinized for potentials and pitfalls, and assessed for future best practices. Although flipped learning may not work for all teachers and students, “the existing research clearly demonstrates that the Flipped Learning model can be one way to create a classroom


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environment that is learner-centered” (Hamdan, McKnight, McKnight, & Arfstrom, 2013, p. 12). And while there is much research on how flipped learning is currently being used in education and its potentials and pitfalls, there is a great need for more empirical research on how it affects student achievement (Hamdan, McKnight, McKnight, & Arfstrom, 2013). “Ultimately, flipped learning is not about flipping the ‘when and where’ instruction is delivered…it’s about flipping the attention away from the teacher and toward the learner” (Sebolt, 2012, para. 18).


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References

Berrett, D. (2012, February 19). How 'Flipping' the Classroom Can Improve the Traditional Lecture. Retrieved from The Chronicle of Higher Education: http://chronicle.com/article/How-Flipping-the-Classroom/130857/

Collins, A. E., & Nunley, D. M. (2013, July 7). Flipping Without Flipping Out! Retrieved from http://ictcm.pearsontc.net/files/Proposal%20Collins%20Nunley%20ICTCM%202013%20San%20Antonio.pdf

DeFour, M. (2013, February 25). New 'flipped classroom' learning model catching on in Wisconsin schools. Retrieved from Wisconsin State Journal: http://host.madison.com/news/local/education/local_schools/new-flipped-classroom-learning-model-catching-on-in-wisconsin-schools/article_8a0379b8-7d2a-11e2-a07c-0019bb2963f4.html

Hamdan, N., McKnight, P., McKnight, K., & Arfstrom, K. M. (2013, June 8). The Flipped Learning Model: A White Paper Based on the Literature Review Titled A Review of Flipped Learning. Retrieved from Flipped Learning Network: http://researchnetwork.pearson.com/wp-content/uploads/WhitePaper_FlippedLearning.pdf

Herreid, C. F., & Schiller, N. A. (2013). Case Studies and the Flipped Classroom. Journal of College Science Teaching, 62-66.


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Hill, C. A. (2013, August 26). The Benefits of Flipping Your Classroom. Retrieved from http://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/instructional-design/the-benefits-of-flipping-your-classroom/

Kachka, P. (2012, October 23). Understanding the Flipped Classroom: Part 1. Retrieved from Faculty Focus: http://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/teaching-with-technology-articles/understanding-the-flipped-classroom-part-1/

Kachka, P. (2012, October 24). Understanding the Flipped Classroom: Part 2. Retrieved from Faculty Focus: http://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/teaching-with-technology-articles/understanding-the-flipped-classroom-part-2/

Miller, A. (2012, February 24). Five Best Practices for the Flipped Classroom. Retrieved from Edutopia: http://www.edutopia.org/blog/flipped-classroom-best-practices-andrew-miller

Moroney, S. P. (2013). Flipped teaching in a college algebra classroom: An action research project. Informally published manuscript, Department of Educational Technology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, Retrieved from http://etec.hawaii.edu/proceedings/masters/2013/Moroney.pdf

Musallam, R. (2011, October 26). Retrieved from http://www.edutopia.org/blog/flipped-classroom-ramsey-musallam

Sebolt, M. (2012, May 31). The truth about flipped learning. Retrieved from


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https://sites.google.com/a/salem.k12.va.us/flipped/stories/thetruthaboutflippedlearning

Tucker, B. (2012). The Flipped Classroom: Online instruction at home frees class time for learning. Education Next, 82-83.


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Developing an “Active” Workshop on . . .

Active Learning

Eva Olysha Magruder Santa Fe College

Introduction Have you heard the expression, “Sage on the

stage to guide on the side?” As far back as the early 1990s, the concept of active learning and college teaching has been a hot topic (King, 1993). Regardless of the years of research and practice of active learning in a college setting, many instructors are not trained to utilize these techniques in their classrooms. One reason for this hesitancy is that often college and university professors are not trained as teachers, rather as experts in their fields. Additionally, many instructors may not feel adequately prepared to take the necessary steps in order to implement active learning in the classroom, especially if they have not tried these methods or even seen these methods in action.

This paper establishes active learning in the literature as well as provides a working definition of active learning used to develop several active learning workshops at a small, southeastern state college. Additionally, the paper explains the rationale, need, and purpose behind providing the workshops. Further, the


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author will explain how the design of the workshop series demonstrates and models active learning. Finally, the paper explores the impact the workshops had on the practice of several faculty who participated in the workshop series, looks at implications the workshop series has had on faculty development at the college.

Active Learning in the Literature

Chickering and Gamson (1987) are famous for

the Seven Principles of Undergraduate Education. The meta-analysis was developed, based on a large body of research with the assistance of university officials, professors, and the American Association for Higher Education (Chickering & Gamson, 1987). The Seven Principles of Good Practice, referred to as the Principles or the Seven Principles by the author and for the rest of the paper, includes a variety of practices recommended for undergraduate education. The Principles are widely accepted as a gold standard for teaching and learning in the field of undergraduate education. These principles include: Emphasizing faculty-student contact, encouraging cooperation among students, promoting active learning, giving timely feedback, focus on time on task, and having high expectations for students.

Additionally, the Carnegie Mellon University (n.d.) Principles of Learning consider motivation, making connections, acquiring and practicing skills, among others, as the basic principles that are the foundation for effectual learning. Likewise, the Carnegie Mellon University (n.d.) Principles of Teaching focus on effective teaching practices. The principles include acquiring relevant knowledge about students to inform


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course design and teaching; aligning the three fundamental elements of instruction; stating expectations about classroom policies and learning objectives; choosing the “need to know” to teach; being explicit in teaching and modeling processes; incorporating appropriate roles to support learning goals; and using reflection and feedback to tweak courses.

As mentioned in the Carnegie Mellon Teaching Principles, the fundamentals of instruction are key to effective instruction. The major components of instruction are the alignment of learning outcomes, learning activities, and assessments (See Figure 1). In order to align these elements, instructors should be familiar with the basics of student-centered learning objectives. Bloom’s taxonomy (revised) focuses on encouraging higher order thinking such as analyzing, synthesizing, evaluating, and creating in classrooms (Krathwohl, 2002).


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Figure 1 Carnegie Mellon University “Teaching Principles”

Major Components of Instruction

Active Learning Definition As the literature review implies, active learning

strategies are based on these principles and many years of research. In order to best approach the design of the workshop series for faculty, it is important to establish a working definition. Active learning, in general, is composed of some basic elements. According to Bowell and Eison (1991) students are involved in learning and higher-order thinking skills such as analyzing, synthesizing, and creating. Students are engaged in activities that emphasize the development of skills. Students are given opportunities to explore their


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attitudes and beliefs. Further, the authors define active learning as anything that “…involves students in doing things and thinking about things they are doing” (Bowell & Eison, 1991, p. 2). Similarly, Prince (2004) defines active learning as “…any instructional method that engages students in the learning process… active learning requires students to do meaningful learning activities and think about what they are doing” (Prince, 2004, p. 1). Thus, for the purposes of this paper, in an active learning classroom, students are doing things. They are thinking about the things they are doing in the classroom. Activities are based on the course, unit, or weekly objectives. The learning activities focus on critical thinking and higher-order thinking, thus encouraging students to analyze, synthesize, and create something relevant to the course material.

Design of Active Learning Workshops

A variety of strategies were employed in order to

adequately develop and implement the active learning workshops. Some of the major design elements included a needs assessment to determine what the faculty wished to learn and a design model to create the workshop series, which will be explored. The major components of the workshops, as well as an in-depth description of activities and instructional materials, will be provided. Additionally, the faculty who participated in the initial workshops provided valuable feedback, which helped inform future professional development programs at the college. This feedback will be showcased and discussed.

Needs Assessment


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The design of the active learning series at the college was initially based on feedback from a faculty survey needs assessment. The target audience for the survey was full and part time faculty employed at the small, southeastern state college. The faculty body is diverse in age range and background, not unlike the student population. Not all faculty members have experience in teaching, as many are professionals in the field in which they teach. Just as their students are novices in the subject areas, many of the faculty body are novices in best teaching practices (National Research Council, 2000). The strategy which the author developed was to try to reach this varied group of professionals with practical and useful classroom tools and teaching methods. In order to determine which tools would be desired among the faculty, the faculty development team created a needs assessment survey.

In order to determine the expressed needs of faculty, a survey was delivered to the entire faculty body via email from the Assistant Vice President (AVP) of Academic Technologies. The survey instrument was created with a Google form and had a 3-point Likert scale asking, “Which of the topics would you likely attend as a 1-2 hour stand-alone, face-to-face workshop?” The three choices were “Very Likely,” “Somewhat Likely,” and “Unlikely” (Ciardulli, Magruder, & Yonutas, 2012). The survey resulted in 183 responses from faculty.

While the results of the survey were varied, active teaching and learning as a general topic was chosen by 55% (or 101) of the respondents. Because this topic was among the top-rated choices, the faculty development efforts were concentrated on active


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learning. Since active learning is a broad topic, the focus was on active learning in lectures as well as cooperative and problem-based learning techniques.

Design Model

The design model chosen to develop the workshop was the “backwards design” model. This framework, purported by McTighe and Wiggins (2004), focuses on three main stages of development of instruction. The first stage of this design model looks for the “big ideas” to establish overarching goals and objectives. The next stage of development focuses on how these big ideas are assessed and measured. Finally, the last stage includes developing activities and instructional materials to support the overarching goals and objectives (Halverson, 2009).

Stage 1: Big idea. The major big idea of the active learning workshop series was to provide instructors with information about active learning and to model the strategies in action. The resulting objectives of the first workshop in the series included:

1. Define active learning 2. Compare and contrast different active learning

techniques in a classroom setting 3. Explore ways to incorporate active learning into

a lecture 4. Evaluate which active learning techniques are

best used in specific types of situations (i.e. whole group, small group or individual, writing or reading, short or longer)


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5. Evaluate which activities work best with different subject matter

The more specific learning objectives for the

second part of the series included: 1. Define cooperative learning 2. Define problem-based learning 3. Compare and contrast cooperative and problem-

based learning techniques 4. Explore ways to incorporate cooperative and

problem-based learning techniques into the classroom.

5. Create a solution to a problem

The major goal, combined with these more specific learning objectives, became the foundation for the two sessions in the workshop series.

Stage 2: Assess and measure. The next question in the backwards design model asks: How do we know that they know (Halverson, 2009)? In order to ensure that the participants in the series not only understood active learning techniques but could also apply them, the faculty at the first workshop were encouraged to take one or two strategies back to the classroom and try them out. At the second part of the workshop, the attendees had an opportunity to share their experiences using the strategies and ideas for future uses of the strategies.

Step 3: Instructional activities and materials. As previously mentioned, the overall goal was not only to impart information to faculty about active learning, but also to model how these strategies play out in a classroom. Thus, the workshop series was split into two


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one-hour sessions in order to scaffold the active learning strategies. In each of the sessions, the participants were required to be “active” by participating in activities.

In the first session, the strategies focused on general strategies that can easily be incorporated into a lecture. These strategies only take three to five minutes to implement and can be incorporated into a lesson without a whole lot of preparation. The workshop was fast-paced and the participants worked in groups, moved around the classroom, and developed a brainstorming product.

In the second session, the focus was on developing cooperative learning groups and problem-based learning strategies. At the beginning of the workshop, the participants shared experiences using the easier strategies taught at the previous session. The next part of the workshop focused on cooperative learning techniques and finding a solution, in a cooperative group, to a problem presented by the facilitator.

Finally, the participants received a notebook that contained printed materials relevant to the workshop series. Included in the notebook were 24 active learning strategies with step-by-step instructions and an area to take notes. As the facilitator of the workshop demonstrated a particular strategy, it was pointed out in the notebook. Time was then provided for discussion and note taking about the strategy. The notebook also contained information on the literature and research behind active, cooperative, and problem-based learning.


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Faculty Feedback Approximately 20 faculty participated in the

workshop series. In general, faculty attended both sessions, as was advised when they registered for the workshops. After each session, the participants were sent a survey to provide feedback to the workshop developer and facilitator. The feedback was overwhelmingly positive. In addition, several faculty were interviewed further to determine what exactly worked for them. One survey respondent noted:

The workshop was perfect for an in

person session. I wonder if something similar could be set up as a workshop within [the learning management system] to demonstrate how to use these teaching and learning techniques online. Part of what made this workshop so successful was that we learned by doing. Although we discussed translating these techniques to an online interface, actually experiencing them within a live online class might be beneficial.

One participant appreciated how the workshops

focused on modeling the strategies. She also found the time with other faculty valuable. She explained:

As a librarian, I am involved in

teaching on two fronts: in our 1-credit library research classes, and with one-shot library instruction sessions, where classes


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of varying subjects come to the library to learn how to use our resources to research their assignments. Both types of instruction often feel like there is too much lecture, and with the amount of information that is being given, the attentions of the students begin to wander. With this in mind, I was very excited to attend the active learning workshops . . .

The class was structured in a way

where we practiced what we were being taught, and it allowed for significant interaction between participants, as well as with the facilitator. The strategies were wonderful, and some of them I can directly use within my classes immediately. I also really enjoyed being able to interact with faculty members across campus, to hear what they were doing and to take ideas from them. Many of the strategies would work for online classes, which is probably the hardest environment in which to facilitate interaction. The workshops really expanded my capabilities as a teacher in promoting student interaction.

Additionally, a part-time adjunct faculty member

felt that the workshops provided her with motivation to try something new and different. She said:


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. . . I was growing increasingly discontented with myself. I knew I was missing out on something major as a result of sitting in on other teachers’ classes. Some were masters at facilitating student engagement. They were not the repositories of all learning. They were captivating their students by asking motivating questions, inspiring quick and fun accountability, creating small groups of successful and engaged learners. In short, they were reaching into their students to release the learner!

An expert staff…provided an

enormous number of ways to create active learning – active THINKING - in my classroom. These workshops were hands-on, practical, and taught by “new-breed masters”. I felt, as I suspected I would, extremely nervous, inept, and downright scared. I still am, but I am taking tentative first steps to make important changes. And, yes, I plan on retaking these workshops so that they sink deeply into my DNA!

Future Implications on Practice As the faculty feedback illustrated, the active

learning workshops were successful in providing participants with hands-on activities that provided them with the knowledge and skills to try out techniques in


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the classroom. Additionally, the workshops provided the faculty with an opportunity to find out more about each other and different teaching approaches and methods. Both of these factors are key in making decisions about future professional development programs at the college.

The author plans to further develop theses workshops into a cohesive program that will include more faculty involvement and create a community of practice. Additionally, the one-hour workshop time was not enough to fully dive into the learning material. Therefore, considerations for future workshops will include extending the time of the workshops.

One major area that will be addressed is the need to provide training to faculty for online active learning strategies. Online teaching is a completely different area of teaching and should be treated in a distinct manner. Thus, the author plans to develop similar workshops focused on online active learning and teaching.

Summary and Conclusions As this paper establishes, active learning is the process of thinking about things and doing things. Additionally, course activities, based on active learning, ought to be grounded in goals and objectives. The activities should encourage higher-order and critical thinking. For faculty who wish to learn how to implement active learning into the classroom, why should their learning experience be any different? Active learning techniques can and should be included in professional development environments in order to


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model the activities that can be used in the classroom.

References

Bowell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). The modified lecture. In Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom (pp. 7-19). Washington, D.C: School of Education and Human Development, George Washington University.

Carnegie Mellon University (n.d.). Teaching principles: teaching excellence and educational innovation. Retrieved from www.cmu.edu/teaching/principles/ teaching.html

Ciradulli, L., Magruder, E., & Yonutas, D. (2012). Proposed professional development survey. Retrieved from https://docs.google.com/forms/d/ 1clGQyui8l_NkOuIhfwVQQumvRBLsUoEkI2Q2Rh9CAKA/viewanalytics

Chickering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. F. (1987). Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education. AAHE Bulletin, 39(7), 3–7.

Halverson, E. (2009). The “backward design” process. Retrieved from https://tle.wisc.edu/solutions/ lecturing/%E2%80%9Cbackward-design%E2% 80%9D-process

King, A. (1993). From sage on the stage to guide on the side. College Teaching, 41(1), 30.

Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom's taxonomy: An overview. Theory into Practice, 41(4), 212-218.

McTighe, J., & Wiggins, G. P. (2004). Understanding by design: Professional development workbook.


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Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

National Research Council (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and School. Washington D.C.: National Academy Press.

Prince, M. (2004). Does active learning work? A review of the research. Journal of Engineering Education, 93(3), 223-231. Retrieved from http://ctlt.jhsph.edu/resources/views/content/files/150/Does_Active_Learning_Work.pdf


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A College Education: Is It Worth It?

Bud McClure University of Minnesota, Duluth

Abstract

Is a college education worth the investment in today’s economy? College and universities continue to do more of the same, because they are wedded to the idea that things will get better, that our economy will grow, that new technology will save us from our own excesses, and that the future will always be better than the past. But what if we have reached the limits of growth and are now in a period of sustained decline? What is a potential student to do? The future of higher education and the value of a college education are discussed in the context of a possible future of deindustrialization and economic collapse.

College: Overpriced, Oversold and On the Edge?

“It’s hard to make predictions, especially about the

future.” – Unknown Last year during a student orientation, I was

advising a mother and daughter. When the daughter wandered off, the mother and I continued to talk. Mindful that graduating students from our school have,


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on average, $31,168 in debt, I asked the mother how her daughter planned to finance her education. She replied, “Student loans.” I inquired whether her daughter had considered beginning at a community college where she might be able to live at home, work part-time, and pay for school as she went along. Her daughter might take a bit longer to finish, but she could do so without accumulating so much debt. Then she could transfer to our university for the last two years. The mother replied, “This has always been my daughter’s dream, and I don’t want to interfere with it.”

It is hard to puncture someone’s dream because we want our young people to dream big. But it is more than likely this dream would turn into a nightmare. If her daughter were among the 60% who eventually graduate from college, her debt might exceed $60,000, or worse she might be among the other 40% who dropout with no degree (Department of Education, 2012). With an undergraduate degree in the social sciences, her chance of finding a good paying job are slim, and more likely she would end up like 50% of graduates who move back home and work at a job or jobs that do not require a college education (Parker, 2012). If her daughter did find a job it would most likely pay her $28,000, the average starting salary for college graduates (Stone et al., 2012). Moreover, she could be haunted and enslaved by those student loans that might cause her untold hardships over her lifetime. If her mother were unfortunate enough to co-sign one of the loans, she too would be ensnared in the nightmare. This debt could follow her for many years, leading even to having her social security payments garnished.


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Our current model of higher education is unsustainable. Liberally funded by state and federal monies for decades we have seldom had to confront our excesses. As those monies have dried up, we have turned to over one trillion dollars in student loans to keep our bloated institutions afloat. Moreover, in recent years institutions have been dishonest with students about the investment value of a college education because we need their money. We enthusiastically promote a college education with little caution as to the many pitfalls that await the unsuspecting student.

Colleges and universities continue to do more of the same, because we are wedded to the idea that things will get better, that our economy will grow, that new technology will save us from our own excesses, that the future will always be better than the past.

The much touted report by the Georgetown University Center for Education and the Workforce, which promotes the need for more college educated people—22 million by 2018—rests on the singular assumption that more progress is just on the horizon. The authors assert “as the economy gets back on track within the next five years,” the shift to a college economy will be fully underway, and moreover, the economy will be “fully recovered towards the end of the decade” (Carnevale et al., 2010; Carnevale et al., 2011). The belief in endless progress, as measured by growth in the economy, is almost a religion in this country. But what if that were not true? What if we have reached the limits of our growth? To better understand the issues faced by universities and college students, we need to place those issues in the larger context of America’s economy.


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Table 1 Growth Rates in U.S. Real GDP

Years Average annual % growth

1930s 1.3 1940s 5.9 1950s 4.1 1960s 4.4 1970s 3.3 1980s 3.1 1990s 3.1 2000s 2.6

Source: Foster & Magdoff (2009)

As Klitgaard and Krall (2012) note (see Table 1),

“The age of economic growth is coming to an end…. On the one hand we are growing too fast to remain within the limits of the biophysical system. At the same time the world economy is growing too slowly to provide sufficient employment,” and this has been a long-term trend.

John Michael Greer (2011) likens this downward trajectory to a catabolic collapse. Simply put, societies, according to Greer, produce more than they can maintain given the limitations of their environments (e.g., natural resources), and modern societies develop complex infrastructures that are expensive to maintain and require


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ever increasing energy flows or resources to maintain their stability.

Eventually, a tipping point is reached where it is no longer sustainable. However, the problem is how to reduce costs when a sustainability crisis is reached, because people do not want to sacrifice their standard of living or give up their possessions for the common good. So the sustainability crisis perturbs the system until it collapses and washes out the excess in a kind of haphazard way and resets at a lower level of sustainability.

Greer explains that this is the normal rhythm of complex societies cycling between anabolism and catabolism, building up and breaking down. However, when modern societies, particularly empires such as ours, sustain their growth with nonrenewable resources eventually it will end. And that is what is happening to the United States. We have reached the limits of what had been an expansive period of growth and world domination.

Each period of catabolic collapse is followed by a new equilibrium of a lower standard of living for most people, more unemployment, a crumbling infrastructure, more poverty, cities going bankrupt, and fewer public services. Over the next decade Greer predicts that the 21st century will begin to look a lot like the 20th century in reverse. As collapses occur and more people are displaced, a new and lower equilibrium is established. Resources previously used by the displaced are freed up and it is possible to see brief spurts of growth. But overall, as Figure 1 shows, the larger picture portends a slow downward unwinding of our current way of life. A closer look at employment and wage trends, past and


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present, provides a very real picture of catabolic collapse. Further, this downward trajectory of the economy, reflected by wages and benefits, is producing jobs that pay less and provide a lower standard of living. This is the “new” economy that college graduates are entering.

In November of 2012 only 58.6% of working age people were employed, the same percentage as September 2009, compared with 63% in June of 2007. In total there are over 100 million working-age people unemployed. The notion that the economy is improving is propped up by the official employment rate, which has shown a steady decline in 2012 to less than 8% (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2013). However, this is not a very accurate picture. When short-term, discouraged workers who have dropped out of the job hunt are added to that figure, it increases to over 14%. But the real measure of unemployment is better calculated by including all workers, both short-term and long-term discouraged workers who have stopped looking for work, and those who have part-time jobs and cannot get full time employment. This figure is over 22% (William, 2013).

The number of people now employed in manufacturing has fallen from 17 million in 2000 to less than 12 million today. About one in four jobs pays less than $10 an hour and these jobs are clustered in areas such as retail, food service, administrative work, arts, recreation, entertainment, and accommodation (Data Brief, 2012). Ironically, or maybe not, the corporations that employ these workers are among the most profitable. Walmart workers average $8.18 an hour, and 80% of their employees received food stamps. In many states,


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Walmart workers are among the highest recipients of Medicaid (Chavers, 2012).

In a recent paper from the Center for Economic and Policy Research, the authors report that the United States produces fewer “good jobs” than it did 30 years ago (Schmitt, John, & Jones, 2012) . Good jobs are defined by: a) wages over $18.50 an hour (the median hourly pay, in inflation-adjusted 2010 dollars, for men in 1979); b) employer sponsored health care in which the employer pays some portion of the premium; and, c) an employer sponsored retirement plan. In 2010 only 24.6% of jobs met those criteria despite data showing the U.S. workforce is better educated than in 1979. Over the same period the portion of the workforce with an advanced degree increased from 6.5% to 11.8%. Moreover, in 2010 34% of workers had a 4-year degree compared with 19% in 1979. Yet the number of “good jobs” declined over the 30-year period from 27.4% to 24.6%.

Employers claim they can’t find qualified workers, but the authors assert that the much touted “skills gap,” is a myth. If it were true, wages should be rising “because employers would be trying to steal away qualified workers from other employers“(Schmitt, John, & Jones, 2012). Schwenninger and Sherraden (2011) note “the problem is not lack of skills, but the structure of the job market. Seventeen million Americans with college degrees are doing jobs that require less than the skill levels associated with a bachelor’s degree. Just under 30% of flight attendants and 16% of telemarketers have bachelor’s degrees even though this credential is not necessary for these jobs” (Schwenninger & Sherradan, 2011).


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But the very bad news, and more support for Greer’s catabolic collapse hypothesis, is that sixty percent of jobs lost during the current recession were mid-wage jobs ($13.84-$21.13 an hour) and 58% of the new jobs that are replacing them are low wage ($13.83 or less). Low wage jobs are growing 2.7 times faster that middle wage jobs (Data Brief, 2012). One in four jobs now pays less than $10 an hour (Chavers, 2012). Thirty years ago 30% of all jobs in the United States were low-income jobs, and now it is more than 40% and growing (Schwenninger & Sherradan, 2011). Inflation-adjusted median income peaked in 1999 and has fallen every year through 2011 (Kochlar, 2012).

Long-term trends are responsible for these falling wages, mainly “the loss of bargaining power, especially [for] those in the middle and lower income scale” brought about by dramatic changes in the labor market, now with fewer unionized workers, industry deregulation, and privatization of state and federal jobs. The minimum wage, inflation adjusted, is now 15% lower than 1979 (Schmitt & Jones, 2012). Schmitt and Jones conclude that the economy has lost 1/3 of its capacity to generate good jobs.

Six out of 10 of the high growth jobs through 2020 are forecast to be low wage. These jobs include retail salespersons, food preparation workers, laborers and freight workers, waiters and waitresses, personal and home care aides, office clerks and customer representatives (Schwenninger & Sherradan, 2011). These jobs do not require a college education. Even many mid-wage jobs, such as construction, manufacturing, finance, insurance, real estate, and information, do not require a college education.


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While millions of jobs have been eliminated though technology, computers, robotics, and automation, the impact of “off shoring” has also been devastating for our standard of living. American workers are now a part of the globalized economy where everyone is in the same labor pool. It is simply cheaper to offshore jobs, especially to countries where no environmental or human rights regulations exist. However, as a sign of how far wages have fallen, Apple, which has manufactured in China for years, is now moving some jobs back to the United States.

We passed the tipping point sometime in the 1970s and this trend has been permanent: fewer jobs, lower wages, and a reset to a lower standard of living. In large part, the explosion of debt since the 1970s was a compensatory attempt to maintain consumption in the face of stagnant wage growth (Klitgaard & Krall, 2012). For these ends, consumer debt has risen $2.4 trillion since 1971 and the national debt has increased $15 trillion since 1978 (Quinn, 2011).

For many, results have been disastrous. Over 47 million people, one of every 6.5 Americans, are on food stamps, a 50% increase since 2008. Roughly one out of six is on Medicaid, now over 50 million Americans (Meeker, 2011). Sixty-two percent of the federal budget is now spent on these support programs (Heritage Foundation, 2012). Twenty-five million adults live with their parents (Corbett, 2012). More than half of all Americans receive some portion of their income from the government either through benefits or payroll (Wilson, 2012). In fact, these government benefits have, to some extent, offset wage stagnation (Schwenninger & Sherradan, 2011).


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And yet, as the legions of dispossessed grow we continue along in a fog as if these were aberrations caused by the dispossessed themselves, rather than a growing fault line in the foundation of our way of life. Because to look might mean to see and to understand that we all stand on the same crumbling foundation.

We are accustomed to abundance and it is very difficult to imagine, let alone acknowledge, that the future is going to be very different than the past. To borrow a phrase, “we live in the twilight of illusion.” But look we must because those of us in higher education had better prepare for the storm that is headed our way.

While economists champion every little sign or omen that suggests our way of life or standard of living will continue unabated, the friction created by unsustainable public and private debt, climate change, population growth, a broken political system, a wildly skewed distribution of wealth, and, most critically, energy limitations, constrained by dwindling natural resources are grinding our economic system to a halt. For example, let’s look briefly at oil’s impact.

No natural resource has been or is more critical to our economic growth and job production than oil. It quite literally lubricates our economy. As a country we were lucky to have had such an abundance of it because it was the primary driver of the exponential growth and development in this country in the first half of the 20th

century. But by 1970 we had burned through 50% of our supply (Grubb, 2011). Since 2005, the same has been true for the global oil supply, and although output has remained fairly constant since then, it has become both


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geographically difficult and economically more expensive to acquire oil (Murray & King, 2012).

A recent report that suggests that America will be energy independent by 2030 is based more on hope than reality (Handley, 2013). In fact, “the true volume of …global (oil) reserves is clouded in secrecy; forecasts by state oil companies are not audited and seem to be exaggerated” (Murray & King, 2012).

While the tar sands, oil shale, and deep sea drilling fantasies have added to the hype of future energy independence, they are just fantasy; the economic reality is that most of that oil will be too expensive to obtain. In fact, the increase in oil prices is what has made shale oil so attractive. We have known about shale oil for a long time. It was not some revolution in technology that allowed us to drill for it, but higher prices of oil; the recent spike in oil production in America, albeit temporary, is a result of the higher price.

Alternative energy sources cannot match the power of oil, and while the natural gas phenomenon holds some promise, there is no infrastructure in place to use natural gas for transportation needs, nor is there a national effort underway to move in this direction.

Our economy does a delicate dance with oil. When the price was low, we were able to grow and produce jobs (e.g. the Industrial Revolution), but as it becomes more difficult to obtain oil, prices rise as they have done for the last ten years. The high cost of oil creates a friction on the economy, retarding growth as discretionary consumer spending increasingly is spent on gasoline and other related oil products (Murphy, 2010). When prices rise too high, the economy contracts and sheds jobs. It can be argued that the current


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recession, which began at the end of 2007, was sparked not by the housing crisis but by steadily increasing oil prices that reached $100 a barrel in mid 2007 and peaked at over $145 a barrel in July 2008. In fact, a spike in oil prices has preceded ten of our last eleven recessions (Hamilton, 2010). That connection is further understood when one notes the almost perfect relationship between energy consumption and employment, which is r=.98 (Tverberg, 2012). Southern Europe is completely dependent on foreign oil, and their economic collapse has been largely a result of oil prices (Murray & King, 2012). While oil is going to be around for a long time, we might not be able to afford it. The high price of oil and its growing shortage will continue to impact social institutions, employment, and the economy. In terms of education, we should be preparing for these changes, rather than clinging to outdated modes of operation.

Higher Education

“The American dream of opportunity, education,

and upward mobility is now largely confined to the top few percent of the population. Federal policy is increasingly dictated by the wealthy, by the financial sector, and by powerful (though sometimes badly mismanaged) industries such as telecommunications, health care, automobiles, and energy. These policies are implemented and praised by these groups’ willing servants, namely the increasingly bought-and-paid-for leadership of America’s political parties, academia, and the lobbying industry” (Ferguson, 2012).


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Student loan debt now exceeds 1 trillion dollars, having risen 800 billion dollars since 2000. Loan debt per student is $29,000 (Mishel, 2012; Mishel et al., 2012). While debt has increased four-fold, wages for college graduates have fallen by 8% for the same time period.

From 1992–2008 the number of bachelor’s degrees awarded rose 50% from 1.1 million to more than 1.6 million. However 60% of those graduates ended up in jobs that did not require a college degree. Employers see this surplus of college grads and simply tack on a college degree as an additional job requirement (McArdle, 2012).

The current and future economic picture of lower wages and fewer jobs begs the question, “Is a traditional college education worth it?” As a credentialing agency, college is not worth it. Certain majors may still warrant investment, but in the main, if a student has to borrow more than 50% of his or her starting salary, in an economy unable to produce jobs, college is no longer a good investment. And if the future looks anything like Greer imagines, college does nothing to provide students with the skills that will be needed in a deindustrialized world, one with less energy, which will require more labor intensive and physically demanding work Klitgaard & Krall, 2012).

To date, education and health care have been mostly shielded from the impact of the declining economy, but that invulnerability is ending. The first wave of the bursting college bubble is declining enrollment. Couple that decline with the faster-better-cheaper Langoliers of automated software and the Internet that have been “chewing up one industry after another,” and the


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traditional university is facing a tidal wave (Smith, 2012).

Where do we go from here?

It will undoubtedly be very difficult for society to

move from growth to decline and eventually a sustainable economic model. Most likely it will only happen through some sort of collapse (Tainter, 1990).

Even with clear evidence that we are in a sustained economic decline, many college officials and educators will continue to remain in denial. Many of them are wedded to the psychology of previous investment, remaining committed to big, inflexible institutions and unrealistic ideas in the face of mounting evidence that things are changing (Kunsler, 2005). The beginning decline in enrollment will be predictably met with new marketing and rebranding campaigns designed to gin up more students and their much needed loan money or the relentless pursuit of alumni money through ill-advised investments in athletic programs. The worldwide, frenetic search for cash-paying foreign students has been underway for some time and will continue to intensify. Some government revenue will continue to flow as state and federal officials are wholly invested in their own magical thinking of a return to a robust economy, but with soaring debt and competing interests most of that money will dry up. Instead, programs for student loan relief and forgiveness will appear as the only strategy to keep money flowing.

The one idea the federal government might finally invest in is a paid national service program, like the Civilian Conservation Corps. For two years following


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high school graduation students could participate in rebuilding an infrastructure that would support a localized economy. In return, students could learn the soft skills of self-discipline, communication, working collaboratively and creatively in community-building programs where they would also learn real vocational skills

Colleges and universities face big changes, and over the next decade many may go out of business. Whatever federal and state monies are left should follow innovation, and failing schools should be allowed to fail. The need to move from a growth model to a sustainability model is paramount. It will be important to reduce enrollment and tuition, freeze hiring and building, collapse and combine programs as people leave or retire, make the academic calendar more flexible to meet the needs of students, and provide better screening and advising to offer education that better fits the current and future labor market. And perhaps, colleges will consider admitting only students who have been out of high school for at least two years, maybe longer for males. Integrate web-based learning throughout the curriculum and implement a policy whereby new programs must be offset by closing current programs. Curricular changes should reflect the new reality that combines liberal education goals with vocational training and the use of faculty and mentors from vocational and trade schools.

As enrollment declines, universities can convert empty dorm rooms into low income housing for young people, and campus greens might be used for community gardens. More importantly, university space should be more closely integrated and accessible to the local community whose ideas for its usage will become


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increasingly important as a more localized economy is reborn.

Our primary concern should be our students. We cannot continue to enslave them to debt. We have to tell them honestly that their future may be constrained by dwindling natural resources, issues of overpopulation, the potential for ecological disaster, and, above all, economic adversity in which most of them will be less well off than their parents. Social mobility will be limited, as it is today, and a college education will not change it. Moreover, the work of the future will be physically demanding and require an ability to fix, mend, build and grow things. Students should be helped to recognize their own interests, capabilities, and limitations. They should be encouraged to develop skills that will lead to meaningful employment, and that might mean bartering and living outside of the monied economy. For most students, this will mean participation in an integrated vocational and academic program beginning in high school and guided by mentors during apprenticeships, and perhaps continuing with some post secondary education.

The student I described at the beginning of this piece was dreaming, but we should not allow those dreams to turn to nightmares. We must consider the realities that face us today, while we retain hope for the different possibilities of the world of tomorrow.

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Student Exam Performance

in a Flipped Class Module

Richard Pierce Shenandoah University

Abstract

This study investigates the flipped class instructional model on student performance in a graduate science class. Student performance on final exams was considered during 2011, 2012, and 2013. Final exam performance on a 16-question subset of questions that was addressed in a flipped class module was also considered. The main research question for this study was “What was the impact of the flipped classroom intervention on student exam performance?”

Introduction

Throughout much of history the diffusion of

knowledge in higher education resulted from an instructor reading from an original source to a class of students who took notes on the lecture via handwritten lecture notes; this process was an essential element of academic life. Many graduate science courses continue to be dominated by a didactic lecture format of instruction in which the majority of students passively listen to the instructor and take notes. Current views of learning and instruction challenge the wisdom of this traditional pedagogic practice by stressing the need for


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the learner to play an active role in constructing knowledge. Mobile devices, audience response systems, and lecture capture are among the promising technologies posed to disrupt traditional didactic lectures. A growing body of educational research about how people learn and developments in modern cognitive science (Litzinger, Lattuca, Hadgraft, & Newstetter, 2011; Olds & Johri, 2011) affirm the efficacy of active teaching practices. Restructuring learning experiences from simple information transmission to evidence-based instructional learning experiences continues to challenge the academy.

The empirical support (Bonwell & Eison, 1991) for active learning, generally defined, as any instructional method that engages students in the learning process is extensive. Graduate health professions continue to grapple with the form and the extent to which they should include active learning, despite a growing body of evidence for its efficacy. The Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE, 2006) requires the inclusion of active learning strategies. Gleason et al. (2001) provided a comprehensive overview of active learning strategies in pharmacy education as well as a well-articulated rationale for adopting these strategies. While many programs use lecture capture to extend learning opportunities, there is little empirical evidence concerning the use of the flipped classroom to improve student performance in pharmacy education. In this project, faculty at the Shenandoah University’s Bernard J. Dunn School of Pharmacy addressed the ACPE’s requirement for including active learning practices by integrating instructional approaches that are typically associated with the flipped classroom.


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The flipped classroom instructional model was popularized by educators (Bergman & Sams, 2012) as a way to provide instruction to secondary students who were missing class and therefore missing instruction. In the flipped classroom what used to be classwork, namely the instructor-led lecture and student note taking, is done prior to class while what used to be homework, typically assigned problems, is now done in the scheduled class. In the flipped classroom, the responsibility and ownership of learning is transferred from the teacher to the students through interactive activities. Advances in communications technology have engendered new possibilities for the flipped classroom model.

Expanding open source online resources and the unparalleled rise of wireless devices continue to reframe educational practices. The flipped classroom model was conceived a half decade before the massive adoption of technologies such as smartphones (56%) and broadband at home (70%) (Zickur, 2013; Zickur & Smith, 2013). The explosion of available educational content such as Coursera, Udacity, and the Kahn Academy is increasing exponentially. Modalities for the delivery of digital content are also rising. For the first time, a third (34%) of American adults ages 18 and older own a tablet computer like an iPad, Samsung Galaxy Tab, Google Nexus, or Kindle Fire, almost twice as many as the 18% who owned a tablet a year before (Zickur, 2013). The confluence of the high quality educational content and expanding distribution modalities obviates many of the historical structural impediments to the flipped class instructional model.

Researchers and educators are increasingly embracing a flipped class model in order to improve


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educational outcomes by focusing class time on active learning practices (Prober & Heath, 2012). Moving lecture content into the digital domain to free up class time requires a renewed focus on the teacher’s role in structuring and leading class activities. Evidence to support the combination of online content coupled with active engagement in class is accruing (Deslauriers, Schelew & Wieman, 2011). The merits of the flipped class model continue to portend improved student engagement and improved student outcomes (Prober, Heath, 2012).

The Study

A design experiment was selected as the guiding

methodology of this study. In design experiments, researchers study interventions in practice, with the dual goal of progressively refining the design of the intervention itself and the theories of learning and teaching that inform the design (Barab, 2004; Brown, 1992; Collins, 1992; Kelly, 2003; Sandoval & Bell, 2004, Collins & Bielaczyc, 2004). This investigation examined the impact of a flipped class intervention in a renal module within the Integrated Pharmaceutical Care and Science (ICARE) series upon student final exam performance and student perceptions of the flipped classroom intervention. The Institutional Review Board of Shenandoah University approved the project in April 2012. Renal ICARE PHAR 608, one of nine required Integrated Pharmaceutical Care and Science (ICARE) courses within the pharmacy curriculum, was taught in block format in spring of 2011, 2012, and 2013. The course presented pharmacy students with the


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pathophysiology of common renal diseases, renal replacement strategies, associated complications, and electrolyte and acid-base disorders. Therapeutic management of patients with renal disease, with a specific attention placed on the effects of pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties of medications, was the focus of the course.

The instructional intervention for this project was grounded in the flipped classroom instructional model. Students were assessed initially on a pre-test, then directed to view pre-recorded lectures on iTunes University® prior to the next scheduled class. A process-oriented guided inquiry (POGIL) learning activity was conducted during the following scheduled class. The activity, a clinically situated case, extended the application of information from the pre-recorded lectures. The class activity was conducted at the application level of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Domains (Bloom, 1956) as students were required to combine patient specific data and drug information in order to design a treatment regimen for the patient. The design of the activity was structured from simple dosing calculations to more complex pharmacokinetic calculations based upon progressively more complex patient characteristics. The instructor-led activity guided students from one scenario to the next, interjecting relevant contextual information that connected lecture content and lesson objectives to the clinical settings. During the POGIL activity, students were randomly called upon to confirm their answers to the series of clinical questions and calculations during the activity over a two-hour period. Each student was required to complete five calculations in the activity. The structure


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of the activity mirrored the knowledge and skills that are required on the formative assessments, course examination, and national board examination.

Student learning was measured by performance on the final examination. In spring 2012 students took a series of assessments including a pre-test, a post-test, subscale performance on the final exam questions that related to the Renal module in ICARE PHAR 608, and a final exam. Comparisons were conducted between the final exam performance of the 2011, 2012, and 2013 classes and responses to a 16-question subset of the questions that related to the flipped content. Identical final exam assessment questions were used for 2011, 2012, and 2013. The same instructor conducted all the lectures in 2011, 2012, and 2013. In spring 2011, course lectures were performed live and were also recorded using Camtasia Relay in a voice over slideshow format and made available for viewing on iTunes University after class. In spring 2012, the lectures originally recorded in the spring 2011 were assigned by the instructor to be viewed by students outside of class prior to the POGIL class activity. In 2013 the instructor reverted to didactic lectures. In 2011 and 2013 no formative assessments were given and no recorded lectures were required to be viewed outside of scheduled class; however recordings of the class were available for viewing after the class. It was hypothesized that the flipped classroom intervention would improve student test performance. The research question was “Did the flipped classroom intervention impact on student final exam performance?”


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Findings Comparing exam performance between different

groups poses challenges concerning the equivalency of the groups and the assumption of equality of variance between the groups. To address the issue of group equivalency an examination of academic metrics such as entering grade point average and composite Pharmacy College Admissions (PCAT) scores was conducted. The 2011, 2012 and 2013 classes were demographically similar in composition regarding gender, ethnicity. Descriptive statistics were computed for the incoming grade point averages for the P2 class in 2011 n = 66 (3.20 ± 0.31, range 2.6-3.96), the P2 class of 2012 n = 61 (3.23 ± 0.56, range 1.67-4.0), and the P2 class in 2013 class n = 79 (3.26 ± 0.40, range 2.45-4.0). A one way analysis of variance found no significant differences between the grade point averages of the 2011, 2012, and 2013 P2 classes at the p < 0.05 level [F(2,203) = 0.351, p < 0.705. A one way analysis of variance was also conducted to compare academic performance of the three classes regarding the PCAT scores. Significant differences between the composite PCAT scores of the 2011, 2012, and 2013 classes at the p < 0.05 level [F(2,203) = 0.351, p < 0.705. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score for the 2013 P2 class n = 70 (64.5 ± 14.2, range 24-96) was significantly lower than the P2 class of 2012 n = 59 (69.3 ± 20.14, range 9-99) and the P2 class of 2011 n = 65 (75.6 ± 10.5, range 58-99).

In the spring of 2012 teaching strategies consistent with the flipped or inverted class model were employed to disrupt the faculty dominated lecture and replace it


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with active, student-centered learning activities. Student performance was assessed by comparing final exam performance and subscale performance on a 16-question set relating to a specific renal module in three consecutive years. Assessments were administered electronically using a secure browser in a proctored setting. Questionmark Perception was selected for the creation, delivery, and analysis of assessments. Data was further analyzed using the IBM SPSS/PC software version 19.

In 2012 a diagnostic pre/post test was administered at the beginning and conclusion of the renal module, prior to the final examination. Descriptive statistics included pre-test (mean=33.5, ± 11.6) and post-test (mean =79.2, ± 10.6) assessments. A paired two sample for means t-test yielded significant differences between pre-test and post-test student performance t(74) = -27.7, p < 0.000. Descriptive statistics for the 75 question final exam were computed for 2011 (mean =76.8, ± 10.97) and 2012 (mean =77.3, ± 8.7). Table 1 contains the descriptive statistics were calculated for the final exam and flipped module content for 2011, 2012, and 2013.


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Table 1—Student exam performance on assessments in a renal module

Control Group

(1)

Experimental Group

Control Group

(2)

2011 2012 2013

M SD M SD M SD P Pre-test 33.5* 11.6 Post-test 79.2* 10.6 *<.05

Final exam

76.8 10.9

79.6* 9.11

77.4* 10.4 *<0.05

n=70 n=75 n=85

Flipped module

78.6 13.7

83.3* 11.3

76.0* 14.2 *<.05

n=70 n=75 n=85

G.P.A 3.2 0.31 3.23 0.56 3.26 0.4 0.705

PCAT 75.6* 10.5 69.3* 20.1 64.5* 14.2 *<.05

A one way analysis of variance found significant differences in the 2011, 2012, and 2013 final exam means at the p < 0.05 level [F(2,227) = 135.9, p < 0.007. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the final examination mean score for the 2013 P2 class n = 70 (76.8 ± 10.3, range 47-94) was significantly lower


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than the P2 class of 2012 n = 75 (79.6 ± 9.11, range 59–94) and the P2 class of 2011 n = 70 (76.8 ± 10.9, range 43–97). The 16-question subset that related to the flipped class intervention of 2012 was also analyzed between final exam administrations. A one way analysis of variance found significant differences in the 2011, 2012, and 2013 renal replacement therapy question subset at the p < 0.05 level [F(2,227) = 6.2, p < 0.002. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score for the 2013 P2 class n = 85 (76.0 ± 14.2, range 19-100) was significantly lower than the P2 class of 2012 n = 75 (83.3 ± 11.3, range 43-100) and the P2 class of 2011 n = 70 (78.6± 13.7, range 43-100).

Conclusions

The flipped classroom intervention replaced

didactic lectures in 2012. Scheduled class time was devoted exclusively to assessing and developing student content knowledge through activities while pre-recorded lectures were viewed outside class in 2012. Promoting active learning through efforts, such as the POGIL, increased student exposure to the application of knowledge to clinical case scenarios. Fostering critical thinking and problem solving acted also as a low fidelity simulation for the final exam format and content. The design of the flipped intervention included repeated exposure to the content in an active setting including multiple formative assessments. Overall final exam performance improved 0.6 % between 2011 and 2012 while performance on the material addressed during the flipped class intervention improved 5.4 % in the same period. The researchers expected to see a corresponding


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1.2 % improvement in final exam scores between 2011 and 2012 based upon the 5.4% gains from the intervention, which represented 21% (16/75) of the final exam. The 5.4 % improvement between 2011 and 2012 final exams scores indicate 1) the performance gains from the intervention are responsible for all of gains in student performance and, 2) student performance declined on the remaining 79% (59/75) of questions not addressed by the intervention. These gains were not expected given the significantly lower composite PCAT score for the 2012 compared to the 2011 class. The researchers concluded the flipped class intervention in 2012 was responsible for the improved student exam performance on the 2012 final exam.

The flipped class intervention was not repeated in 2013. A return to traditional didactic teaching practices similar to 2011 was employed. No diagnostic assessments and no POGIL activity were conducted. The same instructor covered the same topics and the same exam questions were used. In 2013 final exam means and subscale means for the 16 questions relating to the flipped content decreased from 2012 and 2011. The academic profile of the 2013 class was similar to the previous two years regarding GPA but the PCAT admissions score for the class of 2013 were significantly lower than for the 2012 (6.9)% and the 2011 (17.2%) classes. The lower academic PCAT profile accompanied lower exam performance on the final exam and the flipped module content relative to the previous two years.

This flipped classroom project relied on lecture capture technology to extend content delivery prior to class. Originally conceived as a solution to students missing class, the flipped classroom model is forging


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new possibilities for transforming active learning in class. Expanding options for personalized learning outside of class is achieved through student-controlled access to recorded lectures before class. The ability to provide a variety of modalities for interaction among educators, students, and curricular content comport with the rapidly changing mobile technology landscape. Combining the power of the digital content prior to scheduled class with active learning that applies the information from the prerecorded lectures positively impacted student exam performance in this study in 2012.

The School of Pharmacy conducts an annual student technology survey to assess student attitudes as part of the strategic plan. The 2013 survey results are not published, yet they provide insight into students’ use of technology. Three-fourths of the 162 respondents reported that reviewing captured lectures on iTunes University was an integral part of their study habits (strongly agree (n = 74, 45.7 %), agree (n = 45, 27.8 %), neutral (n = 23, 14.2 %), disagree (n =10, 6.2 %), strongly disagree (n = 7, 4.3 %), and NA (n=3, 1.9%). Student responses also showed a preference for downloading audio and video content (n=206, 78 %,) to streaming audio and video lecture content (n = 60, 22 %). The flipped class leverages students’ predilections to digital content by sequencing the viewing before the scheduled class.

These findings in this project offer support for the efficacy of the flipped class instructional model. Statistically significant, yet modest improvements in student performance suggest further research is needed to reproduce the outcomes and further delineate the


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extent to which aspects of the intervention contributed to improved student performance. As we redesign instructional activities, it is important to consider the increasing demands of millennial learners for activity and interactions. Educators’ technology and pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) is critical to choosing with fidelity which topics may benefit from the flipped class instructional model (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). In this project the content in the renal replacement therapy module was selected for the flipped class intervention in part due to the problem-based nature of the topic. By combining out-of-class digital videos and active, problem-based learning during scheduled classtime, exam performance on this topic was increased by the intervention in 2012. The flipped class intervention contributed to higher final exam means, and subscale scores for the renal replacement therapy module. In 2013 lower final exam scores and lower subscale scores were reported when no flipped class intervention occurred. Subscale scores for the renal replacement module dropped below final exam scores in 2013. Absent the flipped class, intervention subscales scores fell below the final exam mean scores. Future research projects might focus on isolating the impact of the individual components of the intervention such as the diagnostic assessment strategies, the classroom activities, and the structure of the online learning components. Embedding quizzes and interactive components in the flipped or online content may entice increased student accountability while providing formative assessments of student learning outside class. Attaching some academic consequences to the flipped class sessions is suggested


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as a motivating factor for students to address material outside of the scheduled classes.

References

Accreditation Council for Pharmacy

Education. “Accreditation Standards and Guidelines for the Professional Program in Pharmacy Leading to the Doctor of Pharmacy Degree.” Retrieved from http://www.acpeaccredit.org/pdf/ACPE_Revised_PharmD_Standards_Adopted_Jan152006.pdf

Barab, S. A. (2004). (Ed.) Special issue: Design-based research: Clarifying the terms. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 1-128.

Bergmann, J. Sams, A. (2012). Flip Your Classroom. Reach Every Student in Every Class Every Day. ISTE 9781564843159.

Bloom B. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York, NY: McKay, 1956.

Bonwell C., Eison A. (1991). Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1. Washington, DC: George Washington University Press.

Brown, A. L. (1992). Design experiments: Theoretical and methodological challenges in creating complex interventions. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2 (2), 141-178.

Cobb, P., Confrey J., diSessa, A., Lehrer R., Schauble, L. (2003). Design experiments in educational research. Educational Researcher, 32(1), 9–13.


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Collins, A. (1992) Toward a design science of education. In E. Scanlon & T. O'Shea (Eds.) New directions in educational technology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1992.

Collins A, Joseph D, Bielaczyc K. (2004) Design Research: Theoretical and Methodological Issue, Journal of Learning Sciences, 13(1), 15-42.

Deslauriers, L., Schelew E., Wieman C., (2011). Improved learning in a large-enrollment physics class. Science. 332(8), 862-864.

Gleason, B., Peeters, T., Resman-Targoff, B., Karr, S., McBane, S., Kelley, K., Thomas, T. H., Denetclaw, T. (2011) An Active-Learning Strategies Primer for Achieving Ability-Based Educational Outcomes American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. 75(9), 186.

Kelly, A. (2004). Design research in education: yes, but is it methodological? Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 115-128.

Litzenger, T., Lattuca, L., Hadgraft, R., & Newstetter, W. (2011). Engineering Education and the Development of Expertise. Journal of Engineering Education, 100(1), 123–150.

Mishra, P. & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017-1054.

Olds, B., & Johri, A. (2011). Situated Engineering Learning: Bridging Engineering Education Research and the Learning Sciences. Journal of Engineering Education, 100(1), 151–185.


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Prober, C., & Heath, C. (2012). Lecture Halls without Lectures – A Proposal for Medical Education. New England Journal of Medicine, 366(18), 1657-1659.

Zickhur, K. (2013) Tablet Ownership 2013. Pew Internet & American Life Project. June 10, 2013 http://www.pewinternet.org/~/media//Files/Reports/2013/PIP_Tablet%20ownership%202013.pdf

Zickur, K., Smith, A. (2013) Home Broadband 2013. Pew Internet & American Life Project, August 26, 2013.http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2013/Broadband/Findings.aspx


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Envisioning Success: Results from

an Exceptionalities Awareness Campaign

at an Urban-Serving Midwest University

Donna M. Sayman Mandy E. Lusk

Wichita State University

Introduction

Individuals with exceptionalities and their families often find themselves asking important questions about post-high school life. Transition services are critically important for successful post-high school employment, independent living, and social skills. This study sought to encourage awareness of the skills needed to be successful in higher education for individuals with exceptionalities. Coupled with this goal, was a focus on the unique needs of those with learning differences for college faculty and staff. Individuals with exceptionalities, along with their families, were invited to a local Midwestern university campus for a day of tours, job shadowing events, visiting college classes, and the opportunity to interview college professors about accommodations and modification needs. A quasi-experimental design utilizing mixed method research was chosen for this project because it allowed us to


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pursue a confirmatory verification of the findings through a quantitative survey combined with qualitative interviews. It is the contention of the researchers that understanding of the findings will be enhanced through the use of both qualitative and quantitative measures (Bryman, 2007; Creswell, 2003).

Decades of research have opened doors and provided unparalleled opportunities for individuals with exceptionalities; however, there is still much work to be done. The power of research has reverberating ramifications. At the time of this writing, Rock Center with Brian Williams aired a news story uncovering the pay individuals with exceptionalities earn at Goodwill Industries (Schecter, 2013). The story revealed how Goodwill pays their workers as little as 22 cents per hour, legally, by virtue of a 75-year old loophole in federal law allowing those with disabilities to be paid less than minimum wage. Goodwill Industries (2013) quickly responded to the news report with justification for the low pay but it is hoped that by making the plight of these people public, their pay will increase and opportunities for expanded occupational choice will increase.

Another example of the power of research and the power of reporting to change lives were dramatically exemplified in 1968 by NBC journalist Bill Baldini when he released an exposé on the deplorable conditions for individuals with disabilities at the Pennhurst State Hospital (Pennhurst Project, 2010). This ground breaking report led to a class action lawsuit which ultimately closed the institution in 1977, and ushered in legislation changing the face of special education services in public education. The power of research to change lives for people with disabilities is an ongoing


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process. In 1983, the National Longitudinal Transition

Study (NLTS1) was funded to determine if public school special education programs were making a difference in the post school outcomes of people with disabilities. The study reported both positive and negative trends along with quality of living for adults with disabilities. These researchers showed that overall life conditions for the disabled were slowly improving. The NLTS2 of 1997 found gradual improvements from the 1983 study, but gains were sluggish leading to the need for additional legislation (Flexer, Baer, Luft, &Simmons, 2013; Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Garza, & Levine, 2005). Currently, the NTLS3 of 2012 will collect information from a broad range of stakeholders including: students, parents, teachers, and school administrators providing robust findings about transition from high school to adult life for individuals with disabilities (U.S. Department of Education, 2012).

Recognizing this power of research to impact the quality of life for marginalized individuals, the researchers of this study determined to host an Exceptionalities Awareness Day on their campus to encourage increased enrollment in higher education. Having an Exceptionalities Awareness Day served dual goals. One was to open the university to individuals with exceptionalities and their families to take away the cloak of academia and present a welcoming, inviting environment where their needs and goals could be achieved. They had a unique opportunity to job shadow faculty and staff for a day and ask questions about college life. In addition, the Office of Disability Services (ODS) provided a campus tour and also discussed


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accommodations and differentiation that could be made within the physical and academic space. Coupled with this goal was the intent of allowing these faculty and staff the opportunity to interact with individuals with whom they may have little exposure with the goal of understanding their unique needs and strengths.

This study sought to answer the following questions: What are the perceptions of attending post-secondary education for students with disabilities? How has their high school prepared them for transition to post-high school life? How do these individuals define self-advocacy, and do they have the skill set to apply self-determined behaviors?

Review of Literature

Need for Effective Secondary Transition Planning Legislative mandates for effective transition

were first enacted in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) reauthorization of 1990 and then again in 1997 (Wehmeyer et al., 2007). Transition services were vaguely defined as a way to assist students with disabilities to achieve independent living skills and to increase post high school employment opportunities (Kochhar-Bryant & Greene, 2008). The most current reauthorization of the

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) in 2004, tightened the mandate for transition services ushering in a contemporary design of transition programs for students with an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) in PreK-12 special education services. New emphasis was placed on


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the concept of transition as a “coordinated set of activities for the student” (Kochhar-Bryant & Greene, 2008, p. 7).

Transition services are crucially important for all students, not just those categorized with a disability. Best practice for high school special education teachers are to embed transition goals within the student’s IEP and actualized these skills across the curriculum. Kochhar-Bryant and Greene (2008) define transition services as “foundational for IEP planning” (p. 8) encompassing long term goals which are based on the student’s strengths and needs and is a coordinated activity engaging a wide range of community resources. This “overarching framework” (p.8) is realized as a coordinated set of activities, built on a backward design for robust preparation to the post high school world. Although well established in the literature, how this looks in actual practice may still be a nebulous and ever-changing ideal.

Employment Rates The devastating recession of 2008 left millions

of Americans unemployed and even at the time of this writing, employment rates are struggling to stabilize. For persons with a disability, the outlook for employment is far bleaker than for their non-disabled peers. The U.S. Bureau of Labor and Statistics (2011) estimated the unemployment rate of individuals without a disability is at 9.1%. However, for those with a disability, the unemployment rate stands at 14.8%.

Workers with a disability are employed in a greater number of part-time jobs than their non-disabled


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peers. Among those with a disability, 32% work in part-time employment, compared to 19% of those without a disability (U.S. Bureau of Labor and Statistics, 2011). Research by Taylor and Seltzer (2011) confirmed these national statistics. In their study of individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and post high school transition, they discovered that the majority of these youth had low rates of employment following high school graduation. These numbers indicate an imperative for schools to assure students with a disability are soundly prepared for post high school employment.

Social and Interpersonal Relationships An often overlooked area of transition planning

and one that is a recognized area of difficulty to navigate for those with disabilities, concerns social and interpersonal relationships. Although it is acknowledged in the literature that individuals with disabilities often experience a deficit in social skills, educators rarely consider this aspect of need during transition assessment and training. Kochhar-Bryant and Greene (2008) reported that only a fourth of those individuals with disabilities who need counseling services actually receive them. According to this same research, it is also the most frequently cited need for successful transition. Raymond (2011) stated that individuals with disabilities often experience delays in emotional development patterns that hinder “the ability …to interact productively with others” (p. 284). Emotional and social functioning are not behaviors easily acquired by these student, however, IEP transition goals rarely emphasize or provide skills training for this area of need. Deshler


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and Schumaker (2006) suggested three areas of concentration for social skills acquisition: teaching positive behavior supports, instruction in specific social skills for employment, and self-advocacy and advocacy training. Raymond (2011) stated that special education teachers may inadvertently promote a lifetime of learned helpless behavior if self-advocacy and social skills are not embedded within the IEP and teaching goals.

There is also a growing area of concern which links higher rates of suicide and individuals with disabilities compared to their typically functioning population. Chronis-Tuscano et al, (2010) found that children diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) had greater risks of depression and higher incidents of suicide compared to other children. In fact, the authors of the study indicated that “all subtypes of ADHD in young children robustly predict adolescent depression and/or suicide attempts 5 to 13 years later” (p. 1050). It is imperative that all students in special education with an IEP must be taught self-advocacy skills in order to have an equal opportunity to be successful in post high school life.

Students with Disabilities and Higher Education A review of literature also indicated that

although numbers of students with disabilities are growing in post-secondary education, they are also at highest risk for dropping out of college. Barnard-Brak, Lechtenberger, and Lan (2010) discovered one reason individuals with disabilities are at higher risk for non-completion is because universities do not understand the diverse needs of this population. This is most evident in


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the lack of training faculty and staff in higher education receives about modifications and accommodations for students with disabilities. Another critical barrier was the high instance of non-disclosure by the student of their disability to appropriate personnel. Several reasons were given for the reticence of individuals to disclose their disability, but the consequences for secrecy are steep. Full inclusion into college life is not a reality for many individuals with disabilities in higher education (Higbee, Katz, & Schultz, 2010).

Self Determination and Special Education

Self-determination skills are essential for college bound students to advocate for their needs and meet their goals. Researchers discovered that students who are independently motivated, and have teacher support in learning their own self-directed skills, are more successful in school (Reeve, 2002). Guay, Ratelle, and Chanal (2008) discovered that educators who utilize both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation strategies across the curriculum have higher positive outcomes in both behavior and achievement. This study also concluded that students who learned self-determination skills had higher rates of school completion and more positive educational experiences. Students with disabilities who learn these fundamental attributes also have greater success in post high school outcomes. These findings are verified by numerous studies, including research by Carter, Lane, Pierson, and Stang, (2008) who concluded that self-determined skills must be taught both in regular and special education classrooms because so many of today’s youth lack the skills to become independent,


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self-determined adults. The authors found that inclusion into regular education classrooms for those with disabilities may offer more opportunities for self-determination. It is, therefore, crucial that general education teacher be aware of self-determination skills since 70% of students with disabilities receive at least one core academic class in the regular education class and 83% are enrolled in elective courses. As the review of literature shows, there is a critical need for individuals with exceptionalities to have strong self-determination skills along with a well-developed transition plan to prepare them for adult living. Sadly, even though the letter of the legislation is quite specific in preparing these students, sometimes it does not equate to successful post high school life. Students with exceptionalities often face enormous challenges as they move from the highly structured, parent/teacher-supported environment of high school into the adult world where they face the daunting task of having to advocate for themselves, seek assistance from countless agencies, and navigate real world life, often with limited communication and social skills. This current project sought to make the transition to higher education a welcoming and inviting experience.

Methods

A mixed method design was chosen for this research project because that will best “answer questions that other methodologies cannot” (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2003 p.15). A quantitative survey allowed for confirmatory verification of the findings while a qualitative approach was used to elicit responses


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allowing the participants to respond in their own voice. This is especially critical for an in-depth description of experiences of individuals with disabilities. It was anticipated that the qualitative data will “help to describe aspects the quantitative data could not address.” (Li, 2007, p. 381). The research model was patterned from Johnson and Onwegbuzie’s (2004) mixed method design matrix conducting concurrent qualitative and quantitative research. Data analysis was conducted by research teams specializing in qualitative and quantitative methods. Qualitative data was gathered through one-on-one interviews because this option directly served our project by offering depth and thick description to the research questions (Geertz, 1973). Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the visiting students with exceptionalities to understand their experiences with preparation for transition to adult life, self-determination, and educational goals. Qualitative data analysis was conducted through the use of open coding, line by line analysis, identifying themes, and categorizing subcategories until saturation of the themes emerge. The researcher then identified indigenous themes which emerged through constant comparison, data coding, analytic statements, and descriptive analysis. Every consideration was made by the researcher to represent the participant’s meanings and perspectives in order to capture their voice and intent. Individuals with exceptionalities may situate themselves as members of a marginalized group within society and it was felt that their voice and perspectives should be emphasized in this study. Triangulation procedures to assure trustworthiness of the study included; convergence of multiple data


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sources, such as comparison of observation notes, field journals, member check, and peer debriefing to assure rigor in this study (Creswell, 1998; Patton, 2002).

A quantitative survey was developed and sent to faculty, staff, and master’s students who participated in the day’s events to analyze their perceptions of the event. Selected demographic data collected from the Qualtrics© online software survey were quantified and these quantified responses were coded to the appropriate question number. Data were analyzed using Predictive Analytics Software (PASW) Statistics 20 software and Microsoft EXCEL software. Data mining procedures were initially utilized. Any missing data was analyzed to determine if a mean, median, or mode could be substituted or if the entire case should be list-wise deleted. Demographic information was analyzed using descriptive statistics, such as means and standard deviations for continuous variables and frequencies and percentages for categorical variables. A reliability analysis using Cronbach’s alpha was conducted (Cronbach, 1953). Additionally, analyses were conducted to examine the potential relationships between the variables. Cross tabulations with Pearson chi square analyses were utilized to examine the relationships between the variables. Pearson Product Moment Correlations (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003) were also used to examine any significant relationships between continuous variables.

This mixed method research design was thought to overcome the limitations of a mono-method project and was believed the two methods would complement each other in addition to allowing for a stronger validity and reliability to the research (Kelle, 2006). In addition,


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the researchers believe that triangulation of the data also helped with the validity and reliability of the research study. Finally, this particular research design lends itself to a more accurate understanding of the data given from the specific participants.

Participants The study participants included myriad agencies,

faculty, graduate students, and university personnel working together in a loosely woven mosaic to assure that individuals with disabilities would have a warm, welcoming experience in their visit to the campus. Local high school students with post-secondary goals of entering higher education were invited to attend a college-wide Exceptionalities Awareness Day at a local university. Students with exceptionalities were paired with assistants (special education Master's students) and a mentor (College of Education faculty and staff volunteers) seen in Figure 1.


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Figure 1 Pairing the visiting individuals with exceptionalities

with their mentors.

Individuals with exceptionalities had opportunities to job shadow participating faculty and staff in the College of Education. Students with exceptionalities were also given a campus tour provided by the Office of Disability Services as shown in Figure 2.


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Figure 2 Campus tour provided by the Office of Disability

Services.

A recruiting video was made by a student with

disabilities and aired on YouTube (Stuckey, 2013). The university also partnered with the Alumni association and several community based resources. Envision, (Envision, Inc., 2013) a private not-for-profit organization providing a range of assistance to those with visual impairment, arranged to bring a group of students and adults to the campus. Additionally, Starkey, (Starkey, Inc., 2013) founded in 1930 as a non-profit, community based organization to provide independent living, employment, and business services for adults with intellectual disabilities, also agreed to bring a group of adults with disabilities to the campus. A catered lunch


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was provided for all participants by the university alumni association shown in Figures 3 and 4.

Figure 3 Lunch for all participants.

Figure 4


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Findings

Altogether, there were a total of 23 students who

attended either the morning or afternoon session of the Exceptionality Awareness Day activities. Of these students, 11 were chosen to be interviewed for the qualitative portion of the research. The demographics of the participant for the qualitative interviews are represented in Table 1. Pseudonyms were assigned to each participant. During the summer, the Principal Investigator teaches a Master’s level transition class for graduate students in the special education teaching program. These students conducted interest inventory assessments with the visiting students with exceptionalities to assess their post-secondary transition goals.


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Table 1 Demographic Information for Participants in Qualitative Interviews

Participant Number Gender Age Identified

Disability Identified

Race

#1 = Hank Male 21 Spina Bifida Euro-American

#2= Britney Female 16 Visual Impairment

Native American

#3 = Josh Male 17 Visual Impairment

Euro-American

#4 = Sarah Female 18 Intellectually Disabled

African-American

#5 = Tony Male 20 Visual Impairment

African-American

#6 = Larry Male 17 Down’s Syndrome Latino

#7 = Jessica Female 23 Cerebral Palsy Euro-American

#8 = Tim Male 16 Visual Impairment

Euro-American

#9 = Mary Female 16 Visual Impairment

Euro-American

#10 = Frank Male 32 Intellectually Disabled

Euro-American

#11 = John Male 17 Emotionally Disturbed

Euro-American

Total: 11 Male:7

Average age: 19 years Female: 4


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Several compelling themes soon emerged from the collected data. All of the participants expressed positive responses to the opportunity to visit the university. Surprisingly, many did not know about the Office of Disability Services (ODS). One parent did not realize until the tour that the ODS could help with the application process to the university. For those individuals who utilized a wheelchair, they were reluctant to visit the university because of mobility concerns. Following the Exceptionalities Day visit, their fears diminished and they expressed optimism at the possibility of attending college. Hank had been attending the university two years prior to the Exceptionalities Awareness Day. He had been majoring in Art, but dropped out when he became frustrated with the program. When asked if he had difficulties getting accommodations for himself, he replied, “Well, yes, yes I did. It was hard for me to take notes, and I needed somebody to help me to take notes and to help me take tests, and all sorts of stuff.” He was able to ask for assistance from the ODS, but he decided to change majors when he returns to the university in the Fall of 2013.

Self-Advocacy While accounting for varying levels of maturity,

family support, and educational experiences, the majority of the participants were not able to elucidate an understanding of the term, self-advocacy nor were they able to provide a real life application of the skill. Collectively, when asked the question, what is self-advocacy? Some of the participants could give the


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definition, but only two could articulate what it means to advocate for one’s self and only one of them could apply that meaning to a real life situation. For example, when asked the question do you know the definition of self-advocacy? Hank tentatively responded, “To believe in myself? To do good and to work hard?” Similar to his response, when asked the same question Sarah quickly responded, “No, m’am!” She was a shy, quiet young woman who could not define self-advocacy, nor did she understand how her disability impacted every aspect of her life.

Self-advocacy is an essential college readiness skill for individuals with disabilities. Students also need to be aware of the laws regarding their rights to accommodations and modification once they leave high school and move to the world of adult living. The next step is an understanding of the unique accommodations that work for their strengths and weaknesses coupled with those self-advocacy behaviors. As Britney, a bright, outgoing 16-year old participant responded, “I didn’t grow up with someone else having to do things for me. I’ve always had to advocate for myself and it was either learn how to do it, or don’t get help at all.” She further elaborated, “It means helping make things better for you. If you need help, you need to ask, or if you don’t know how to do something, you need to figure it out, or find someone that can help you.”

For individuals with exceptionalities, it is crucial they understand their disability and how it impacts their learning, coupled with knowledge of their strengths and needs in an academic setting. Several participants also could not name the category that made them eligible for special education services. This lack of understanding


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their exceptionality could result in an inability to self-advocate for specific accommodations and modifications to assist in learning. When asked if he knew what category of disability made him eligible for special education services, Larry replied, “I don’t know.” The interviewer asked if he ever attended his IEP meetings, he replied that he did, but could not articulate what was discussed at the meetings or how decisions made impacted his education. Tony was also unable to name his disability even though he noted that he attended all of his IEP meetings in high school. In regard to self-advocacy and whether he had ever heard the term before, he said, “I’ve heard it, but I haven’t had a class for a while.” He then stated he did not know what the term meant. According to these participants, their high school had not preparing them in the transition from high school to adult living.

Transition Preparation in High School Research by Wehmeyer et. al, (2007) discovered

the importance of teaching self-advocacy skills as an embedded part of the school curriculum. Teaching these skills alone is insufficient as they must also be contextualized and “emphasizes that self-determination must be defined and self-determined behaviors identified by the function they serve for the individual” (p.6). Essential characteristics that define self-determined behavior emerge through the development and acquisition of these multiple, interrelated elements: choice making skills, decision making skills, problem solving skills, goal setting skills, independence, risk taking and safety skills, and self-advocacy. Students


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with disabilities who learn these critical skills have greater success in post high school outcomes.

Unfortunately, these skills are lacking in most high school programs as evidenced by Britney’s account of her transition preparation, “They talk about college, but I wouldn’t say that they really do much to prepare kids for college. They have some classes you can take, but unless you sign up for that class, you are not getting that information.” When asked if she received information about independent living following high school, her response was, “Oh no! They don’t talk about that at all.” These similar words were echoed by John when he was asked if his high school was preparing him for post high school life he said, “I do have plans to transition from high school to the transition skills center. [But] I am doing research on finding colleges and I’m looking at social services.”

Sarah described an even bleaker story of her transition from high school to adult living. When asked if they prepared her for life after high school, she responded, “I don’t know.” Further questions revealed that her high school teachers informed her that “her brain was too slow for college” and did not even consider that an option. Her heartbreaking response, “I’m NOT that slow! I say I can go to college” indicated that she had an indication of her abilities. She told the graduate student during her transition assessment that she loved to dance and would like to teach dancing someday. IDEIA laws states that a student with special needs can stay in school until the age of 21-years old. It was curious that her school graduated her when she was only 18-years old instead of continuing to give her the skills she needed for independent living.


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None of the participants could articulate how their high school teachers were preparing, or had prepared, them for the transition to adult living. When asked if his high school was assisting him for life after graduation, Tim responded, “No, when I am doing this, it’s for me and not for nobody else. This is something I chose to do.” His teacher for visual impairments had secured a part time job for him at Envision, but did not discuss other aspects of adult life such as higher education, social integration, or independent living. This was also true for Jessica. Confined to a wheelchair for many years, her only way of communication was through the use of a text-to-speech computer. Her condition was deteriorating and doctors predicted she only had a few years left to live. When asked if her high school teachers prepared her for life after high school, she responded, “Kinda” Later she revealed that they had not discussed any aspect of post high school life with her even though she did express the desire to attend college.

Perception of the Exceptionality Awareness Day The students who attended the Exceptionalities

Awareness Day were overjoyed at the prospect of touring the campus and speaking to professors about their exceptionalities. Fears of the university being a difficult maze to navigate and cold hearted faculty who would not provide for their individual strengths and needs were quickly ameliorated. As Britney stated, “Today’s experience has really taught me about college life and what services to use and if I have any questions, who to go to, and what services to go to. That was very helpful!” Frank echoed her words, “Today, this was


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helpful for me to try to figure out, it helps me because I have looked at other colleges before and I really like this one better because I really wanted to go here.” John added that he “learned quite a lot about disability services” which is so important for students with exceptionalities to know they still have support in high education.

Graduate Student Survey Results from the graduate students, faculty, and

staff Qualtrics© surveys were aggregated and discussed between the university researchers. To be clear, two surveys were distributed: one for graduate students and a different survey for faculty and staff. Dissemination of the surveys both yielded a response rate of 100%. Initially, demographic information was elicited from the participants. The second part of each survey asked respondents about their experiences with the Exceptionality Awareness Day. For the first survey, all respondents (n=20) identified themselves as graduate students at the Midwest University. Twelve (60%) identified themselves as graduate students in the special education program, whereas, eight students delineated themselves as graduate students in an initial certification program in the department of Curriculum and Instruction. Almost half of the respondents have been in their graduate program for less than one year (45%). The other participants were in their graduate programs for one to two years.

Understandably, sixteen graduate students admitted to having professional interactions with individuals with exceptionalities during the 2012-2013


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academic school year. Interestingly, three respondents admitted to having no professional or personal interaction with any individuals with exceptionalities in the last academic school year. The researchers found it intriguing that graduate students not only relied on the internet to provide them with information about individuals with exceptionalities, but they also admitted to reading about individuals with exceptionalities (68%) rather than having one-on-one contact with these individuals. The researchers can only hypothesize that this reading is coming from the evidence-based practices and research disseminated by their university professors during their graduate coursework.

All graduate students except one were placed with a mentee, a student with an exceptionality, for the Exceptionality Awareness Day on campus. Even though 90% of these graduate students rated this experience as satisfactory, several also explained their satisfaction in Table 2.


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Table 2 Satisfactory Statements Delineated in the Graduate

Student Survey

“It was great to meet students with exceptionalities and getting to know them more. Great event.”

“I think it was AWESOME! I could tell some

of the students really enjoyed it and they got to ask questions about their future.”

“I thought the day was super fun! It took me a

while to get the courage to talk with the kiddos, but once that I got going, it was a great experience.”

“I learned a lot from my mentee and

understood my mentee perception of her future goals.” In addition, the graduate students explained they

learned an immense amount during the Exceptionality Awareness Day. One respondent explained that he/she was “a little disappointed that his/her mentee student did not have any [post-secondary] goals set.” He/she continues by stating that he/she would have hoped that the school would have helped this individual with exceptionality with these goals. Another respondent states that higher education needs to educate teachers, who are already in the field, with more ideas and resources to serve students through the transition process.


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Another student in the graduate program stated that higher education needs to better serve individuals with exceptionalities by providing improved training for college professors. Graduate students provided the researchers with ideas for educating faculty and staff in helping individuals with exceptionalities be successful in higher education. Some of these ideas included: expose faculty and staff to students with exceptionalities on a regular basis, set goals with students with exceptionalities and help them determine how they can attain these goals, learn about the accommodations available to the students (e.g., brochure with services), provide a specific day before the semester begins where professors will meet their future students with exceptionalities, and mandatory workshops for faculty and staff to learn more about individuals with exceptionalities.

Faculty and Staff Survey All respondents (n=8) identified themselves as

either faculty or staff at this particular Midwestern university. Specifically, respondents included a) two College of Education administrators, b) one tenure-track faculty member, c) one non-tenured faculty member, and d) four staff members. Timeframe for faculty and staff working in higher education was recoded in two categories (i.e., one to five years and six to 20 years). Faculty and staff who have been employed in higher education from one to five years occupied 37% of the respondents; however, those employed in higher education for six years or longer employed 63% of the respondents.


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Five of the eight faculty and staff respondents had an individual with exceptionality interview him or her on the Exceptionality Awareness Day. All of these faculty and staff rated their experience as satisfactory. In addition, these respondents explained their satisfaction in Table 3 below. Table 3

Satisfactory Statements Delineated in the Faculty and Staff Survey

“…Some good information was exchanged

about the importance of self-advocacy.” “It was great to see the number of people

involved and excited to have the visitors on campus.”

“I enjoyed interacting with both students who shadowed me. One communicated via electronic [communication] device and we had a nice conversation.”

“Excellent opportunity to interact with individuals with exceptionalities.” In addition, the faculty and staff at the university

explained they learned a vast amount after participating in the Exceptionality Awareness Day. One respondent explained that he/she felt that there should be more exceptionality awareness at the university level. Faculty and staff provided the researchers with ideas for educating faculty and staff in helping individuals with exceptionalities be successful in higher education.


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Interestingly, few of these suggestions were similar to those of the graduate students. Some of these ideas included: a) educating faculty on strategies and accommodations for helping students with exceptionalities, b) understanding of Office of Disability Services offered to students with exceptionalities, c) providing workshops and training for students with exceptionalities, and d) offering variety of supports to meet the diverse needs of students with exceptionalities

Positive statements were also expressed by faculty, staff, and graduate students about the exposure to students with exceptionalities and their families; however, majority of these individuals admitted to only having interaction with persons with exceptionalities in a professional setting. Interestingly, a great number of graduate students confirmed they relied on the internet to access information about individuals with exceptionalities (84%); whereas, majority of the faculty and staff consulted with the university’s Office of Disability Services (75%) for additional help. In fact, over 80% of the faculty and staff working at this university stated they had professional interactions with students with exceptionalities in the 2012-2013 academic school year. A bulk of the respondents felt that universities, nationwide, should make better efforts to explore exceptionality awareness on their campuses. As one faculty member admitted, “I was initially nervous about interacting with these students. Now, I feel more at ease about working with students with exceptionalities.”


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Rationale Behind Mixed-Methods Research Design A mixed-methods research design was chosen

for numerous reasons. Both researchers, higher education faculty in special education, brought a different research methodology background to this particular study: one’s expertise was in qualitative research design and the other in quantitative research design. The researchers felt that triangulating the data using the mixed method research design was critical in exposing the data among such a myriad array of study participants; the students with exceptionalities, special education graduate students, and faculty and staff. Each group would provide versatility and understanding to the data and its findings. After examining the qualitative and quantitative data, the researchers were able to showcase several important themes and practical solutions from the aggregated findings in this particular research study.

Significance of the Study

Results of this study will be useful in equipping high school educators with the knowledge and preparation they need to assist students transitioning from high school to higher education. This may also have implications for institutions of higher learning seeking to develop accessible programs to students of all abilities. Students constituting a wide range of diverse needs will increasingly be entering institutions of higher learning, and it is vital that faculty, staff, and university personnel understand how to meet their needs. This may assist in greater consideration and implications for future development of transition for students with disabilities


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while in high school. Discussion points resulting from this study include: addressing the needed skills necessary for success in higher education including self-determination and self-advocacy skills, along with recognition of strengths and needs of individuals with exceptionalities for university faculty. Parents will also benefit from the findings of this study in their preparation for higher education. By creating a more robust, accommodating means of attainment for higher education, society ultimately benefits as more individuals with disabilities are able to reach their full potential.

There are other benefits to the findings of this study. One positive benefit included raising student exceptionality awareness around the campus. Quite often as a society, people tend to interact with like populations. Although inclusive education has been a reality for decades, bringing students with exceptionalities into a regular education with their non-disabled peers has been a slow process, and many have not been exposed to these individuals. This exceptionalities awareness project sought to increase the visibility of individuals with difference into the regular population. Another benefit is that to the Master’s students had access and assess students with exceptionalities with post-secondary goals rather than just discussing it as a heuristic assignment and making the project more pragmatic and contextual. Furthermore, the exceptionality awareness day was a way to recruit students with exceptionalities and their families to the university and possibly to the college of education. Students with exceptionalities and families had personal contact with faculty in higher education and were able to communicate their individual


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strengths and needs discussing what modifications and adaptations are needed. All too often, academics, especially those working in a college of education, can be shielded from diverse groups of students and the converse is also true. This campaign hoped to unveil the mystery of academia for marginalized populations and show that attainment of their goals is indeed within their reach.

As a result of the exceptionality awareness day, three of the visiting individuals with exceptionalities enrolled at the university in the fall semester. It is hoped that they will continue to advocate for their needed accommodations and modifications during their matriculation.

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Exploring the Lab and

Its Role in Online STEM Courses

Bobbie Seyedmonir Marshall University

Introduction The role of distance learning in higher education

has grown over the past decade. A national survey of over 1,000 U.S. higher education institutions conducted by the Babson Survey Research Group found that in Fall 2012 online enrollment was 33.5% of participating institutions’ total enrollment, growing from 9.6% of total enrollment in Fall 2002 (Allen & Seaman, 2013). This translates into approximately 7.1 million students enrolling in at least one online course, a 6.1% increase from Fall 2012 (Allen & Seaman, 2013).

Along with these increases in enrollment, is the belief by academic officers that online courses are “as good or better than” traditional face-to-face courses (Allen & Seaman, 2013). From a higher education standpoint, blended and online courses provide opportunity to engage populations and demographics that would not otherwise have access to higher education, namely rural and working non-traditional students.


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Although online and blended learning offer great potential to increase initial student enrollment and participation among diverse groups, problems related to creating, managing, and supporting online courses and programs persist. Online courses have much higher attrition rates than traditional face-to-face courses (Tresman, 2002). Many of the populations who benefit most from the anytime, anywhere capabilities of the online learning environment are also the most likely to have difficulties in successfully completing an online course. First generation college students (Williams & Hellman, 2004); adult students (Park & Choi, 2009); students from low socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds (Patrick & Valkenburg, 2006); developmental students taking remedial math and English classes (Wadsworth, Husman, Duggan, & Pennington, 2007); and community college students (Bambara, Harbour, Davies, & Athey, 2009) have all been found to be less likely to successfully complete an online course or have been marked as deficient in the skills linked to online success.

These issues become more pronounced when looking at blended and online science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) courses. In addition to the risk factors associated with an online course, in STEM areas there are often motivational issues associated with the subject, exacerbating the risk of failure or withdrawal for students in the class (Matuga, 2009). Because online STEM courses have higher failure and withdrawal rates, it is of vital importance that these courses be designed in a way that is engaging and allows for more active approaches to learning. In many instances, faculty look to the laboratory activities within


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the course as the primary means of fulfilling this need for engaging activity in the classroom (Kennepohl, 2013).

In STEM courses, the lab component often serves as the entry point into the real work of the field. Ideally, in the lab, students get to apply their knowledge of science and scientific method and begin to assume the identity of a scientist with mentorship and guidance from an expert in the field (Gee, 2007). While there are some who argue that the lab components of undergraduate science classes are often not fulfilling this role, citing largely cookbook-type labs and minimal scaffolding, the ideal lab still holds a mythos for science faculty and students that makes discussion of alternative lab formats difficult to accept from an affective perspective (Bennett & O’Neale, 1998; Miller, 2008).

However, with the increased interest in distance education, those in STEM fields are under pressure to provide online alternatives to their traditional classes (NSTA, 2008). This is exacerbated by the fact that many faculty who are asked to teach online have no training in basic instructional practices and feel underprepared for this transition (Baran, Correia, & Thompson, 2011). It is the purpose of this paper to provide an overview of the purpose and approaches to the academic lab and to provide an overview of research and best practices in the area of STEM labs online.

Research Questions

In order to better understand the role of the lab

and its application in online STEM courses, the following questions will be considered:


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1. What are the purposes of the lab in science courses?

2. What are the pedagogical approaches to lab work?

3. How has the lab component been translated into online STEM courses?

4. How effective are the online labs in comparison to traditional labs?

Literature Review

Over the past 150 years, advances in STEM areas

have revolutionized the way we live and think. Whether it is the discovery of vaccines, the invention of the electric light bulb, or the design of the combustion engine, scientists and engineers have pushed innovation and discoveries that have positively—and sometimes negatively—affected society as a whole. When one thinks about the scientists and engineers making these discoveries that have changed the world, we think of them in their labs working with equipment and assistants, making the next big leap in scientific and technological advancement.

It is because of the impact these innovations and discoveries have made that the mythos of the lab has permeated society. This thinking is also prevalent in the field of education where the lab is viewed as an essential component of any STEM classroom. This viewpoint is so strong that educators rarely stop to question the purpose of the lab component or its efficacy in meeting educational goals in a science classroom (Kirchner, 1988).


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What are the purposes of the lab in science courses? In order to determine the role labs should play in an

online STEM course, first we must determine what the role of the lab is in STEM courses more generally. In 1988 Kirchner reported that researchers at the Dutch Open University directly studied the purpose and educational objectives of science labs in order to determine the best use of labs in distance education. Kirchner reported that science educators had four primary rationales for labs:

• concrete illustration which espouses the idea that complex concepts inherent in science fields are easier to understand if students see them in action;

• cognitive and affective change which supports the idea that students will develop an understanding of scientific method and thinking by actually conducting scientific research;

• development of lab skill which promotes the belief that students can develop ability to effectively use lab tools and develop precision skills in these areas; and

• motivation and engagement which implies that students enjoy lab work and are more interested and engaged with science if they do it (1988).

While the goals of lab work in science courses seem rational and even noble, they are often not met through the use of the traditional lab (Elawady & Tolba, 2009; Kirchner, 1988; Smetana & Bell, 2012). Poor design of the lab experience can lead to several negative outcomes.


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For example, in practice, labs often revert to simple verification of something that is already known by the student or leads to situations in which the student works through the technical aspects of the experiment with no understanding of the process or techniques the experiment was meant to examine (Kirchner, 1988).

What are the pedagogical approaches to lab work?

Some of the success of the lab is determined by the

approach the instructor uses when carrying it out. Domin (1999) discussed the pedagogical aspects of the lab showing that within the larger framework of educational objectives, instructors and teachers have a wide variety of pedagogical methods for implementation of the lab including expository-, inquiry-, discovery-, and problem-based approaches.

Expository Approaches. Some instructors apply an expository model to lab instruction in which the instructor defines every aspect of the lab from topic to procedure (Domin, 1999). This is one of the most commonly used methods, but unfortunately is also the most criticized of the four approaches with detractors citing a cookbook approach to lab work that neither develops conceptual understanding, lab skill, nor scientific thinking (Bennett & O’ Neale, 1998; Domin, 1999; Kirchner, 1988).

Inquiry Approaches. Inquiry-based models are more open-ended in nature when compared to expository approaches. Students are given a broad topic and they determine how they will examine it including needed knowledge, procedures for conducting experiments, etc. This process allows students to attain the learning goals for the assignment and also to develop an understanding of the scientific method (Miller, 2008).


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However, it is important to distinguish an inquiry-based method from actual scientific inquiry because students are not looking for new phenomena but are learning the same principles other scientists learned during their own education (Kirchner, 1988). Even when instructors attempt to create an authentic scientific inquiry, students can fall short if they do not have the prerequisite conceptual and critical thinking skills to successfully navigate the lab (Kirchner, 1988).

Discovery Approaches. Discovery-based approaches (also called guided-inquiry) to the lab provide procedures, but allow the student to discover the scientific principle being studied. Unlike expository approaches where expectations of findings are available from the beginning, or inquiry-based approaches where students decide every aspect of the research problem, discovery based approaches provide structured procedures for students to follow, but allow students to “ discover” the concept being studied. Detractors of this method cite the extra time it takes and criticize the idea that all students will discover the scientific principle being studied at the same time (Domin, 1999).

Problem-Based Approaches. Finally, the problem-based approach allows students to utilize conceptual knowledge they already have to solve novel problems. This allows them to develop their own procedures but avoids some of the pitfalls of discovery-based approaches in which students may not discover the principle the lab is targeting; however, this approach, too, is time and resource intensive (Domin, 1999).


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How has the lab component been translated into online STEM courses?

Now that the foundational purpose of the labs and

the different pedagogical approaches to the lab components of science labs have been established on a more general level, the next question becomes how this body of knowledge is translated into a distance education context. In online STEM courses where lab components are included, the labs usually fall into one of three types of non-traditional labs: virtual labs, take-home labs, or robotic/remote labs (Kennepohl, 2013).

Virtual Labs. Labs are considered to be virtual labs when the physical lab is recreated in a simulated computer environment in the form of software, apps, or interactive online websites (Kennepohl, 2013; Smetana & Bell, 2012). Because equipment and time issues can be manipulated online (e.g., something that might take several hours can be sped up to mere seconds), this type of lab can allow students to conduct long experiments more quickly and more frequently (Pyatt & Sims, 2012). They are also more cost effective than a physical lab (Kirchner, 1988). However, the creation of a good virtual simulation requires programming skills that are usually beyond the ability of teachers and faculty, leaving the creation of such simulations up to third parties such as textbook publishers (e.g., Pearson, 2013) and software development companies.

Take-Home Labs. Another alternative lab that is used in online STEM courses is the take-home lab (or kitchen lab), which endeavors to recreate a traditional lab experience by combining regular household items with actual lab equipment such as glass, beakers, and


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dissection kits which are mailed to the students (Kennepohl, 2013). Students work through the same types of labs as they would in a traditional lab setting; however, they do it at home on their own time. This lab provides a somewhat authentic experience, but the creation of at-home lab kits that are safe and meaningful proves difficult (Boschmann, 2003) regardless of whether the institution creates their own kits or purchases them through a third party supplier.

Robotic/Remote Labs. A third option that is often utilized in online STEM courses, especially for engineering courses, is robotic/remote labs. These are actual labs that are physically removed from the student. These labs are automated so that students can conduct real-time experiments from a distance through web interfaces (Doulgeri, 2006). These labs allow for an authentic experience as the experiment is being physically conducted (if remotely) without some of the mess (and perhaps safety issues) of take-home labs (Kennepohl, 2013). However, these labs are expensive to create and maintain, and they require someone to be on-site to manage and oversee the remote experiments being conducted, causing their use to be limited (Cooper, 2005).

How effective are the online labs in comparison to

traditional labs? These three primary types of non-traditional labs

explain the mechanics of how the lab is used in an online STEM class; however, questions remain. Are non-traditional labs as effective as their traditional counterparts (assuming that the traditional labs are


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effective)? If so, are they effective in all circumstances (or when are they most effective)? For the first question, there is much research. For the second, findings are scarce.

Comparisons to Traditional Labs. Due to the sacrosanct beliefs about the nature of the lab component in science classrooms, the idea of alternative labs has been debated in the literature. This has led to much research on non-traditional labs (i.e., virtual, robotic, and at-home) to determine their equivalence to traditional lab formats. Overwhelmingly, studies have shown that a well-designed non-traditional lab can lead to learning that is equivalent to the traditional lab (Carrico, Charuk, Stote, & Lawrence, 2011; Mawn et al.,, 2013; Pyatt & Sims, 2012; Smetana & Bell, 2012). This has been found to be true of all three kinds of labs—virtual (Raghavan, Sartoris, & Glaser, 1998; Reuter & Perrin, 1999), take-home (Casanova, Civelli, Kimbrough, Heath, & Reeves, 2006; Mawn, et. al., 2011), and robotic/remote labs (Sauter, et. al., 2013).

Proponents of non-traditional labs—specifically those of virtual labs—believe that the controlled environment of a virtual lab lessens students’ cognitive load allowing them to focus on the academic concept at the heart of the lab as opposed to extraneous issues such as measurement errors and equipment usage (Pyatt & Sims, 2012). They also believe that virtual labs can allow students to visualize phenomena—like electrical current in a circuit—that they would not be able to see in a real-world lab (Jaakkola & Nurmi, 2007).

However, some criticize research in this area as focusing primarily on conceptual knowledge instead of the skill-building and practical application that the


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traditional lab is meant to develop (Elawady & Tolba, 2009). Opponents of this method also cite the lack of real world experience associated with the virtual lab meaning that students do not get to experience all the anomalies and variation that occur naturally in real life (Kennepohl, 2013).

Pedagogy of Online Labs. Some research has been conducted to investigate what lies beyond simple equivalency to traditional labs, exploring how to move toward best practices in online and blended lab environments. Corter, Esche, Chassapis, Ma, & Nickerson (2011) found that while group work in traditional labs led to higher learning outcomes, individual work in virtual environments worked best. However research on the best way to utilize non-traditional labs is limited and more research needs to be done on issues such as which pedagogical approaches to non-traditional labs in online courses work best in the online environment and which combination of labs leads to better learning outcomes (Kennopohl, 2013; Smetana & Bell, 2013).

Combined Approaches. To attempt to provide students with both conceptual and skill building activities, educators have looked at the use of combination labs (i.e., the use of virtual labs as supplements to traditional lab instruction) and have found that a combined lab environment leads to greater increases in learning than either the traditional or the virtual labs alone (Jaakkola & Nurmi, 2007). It has been theorized that the virtual lab can minimize cognitive load in students and that it facilitates understanding of concepts because it provides a simple, safe environment to run the experiment, allows for more hypothesis testing


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(more runs through the experiment), and can allow the student to see phenomena they would not in a real life experiment (Pyatt & Sims, 2012). Then, the hands-on part of the lab serves to show how these concepts apply in real life and to allow the student to experience the anomalies that are often found in real-world scenarios (Smetana & Bell, 2012).

Teacher Efficacy. While research into the pedagogy for non-traditional labs has not definitively determined which approaches work best and in what situations (Smetana & Bell, 2012), what is known is that, as is the case with so many aspects of student education, the teacher’s expertise and ability to provide adequate scaffolding for students have a deciding role in whether or not the lab component leads to learning gains (Smetana & Bell, 2012). In short, regardless of the type of lab, studies in this area have found that the defining characteristic in whether or not a lab will be a success is the teacher’s or faculty member’s ability to design instruction that supports students’ development of conceptual understandings (Ardac & Sezen, 2002).

Practical Implications and Recommendations The implications of this research affect a wide

variety of constituents in the field of education. For those teachers and faculty who teach in STEM fields and wish to move part or all of their course into an online environment, there are several questions to consider. First, who is the audience? Is the course a general education requirement (for non-majors) or is it a STEM major course? If it is a survey course for non-majors, then perhaps a well-done virtual lab will help students


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develop the conceptual understanding needed. If it is a major’s course, then a more deliberate mapping of skill sets and conceptual understanding will need to be conducted to ensure students not only understand but can utilize equipment properly. Second, a deliberate decision as to an appropriate pedagogical approach to the lab is needed. Related to this is a more deliberate design of the lab component to include the appropriate scaffolding for students so they can conduct labs in a way that allows for development of the appropriate level of understanding (Zhang, 2013). As stated earlier in this report, didactic models are often the most prevalent, but they are usually the least effective models for lab use in STEM classes, so a thoughtful analysis of the use of more inquiry- or problem-based approaches might be beneficial to faculty making this transition. This also means that one approach does not fit every lab. One particular course may benefit from a virtual lab, another from a combination of a virtual or at-home experience, while a third may need a traditional experience. One of the most important implications is the need to think about the purpose of each lab and how best to fulfill that purpose.

Finally, there are implications for teacher preparation programs (and as a result university faculty) as well. A study by Hudson (2006) found that pre-service teachers were more likely to utilize virtual labs if they had been exposed to them by their teachers during their college experiences. This lends credence to the idea that we teach the way we were taught, and has grave implications for secondary science teachers who receive their content courses from faculty who have never been taught to teach. To that end, it seems that teacher


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preparation programs need to include specialty-specific technology courses in order for pre-service teachers to adequately learn how to utilize technology in their fields of study (Bell & Trundle, 2008; Mishra & Koehler, 2006). Likewise, STEM faculty need professional development on how and when to use these technologies in their classrooms. While it may be unlikely to ever occur, perhaps Ph.D. programs should include a teaching component (beyond just teaching assistantship) that provides more skills in the pedagogy associated with a specific field, especially if the candidate plans to teach after earning his/her doctorate.

Conclusion

The issue of the lab in online STEM courses is

one that has caused, and will continue to cause, a great deal of debate among teachers and faculty. However, the question seems to be less an issue of which method is used, but whether teachers and faculty are prepared and trained to use those methods appropriately to create engaging learning experiences for their students. On one hand, the solution seems easy: provide or require more training for pre-service teachers and faculty on the use of technology for instruction. But even with training, how does one go about changing mindsets that have been shaped by generations of tradition, of “being taught how I was taught.” This is the real challenge that administrators and educators will need to face as online STEM courses become more prevalent in both K-12 and higher education.


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Using Virtual Models as Visualizations

in a Freshman Nursing Chemistry Course

Weslene Tallmadge Betty Jo Chitester Gannon University

Abstract

This project involves the application of technology to improve student learning in a freshman chemistry class designed for nursing students. Virtual molecular models were incorporated to enable students to explore the shape, polarity, and geometry of molecules at their own pace. In the past, students used hands-on models in lab to explore molecular shape. The virtual models were accessible to the students at any time. Activities included questions that required students to manipulate the virtual models to predict the answers. Assessment results indicate student learning improved as a result of using the virtual molecular models.

Full Description

Physiological Chemistry is a one-semester

organic/biological chemistry course required for freshmen enrolled in the nursing major at our university. Students must have completed one high school course


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on general chemical principles prior to admission.- However, many students struggle to apply general chemical principles to the organic/biological chemistry taught in Physiological Chemistry. In this project online activities were developed using virtual molecular models to give students the opportunity to visualize the shape and polarity of molecules as well as to manipulate the models to observe the geometry. The learning goal was to improve the students’ ability to predict polarity, the type of intermolecular force between molecules, and the corresponding effect on physical properties. Pre- and post-questions were used to demonstrate the effect of the activities on student learning. Assessment results indicate that the incorporation of the visuals enhanced student learning of the concepts. However, there was a difference in success among students depending upon their background knowledge in chemistry.

Introduction

Course Background

Freshmen nursing majors at our university are required to take a one-semester organic/biological chemistry course, Physiological Chemistry. A prerequisite for the course is one high school level, general chemistry principles course. Many fundamentals learned in this one-semester course are applicable to further study in biology and nutrition for the nursing majors. For example, a study of the polar/nonpolar nature of organic functional groups is a precursor to an understanding of the polar/nonpolar nature of lipid bilayers. Although there are several one-semester general, organic, and biological chemistry texts available


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on the market, the content of Physiological Chemistry, determined by the university chemistry and nursing faculty, focuses on organic and biological chemistry. However, students find it difficult to review chemical concepts from their high school fundamentals course and apply those to learning new concepts in Physiological Chemistry.

Limited time exists to review general chemical principles in class; therefore, tutorials were developed to help the students to review general principles applicable to the organic and biological chemistry concepts (Tallmadge & Chitester, 2010). Although the tutorials aided the students in reviewing many of the topics, several fundamental ideas continued to be challenging for the students, including those related to molecular geometry, polarity, and intermolecular forces. Traditionally, molecular geometry is reinforced in our course with teacher-constructed physical models and static pictures. The concepts are reinforced in lab with student manipulated ball and stick models. The topics of polarity and intermolecular forces are addressed throughout the organic and biological chemistry course.

In an effort to improve student mastery of concepts related to molecular geometry, polarity, and intermolecular forces, additional visualization techniques were incorporated into the tutorials for the students. The visualizations include computerized, 3-D views of the molecules using Models 360 from the Chemical Education Digital Library (“Chemical Education Digital Library,” 2013). Students are able to rotate a molecule in order to observe its geometry, and they can observe bond and molecular dipoles. Short explanations with questions guide the student through


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mastery of the material. These activities provide the student the opportunity to view and manipulate the molecules outside of the laboratory and classroom in an online format.

Visualizations, Virtual Models, Instructional Design

It is well known that visualization skills and instructional materials incorporating visuals promote conceptual understanding in chemistry (Baker & Talley, 1972; Baker & Talley, 1974; Gabel et al. 1987; Talley, 1973; Wu & Shah 2004). For example, research indicates that the instruction of chemistry with pictorial materials at the molecular level helped students with conceptual understanding more so than traditional teaching (Noh & Scharmann, 1997). Visualization techniques may include physical models, animations, computer models, and others (Williamson, 2011; Wu & Shah; 2004). Research has demonstrated that visualization skills help students transition between the multiple levels of representation used by experts in the chemical field. Multiple representations include the macroscopic (e.g., physical properties), submicroscopic (e.g., models), and representational (e.g., formulas) forms, all of which are widely utilized in the chemical and related science fields (Gabel, Samuel, and Hunn, 1987; Johnstone, 1993). Translating among these representations is important to conceptual understanding in chemistry, and research shows that student misconceptions can be attributed to student’s’ inability to visualize particulate behavior (Gabel et al., 1987).

Among the visualization techniques widely investigated to help students develop understanding of


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concepts are computerized molecular models (Dori & Barak, 2001; Wu et al., 2001). Incorporation of both physical and virtual molecular models helped high school students learning organic chemistry to translate among representations in chemistry and gain a better understanding of concepts than their peers who did not actively participate in the modeling (Dori & Barak, 2001). Computer molecular models, widely used among chemical professionals, have become increasingly available to educators. In one survey, teachers indicated that they only used plastic models as demonstrations due to time constraints and the lower cost of the physical models compared with molecular modeling software (Dori & Barak, 2001). Opportunities to learn individually with virtual on-line environments provide release from some of the time constraints. While molecular modeling software may be cost prohibitive, some open source applications are available (Gutow, 2010); however, there is a learning curve associated with their usage. Minimizing the learning curve for the students, procedures for embedding three-dimensional images into lessons within a portable document format have been described (Cody et al., 2011). Other modeling resources, including Models 360 in the Chemical Education Digital Library, are available for incorporation in learning resources as well (“Chemical Educational Digital Library,” 2013).

While there is much research with positive results using visualization tools, instructional presentation is important. In their review, Wu and Shah suggest important design principles for chemistry visualization tools. Their suggestions include “providing multiple representations with descriptions, promoting the


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transformation between two-dimensional and three-dimensional views…, reducing cognitive load by making information explicit, and integrating information for students” (Wu & Shah, 2004). In order to maximize the benefit of visual representations, Cook presents instructional design strategies to reduce cognitive load and to consider prior knowledge in learning. These strategies include providing both visual and verbal information together, presenting multiple representations simultaneously with clear information about the characteristics of the representations, and including instructional guidance to help students to actively construct understanding. (Cook, 2006) Therefore, instructors incorporating virtual models into student activities need to consider these established principles.

Research Questions

In this project, online tutorials were adapted to

incorporate virtual, 3-D molecular models as visualizations. The research questions of interest include the following:

• Does the incorporation of activities with computer representations of 3-dimensional models of molecules and molecular dipoles improve the freshmen nursing students’ success in predicting polarity, the type of intermolecular force between two molecules, and the corresponding physical properties of solubility and boiling point?

• After the activities with the computerized visualizations, will the students be able to successfully complete final assessments without


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the computerized visualizations being provided to them?

• Does the level of students’ background in chemistry affect their success with the learning objectives, or will the activities with the computer visualizations be adequate to close the gaps between students’ backgrounds?

Method

In this project, three separate but progressive

tutorials were constructed to include multiple representations of molecules. Topics presented included electronegativity, bond polarity, geometry, molecular dipole, and intermolecular forces. The stated learning objectives included

• the student will be able to define electronegativity and identify polar/nonpolar covalent bonds in a molecule;

• the student will use geometry and bond polarity to predict whether small molecules are polar or nonpolar;

• the student will be able to identify and predict intermolecular forces between molecules and their relative strength; and

• the student will predict the effect of intermolecular forces on certain physical properties, boiling point and solubility.

Each of the online activities included symbolic representation (molecular formula), a Lewis structure, and a 3-D display of the molecules that could be manipulated with a mouse to show geometry, structure, polar bonds, and molecular dipoles. All three


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representations of a molecule were displayed in the same window. Students first reviewed electronegativity and polar/nonpolar bonds. They practiced predicting bond polarity and checked their answers using the computerized 3-D models. In the next activity, students investigated the effect of geometry on molecular dipole. It is at this point that a physical property, boiling point, was also introduced. Students were able to view the molecular formula, Lewis structure, and computerized 3-D models simultaneously, predict the presence of a significant molecular dipole, and then check their answers with the model. Finally, the students reviewed intermolecular forces. Students practiced predicting and drawing the intermolecular forces and the effect on boiling point/solubility. Although similar to the original tutorial in content, the 3-D structure allowed students to manipulate the model to check their predictions at any time. The full project is available on the web (Tallmadge, 2013).

At the beginning of the semester, students took a background test designed to identify key areas of strengths and weaknesses in students’ background knowledge of chemistry. A pre-requisite for the course is a high school level chemistry course. The background test was developed previously (Tallmadge & Chitester). Students were categorized into high, medium, and low background levels.

In order to examine the benefit of incorporating the 3-D views of the molecules into the tutorials a pre- and post-quiz was used. The questions came from both a standardized exam and a pool developed by the author. Experts who taught similar courses validated the quiz. Complete data from thirty two students was obtained.


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Results

The post-quiz mean and pre-quiz mean were

compared with a paired t-test. This indicated the means were significantly different with p< 0.05.

Table 1. Pre-/post-quiz t-test

Mean t-test (sig) Pre-quiz 2.66 0 Post-quiz 6.53 Difference in scores 4.03

Students were divided into three categories (high, medium, or low) based upon background exam scores. This background score was used as the independent variable (categorical). The difference between the post- and pre-quiz scores was used as the dependent (continuous) variable in a one way ANOVA. Assumptions include normality, independence of observation, and homogeneity of variance. The Levene test of significance was 0.913 indicating no significant difference in variance in the groups.

The results of the one way ANOVA are in Table 2.

Table 2. Results from one way ANOVA

df F Sig. 2 3.792 0.034


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Since there was a significant difference between two of the groups, Post Hoc Tukey analysis was used to determine that the difference occurred between the low and high background groups.

Table 3. Post Hoc Tukey Analysis

Low to High

Low to Medium

High to Medium

Sig. 0.026 0.31 0.405

Discussion

A number of fundamental concepts taught in freshmen level nursing chemistry are important to further study in biology and nutrition. These include an understanding of intermolecular forces and their effect on physical properties. Underlying concepts include electronegativity, molecular geometry, and molecular dipoles. Traditional visualizations such as static pictures and physical models are known to assist students in developing a conceptual understanding of molecular behavior. In this study, computer generated, 3-D interactive models that can be manipulated by the student to show geometry, bond, and molecular dipoles were incorporated into online tutorials. Each student was given a quiz before and after the tutorials. The results indicate that the students did the same or better on the post-quiz than on the pre-quiz. Addition of computerized models has become more widely and easily available to the instructor for incorporation into learning modules,


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enhancing physical models and static pictures already commonly used to teach these concepts.

For our course, students are required to have a high school chemistry course as a prerequisite. In this study, students identified with a high background in chemistry improved their understanding significantly after using the computer 3-D models compared to the students identified with a low background. In their study, Dori and Barak categorized high school students studying organic chemistry into three academic levels based upon a pre-course questionnaire. They found that students in the experimental group, using both computerized and physical models, did significantly better than those in the control group who did not use the models. Furthermore, the gap between the low and high academic students in the experimental group was nearly closed (Dori & Barak, 2001). In their review, Wu and Shah suggest that prior knowledge may be more important than visuospatial abilities in situations where students have relatively low content knowledge (Wu & Shah, 2004). The current study shows that student learning is enhanced by the addition of the computerized visuals, but the students with the low background may still be hindered by the lack of content knowledge.

While the incorporation of virtual molecular models into learning activities has become cost effective and relatively easy, prior knowledge still plays an important role even in an introductory course.


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Wu, H.K., Shah, P. (2004). Exploring visuospatial thinking in chemistry learning. Sci Ed 88, 465-492.

Acknowledgments

The material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grants No. NSF-DUE 1044239 and NSF-DUE 0937796. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. The author completed this work as a participant in the ChemEd DL/ ChemEd Research Summit Conference and acknowledges extensive assistance from the organizers.


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Contributors

Nella Bea Anderson Professor Colorado State University, Global Campus [email protected] Chip Baumgardner Associate Professor Penn College [email protected] Christopher Birch Professor University of Greenwich [email protected] Martha Anita Connelly [email protected] Ronda G. Henderson Associate Professor Middle Tennessee State University [email protected] Jennifer G. Hoffman Assistant Professor University of Charleston [email protected]


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Eva Olysha Magruder Instructional Design Coordinator Santa Fe College [email protected] Bud McClure Professor University of Minnesota Duluth [email protected] Richard Pierce Interim Director of Division Technology Shenandoah University [email protected] Donna M. Sayman Wichita State University [email protected] Bobbie Seyedmonir West Virginia State University [email protected] Weslene Tallmadge Gannon University [email protected]

ISSN 2333-391X

Center for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning

Florida State College at Jacksonville501 West State Street

Jacksonville, Florida 32202