sedimentology of the “ore-bear ing do lo mite...

Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae (2014), vol. 84: 81–112.

SEDIMENTOLOGY OF THE “ORE-BEAR ING DO LO MITE”OF THE KRAKÓW-SILESIA RE GION (MID DLE TRI AS SIC,

SOUTH ERN PO LAND)

Micha³ MATYSIK

In sti tute of Geo log i cal Sci ences, Jagiellonian Uni ver sity, Oleandry 2a, 30-063 Kraków, Po land,e-mail: [email protected]

Pres ent ad dress: Nat u ral His tory Mu seum of Den mark, Uni ver sity of Co pen ha gen, �ster Voldgade 5-7,DK-1350 Co pen ha gen, Den mark

Matysik, M., 2014. Sedimentology of the “ore-bear ing do lo mite” of the Kraków-Silesia re gion (Mid dle Tri as sic,southern Po land). Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae, 84: 81–112.

Ab stract: The depositional his tory and fa cies het er o ge ne ity of the epigenetically dolomitized Mid dle Tri as siccar bon ates of south ern Po land are poorly rec og nized, and ex ist ing con cepts of fluid cir cu la tion en tirely over lookthe pri mary li thol ogy as a fac tor con trol ling fluid flow. This study re con structs the con sec u tive phases ofKraków-Silesia Sub-ba sin his tory in the Anisian and high lights their in flu ence on the de vel op ment of the so-called “ore-bear ing do lo mite”. Ex ten sive field work and microfacies anal y ses were car ried out in or der to de ci pher theorig i nal depositional fab ric of the ore-bear ing dolomites. As a rule, epigenetic dolomitization af fected a ho ri zon of po rous strata, 35 m thick and rest ing di rectly on im per me able, wavy-nod u lar clay-rich calcilutites of the GogolinFor ma tion, which rep re sent the in ter val of deep est and fully ma rine (off shore) sed i men ta tion. The sed i men tarysuc ces sion of the po rous strata is bi par tite. The lower part (Olkusz Beds) is com posed of Balanoglossites andThalassinoides micritic firmgrounds and peloidal packstones-grainstones, rep re sent ing shoreface-fore shore fa cies as sem blages, whereas the up per part (Diplopora Beds) con sists of dolocretes, rhizolites, cryptalgal laminites, pe-loidal packstones-grainstones and bioturbated fine-grained dolostones, formed in a sys tem of tidal flats and la -goons. These two parts are sep a rated by a subaerial disconformity, which marks a se quence bound ary. Dur ingemersion, the un der ly ing de pos its were sub jected to me te oric diagenesis, which led to the de vel op ment of moldicpo ros ity. This com bi na tion of depositional his tory and diagenetic al ter ation de ter mined the routes of ini tialmi gra tion of dolomitizing so lu tions on the one hand, and the lo ca tion of cav ern for ma tion on the other. Ow ing topro gres sive dis so lu tion, small cav erns were changed into large karstic forms, in which the ore min er als pre cip i -tated ul ti mately. These find ings em pha size the im por tance of sedimentological anal y sis to the un der stand ing ofthe evo lu tion of the Kraków-Silesia ore prov ince.

Key words: ore-bear ing do lo mite, epigenetic dolomitization, lead-zinc min er al iza tion, fa cies pat tern, peritidaland subtidal fa cies, Mid dle Tri as sic, Muschelkalk, Up per Silesia, Po land.

Manu script re ceived 24 Feb ru ary 2014, ac cepted 23 Sep tem ber 2014

IN TRO DUC TION

The large lead-zinc de pos its of the Kraków-Silesian ore dis trict of south ern Po land (Fig. 1) oc cur as kilo metre-sizetab u lar bod ies, mainly within epigenetically dolomitizedshallow-ma rine car bon ates of the Lower Muschelkalk,mostly Anisian in age. Al though the main phases of ore-mineral pre cip i ta tion started long af ter dolomitization, thepro cesses were ge net i cally re lated to each other (e.g., Sass-Gustkiewicz and D¿u³yñski, 1998). Ex ten sive in ves ti ga -tions of the ores and ore-bear ing do lo mite, ini ti ated 60 years ago, were based on thou sands of drill cores and kilo metresof mine gal ler ies. These stud ies yielded 200 pub li ca tions,mostly about ore-body ge om e try (e.g., Górecka, 1970; Szu-warzyñski, 1983, 1996), min eral paragenesis and tex tures

(e.g., Smolarska, 1968; Gruszczyk and Strzelska-Sma-kowska, 1978; Harañczyk, 1983; Górecka, 1996; Leach etal., 1996a), ore geo chem is try (e.g., Harañczyk, 1965; Zart-man et al., 1979; Koz³owski et al., 1980; Leach et al.,1996b; Viets et al., 1996), hor i zon tal and ver ti cal range ofdolomitization (Alexandrowicz and Alexandrowicz, 1960;Alexandrowicz, 1966, 1971, 1972), or i gin and mi gra tion ofmin er al iz ing and dolomitizing flu ids (e.g., Pa³ys, 1967; Ko-z³owski et al., 1980; Wodzicki, 1987; Górecka et al., 1996;Sass-Gustkiewicz and D¿u³yñski, 1998). Only a few pa persdeal with the re con struc tion of the sed i men tary en vi ron ment and fa cies pat tern of this part of the Ger manic (Eu ro pean)Ba sin in Mid dle Tri as sic time (Paw³owska and Szuwa-

82 M. MATYSIK

Fig. 1. Lo ca tion of the study area. A. Palaeogeographic map of the Ger manic Ba sin in the Mid dle Tri as sic. The Up per Silesia re gion(white rect an gle) was sit u ated close to the Tethys Ocean. Mod i fied af ter Narkiewicz and Szulc (2004). B. Pres ent out crop dis tri bu tion ofthe Mid dle Tri as sic (Muschelkalk) car bon ates in the Kraków-Silesia (stud ied) re gion, and the po si tion of the Kraków-Lubliniec FaultZone and the De vo nian is lands in the subsurface. Sim pli fied af ter Myszkowska (1992).

rzyñski, 1979; Paw³owska, 1982, 1985; Wyczó³kowski,1982; Myszkowska, 1992). How ever, it should be stressedthat the pri mary li thol ogy was an im por tant fac tor, con trol -ling the flow of the dolomitizing flu ids in late (burial) diagenesis and the em place ment of ore de pos its in this ho ri zon;for in stance, the most ferruginous “ore-bear ing dolomites”(called ankerites) are de vel oped in the coars est-grained pe-loidal grainstones (Œliwiñski, 1962, 1964; Pomyka³a, 1975;M. Matysik, un pub lished data, 2012), and ma jor ore bod iesoc cur just above the im per me able ho ri zon of wavy-nod u larclay-rich lime stones (e.g., Gruszczyk, 1957; Œliwiñski,1962; Bogacz et al., 1970). Bogacz et al. (1975) are the only au thors to sug gest that the hy dro ther mal so lu tions rose on abroad front along the faulted and folded NE mar gin of theKraków-Silesia re gion and mi grated from there to the SE,guided by sed i men tary in ter faces and po rous pri mary dolo-stones. In ac cor dance with this im por tant in ter pre ta tion, thefa cies het er o ge ne ity within the “ore-bear ing do lo mite” suc -ces sion should be in ves ti gated first, be fore any sound model of fluid cir cu la tion can be pro posed.

An other prob lem, aris ing from the in suf fi cient recogni-tion of fa cies het er o ge ne ity, is the on go ing con fu sion in thelithostratigraphic no men cla ture. The “ore-bear ing do lo mite”in ter val is tra di tion ally, but fac ti tiously di vided into threeformations (in for mally also called “beds”, see Figs 2, 3): the Góra¿d¿e For ma tion, the Dziewkowice For ma tion and theKarchowice For ma tion. Their names were sim ply adoptedby Siedlecki (1948) from the pi o neer lithostratigraphicscheme of Assmann (1913, 1944), pro posed for the undolo-mitized Muschelkalk suc ces sion, crop ping out to the westof the Kraków-Silesia ore dis trict. This scheme was cop ied,de spite the marked lithofacies dif fer ences in the two ar eas.Al though sev eral au thors high lighted the prob lem of mis use of these unit names (Gruszczyk, 1956; Œliwiñski, 1966a),and Œliwiñski (1961) even in tro duced the term “OlkuszBeds” for the “ore-bear ing do lo mite” suc ces sion, stra tigra -phers and min ers still ap ply the lithostratigraphic terms,which have no pre cise equiv a lents in the rock re cord of theKraków-Silesia re gion.

This pa per pres ents a de tailed (bed-by-bed) sedimento-log i cal anal y sis of the Lower Muschelkalk suc ces sion andits lat eral vari abil ity within the Kraków-Silesia re gion. Onthe ba sis of this large da ta base, this pa per also re con structsstep by step the evo lu tion of this part of the Ger manic Ba sinin the Anisian and shows which par tic u lar events con trib -uted to the for ma tion of the epigenetic “ore-bear ing do lo -mite”. The sub or di nate goal of this pa per is to or ga nize thelithostratigraphic scheme of the “ore-bear ing do lo mite” su-ccession.

SED I MEN TARY EN VI RON MENTOF THE EPIGENETICALLY

DOLOMITIZED UP PER SILESIANMUSCHELKALK CAR BON ATES:

A BRIEF RE VIEW OF THE LIT ER A TURE

In many ear lier pa pers (e.g., Assmann, 1913, 1944;Siedlecki, 1948, 1952; Alexandrowicz and Alexandrowicz,1960; Œliwiñski, 1961, 1966a; Pastwa-Leszczyñska, 1962;

Alexandrowicz, 1966, 1971, 1972), the sed i men tary en vi -ron ment of the epigenetically dolomitized Tri as sic car bon -ates was not dis cussed at length, be cause lithostratigraphywas the main fo cus in those days. Later, Wyczó³kowski(1971, 1982) suc cinctly de scribed the in flu ence of the pre-Tri as sic mor phol ogy on the sed i ment thick nesses and over -all fa cies dis tri bu tion in the Muschelkalk sea and also re-con structed the par tic u lar ar eas of the Kraków-Silesia re -gion that were flooded dur ing the sub se quent, transgressivepulses. Paw³owska and Szuwarzyñski (1979) and Paw³ow-ska (1982, 1985) char ac ter ized for the first time the lithofa-cies types, car bon ate grains, po ros ity, diagenetic al ter ationsand sed i men tary en vi ron ment. They con cluded that the “ore-bear ing do lo mite” suc ces sion gen er ally rep re sents a tidal-flaten vi ron ment, but the lower part of the suc ces sion (correspon- ding ap prox i mately to the Góra¿d¿e For ma tion) was formedin the subtidal zone and the up per part (ap prox i mately the un -dif fer en ti ated Dziewkowice–Karchowice for ma tions), in theinter- and supratidal zones. Subtidal con di tions re turned tothe area dur ing de po si tion of the oncolites that are widely re -garded as the bot tom unit of the over ly ing Diplopora Beds(Fig. 3).

A fur ther at tempt to re con struct the evo lu tion of the Kra-ków-Silesia re gion in the late Anisian was un der taken byMyszkowska (1992). On the ba sis of lithological sim i lar i ties,this au thor cor rectly in cluded the un dif fer en ti ated Dziewko-wice–Karchowice for ma tions in the over ly ing Diplopora Beds and di vided the lat ter into three dis tinct in ter vals rep re sent ingdif fer ent depositional set tings. The lower com plex (cor re -spond ing to the un dif fer en ti ated Dziewkowice–Karchowicefor ma tions) was built of car bon ate mudstones, grapestones,peloidal packstones and mi cro bial laminites with mudcracksand birdseyes, which rep re sented low-en ergy, shal low la -goons and tem po rarily emerged ar eas. The mid dle com plex,com posed of crinoidal and green al gal dolostones as well asoo lites and oncolites, was de pos ited in a shal low ma rine, hig- her-en ergy set ting. The up per com plex com menced with car -bon ate muds, grapestones and peloidal packstones, formed in a calm, deeper en vi ron ment, which up wards pass into oo litesand mi cro bial laminites, rep re sent ing shal low ag i tated set -tings and emerged ar eas, re spec tively. Such a tri par tite di vi -sion of the Diplopora Beds is also used in the pres ent study.How ever, sev eral lithological fea tures were not rec og nizedby Myszkowska (1992).

GEO LOG I CAL SET TING

The term “Up per Silesia” re fers herein to the en tire area of south ern Po land, where Muschelkalk de pos its crop out(Fig. 1A). Only in the east ern part of Up per Silesia, called“the Kraków-Silesia re gion”, these de pos its were af fectedby the epigenetic dolomitization and Pb-Zn min er al iza tion.The west ern part, termed “the Opole re gion”, does not show such dolomitization and min er al iza tion.

Palaeo ge ogra phy and tec tonic frame work

In the Mid dle Tri as sic, the semi-closed Ger manic Ba sin was sit u ated at sub trop i cal lat i tudes (Ziegler, 1990; Go-

SEDIMENTOLOGY OF THE “ORE-BEAR ING DO LO MITE” 83

84 M. MATYSIK

lonka, 2002; Scotese 2003). Com mu ni ca tion with the Te-thys Ocean was pro vided by three fault-con trolled sea ways,called “gates” (Fig. 1A). This con fig u ra tion de ter mined thespe cific over all “Ger manic fa cies” dis tri bu tion through outthe ba sin with nor mal-ma rine set tings pre vail ing near thegates, and more re stricted en vi ron ments oc cur ring in thecen tral-to-mar ginal ba sin ar eas (Szulc, 2000). On a smallerscale, how ever, the ba sin was filled in a more com plex anddi verse way, re flect ing the unpeneplained post-Variscan to -pog ra phy (Wyczó³kowski, 1971, 1982) and syndepositional block tec ton ics (Szulc, 1989). The Up per Silesian Sub-ba -sin, lo cated close to the Silesian-Moravian Gate, dipped tothe west. The west ern part of it (the Opole re gion) was dom -i nated by subtidal fa cies even dur ing highstands (Szulc,2000), whereas the east ern part (the Kraków-Silesia re gion)be longed tem po rarily to the inter- and supratidal zones (Pa-w³owska and Szuwarzyñski, 1979; Paw³owska, 1982, 1985; Myszkowska, 1992).

The Ma³opolska Land bor dered the Kraków-Silesia re -gion to the SE, but its shore fa cies is nowhere ex posed. TheMa³opolska Land passed to the NW into an ar chi pel ago ofsev eral iso lated, ir reg u larly scat tered, cliff-edged is lands,made up of De vo nian car bon ates. These rep re sent ar eas ofVariscan up lift (Fig. 1B), char ac ter ized by dif fer ences insize and geometry (Œliwiñski, 1966a; Wyczó³kowski, 1971,1982). In ten sive ero sion of the cliff walls pro duced a largeamount of milli metre- to decimetre-size lithoclasts, most ofwhich were de pos ited up to 50 m from the is land mar gins(Alexandrowicz, 1971; Wyczó³kowski, 1971, 1982). Theis lands formed an elon gate belt, 30 by 15 km in size, stret-ching along the Kraków-Lubliniec Fault Zone (KLFZ). TheKLFZ is re garded as the place of ac cre tion of two dif fer enttectonostratigraphic units, called the Brunovistulikum Ter-rane and the Ma³opolska Terrane (¯aba, 1999; Bu³a et al.,2008). Al though the ac cre tion took place in the early Pala-eozoic, the KLFZ also was ac tive later. The Variscan Oro-geny caused in tense de for ma tion of the KLFZ, in clud ingconsiderable ver ti cal dis place ment of sev eral tec tonic blocks, namely the cliff is lands men tioned above (Œliwiñski, 1966a;Wyczó³kowski, 1971, 1982). The Me so zoic ac tiv ity of theKLFZ re sulted in synsedimentary tec tonic de for ma tion of the ac cu mu lated sed i ments (Szulc, 1989, 2000); seis mic pump -ing of hy dro ther mal flu ids also is as sumed to have oc curred(Heijlen et al., 2003).

Stra tig ra phy

The evo lu tion of the Up per Silesian Sub-ba sin in the Mid- dle Tri as sic was strongly in flu enced by third-or der sea-levelfluctuations, su per im posed on the dif fer en tial ba sin mor phol -

ogy (Wyczó³kowski, 1982; Szulc 2000). Whereas changes in ac com mo da tion space gen er ated long-term ver ti cal fa cieschanges, the to pog ra phy de ter mined the lat eral fa cies dis tri -bu tion in par tic u lar time in ter vals. Ac cord ingly, the sed i men -tary suc ces sion of the Kraków-Silesia re gion dif fers mark -edly from the suc ces sion of the Opole re gion. These dif fer -ences (and sim i lar i ties) are sum ma rized in Fig. 3. While sim -ple lithostratigraphic cor re la tion can not be ap plied, both suc -ces sions are well cor re lated with each other and with the Te-thys do main by magnetostratigraphy (Nawrocki and Szulc,2000), se quence stra tig ra phy (Szulc, 2000) as well as cono-dont, ammonoid and cri noid biostratigraphy (Assmann,1944; Zawidzka, 1975; Hagdorn and G³uchowski, 1993;Kaim and NiedŸwiedzki, 1999; Narkiewicz and Szulc, 2004). Ac cord ing to these data, the “ore-bear ing do lo mite” in ter valis Pelsonian–Illyr ian (up per Anisian) in age (Fig. 3).

Hor i zon tal and ver ti cal rangeof the ore-bear ing do lo mite

The ore-bear ing do lo mite oc cu pies an area of 50 by 30km. It is de lim ited north–eastwards by the KLFZ, west wardsby the dis lo ca tion run ning N–S near Blachówka, and south -wards by post-Tri as sic ero sion (Fig. 1B; Assmann, 1926,1944; Œliwiñski, 1961). Stratigraphically, the stratiform body of ore-bear ing do lo mite, ap prox i mately 35 m thick, over liesthe wavy-nod u lar clay-rich lime stones of the Gogolin For ma -tion (Fig. 3), which formed an im per me able bar rier to hy dro -ther mal fluid flow, mi grat ing down ward ow ing to grav i ta tion (e.g., Bogacz et al., 1970). In con trast, the up per limit of epi- ge netic dolomitization is dis cor dant with the lithostratigra-phy and there fore it can not be iden ti fied as one dis tinct sur -face of lithological change. All ear lier au thors mis iden ti fiedthe up per limit of dolomitization as the bot tom of the Diplo-pora Beds, but in fact the at trib utes, char ac ter is tic for theore-bear ing do lo mite (the colour range of oxi dised iron,dolomitized tex ture and/or com mon dis so lu tion vugs), dis -ap pear sev eral metres above the bot tom of the DiploporaBeds (Fig. 3).

The ore-bear ing do lo mite con tains metre- to kilo metre-size rel ics of the pri mary fa cies of the Muschelkalk lime -stones (Bogacz et al., 1972; Sobczyñski and Szuwarzyñski,1974; Mochnacka and Sass-Gustkiewicz, 1978), which canbe stud ied to day in only a few places. Fur ther more, wherema jor dis lo ca tions cross each other, the epigenetic dolomitization af fected also the De vo nian to Ju ras sic strata (e.g.,Ekiert, 1957; Ga³kiewicz et al., 1960; Pa³ys, 1967; Górecka, 1993). For ad di tional in for ma tion on the dolomitization and min er al iza tion pro cesses in the re gion, in ter ested read ers arere ferred to the pri mary lit er a ture (e.g., Ekiert, 1957; Grusz-


Fig. 3. Gen er al ized strati graphic sec tion for the Lower–Mid dle Muchelkalk of Up per Silesia, show ing thick ness, over all lithologicalchar ac ter, pro vi sional for ma tion names and range of epigenetic dolomitization. M. MU. – Mid dle Muschelkalk; D. B – Diplopora Beds;TST – transgressive sys tems tract; HST – highstand sys tems tract; MFZ – max i mum flood ing zone; SB – sequence boundary. Se quencestra tig ra phy frame work af ter Szulc (2000), lithostratigraphy of the Opole re gion af ter Assmann (1913, 1944) with later for mal iza tion byBodzioch (1997), NiedŸwiedzki (2000) and Kowal-Linka (2008).

86 M. MATYSIK

czyk, 1957; Ga³kiewicz et al., 1960; Œliwiñski, 1962, 1964;Harañczyk, 1965; Pa³ys, 1967; Smolarska, 1968; Górecka,1970; Bogacz et al., 1970, 1972, 1975; Zartman et al., 1979;Gruszczyk and Strzelska-Smakowska, 1978; Koz³owski etal., 1980; Szuwarzyñski, 1983, 1996; Harañczyk, 1983; Wo-dzicki, 1987; Górecka, 1996; Leach et al., 1996a, b; Viets etal., 1996; Sass-Gustkiewicz and D¿u³yñski, 1998; Heijlen etal., 2003; Coppola et al., 2009).

MA TE RI ALS AND METH ODS

Out of sev eral tens of in ves ti gated out crops, only themost in ter est ing and com plete sec tions were pre sented. These are out crops, where the macrotextural fea tures were af fectedby epigenetic dolomitization to only a mi nor ex tent, and con -se quently sed i men tary struc tures or changes in grain sizecould be rec og nized. All sec tions, in which dolomitizationoblit er ated sed i men tary struc tures com pletely or made it im -pos si ble to dis tin guish car bon ate muds from grains, were ex -cluded. By cour tesy of the “Olkusz-Pomorzany” lead-zincmine, three drill cores from the vi cin ity of the mine were ex -am ined. Most of the core in ter vals were not slabbed, andthere fore the mea sured lithostratigraphic logs may con tainmis takes. For the GPS co or di nates of each out crop, see theAp pen dix.

Field stud ies were com pleted with the anal y sis of about900 pol ished slabs and 400 thin sec tions. It should be stre-ssed that much of the orig i nal rock microtexture had beende stroyed as a re sult of epigenetic dolomitization, whichsignificantly lim ited microfacies de scrip tion and in ter pre ta -tion. On the other hand, the ubiq ui tous sil ica nod ules turnedout to be a very use ful tool in microfacies anal y sis, be causesilification pro tected the pri mary microtextures from epi-ge netic changes. The or i gin of the chert nod ules was descri-bed in de tail by Kwiatkowski (2005).

For the most com plete sec tions, ex hib it ing plenty ofsedimentary struc tures, cir cu lar his to grams (rose di a grams)were con structed to pres ent the fre quency dis tri bu tions ofin ferred lo cal di rec tions of sed i ment trans port (Pot ter andPettijohn, 1963; Nemec, 1988). The his to grams were cre -ated in the fol low ing way: 1) each layer, dis play ing uni di -rec tional cross-bed ding, was counted as one az i muth mea -sure ment (m1); 2) if the top of a layer was shaped by sym -met ri cal rip ples or dunes (bidirectional sed i men tary struc -tures), two az i muth mea sure ments were counted (m1 andm2), both per pen dic u lar to the ori en ta tion of rip ple/dune

crests (r1) but each the re verse of the other (m1 = r1 + 90°and m1 = r1 – 90°); 3) pla nar-bed ding and hummockycross-strat i fied beds were not counted. The his to grams in -clude cor rec tions sug gested by Nemec (1988), namely thatthe area of each cir cu lar sec tor of the rose di a gram, not thera dius of the sec tor, is pro por tional to the class fre quency(den sity).

With re spect to the geo log i cal ter mi nol ogy, “pelolite” is a car bon ate rock com posed pre dom i nantly of peloids (byanalogy to oolite and oncolite), in de pend ently of whether ithad been a lime stone or early diagenetic do lo mite, prior toepigenetic dolomitization.

SED I MEN TARY SUC CES SIONOF THE “ORE-BEAR ING DO LO MITE”

The suc ces sion of the ore-bear ing do lo mite con sists offour dis tinct lithostratigraphic in ter vals, rep re sent ing dif fer -ent phases in the evo lu tion of the Kraków-Silesia Sub-ba -sin. Each in ter val dis plays lat eral vari a tion in thick ness andsed i men tary fea tures (Figs 2, 3). These ba sic lithostratigra-phic units ful fill the re cent def i ni tion of “Mem ber” (seeNorth Amer i can Commision on Strati graphic No men cla -ture, 2005; Narkiewicz, 2006). However the def i ni tion offor mal di vi sions is be yond the scope of this pa per.

Unit 1

Unit 1 con sti tutes the lower half of the Olkusz Beds(sensu Œliwiñski, 1961; Figs 2, 3).

Lower bound aryUnit 1 di rectly over lies the top most part of the Gogolin

For ma tion, com posed of wavy-nod u lar clay-rich calcilutites with ubiq ui tous hor i zon tal trace fos sil Rhizocorallium isp.,infilled with cop ro lites (Fig. 4A). These calcilutites in placesare interbedded with centi metre-thick bioclastic wackestones-packstones and hummocky cross-strat i fied calcisiltites.

De scrip tionUnit 1 is pre dom i nantly com posed of me dium-bed ded

(10–30 cm), red-brown-grey cav ern ous dolosiltites with ir -reg u larly dis sem i nated spots, which ex hibit fine-crys tal linetex ture in thin sec tions (Figs 2, 4B–D). The pri mary litholo-gical fea tures of these de pos its are well pre served in sev eralsec tions, which es caped the epigenetic dolomitization.


Fig. 4. Main lithological fea tures of Unit 1. A. Gen eral view of the tran si tion from the wavy-nod u lar clay-rich calcilutites (the up per -most part of the Gogolin For ma tion) to the me dium-bed ded firmgrounds of Unit 1. Imielin – “PPKMiL” Quarry. B. Ver ti cal out crop viewof cav ern ous spotty dolostone. Black ar row points at flat sil ica nod ule. Imielin – “PPKMiL” Quarry. C. Ver ti cally ori ented slab of cav ern -ous spotty dolostone. Note that coarse-grained in fill ing of bur rows was dis solved, which re sulted in de vel op ment of vugs. D¹browaGórnicza – “Z¹bkowice” Quarry. D. Mi cro pho to graph of C, il lus trat ing fine-crys tal line tex ture. E. Ver ti cal out crop view of undolomi-tized firmground ho ri zon with bur rows ?Balanoglossites. Note the par al lel lam i na tion pre served in some places (white ar row). P³aza –“GiGa” Quarry. F. Ver ti cally ori ented slab of two firmground ho ri zons, sep a rated by ?tempestitic pelolite. Lower firmground ho ri zon isre worked to form a con glom er ate. White ar rows in di cate diagenetic ha loes formed around bur rows (due to mu cus-im preg na tion). Notethat only the coarse-grained in fill ing of the bur rows was al tered (recolouration and crys tal change) dur ing epigenetic dolomitization,whereas the fine-grained sed i ment around bur rows did not un dergo epigenetic changes. Imielin – “PPKMiL” Quarry.

88 M. MATYSIK

Fig. 5. Main lithological fea tures of Unit 1. A. Ver ti cal out crop view of sev eral firmground ho ri zons (firm.; spotty dolostones withsome cav erns) sandwiched in be tween pelolites (pel.). Some pelolites dis play hummocky cross-strat i fi ca tion (black ar row). White ar rowsin di cate hum mocks. Pogorzyce – “¯elatowa” Quarry. B. Ver ti cal out crop view of silicified (on right side) and unsilicified (on left side)fine-grained peloidal packstone-grainstone. Imielin – aban doned quarry. C. Pho to mi cro graph of pelolite, show ing coarse-crys tal linemicrotexture en clos ing the cri noid ossicle (white ar row). Note that the ossicle mar gins were dis solved and re placed by do lo mite crys tals.X nicols. Pogorzyce – “¯elatowa” Quarry. D. Ver ti cal out crop view of undolomitized peloidal grainstone, dis play ing moldic po ros ity andcon tain ing spo radic bi valves. Olkusz Stary – aban doned quarry. E–H. Pho to mi cro graphs of D. E. Peloidal grainstone with roundedmicritic intraclast. Many peloids are dis solved. F. Foram test. G. Cross-sec tion of green al gae. H. Peloid with thin ooidal cor tex.


Fig. 6. Sed i men tary struc tures of Unit 1. A. Ver ti cal out crop view of large-scale hum mocks. D¹browa Górnicza – “Z¹bkowice”Quarry. B. Ver ti cal out crop view of dolomitized hummocky cross-strat i fied pelolite, over lain by firmground. Note sev eral trun catedlow-an gle laminae sets di ag nos tic of hummocky cross-strat i fi ca tion. D¹browa Górnicza – “Z¹bkowice” Quarry. C–D. Ver ti cal out cropviews of sev eral dolomitized large-scale cross-strat i fied peloidal dunes, sandwiching firmgrounds. Note lat er ally dis con tin u ous firm-ground ho ri zon (white ar rows) and re sul tant amal gam ation of two dunes. D¹browa Górnicza – “Z¹bkowice” Quarry. E. Ver ti cal out cropview of undolomitized pelolite, dis play ing high-an gle (tab u lar) cross-bed ding with tan gen tial re la tion ship to the basal sur face. OlkuszStary – aban doned quarry. F. Ver ti cally ori ented slab of undolomitized lam i nated fine-grained pelolite. Lam i na tion is slightly dis turbedby bioturbation. P³aza – “GiGa” Quarry.

90 M. MATYSIK

These are dark grey lam i nated unfossiliferous calcilutites,with bur rows Balanoglossites and Thalassinoides (firm-ground omis sion sur faces). Par al lel lam i na tion was of tenoblit er ated by bioturbation (Fig. 4E). The bur rows are com -monly sur rounded by a black diagenetic halo, which grad u -ally fades away from the bur row wall (Fig. 4F). The bur -rows are infilled ei ther with fe cal pel lets or yel low de tri talsed i ment, com posed of micrite, peloids and spo radic disar-ticulated bi valves. Blocky cal cite crys tal lized in rem nantopen voids of bur rows. The firmgrounds were some timesde stroyed by sub ma rine ero sion to form con glom er ates with subrounded peb bles (Fig. 4F).

The firmgrounds are in ter ca lated with me dium-bed dedpelolites. Epigenetically dolomitized pelolites are red-brownin colour and dis play me dium- to coarse-crys tal line mi cro-tex ture (Fig. 5A–C). They con tain disarticulated cri noidsand steinkerns of bi valves and gas tro pods. Undolomitizedpelolites per mit more de tailed de scrip tion. These are whitecalcisiltites and fine- to me dium-grained calcarenites (ter-med “crys tal” by Siedlecki, 1948; 1952), usu ally packsto-nes-grainstones and rarely wackestones (Fig. 5D, E). Theirmain con stit u ents are mod er ately rounded and sorted pelo-ids, some of which have very thin ooidal cor tex (Fig. 5H).Cri noids, bi valves, brachi o pods, gas tro pods, green al gae,forams and grey flat micritic peb bles were iden ti fied as ac -ces sory com po nents (Fig. 5E–G). Many peloids and bio-clasts, ex cept for cri noids, are dis solved (moldic po ros ity).

Whether dolomitized or not, pelolites have clearly vis i -ble sed i men tary struc tures and they form sin gle beds or amal -gam ated pack ages. Sin gle pelolitic beds reach up to 50 cm inthick ness (mostly 10–30 cm), whereas the amal gam ated pe-lolitic pack ages have usu ally 0.5–1 m thick ness (with a min i -mum of 10 cm and a max i mum of 2 m). Both dis play var i oussed i men tary struc tures: pla nar and low-an gle lam i na tion, hu-mmocky cross-strat i fi ca tion with hum mocks up to 5 m across,tab u lar cross-bed ding, sym met ri cal rip ples 20–40 cm long and3–8 cm high, as well as dunes 0.6–10 m long and 5–30 cmhigh (Fig. 6A–E). The rip ple and dune crests run gen er allyNE–SW, while the cross-laminae dip dom i nantly in two op -po site di rec tions: from N to W and from S to E (Fig. 2). Ver- tical bur rows oc ca sion ally cut the pelolites, es pe cially wherethey di rectly un der lie firmgrounds with in ten sive bioturba-tion (Fig. 6F).

The thick ness and abun dance of pelolites in crease stra-tigraphically up wards. This fea ture is most clearly vis i ble atImielin (Fig. 2).

Lat eral vari abil ityThe firmgrounds that pre dom i nate in Unit 1 lo cally give

way to nod u lar calcilutites-calcisiltites with un iden ti fi able horizontal trace fos sils (P³aza, Olkusz Stary; Fig. 7A), or toflaser-lam i nated dolosiltites (Bukowno; Fig. 7B). In the vi -cin ity of the De vo nian is lands, the firmgrounds are par tiallyre placed by ver te brate-bear ing dolocretes, rhizolites andpoorly sorted cliff-brec cias to cliff-dolosiltites (Jaroszo-wiec, Nowa Wioska; Fig. 7C–E), or by cav ern ous unfossiliferous wavy- to pla nar-bed ded dolostones (Nowa Wioska;Fig. 7F). The lat ter are made up of al ter nat ing 1-cm-thicklay ers of grey dolosiltite and yel low peloidal dolarenite,which are fre quently af fected by bioturbation and oc ca sion -ally cut by ero sional chan nels (1 m wide and 30 cm deep).

The pelolites are also char ac ter ized by a marked lat eralvari abil ity. In the most west ern sec tions (Tarnowskie Góry), the pelolites con sti tute only spo radic in ter ca la tions withinsuc ces sion of dolomitized firmgrounds, at least 32 m thick,and con tain sig nif i cant amounts of disarticulated cri noids(Fig. 7G, H). Sim i larly, the pelolites are al most ab sent fromthe east ern most sec tions, lo cated within the ar chi pel ago ofDe vo nian is lands (Nowa Wioska, Jaroszowiec). At Imielin,in con trast, the pelolites form ex cep tion ally thick grainstone bod ies (up to 2 m in thick ness), dis play ing trough cross-bed -ding. They are some times pen e trated by ver ti cal, straight orU-shaped bur rows, re sem bling Skolithos isp. and Arenico-lites isp., re spec tively. The lack of pelolites in the vi cin ity of the “Olkusz-Pomorzany” Mine should be at trib uted to thelim ited pos si bil i ties for ob ser va tion in drill cores, ratherthan to any real ab sence of pelolites.

The thick ness of Unit 1 is lat er ally vari able. In mostsec tions it ranges from 10 to 15 m. However, at D¹browaGórnicza it barely reaches 7 m, while at Imielin it is al most20 m thick, and at Tarnowskie Góry at least 32 m (Fig. 3).

In ter pre ta tion

The lat eral vari abil ity of Unit 1 de scribed above (Fig. 2) in di cates that the Kraków-Silesia Sub-ba sin was bathyme-trically dif fer en ti ated in the time in ter val dis cussed. Appa-rently, the prox i mal zone was es tab lished near the ar chi pel -ago of De vo nian is lands, the me dial zone oc cu pied the broadcen tral part of the Sub-ba sin, and the dis tal zone oc curred atthe west ern flank of the Sub-ba sin.

The prox i mal zone ap par ently was dom i nated by sed i -men ta tion in a tidal flat sys tem, en com pass ing salt marshesand emerged ar eas. This is ev i denced by rhizolites and dolocretes, re spec tively. Lo cally occuring wavy- to pla nar-bed -ded dolostones, com posed of al ter nat ing lay ers of dolosil-


Fig. 7. Re gional lithological changes within Unit 1. A. Ver ti cal out crop view of nod u lar calcisiltites. Olkusz Stary – aban doned quarry. B. Ver ti cally ori ented slab of flaser-lam i nated dolostone. Bukowno – “Olkusz-Pomorzany” Mine. C. Ver ti cal out crop view of a rhizolitewith small straight root casts. Jaroszowiec – “Stare Gliny” Quarry. D. Ver ti cally ori ented slab of nod u lar dolocrete, con tain ing blacklithoclasts of De vo nian dolostones. Jaroszowiec – “Stare Gliny” Quarry. E. Close view of nod u lar dolocrete, con tain ing a bone frag ment.F. Ver ti cal out crop view of wavy- to pla nar-bed ded dolostones. Some bedsets were ex ten sively bioturbated. Nowa Wioska – “PROMAG” Quarry. G. Ver ti cally ori ented slab of dolomitized pelolite, con tain ing abun dant cri noid os si cles. Tarnowskie Góry – “Blachówka”Quarry. H. De tail of G. Cri noid col umns and os si cles, ex tracted from the rock. They are in dic a tive of the late Anisian (Illyr ian) silesiacusBiozone.

92 M. MATYSIK

Fig. 8. Main lithological fea tures of Unit 2. A. Bed ding plane view of dolomitized coarse-grained peloidal grainstone. Bukowno –“Olkusz-Pomorzany” Mine. B. Bed ding plane view of dolomitized pelolite, con tain ing steinkerns of large gas tro pods. Imielin –“PPKMiL” Quarry. C. Ver ti cal out crop view of dolomitized pelolite, com pris ing voids af ter dis solved bi valve shells, aligned par al lel tobed ding planes and ori ented con vex-up. Nowa Wioska – “GZD” Quarry. D. Pho to mi cro graph of pelolite, show ing par tially recrystallizedmicrotexture of peloidal grainstone. Peloids are well rounded and mod er ately sorted. Pogorzyce – “¯elatowa” Quarry. E. Pho to mi cro -graph of silicified ooidal grainstone. Imielin – “PPKMiL” Quarry. F. Ver ti cal out crop view of large sparse cav ern ous vugs, de vel opedwithin dolomitized fine-grained pelolite. Nowa Wioska – “GZD” Quarry.

tites and dolarenites, 1 cm thick, are very sim i lar to wavy-,flaser- and len tic u lar-bed ded de pos its of tidal or i gin (e.g.,Reineck and Singh, 1980; Demicco, 1983; Pratt and James,1986) and are there fore in ter preted as intertidal de pos its.This in ter pre ta tion is fur ther sup ported by the lack of skel e -tal fos sils and the pres ence of abun dant bur rows, prob a blycre ated as shel ter dur ing the ebb tide. Ow ing to in ten sivecliff ero sion, the close prox im ity of the is lands is in di catedby milli metre- to decimetre-sized lithoclasts of De vo niandolostone, ac cu mu lated as poorly sorted brec cias, dolare-nites and dolosiltites. It is clear that vertebrates in hab itedthis en vi ron ment, since ver te brate bones were found both incave-fill ing sed i ments (Lis and Wójcik, 1960) and in fa cies, formed adjacent to cliffs.

In the me dial zone, in clud ing most of the sec tions stud -ied, much of the sed i men ta tion oc curred un der open-ma rinelow-en ergy con di tions, as in di cated by the pre dom i nantfirmground fa cies. The homogenously lam i nated struc tureof the firmgrounds, lack ing in ter nal ero sional sur faces, im -plies that the car bon ate mud was de pos ited from sus pen sion as sin gle events, pre sum ably af ter storms (Matysik, 2010).Sub se quent de vel op ment of a firmground omis sion sur facere quired a pro longed time span in the ab sence of sed i men ta -tion. Firmgrounds are also known to oc cur in other re gionsof the Ger manic Ba sin, such as the Holy Cross Moun tains,Po land (KaŸmierczak and Pszczó³kowski, 1969), the Opolere gion, Po land (Bodzioch, 1989; Szulc, 2000; Matysik,2010), and Thuringia, Ger many (Knaust, 1998; Bertling,1999). The pelolitic intercalactions be tween firmgroundsseem to have been mainly of storm or i gin, be cause: 1) mostoc cur as sin gle beds within an over all mud-dom i nated in ter -val; and 2) some ex hibit the hummocky cross-strat i fi ca tion,di ag nos tic of tempestites (Fig. 2; Harms et al., 1975; Kreisa, 1981; Walker, 1982; Aigner, 1985; Duke, 1985). Those pe-lolites, which also form sin gle beds, but dis play tab u larcross-bed ding or dunes, must have been de pos ited by uni di -rec tional, rel a tively strong, but short-lived cur rents. Thickamal gam ated pack ages of pelolites (known e.g., from Imie-lin), char ac ter ized by var i ous large-scale sed i men tary struc -tures, in clud ing trough cross-beds, were ap par ently formedat depths above the nor mal wave-base. The me dial zonegen er ally rep re sents the lower shoreface, af fected by uni di -rec tional cur rents, lo cally evolv ing into high-en ergy shoals.The com po si tion of the pelolites sug gests that the ma te rialcame from two dif fer ent sources. While cri noids, brachio-pods and forams may be con sid ered as an autochtonous, open-ma rine fauna re worked by storms, the bulk of the coarse-grained ma te rial, in clud ing peloids, gas tro pods, green al gaeand bivalves, must have been de liv ered from shal lower ar easof car bon ate pro duc tion, sit u ated cer tainly eastwards or for-ming lo cal short-term highs, such as at the Imielin site. Thegen eral in crease in thick ness and abun dance of pelolite in ter -ca la tions within the suc ces sion in di cates the grad ual shallo-wing of the me dial zone through time.

The dis tal zone is also in ter preted as rep re senting thelower shoreface, al though it was sep a rated con sid er ablyfrom the in flux of shoal ma te rial. Rare pelolite in ter ca la -tions, rich in disarticulated cri noids and lack ing other skel e -tal fos sils, con firm the pres ence of more open-ma rine con di -tions, in comparison with the medial zone (Fig. 2).

Unit 2

Unit 2 con sti tutes the up per half of the Olkusz Beds(sensu Œliwiñski, 1961; Figs 2, 3).

De scrip tionUndolomitized de pos its of Unit 2 were not ex posed in

any of the out crops in ves ti gated. This unit is pre dom i nantlycom posed of beige-red-brown, me dium- to coarse-grainedpelolites, grainstones-packstones (Figs 2, 8A). In ad di tion to,dom i nant peloids, disarticulated cri noids, and nu mer ous bi-valves and gas tro pods oc cur (Fig. 8B). The (pre-ex ist ing)shells are com monly ori ented par al lel to the bed ding, con -vex-up and are mostly dis solved, giv ing rise to moldic po -ros ity (Fig. 8C). In thin sec tions, the pelolites ex hibit me-dium- to coarse-crys tal line microtexture. How ever, occa-sionally the size, shape and ar range ment of peloids are rec og -niz able, where epigenetic dolomitization af fected only thepeloids and not the ce ments or interparticle pores (Fig. 8D).In such cases, the peloids are usu ally well rounded and mod -er ately to well sorted. Ob ser va tions of the sil ica nod ules un -der the mi cro scope re vealed nu mer ous ooids (Fig. 8E), which im ply that at least part of the dolomitized peloids had well-de vel oped ooidal cor ti ces, prior to burial diagenesis. Thepelolites com prise rare cav ern ous vugs (sensu Lu cia, 1983),which reach 50 cm in size (Fig. 8F).

The pelolites (and oo lites) form amal gam ated pack ages, sev eral metres thick. Each pack age shows com plex sed i -men tary struc tures: pla nar bed ding, low- and high-an gle(tab u lar) cross-bed ding, trough cross-bed ding, her ring bonecross-bed ding, sym met ri cal and asym met ri cal rip ples withsmall-scale cross-bed ding (20–40 cm long and 3–6 cmhigh), and rare dunes (0.4–5 m long and 10–20 cm high;Fig. 9A–D). The cross-laminae dip dom i nantly in two op po -site di rec tions: from N to W and from S to E; however,some bedsets are lo cally in clined to the NE or SW (Fig. 2).The rip ple and dune crests are gen er ally ori ented NE–SW.

The pelolitic-oolitic pack ages are rarely in ter ca latedwith beige-red-brown in ten sively bioturbated dolosiltitesand fine-grained dolarenites, which range in thick ness from10 to 50 cm (spo rad i cally up to 1 m; Fig. 9E).

Unit 2 (and the Olkusz Beds) ter mi nates with a re gional disconformity, which marks the Sequence Boundary, de -fined by Szulc (2000). Near the De vo nian is lands, thisbound ary is very clearly vis i ble as an ero sional discon for -mity over lain by onlapping peritidal fa cies, whereas to -wards the cen tral part of the Kraków-Silesia re gion, the con -tact is more con form able and hence the se quence bound aryis less ev i dent. The ex po sure of the un der ly ing strata to ame te oric diagenetic en vi ron ment re sulted in the leach ing ofhigh-Mg cal cite and ar agon ite, and the re sul tant de vel op -ment of non-touch ing moldic pores (sensu Lu cia, 1983; Fig. 5D, E). Moldic po ros ity was also rec og nized in the oncoi-dal-peloidal lime stones of the Góra¿d¿e For ma tion (Szulc,1999), which con sti tutes the strati graphic equiv a lent in theOpole re gion (Fig. 3). The disconformity (se quence bound -ary) prob a bly cor re sponds to the “ero sional sur face” rec og -nized by Paw³owska and Szuwarzyñski (1979) as oc curringover the en tire area of the cur rently closed “Trzebionka”lead-zinc mine, in the uppermost part of their unit 5.


94 M. MATYSIK

Lat eral vari abil ityUnit 2 is rel a tively uni form on a re gional scale (Fig. 2),

so the only mi nor lo cal dif fer ences need to be em pha sized.In the sur round ings of the ar chi pel ago, Unit 2 is com pletelyde void of bioturbated fine-grained de pos its, which in mostsec tions con sti tute 10–50 cm thick in ter ca la tions of peloli-tes. In the vi cin ity of the “Olkusz-Pomorzany” Mine, inturn, these bioturbated de pos its form un usu ally thick pack -ages (1–2.5 m in thick ness), but this may arise from mis -takes made in de scrib ing the unslabbed drill cores.

Pelolites, occuring in close prox im ity to the De vo nianis lands (up to 200 m from the cliff walls) at Nowa Wioska,are usu ally finer-grained than in the other sec tions. The sed -i ments, sit u ated more than 200 m away from the cliff walls,are dom i nated by coarse-grained pelolites, of ten dis play inglarge-scale high-an gle cross-bed ding and thick lat er ally-accreted bedsets (Fig. 10A, B). In ad di tion, they com prisewell-rounded, cross-lam i nated pelolitic intraclasts (peb blesto boul ders), de rived from the un der ly ing lithified pelolites(Fig. 10C).

The thick ness of Unit 2 is be tween 6 m (at Jaroszowiec) and 12 m (at Nowa Wioska; Fig. 2). These two sec tionswere lo cated close to two sep a rate De vo nian is lands, in di -cat ing the strong in flu ence of lo cal sub si dence and/or synsedimentary tec ton ics on sed i men tary thick nesses.

In ter pre ta tionThe general scar city of fine-grained sed i ments and the

dom i nance of pelolites, dis play ing var i ous large-scale sed i -men tary struc tures, in di cate sed i men ta tion above the nor malwave-base. The cal car e ous sands were pre dom i nantly de pos -ited by uni di rec tional strong cur rents in the up per shorefaceset ting, as in di cated by com mon trough and tab u lar cross-bed ding (e.g., Read ing, 1978). Af ter de po si tion, how ever, the sand must have been af fected by waves, be cause many rip -ples and dunes have sym met ri cal shapes. Her ring bone cross-bed ding within some bedsets in di cates de po si tion from re -vers ing cur rents of equal in ten sity, which im plies a tidal or i -gin. The de vel op ment of ooids also re quired a con tri bu tion of tidal cur rents (Rankey et al., 2006; Reeder and Rankey,2009; Rankey and Reeder, 2010, 2011). Pla nar bed ding, typ i -cal of up per plane bed con di tions, in di cates tem po rary sed i -men ta tion in the fore shore (e.g., Read ing, 1978). The con -vex-up ori en ta tion of shells con firms the high-en ergy re gime; shells de pos ited from sus pen sion are typ i cally ori ented con -vex-down (e.g., Clifton, 1971), but they in vert to a more hy -dro dy nam i cally sta ble con vex-up po si tion, when sub jected to cur rent or wave ac tiv ity (e.g., Brenchley and Newall, 1970).More over, low di ver sity of benthos, rep re sented chiefly bybi valves and gas tro pods, also should be at trib uted to sub -

strate unstability, rather than to el e vated sa lin ity or ox y gendeficiency, be cause the pres ence of cri noids in di cates nor -mal-ma rine con di tions. In pe ri ods of greater sub strate sta bil -ity, the sandy bot tom was in ten sively col o nized by infauna.Lithification of the car bon ate sands was lo cally rapid, sincepeb bles to boul ders of cross-lam i nated pelolites were foundto be in cor po rated into youn ger peloidal sands at NowaWioska. How ever, the over all lack of intraclasts ex cludesearly ma rine ce men ta tion as a com mon phe nom e non.

Unit 2 is in ter preted to have been a lime stone be fore the epigenetic dolomitization, be cause: 1) all lithological andsed i men tary fea tures of these de pos its at test to a high-en -ergy en vi ron ment, elim i nat ing the con di tions of stag na tionand el e vated sa lin ity that are re spon si ble for the gen er a tionof evaporitive pore flu ids and con tem po ra ne ous dolomitization of sed i ment (War ren, 2000); and 2) it is likely that anyhy po thet i cal me te oric wa ters or hypersaline sea wa ter, in fil -trat ing down ward from the re gional ex po sure sur face oronlapping the peritidal ar eas, also would have pen e tratedfur ther down through the lime stones of Unit 1. This was notthe case, be cause Unit 1 dis plays no epigenetic alteration.

Unit 3

Unit 3 over lies the re gional disconformity men tionedabove (Figs 10B, 11A, B), which is re garded as the sequen-ce bound ary (Szulc, 2000). The unit ap prox i mately cor re -sponds to the “lower com plex” of the Diplopora Beds sensuMyszkowska (1992; Figs 2, 3).

De scrip tionThe most char ac ter is tic lithofacies of Unit 3 are yel low

cryptalgal laminites (pla nar stromatolites; Fig. 2). They arecom posed of al ter nat ing milli metre-thick laminae of mi cro -bial and de tri tal or i gins. The mi cro bial laminae dis playdense apha ni tic (mi nor clot ted-micropeloidal) microfabric,whereas the de tri tal laminae are com posed of silt- to mud-size lime par ti cles (Fig. 11C, D). The lam i na tion is more-or- less straight and par al lel to the bed ding planes. How ever,layers of laminae are of ten trun cated and dis cor dantly capped by other stromatolitic lay ers. In some cases, the lam i na tion isbarely seen, ow ing to a re duced con tri bu tion of mi cro bialmats. Laminitic lay ers are com monly torn up into intra-clasts, which may be in cor po rated into the suc ces sive lami -na tions or form con glom er ates and brec cias (Fig. 11C). Flatand rounded intraclasts may be imbricated (Fig. 11E). Thecryptalgal laminites oc ca sion ally con tain fenestral pores,sheet cracks and mudcracks (Fig. 11F), but this fa cies is ge-nerally non-po rous. Small gas tro pods can be found withinthe lami na tions.


Fig. 9. Sed i men tary struc tures of Unit 2. A. Ver ti cal out crop view of tab u lar cross-bed ded pelolites al ter nated by pla nar-bed ded ones.Pogorzyce – “¯elatowa” Quarry. B. Ver ti cal out crop view of small-scale cross-bed ded pelolites, sandwiched be tween fair-weatherfine-grained epigenetic dolostones (black ar rows), capped by pla nar-bed ded, coarse-grained pelolite. Imielin – aban doned quarry. C. Ver -ti cal out crop view of sym met ri cal pelolitic dunes (white ar rows). Nowa Wioska – “GZD” Quarry. D. Ver ti cal out crop view of troughcross-bed ded, coarse-grained pelolite. Imielin – aban doned quarry. E. Ver ti cal out crop view of pla nar-bed ded, coarse-grained pelolite.Dis tinct bioturbation in the up per part. Pogorzyce – “¯elatowa” Quarry.

96 M. MATYSIK

Fig. 10. Sed i men tary struc tures of Unit 2. Nowa Wioska – “GZD” Quarry. A. Ver ti cal out crop view of high-an gle cross-strat i fi ca tionwith tan gen tial re la tion ship to the basal sur face. Ham mer for scale is 30 cm long. B. Ver ti cal out crop view of lat er ally accretinglarge-scale pelolitic bedsets, trun cated dur ing emersion and capped by peritidal fa cies. C. Ver ti cal out crop view of cross-strat i fied,coarse-grained pelolites con tain ing nu mer ous re worked pelolite intraclasts. White ar row points at 40 cm long cross-lam i nated intraclast of pelolite, black ar rows point at smaller ones. Ham mer for scale is 30 cm long.

Dolocretes, rhizolites and mudstones are also in dic a tive of Unit 3 (Fig. 2). The dolocretes, yel low-or ange-green-grey dolosiltites, cre ate centi metre- to decimetre-thickcrusts, rest ing usu ally on top of ir reg u lar subaerially weath -ered sur faces (Fig. 12A). Most dolocretes show nod u larfab ric, com posed of microspar (Fig. 12B). Some dolocretesare structureless (mas sive) and con tain peloids of denseapha ni tic automicrite, em bed ded within allomicrite or mi-crospar (Fig. 12C). The dolocretes are spo rad i cally rewor-ked to form brec cias. The rhizolites, on the other hand, arebeige-green mas sive dolosiltites with centi metre-long ver ti -cal, straight or bi fur cat ing root casts (Fig. 12D). The amount of root casts usu ally in creases up ward within a rhi- zolitelayer and con se quently its top most part con tains a com plexnet work of filiform voids. Root pen e tra tion never ex ceeds15 cm depth. The rhizolites may con tain sin gle centi -metre-sized lenses of sulphates (Fig. 12E, F). In turn, themudstones are green and lam i nated. They form centi -metre-thick lay ers, cap ping ir reg u lar, subaerially weath ered sur faces. In thin sec tions, one can ob serve rounded quartzgrains and mus co vite plate lets, scat tered in car bon ate mud(Fig. 12G, H).

The lay ers of cryptalgal laminites, dolocretes, rhizolites and mudstones are hor i zon tally dis con tin u ous on a lo calscale (within one out crop) and all these lithofacies can passlat er ally into each other. They form decimetre- to metre-thick pack ages, which pinch out lat er ally on a re gional scale (tens of kilo metres), but in places on a lo cal scale, as well.The lat eral per sis tence of lithofacies and the high-fre quency cyclicity will be dis cussed in a sep a rate pa per.

The pack ages of cryptalgal laminites, dolocretes, rhizolites and mudstones are in ter ca lated with decimetre- to me-tre-thick pack ages of bioturbated dolosiltites and/or pelo-lites (Fig. 3). The bioturbated dolosiltites are yel low-or -ange-grey cav ern ous, unfossiliferous rocks with ir reg u larspots, al though some bedsets in clude Thalassinoides isp.,in stead of ir reg u lar spots (Fig. 13A, B). Un der the mi cro -scope, one can some times rec og nize micrite and microspar,but usu ally the microfabric is epigenetically dolomitized.On the other hand, the pelolites are yel low-or ange-grey do-losiltites and fine- to me dium-grained dolarenites, grainsto-nes-packstones, which usu ally dis play me dium- to coarse-crys tal line microtexture (Fig. 13C). Lo cally, flat and well-rounded lithoclasts of cryptalgal laminites are em bed ded,es pe cially at the con tacts with the un der ly ing laminites.Green al gae are most com mon amongst the scarce skel e talfos sils (Fig. 13D). The pelolites show var i ous, al beit rare,sed i men tary struc tures: pla nar bed ding, low- and high-an -gle cross-bed ding, trough cross-bed ding as well as dunes0.5–1.5 m long and 5–10 cm high (Figs 2, 13E). Sed i men -tary struc tures are in places dis turbed by bur rows Thalassi-noides.

Lat eral vari abil ityAs de scribed above, Unit 3 is made up of pack ages of

cryptalgal laminites, dolocretes, rhizolites and mudstones,al ter nat ing with pack ages of pelolites and bioturbated dolo-siltites. The thick ness of the for mer pack ages usu ally doesnot ex ceed 1 m in most sec tions. It reaches only 20 cm in Li- bi¹¿ and Jaroszowiec, and 1–3 m at Nowa Wioska (Fig. 2).

Furthemore, at Nowa Wioska, these pack ages are oc ca sion -ally cut by tidal chan nels, reach ing 20 m in width and 3 m in depth. The pelolites, fill ing the chan nels, accreted trans -versely with re spect to the main di rec tion of tidal-chan nelprop a ga tion and some times con tain an gu lar lithoclasts ofdolosiltites, dolocretes and De vo nian dolostones (Fig. 13G).

The pelolites at Libi¹¿ com prise abun dant flat and rounded lithoclasts, aligned more-or-less par al lel to the bed dingplanes (Fig. 13F). The lithoclasts are com posed of mi cro-spar, and con tain rare forams. This kind of de posit has notbeen found in situ at Libi¹¿, so the lithoclasts must havebeen trans ported from out side.

The thick ness of Unit 3, reach ing 10–14 m in most sec -tions, is re duced to 5–7 m at D¹browa Górnicza, Bukownoand Jaroszowiec (Fig. 2). These three sec tions were sit u ated close to two De vo nian is lands and ex pe ri enced a sim i larevo lu tion, con trolled by lo cal sub si dence. Unit 3 pinchesout to the west and is to tally ab sent at Tarnowskie Góry.

In ter pre ta tionThe dolocretes and mudstones are in ter preted as having

formed in the supratidal zone, on emerged banks and peri-pheral plains of tidal flats. Dolocretes are a widely ac ceptedin di ca tor of semi-arid and arid con di tions (Esteban andKlappa, 1983). However, the scar city of evaporites seems to ex clude in tense evap o ra tion in this case. The rhizolites alsocould have been formed in per ma nently emerged ar eas, butthey may rep re sent intertidal salt marshes, as well (Shinn etal., 1969). Only small plants grew in these ar eas, as in di -cated by the small size of the root casts. This may be due toa rel a tively arid cli mate and/or sub strate in sta bil ity (e.g.,due to the ac tiv ity of tidal currents).

The cryptalgal laminites formed in the intertidal zone of tidal flats, as a con se quence of the trap ping of car bon atemud by mi cro bial mats (Ginsburg, 1960; Fischer, 1964;Kend all and Skipwith, 1968; Shinn et al., 1969; Hardie,1977; Kins man and Park, 1976; Shinn, 1983; Alsharhan and Kend all, 2003; Rankey and Berke ley, 2012). The mud wasap par ently de pos ited from sus pen sion in a rel a tively calmen vi ron ment, as ev i denced by the straight lami na tions. Lack of bioclasts and coarse sed i ment may re flect a larger dis -tance to the subtidal zones and/or lim ited storm-gen er atedtrans port (e.g., Pratt and James, 1986). How ever, the areawas not com pletely sep a rated from high-en ergy pro cesses.Tidal cur rents were most likely re spon si ble for trun ca tion of the laminite lay ers and for pro duc ing intraclasts. Lo cally,in tense re work ing re sulted in decimetre-thick brec cias andcon glom er ates (e.g., at Nowa Wioska). The non-po rous fab -ric of the cryptalgal laminites in di cates that the de posit wasreg u larly flooded, with out pro longed des ic ca tion; oth er wise this fa cies would com prise abun dant mudcracks, sheetcracks or fenestral pores (e.g., Fischer, 1964; Shinn, 1968),which is not the case. The gas tro pods, found within lamini-tes, are in ter preted as in situ accumulations of mat-grazingorganisms.

The bioturbated dolostones are in ter preted as shal lowsubtidal sed i ments, de pos ited in ar eas pro tected from vig or -ous tidal cur rents. The thinner units of bioturbated dolosto-nes might have been formed in ephem eral tidal ponds (e.g.,Shinn et al., 1969; Rankey and Berke ley, 2012), whereas


98 M. MATYSIK

the thicker ones were more likely to have been de pos ited inla goons and embayments (e.g., Kend all and Skipwith,1969; Purser and Ev ans, 1973; Alsharhan and Kend all,2003). The ab sence of skel e tal fos sils in di cates re strictedlife con di tions with prob a bly el e vated sa lin ity, how ever, al -low ing per va sive bioturbation. Thalassinoides isp. in di cates good ox y gen a tion of the de posit (e.g., Rhoads, 1975; Sav-rda and Bottjer, 1986; Savrda, 2007).

The pelolites are in ter preted as rep re senting the shal low subtidal zone, as well. Some of the peloids were trans portedinto high-en ergy con di tions (bars or shoals), as in di cated by oc ca sional cur rent cross-bed ding. However, most of the pe-loids were ac cu mu lated in rel a tively tran quil, al beit gen er -ally mud-free ar eas. The overall pau city of skel e tal fos silsagain seems to reflect elevated salinity.

The cy clic al ter na tion of su pra-intertidal fa cies andshal low subtidal fa cies proves that Unit 3 rep re sents a tidalflat sys tem, which pe ri od i cally ex pe ri enced lon ger pe ri odsof sub mer sion. The fre quency of these changes var ied be -tween the sites (de pend ing on the rel a tive dis tance to theopen sea in the west and differring sub si dence rates), in di -cated by re gion ally vari able thick nesses of the lithofaciespack ages (Fig. 2). The sur round ings of Nowa Wioska ap -par ently were oc cu pied by tidal flats for a rel a tively longtime, be cause here the pack ages of su pra-intertidal fa ciescom monly reach 1–3 m in thick ness. In con trast, the otherar eas un der went geomorphic changes more fre quently, re -corded as thin ner and more fre quent in ter ca la tions of dif fer -ent peritidal fa cies. All tidal flats showed a dis tinct mor pho -log i cal dif fer en ti a tion and en com passed co-ex ist ing cyano-bac te rial mat flats, salt marshes and emerged ar eas, as ev i -denced by su pra- and intertidal lithofacies pass ing lat er allyinto one an other. Lo cally, the tidal flats were cut by tidalchan nels. Car bon ate mud was de pos ited in pro tected, shal -low subtidal ar eas (ephem eral tidal ponds, and la goons orembayments of longer existence), whereas peloidal sandscharacterized high-energy settings (bars or banks).

By anal ogy to many Phanerozoic suc ces sions (e.g., Fi-scher, 1964; Pratt and James, 1986; Ad ams and Grotzinger,1996; Bádenas et al., 2010) and mod ern sed i men tary analo-gues (e.g., Illing et al., 1965; McKenzie, 1981; Shinn, 1983),the su pra- and intertidal fa cies of Unit 3 are in ter preted asearly diagenetic dolostone, which sub se quently un der wentepigenetic dolomitization. The subtidal fa cies might havebeen a lime stone; how ever, it is more likely that they weredolomitized in their early diagenetic his tory by con ti nen talground wa ter or hypersaline sea wa ter, per co lat ing down wardfrom prograding su pra- and intertidal ar eas (War ren, 2000).

Unit 4

Unit 4 ap prox i mately cor re sponds to the “mid dle com -plex” of the Diplopora Beds sensu Myszkowska (1992; Figs 2, 3).

De scrip tionIn many sec tions, the up per limit of epigenetic dolomi-

tization oc curs within Unit 4 and there fore its lower part ischar ac ter ized by or ange colours and crys tal line microtex-ture, whereas the up per part has yel low colours and preser-ved the orig i nal microtexture much better (al though al teredby early diagenesis). Not with stand ing these dif fer ences,Unit 4 is pre dom i nantly com posed of me dium- to thickly-bed ded (10–100 cm) pelolites, grainstones-packstones(Fig. 2). These are fine- to coarse-grained dolarenites andspo rad i cally dolosiltites, some of which con tain disarticu-lated cri noids, bi valves, gas tro pods and green al gae (Fig.14A–C). Peloids are mostly well rounded and mod er atelysorted. The pelolite beds hardly ever dis play in ter nal cross-bed ding (trough cross-bed ding, her ring bone cross-bed ding,pla nar bed ding). However, the tops may be shaped in theform of sym met ri cal rip ples (10–20 cm long and 3–5 cmhigh) or dunes (0.4–1.5 m long and 5–10 cm high; Fig. 14D, E). The crestlines of rip ples and dunes run gen er ally NE–SW (Fig. 2). Lo cally, the pelolites com prise a well-de vel -oped net work of bur rows Balanoglossites or Thalassinoi-des, which may com pletely al ter the sed i men tary fab rics(Fig. 14F, G). Decimetre- to metre-thick pack ages of pelo-lites are in ter ca lated with bioturbated dolosiltites, which of -ten con tain cav ern ous vugs and the ichnofacies mentionedabove.

Lat eral vari abil ityUnit 4 is rel a tively uni form on a re gional scale. It has a

thick ness of 9–12 m, ex cept at Pogorzyce, where it reaches15 m (Fig. 2). The bioturbated dolosiltites, con sti tut ing sub -or di nate in ter ca la tions of thick pelolitic pack ages in mostsec tions, form units 1.5–2.5 m thick at D¹browa Górniczaand Bukowno.

Up per bound aryUnit 4 is over lain by an oncolitic pack age 5–10 m thick

and re garded as a cor re la tion ho ri zon across the en tire Kra-ków-Silesia re gion (Alexandrowicz, 1971; Bilan and Go-lonka, 1972). At Nowa Wioska and Libi¹¿, how ever, Diplo- pora (green al gal) grainstones oc cur in stead of oncolites(Fig. 2).


Fig. 11. Main lithological fea tures of Unit 3. A. Gen eral view of subaerially ex posed up per shoreface-fore shore fa cies of Unit 2,onlapped by peritidal fa cies of Unit 3. The dis ap pear ance of the inter- and supratidal fa cies in the suc ces sion marks the lower bound ary ofUnit 4. Nowa Wioska – “GZD” Quarry. B. Gen eral view of the peritidal fa cies cap ping the sub tle plat form to pog ra phy. Nowa Wioska –“GZD” Quarry. C–F. Intertidal fa cies of Unit 3. C. Ver ti cally ori ented slab of re worked cryptalgal laminite (up per part) cap ping laminitein place. Nowa Wioska – “GZD” Quarry. D. Pho to mi cro graph of cryptalgal laminite: darker mi cro bial laminae al ter nate with more trans -par ent de tri tal ones. Bolêcin – “Ska³a Bolêcka” Quarry. E. Ver ti cal out crop view of imbricated intraclasts (white ar row) within cryptalgallaminite. “Libi¹¿” Quarry. F. Bed ding plane view of mudcracks de vel oped within cryptalgal laminite. Ham mer for scale is 30 cm long.Pogorzyce – “¯elatowa” Quarry.

100 M. MATYSIK

In ter pre ta tionThe over all pre dom i nance of pelolites over fine-grained

sed i ments in di cates that sed i men ta tion took place in a shal -low-ma rine en vi ron ment, in which the en ergy was highenough to win now cal car e ous mud to more qui es cent zonesof the ba sin and pro duce grain-sup ported tex tures. Be causecur rent cross-bed ding is un com mon in these de pos its, waveac tion is con sid ered to have been the prin ci pal fac tor in -volved in re mov ing the mud. Rel a tively abun dant sym met -ri cal rip ples and dunes cor rob o rate this in ter pre ta tion. It islikely, there fore, that the area was pro tected from the in flu -ence of strong cur rents, but was sub jected to wave ac tiv ity.Com mon green al gae con firm the trans par ency of the wa tercol umn and at least pe ri odic sta bil ity of the sub strate. Thecri noids in di cate nor mal marine conditions.

Al though peloidal sed i men ta tion dom i nated in the Kra-ków-Silesia re gion, mud sed i men ta tion was lo cally of greatim por tance (at Bukowno and D¹browa Górnicza). Thecompletely bioturbated na ture of these muds and the occu-rence of Thalassinoides isp. in di cates good ox y gen a tion ofthe de pos its (e.g., Rhoads, 1975; Savrda and Bottjer, 1986;Savrda, 2007).

The up per part of Unit 4, not af fected by the epigeneticdolomitization, is char ac ter ized by a rel a tively sta ble MgOcon tent (19–21%), as com pared to the typ i cal “ore-bear ingdolomites” (Œliwiñski, 1966b). A sim i lar sta bil ity of MgOcon tent is also char ac ter is tic of the Röt dolostones and theMid dle Muschelkalk dolostones, widely re garded as earlydiage netic dolomites (e.g., Œliwiñski, 1966b). Unit 4 isthere fore in ter preted to have been a lime stone which firstlyun der went the early diagenetic dolomitization, and then itslower part was re placed by the epigenetic do lo mite. Themost prob a ble mech a nism of the early dolomitization wasthe re flux of Mg-rich brines from the shal lower parts of theplat form (War ren, 2000).

LONG-TERM EVO LU TIONOF THE KRAKÓW-SILESIA SUB-BA SIN

The long-term fa cies suc ces sion of the Kraków-SilesiaSub-ba sin re flects third-or der transgressive-re gres sive pul-ses, which strongly con trolled both depth (en ergy re gime)and siliciclastic in put (Szulc, 2000). The top most part of theGogolin For ma tion, com posed mainly of the wavy-nod u lar,clay-rich Rhizocorallium-bear ing calcilutites, rep re sentssed i men ta tion in fully ma rine con di tions, un der a sig nif i -cant in flux of terrigenous ma te rial and at depths be low thestorm wave-base (off shore). Spo radic in ter ca la tions of bio-clastic wackestones-packstones and hummocky cross-strat i -

fied calcisiltites re sulted from se vere storms, rather thanhigh-fre quency sea-level fluc tu a tions (Matysik, 2012).

The dis ap pear ance of these strata in di cates ma jor chan-ges in sed i men ta tion style within the Kraków-Silesia Sub-ba sin. First of all, the Sub-ba sin be came iso lated from terri-genous in flux, as shown by the to tal ab sence of siliciclastics within Unit 1. This im plies that the broad ar eas of the neigh -bour ing Ma³opolska Mas sif be came flooded. The ces sa tionof terrigenous in put was not syn chro nous, but mi grated dia-chronously from the SW to NE: the wavy-nod u lar, clay-rich lime stones dis ap pear first in the west ern- and south ern mostsec tions (Tarnowskie Góry and Imielin, re spec tively), andonly later in the east ern sec tions (D¹browa Górnicza, Bu-kowno; Fig. 2). Sec ondly, the gen eral sed i men ta tion char ac -ter changed from rel a tively con stant to highly ep i sodic,since the uni form wavy-nod u lar Rhizocorallium-bear inglime stones were re placed by Balanoglossites and Thalassi-noides firmgrounds. In ad di tion, the bioclast-dom i natedtempestites were to tally re placed by peloid-dom i nated ones, con tain ing only sub or di nate amount of skel e tal fos sils. Thischange sug gests mas sive re dis tri bu tion of peloids from thead ja cent shal low-wa ter sources, which might have beencaused by a sig nif i cant ex pan sion of “car bon ate fac to ries”,prob a bly due to the wide spread flood ing of land ar eas. Onthe ba sis of these con sid er ations, the bound ary be tween theGogolin For ma tion and Olkusz Beds is re garded herein asthe Max i mum Flood ing Sur face (MFS).

The Olkusz Beds, over ly ing the MFS, dis plays a shoal -ing-up ward trend, the tran si tion from lower shoreface fa cies (Unit 1) via up per shoreface-fore shore fa cies (Unit 2) to thefi nal emersion. Such a re gres sive trend is typ i cal of high-stand system tracts (e.g., Catuneanu et al., 2010). Unit 1 it -self also shows a shallowing-up ward ten dency, ex pressedby the in creas ing thick ness and abun dance of pelolitic in ter -ca la tions within the firmground suc ces sion. Some ar eas,such as the Imielin site, al ready rose above the nor mal wavebase dur ing this time, ev i denced by 2 m thick pelolitic pack -ages that ex hibit var i ous high-en ergy sed i men tary structu-res in clud ing her ring bone cross-bed ding. As a re sult of thepro gres sive fill ing of the sub-ba sin (and pos si ble a third-or -der eustatic sea-level drop), the whole Kraków-Silesia re -gion fi nally rose up to and above the nor mal wave base andcon se quently sed i men ta tion of high-en ergy peloidal-ooidalsands (Unit 2) com menced. The ma jor un known is howmany peloids had been ooids, prior to the epigenetic dolo-mitization. On the ba sis of mi cro scopic ob ser va tions of thesil ica nod ules, some pelolites clearly con tain abun dantooids and should be clas si fied there fore as oo lites (Fig. 8E).In ad di tion, the pelolites that dis play only par tially oblit er -ated microtexture are com posed of well rounded, well


Fig. 12. Supratidal fa cies of Unit 3. A. Bed ding plane view of dolocrete crust. D¹browa Górnicza – “Z¹bkowice” Quarry. B. Ver ti callyori ented slab of nod u lar dolocrete. “Libi¹¿” Quarry. C. Ver ti cally ori ented slab of structureless dolocrete, con tain ing automicritic peloidsand lithoclasts (white ar rows). “Libi¹¿” Quarry. D. Ver ti cally ori ented slab of a rhizolite with small ver ti cal root casts. “Libi¹¿” Quarry. E.Ver ti cally ori ented slab of nod u lar evaporite occuring within a rhizolite layer. Nowa Wioska – “GZD” Quarry. F. Pho to mi cro graph of E,show ing sul phate crys tals. G. Ver ti cal out crop view of two green ish mudstone lay ers, sep a rat ing whit ish fine-grained pelolites. NowaWioska – “GZD” Quarry. H. Pho to mi cro graph of G, il lus trat ing quartz grains (white ar row) scat tered in car bon ate ma trix

102 M. MATYSIK

sorted peloids (Fig. 8D), which re sem ble the Recent ooidsform ing in the tidal del tas and banks of the Ba ha mas (Ran-key et al., 2006; Reeder and Rankey, 2009; Rankey andReeder, 2010, 2011). It is pos si ble that most of the pelolitesdis cussed were orig i nally oo lites. If this were to be the case,the wa ters of the Kraków-Silesian Sub-ba sin must havebeen oversaturated with re spect to car bon ate and stronglyag i tated (e.g., due to the daily ac tiv ity of tidal cur rents) topro duce ooids (Rankey and Reeder, 2009; Duguid et al.,2010). Such an in ter pre ta tion is fur ther cor rob o rated by thepres ence of her ring bone cross-bed ding, indicative of tidallyinfluenced settings.

Sed i men ta tion of the Olkusz Beds was ter mi nated bythe emersion event. Its im print on the un der ly ing strata can -not be re stored in de tail be cause of the per va sive epigeneticdolomitization. Nev er the less, ex po sure to a me te oric-diagenetic en vi ron ment cer tainly led to the leach ing of aragoniticor high-Mg calcitic grains (peloids, ooids and bioclasts ex -cept for cri noids), as ev i denced by the ubiq ui tous moldicpo ros ity (Fig. 5D). It is noreworthy that the moldic pores(clearly vis i ble both macro- and mi cro scop i cally) are pre -served only in the undolomitized de pos its of the OlkuszBeds. This proves that the dolomitization pro cess was re -spon si ble for the infilling of the pores by ce ment. The poresgen er ally dis ap pear near the lower bound ary of the OlkuszBeds, in di cat ing ex po sure of the en tire for ma tion and asea-level drop of about 20–25 m. How ever, the pos si bil ityof a larger-scale re gres sion can not be ex cluded, and the lack of the di ag nos tic moldic pores within the un der ly ingGogolin For ma tion may have arisen from its dif fer ent li -thol ogy (wavy-nod u lar clay-rich calcilutites and oc ca sionalbioclastic tempestites), which was much less sus cep ti ble tome te oric dis so lu tion. The emersion event dis cussed was ap -par ently too short to pro duce an ex treme karstic to pog ra phyor even small-scale karst fea tures. In ad di tion, lim ited an -nual pre cip i ta tion typ i cal of sub trop i cal lat i tudes did not fa -vour in tense karstification (James and Choquette, 1988;Wright and Smart, 1994). Only at Nowa Wioska, peritidalfa cies trans gressed onto a sys tem of low-re lief (1–3 m highand up to hun dreds of metres across) morphologic de pres -sions and el e va tions (Fig. 11A, B). No lag de pos its, con -taining frag ments of re worked base ment, have been found,which ar gues against the com plete ero sion of the hy po thet i -cal, pre-ex ist ing karstified sed i ments.

The re gional disconformity, mark ing the se quencebound ary, is capped by peritidal fa cies (Unit 3 of the Diplo-pora Beds), which rep re sent a tidal flat–la goonal sys tem es -tab lished dur ing the ini tial phase of trans gres sion (Figs 10B,

11A, B). This sys tem in cluded a belt of channelized su pra-tidal plains and banks, cyano-bac te rial mat flats, salt mar-shes and pos si bly tidal ponds, which was flanked seawards(west wards) by a belt of low-en ergy mud-dom i nated la -goons and embayments, sep a rated from each other and shel -tered from the open sea by high-en ergy peloidal bars andshoals. As a re sult of high-fre quency changes in ac com mo -da tion space (what ever its or i gin), both belts mi grated lat er -ally and con se quently en croached upon one an other. Thispro duced metre-scale cyclicity, clearly ob serv able in ver ti -cal pro files (Figs 2, 11A). De spite the sim i lar i ties, each lo -cal ity dis played some sedimentological dif fer ences, for ex -am ple, con trasts in thick nesses of the su pra-intertidal andsubtidal pack ages (Fig. 2), or the oc cur rence of ad di tionallithofacies or grain types (Fig. 13F). The overall lack ofevaporites in the sys tem may re flect rel a tively hu mid cli -mates, re sulting from a mon soonal in flu ence (e.g., Parrishand Pe ter son, 1988; Kutzbach and Gallimore, 1989; Vander Zwaan and Spaak, 1992; Parrish, 1993), or the prox im -ity of the Tethys Ocean. Nev er the less, the com mon de vel -op ment of dolocrete crusts implies at least temporary semi-arid conditions (Esteban and Klappa, 1983).

As a con se quence of the pro gres sive trans gres sion, thetidal flat sys tem be came ul ti mately sub merged and the Sub-ba sin en tered into a shal low subtidal zone, dom i nated by the ac cu mu la tion of peloidal sands (Unit 4). The high-en ergyre gime of this time con trolled the over all pau city of car bon -ate mud. Ap par ently, the mud was re moved to the basinalar eas by wave ac tion, as in di cated by the gen eral ab sence ofcur rent cross-bed ding. The trans par ent wa ters and pe ri od i -cally sta ble sub strate en hanced mas sive growth of frag ilegreen al gae re quir ing light.

The pe riod of max i mum flood ing in the third-or dertransgressive-re gres sive pulse dis cussed seems to be ex-pressed in the de po si tion of oncoidal and green al gal sands,widely dis trib uted across the Kraków-Silesia Sub-ba sin (Bi- lan and Golonka, 1972; Alexandrowicz, 1971; Myszkow-ska, 1992; this study). These strata are capped by about 25m of peritidal fa cies (Fig. 3), which cor re spond to the “up -per com plex” of Myszkowska (1992).

Im por tant in for ma tion re gard ing the palaeo ge ogra phyand evo lu tion of the Kraków-Silesian Sub-ba sin was ob -tained from the anal y sis of the sed i men tary struc tures. In -spec tion of the cir cu lar his to grams re vealed that for mostsec tions the az i muth pat tern is bi po lar, with both modesmore-or-less equally rep re sented, which in di cates a tidaland/or wave or i gin (Fig. 15). Fur ther more, in the sec tionslo cated out side the ar chi pel ago of the De vo nian is lands, the


Fig. 13. Subtidal fa cies of Unit 3. A. Ver ti cal out crop view of spot ted cav ern ous dolostone. Note that cav ern ous vugs are chiefly de vel -oped within dark grey ir reg u lar spots. Nowa Wioska – “GZD” Quarry. B. Ver ti cal out crop view of Thalassinoides-bear ing dolosiltite.Nowa Wioska – “GZD” Quarry. C. Pho to mi cro graph of pelolite, show ing dolomitized microtexture of peloidal packstone. De spite crys tal growth, par tic u lar peloids are still vis i ble. Pogorzyce – “¯elatowa” Quarry. D. Ver ti cal out crop view of al gal de bris. White ar rows point at well pre served tubes of green al gae. “Libi¹¿” Quarry. E. Ver ti cal out crop view of trough cross-bed ded, coarse-grained pelolite. NowaWioska – “GZD” Quarry. F. Ver ti cally ori ented slab of fine-grained pelolite, con tain ing flat and rounded microsparite intraclasts (blackar rows) and pelolitic intraclasts (white ar row). “Libi¹¿” Quarry. G. Ver ti cal out crop view of tidal chan nel, filled by peloidal sands andcut ting var i ous peritidal fa cies. Nowa Wioska – “TRIBAG” Quarry

104 M. MATYSIK

sed i ment was clearly trans ported in a NW–SE di rec tion,which seems to re flect the re gional palaeocurrent pat tern,con trolled by the ori en ta tion of the palaeoshoreline. In thesec tions sit u ated within the ar chi pel ago, in turn, the lo cal di -rec tions of sed i ment trans port di verge from the an tic i patedgen eral one and tend to fol low the ge om e try and ori en ta tionof the ad ja cent De vo nian is lands. It is also note wor thy thatthe ma jor ity of rip ples and dunes over the en tire area dis play dif fer ent types of cross-bed ding, re sult ing from uni di rec -tional cur rent flow, but they have a sym met ri cal shape, cre -ated by the os cil la tory mo tion of bot tom wa ters. This sug -gests that the sed i men tary struc tures, formed in the ini tialstage as a re sponse to cur rent flow, were commonly remo-delled in the final stage by waves.

RE MARKS ON THE EPIGENETICDOLOMITIZATION PRO CESS IN THEKRAKÓW-SILESIA ORE PROV INCE

From com par i sons of the undolomitized and “early do-lomitic” lithologies with their epigenetically dolomitizedcoun ter parts (es pe cially in Unit 1), it may be con cluded thatthe mi grat ing dolomitizing flu ids caused three main chan-ges in the orig i nal rock fab ric: colour change, re place mentby grow ing do lo mite crys tals, and the cre ation of po ros ity.On a re gional scale, the de gree of al ter ation de pended on the dis tance to the main zones of fluid flow, the fault zones(Bogacz et al., 1970; Ga³kiewicz, 1971; Kibitlewski andGórecka, 1988; Górecka, 1993; Kibitlewski, 1993). On a lo -cal scale, it de pended on the depositional fa cies of par tic u lar lithologies, which in turn strongly con trolled their po ros ityand per me abil ity. In other words, in the same area, the pro -cess of epigenetic dolomitization mod i fied dif fer ent lithologies in dif fer ent ways. With re spect to the in ten sity and typeof change, the lithologies de scribed may be grouped intothree gen eral cat e go ries: 1) cryptalgal laminites and emer-sion-re lated de pos its; 2) coarse-grained de pos its (mostlypelolites); and 3) bioturbated fine-grained deposits (mostlyfirmgrounds).

The cryptalgal laminites and emersion-re lated de pos itsThe cryptalgal laminites and emersion-re lated de pos its,

char ac ter is tic of Unit 3 and in ter preted as early diageneticdolomites prior to burial diagenesis, were af fected by theepige netic changes only lo cally and to a mi nor ex tent. Inmost sec tions, the orig i nal light colours (yel low, beige, or -ange, grey and green) are pre served, the fine tex ture is not

dolomitized at all, and only spo radic and scat tered smallvugs are pres ent. In sec tions sit u ated close to the ma jorfaults (e.g., at Libi¹¿), the cryptalgal laminites have oran-geish colours and in dis tinct biolamination; how ever, theyare still less al tered than the other de pos its at the same lo ca -tion. The over all lack of al ter ation in di cates that the strati -graphic ho ri zons, com posed of the cryptalgal laminites andemersion-re lated de pos its, were not used as ma jor routes ofbed-par al lel mi gra tion by the flu ids caus ing burial dolomitization.

The coarse-grained de pos itsThe coarse-grained de pos its are epigenetically dolomi-

tized in most sec tions. The orig i nal white-grey peloliticlimestones with ubiquituous moldic po ros ity and fre quentskel e tal fos sils (Unit 1 and Unit 2), and yel low-or ange-greypelolitic ?early diagenetic dolostones with scarce fos sils(Unit 3 and Unit 4) were al tered into beige-or ange-red-brown epigenetic dolomites, dis play ing me dium- to coarse-crys tal line microtexture and con tain ing steinkerns of mol -lusks as well as oc ca sional cav ern ous vugs, up to 50 cmacross.

Among the sev eral types of change, dolomitization isthe most ob vi ous. In the ma jor ity of cases, it is not man i -fested mac ro scop i cally and ac cord ingly sed i men tary struc -tures or in di vid ual grains can be eas ily dis tin guished. In -stead, the pro cess is vis i ble un der the mi cro scope as a ho -mog e nous mass of do lo mite crys tals (Fig. 5C). In rare cases, where dolomitization was not very ad vanced, the do lo mitecrys tals re placed ex clu sively peloids, with out af fect ing thece ments and interparticle pores (Fig. 8D). This clearlyshows that the de vel op ment of a crys tal line microtexturestarted in side the grains, whereas the ce ments or interpar-ticle pores were in volved only at the end. Ac cord ing toHeijlen et al. (2003), the dolomitization pro cess oc curred intwo sep a rate stages: 1) the pre cip i ta tion of iron-poor do lo -mite crys tals (do lo mite gen er a tion I); and 2) the crys tal li za -tion of iron-rich do lo mite rims (do lo mite gen er a tion II)around the do lo mite crys tals of gen er a tion I. The pres enceof iron-rich do lo mite rims also ex plains the typ i cal coloursof the ore-bearing dolomite.

Al though do lo mite ce ments fill many moldic pores,many of the biomolds re mained open (Fig. 8B, C) and someof them were even en larged dur ing the dolomitization pro -cess to form larger vugs (Fig. 16A). The or i gin of the large(50 cm across) cav ern ous vugs is prob lem atic. They oc curspo rad i cally and with out any par tic u lar pat tern of dis tri bu -tion (Fig. 8F).


Fig. 14. Main lithological fea tures of Unit 4. A. Bed ding plane view of coarse-grained peloidal packstone with sparse cri noid os si cles(white ar row). Pogorzyce – “¯elatowa” Quarry. B. Pho to mi cro graph of A, show ing well rounded and poorly sorted peloids. Note the be -gin ning dolomitization of the tex ture. C. Bed ding plane view of fine-grained peloidal packstone, con tain ing fre quent green al gae (whitear rows) and rare gas tro pods (black ar rows). Nowa Wioska – “GZD” Quarry. D. Bed ding plane view of sym met ri cal rip ples. D¹browaGórnicza – “Z¹bkowice” Quarry. E. Ver ti cal out crop view of me dium-grained peloidal packstone, dis play ing her ring bone cross-bed ding.White ar rows in di cate di rec tion of sed i ment trans port. Pogorzyce – “¯elatowa” Quarry. F. Pol ished slab along bed ding plane (bp) andcross-sec tion (cs), il lus trat ing dense net work of the trace fossil Balanoglossites in three-di men sional view. “Libi¹¿” Quarry. G. Ver ti callyori ented slab of pla nar-bed ded fine-grained peloidal packstone con tain ing Balanoglossites. Note that bur rows form sev eral well-de vel -oped ho ri zons (black ar rows), which are con nected and cut by spo radic ver ti cal ca nals. “Libi¹¿” Quarry.

The bioturbated fine-grained de pos itsThe bioturbated fine-grained de pos its are dolomitized

in most sec tions and oc cur as or ange-red-brown cav ern ousdolosiltites with ir reg u lar spots, ex hib it ing a fine-crys tal line microtexture. These dolomites re placed the orig i nal darkgrey lam i nated unfossiliferous calcilutites with com monburrows Balanoglossites and Thalassinoides, infilled withyel low de tri tal sed i ment and blocky cal cite (Unit 1), andyel low-grey unfossiliferous, ?early diagenetic dololutites,lo cally con tain ing Thalassinoides isp. (be long ing to Unit 3and Unit 4). Some lay ers are only par tially al tered, i.e. thecoarse-grained in fill ing of the bur rows was re placed and re-coloured with out chang ing the sur round ing dark grey finesed i ment (Fig. 4F). This phe nom e non shows that the dolo-mitizing flu ids ini tially mi grated lat er ally via the com plexnet work of bur rows, from which they could have spread outto penetrate the surrounding fine deposit.

Apart from the ob vi ous colour change and dolomitiza-tion, vis i ble both macro- and mi cro scop i cally (Fig. 16B, C),two other types of al ter ation are con spic u ous, when theundolomitized bioturbated fine-grained de pos its are com -pared with the epigenetically dolomitized ones. Firstly, thenet work of more-or-less reg u lar bur rows was re placed by

ir reg u larly spot ted macrofabric (Figs 4B, C, 5A, 13A). Thischange pre sum ably re sulted from a se lec tive dolomitizationof bioturbated muddy de posit. To pre vent the col lapse of the bur rows, ichnofauna im preg nated their walls us ing or ganicmu cus, which changed the chem is try of the muddy de positaround each bur row and re sulted in the for ma tion of dis tinct diagenetic ha loes (Fig. 4F; Myrow, 1995; Bertling, 1999).The hy dro ther mal flu ids, pen e trat ing such a sub strate longaf ter lithification and re acted in a dif fer ent way with its bio -chem i cally al tered parts, caus ing a se lec tive colour changeand the de vel op ment of the ir reg u lar spots. The sec ondchange is that the orig i nal non-po rous fab ric was re placedby vugs of dif fer ent sizes. This change might have re sultedfrom the dis so lu tion of the blocky cal cite and coarse-grained sed i ment, fill ing the bur rows (Figs 4C, 16D). Thedis so lu tion pro cess might have been al ready ini ti ated dur ing the emersion of the Olkusz Beds. However, ac cord ing toMochnacka and Sass-Gustkiewicz (1981), the bulk of dis -so lu tion was strictly as so ci ated with the epigenetic dolomi-tization. How ever, there are re ports from other ar eas, wherelarge vugs were cre ated dur ing the dolomitization pro cessit self with out any in di ca tion of dis so lu tion (Lapponi et al.,2014, with further references).

106 M. MATYSIK

Fig. 15. Az i muths of sed i ment trans port plot ted in cir cu lar his to grams. The model rose di a gram is given at the bot tom right of the fig ure.Az i muth mea sure ments for each sec tion are de picted in Fig. 2. Note that the NW–SE di rec tion of sed i ment trans port predom i nates in mostout crops, but was mod i fied to roughly N–S and E–W di rec tions by the elon gated, NE–SW-strik ing De vo nian horst, which di vides the“GZD” Quarry in Nowa Wioska (and the Tri as sic car bon ates) into two parts

CON CLU SIONS

1. The name “ore-bear ing do lo mite” is a min ing termwhich should no lon ger be used as a for mal lithostratigra-phic term, be cause epigenetic dolomitization af fected var i -ous lithostratigraphic units of the Mid dle Tri as sic suc ces -sion in south ern Po land, and these units can be eas ily rec og -nized from lithological cri te ria, as dem on strated in thisstudy. These units rep re sent con sec u tive evo lu tion aryphases of the Kraków-Silesia Sub-ba sin (ba si cally the tran -si tion from a re gres sive state, through emersion to atransgressive state). As an in for mal term “ore bear ing do lo -mite”, if used, should be put in in verted commas.

2. The low er most Unit 1 is made up of Balanoglossi-tes and Thalassinoides micritic firmgrounds, in ter ca latedmainly with tempestitic pelolites, which were formed on thelower shoreface. The over ly ing Unit 2 is dom i nated bycross-strat i fied pelolites with an un known amount of nowrecrystallized ooids, rep re sent ing the up per shoreface andfore shore. Sub se quent emersion ter mi nated sed i men ta tionin the re gion. Unit 3, cap ping the re gional disconformity,con sists of sev eral metre-scale peritidal cy cles that are com -posed of supratidal dolocretes, rhizolites and mudstones,intertidal cryptalgal laminites, and subtidal pelolites andbioturbated fine-grained dolostones. These lithofacies rep -re sent a tidal flat-la goon sys tem. The dis ap pear ance of su -


Fig. 16. Mod i fi ca tion of orig i nal rock tex tures by epigenetic dolomitization. A. Ver ti cal out crop view of cav ern ous fab ric, de vel oped inpelolite. Note that some cav ern ous vugs still have the shape of bi valves (black ar row) and gas tro pods (white ar row). Unit 2, Nowa Wioska– “GZD” Quarry. B. Ver ti cal out crop view of lime stone-dolostone bound ary. Note dis tinct colour al ter ation and coars en ing of pri marymicritic de posit. Unit 1, Pogorzyce – “¯elatowa” Quarry. C. Ver ti cal out crop view of the grad ual tran si tion from the pri mary greycalcilutite and hummocky cross-strat i fied calcisiltite to sec ond ary orangeish coloured dolosiltite. Unit 1, Pogorzyce – “¯elatowa” Quarry.D. Ver ti cal out crop view of dolomitized ?Thalassinoides-bear ing firmground with par tially dis solved coarse-grained infills of bur rows.Unit 1, Imielin – „PPKMiL” Quarry.

pra- and intertidal fa cies, re sult ing from a con tin u ing trans -gres sion, marks the basal parts of Unit 4.

3. The depositional and diagenetic his tory of the Kra-ków-Silesia Sub-ba sin in the Anisian de ter mined the sub se -quent de vel op ment of the en tire ore dis trict. The clay-richcar bon ate muds at the base cre ated an impermable bar rierand con cen trated flu ids in an in ter val of over ly ing strata, ap -prox i mately 35 m thick. These strata were pre dom i nantlycom posed of po rous car bon ate grainstones-packstones andbioturbated mudstones (mostly firmgrounds). Even the bio-turbated mudstones con tained coarser sed i ment, the infil-ling ma te rial of the bur rows Balanoglossites and Thalassi-noides net works. Ow ing to the third-or der re gres sion, partof these de pos its was sub jected to subaerial ex po sure andme te oric diagenesis, which re sulted in the de vel op ment ofmoldic po ros ity. This com bi na tion of pri mary lithologicalfea tures and diagenetic al ter ation fa voured, dur ing burial,the mi gra tion of dolomitizing so lu tions and fur ther al ter -ation to a po ten tial host rock. Sub se quently, the dolomiti-zing flu ids spread lat er ally via po rous ho ri zons, such aspelolite pack ages or net works of bur rows, which re sulted inthe dis tinct epigenetic al ter ation of the pri mary de pos its.The dis so lu tion of blocky cal cite and the coarse-grained in -fill ing of bur rows, but also the en large ment of biomoldicpores, led to the for ma tion of a mas sively cav ern ous fab ric,which prob a bly ow ing to fur ther dis so lu tion was ul ti matelychanged into large karstic forms that host eco nom i cally im -por tant ore bod ies. In con clu sion, the pres ence and dis tri bu -tion of po rous ho ri zons in the “ore-bear ing do lo mite” suc -ces sion was a ma jor lith o logic con trol on the cir cu la tion ofdolomitizing fluids in the host rock.

4. This study fills a gap in knowl edge of the evo lu tion of the Kraków-Silesia re gion be fore the epigenetic dolomi-tization and ex plains why ores and ore-bear ing dolomitesde vel oped within these par tic u lar rocks. How ever, more de -tailed lab o ra tory anal y sis is nec es sary to sup ple ment thedata and con clu sions pre sented. The au thor hopes this study will ini ti ate new in ves ti ga tions on the or i gin of Pol ish lead-zinc de pos its that will pay more at ten tion to the stra tig ra -phy, com po si tion and his tory of the host ing strata.

Ac knowl edge ments

Firstly, I would like to thank Joachim Szulc (JagiellonianUni ver sity, Kraków, Po land) for fruit ful dis cus sions on dif fer entas pects of sedimentology. I am in debted to Al fred Uchman andStanis³aw Leszczyñski (Jagiellonian Uni ver sity, Kraków, Po land)for con sul ta tions about trace fos sils and sed i men tary struc tures, re -spec tively, and to Ioan Bucur (Babes-Bolyai Uni ver sity, Cluj-Na-poca, Ro ma nia) and Hans Hagdorn (Muschelkalkmuseum, Ingel-fingen, Ger many) for the de ter mi na tion of green al gae and cri noidtaxa, re spec tively. Rados³aw Maku³a is grate fully ac knowl edged for as sis tance with climb ing dur ing the ex plo ra tion of some quarrywalls. I am grate ful to the man age ments of “CEMEX” Polska Sp. z o.o., “GiGa” Sp. z o.o., “GZD” S.A., PPH “DOLOMIT” Sp. z o.o.,“PPKMiL” Sp. z o.o., PPUH “DOLOMIT” S.A., PW “PROMAG”Sp. z o.o., “TRIBAG” Sp. z o.o., ZGH “Boles³aw” S.A. and KiPD“¯elatowa” S.A . for grant ing me per mis sion to do the field study.The fi nal manu script bene fited con sid er ably from the ed i to rial ad -vice and the sug ges tions of Adam Bodzioch (Opole Uni ver sity,Opole, Po land) and an anon y mous re viewer.

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Ap pen dix

GPS co or di nates of all out crops pre sented in this study (in al pha -bet i cal or der):Bolêcin – “Ska³a Bolêcka” aban doned quarry (50°06'55.12"N;19°27'45.35"E);Bukowno – „Olkusz-Pomorzany” lead-zinc ac tive mine(50°18'02.95"N; 19°30'05.34"E);D¹browa Górnicza – “Z¹bkowice” ac tive quarry (50°22'19.75"N;19°17'54.98"E);Imielin – aban doned quarry (50°08'52.43"N; 19°12'13.67"E);Imielin – “PPKMiL” ac tive quarry (50°09'15.68"N;19°11'42.80"E);

Jaroszowiec – “Stare Gliny” ac tive quarry (50°21'05.62"N;19°35'22.45"E);K¹ty Chrzanowskie – aban doned quarry (50°09'07.00"N;19°22'27.55"E);Libi¹¿ – ac tive quarry (50°06'51.28"N; 19°20'04.35"E);Libi¹¿ – Moczyd³o – “LiBet” aban doned quarry (50°05'18.67"N;19°18'55.84"E);Nowa Wioska – “GZD” ac tive quarry (50°30'01.82"N;19°12'40.37"E);Nowa Wioska – “PROMAG” ac tive quarry (50°30'35.20"N;19°14'02.17"E);Nowa Wioska – “TRIBAG” ac tive quarry (50°30'05.32"N;19°14'16.36"E);Olkusz Stary – aban doned quarry (50°17'22.53"N;19°31'08.96"E);P³aza – aban doned pit in for est (50°06'58.46"N; 19°26'32.26"E);P³aza – “GiGa” ac tive quarry (50°06'24.36"N; 19°26'18.85"E);Pogorzyce – “¯elatowa” ac tive quarry (50°06'42.08"N;19°23'37.56"E);Tarnowskie Góry – “Blachówka” aban doned quarry(50°24'25.04"N; 18°51'10.83"E).

112 M. MATYSIK

sedimentology of the “ore-bear ing do lo mite...

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