sectione-6 (2)
TRANSCRIPT
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SECTION E
SUPPORT DOCUMENTS
• A Functional View of Language
• Explanation of Text Types
• An Approach to the Study of Texts
• Focusing on Texts
• An approach to Shared Reading
• Strategy for Writing Text Types
• Glossary of Grammatical Terms
• Recommended References
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A FUNCTIONAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE
A functional view of language:
• enables us to talk about language (it is a metalanguage)
• looks at how language functions in different ways to make meaning
• sees language as
a resource for making meaning in specific contexts to specific audiencesfor particular purpose
• emphasises the text as a whole and how texts are pattemed
•enables us to explore various patterns within the text
• recognises that these patterns vary in particular ways according to the context .
Traditional Grammar is one way of describing language. It provides us with formalterms to identify parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives).
Functional Grammar focuses on how words and groupings of words work togetherto make meaning in a text terms like participants (nouns, noun groups), processes(verbs, verb groups), circumstances (usually phrases of time, place, reason), etc.attempt to identify these various functions.
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TEXT TYPES
Literary Texts Factual Texts
Narrative Discussion
Drama Explanation
Poetry Exposition
Report
Procedure
Recount
Note:
InFirst Steps, ‘Discussion’ is listed in the Oral Continuum only.
Also,First Steps does not specifically address Poetry and Drama
as Text Types.
Text Forms
Literary Texts Factual Texts
Aboriginal dreaming stories AdvertisementsBallads Announcements
Cautionary tales Conversation
Fables Current affairs programs
Parables Debates
Fairy tales Directions
Fantasy Documentaries
Folktales Editorials
Historical narratives Essays
Improvisions Constructions
Legends Instruction manuals
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Limericks Interviews
Lyrics Lectures/Presentations
Mimes Letters
Myths Newspaper articles
Odes Public speaking
Playscripts Recipes
Radio drama Reference articles
Science Fiction School reports
Sonnets
Narrative
Purpose
To relate a story that is imaginery or factual; sometimes to teach a lesson or explain
phenomena.
Structure
Orientation Sets the scene, time and/or characters of the story.
(Who, what, when, where.)
Complication Problem arises which initiates a chain of events.
Sequence of Events Consequences of complication are explored through
time-sequenced events.
Resolution Complication resolved and tension dissipates.
Coda (Optional) The moral, lesson, or literary ending.
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Grammar
• Specific characters with defined identities. They can be people,
animals or things that are important to the story;
• Usesdetailed noun groups to create images in reader’s mind;
• Often uses time connectives to sequence events throughout the story;
• Verbs focus on action, feelings, thought and speech;
• Usually written in past tense (this may change during dialogue);
• Written in first or third person.
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Text Type:Narrative
Structure Grammar
(Examples)
Orientation
Introduces the
setting
Complication
Child wants
the key butdoes not know
how to get it
Sequence of
events
The child trying
different ways
to get the key
Repeat event
Action which
leads to
resolution
Resolution
The child
A Russian Legend
The Golden Palace supposedly contained everything a
child could desire, and all children sought to do
something good so that they might obtain the key to the
palace.
One child brushed her hair and cleaned her shoes, but
the gatekeeper turned her away with the admonition to
do something good for somebody else.
She went out in search of that someone and found a
beggar into whose hand she poured all the precious
coins she had saved. Having completed her mission,
she rushed back to the golden palace. But again she
was turned away. The gatekeeper noticed her
disappointment and encouraged her to try again.
Upon returning to the town the little girl saw an old
woman carrying a heavy bundle up a steep hill. She ran
to the lady, took the bundle, and raced up the hill.
Depositing the bundle at the top, she dashed down the
hill, headed for the castle. and demanded the key. But
again the Gatekeeper turned her away. This time she
was thoroughly disappointed, and, though told to try
again, she completely gave up. “I don’t want the key
anyway,” she muttered to herself.
On the way home she heard a whimpering in the
bushes. Trailing the cry to its source, she found a dog
caught in an animal trap. She tried her utmost to release
the dog, and her hands were bleeding before she finally
succeeded. Then she tore off strips of her dress to make
bandages and wound them around the dog’s bruised
paw.
Suddenly the gatekeeper from the Golden Palace
Specific
nouns
Detailed noun
groups
Thought
verb
Time
connectives
Third Person
Action verbs
Speech verb
Past tense
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received the
key
Coda
The moral of
the story
appeared before her and offered her the key. “But,” she
protested, “I don’t deserve the key. I didn’t help the dog
for the key. I forgot all about the key.”
The old gatekeeper fondly said, “You forgot yourself,
dear child. The key is for those who forget themselves.”
Extract from Sakae Kubo: Calculated Goodness
Tense
changes
during speech
First Person
Drama
Purpose
To depict visual and auditory actions and interactions of characters.
Structure
Drama scripts are often a combination of various text types. They include directions and
procedural aspects as well as direct speech.
Grammar
Drama draws on a variety of grammatical patterns.
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Text Type:Drama
Structure Grammar
(Examples)
Information
about
characters
Explanation on
how to set the
stage
Procedural text to
give instruction
Dialogue
The Playground
Characters
Peter A quiet boy and Mary’s friend
Paul The class tell tale
Mary The school bully and Peter’s
friend
Mrs Green Teacher on playground duty
Setting
The scene is set in a school playground at recess
time. There is a lot of colourful sports equipment
being used and the teacher on duty is walking
around supervising the students while thinking about
the next lesson.
( Peter and Mary are playing with a hoop and some
skipping ropes when Paul walks over)
Paul: (pointing to Peter tied to the pole) Um ah I’m
dobbing.(turns and begins to run to the teacher)
Mary: Wait, it’s only a game. Come back and play
with us. (She chases after Paul, drags him back
and ties him to the pole)
Peter: (In a soft voice) I think you had better untie
him or there’ll be trouble. (Points to the teacher
walking across the playground)
Mrs Green: Mary, what are you doing?
Mary: We are playing indians Mrs Green. (Smiles
sweetly)
Specific
nouns
Timeless
present tense
Noun groups
Thought verbs
Action verbs
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Mrs Green: (Absently) Well don’t play to rough then.
(She walks away)
Paul: Mrs Green, Mrs Green wait!! (The teacher
keeps walking away). Help! I want to... (Mary
stuffs a sock into Paul’s mouth).
Poetry
Purpose
Poetry is for description, criticism, argument or praise
Structure
Conveying sound and imagery are the main aims of poetry. Each type of poem is
individually structured
Grammar
Each poetic text form has its own characteristic grammatical pattern. Repetition, synonyms
and antonyms are often the basis for textual cohesion
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Text Type:Poetry
Structure Text Form Grammar
(Examples)
The initial letters
in each line form
a word
Acrostic
Beautiful
Inspirational
Books
Lovely
Everlasting
Can be one
word or a
phrase each
line
Usually tell a
story about a
hero.
They are often
set to music
Ballads
There was once a boy named David
Who tended father’s sheep.
He use to play the harp and sing
But never would he sleep.
Until one day his father asked
For him to take some lunch
To his brothers who were at war
With the Philistine bunch.
Goliath came onto the scene-
He was an enormous man.
No Israelite would go and fight,
So David raised his hand.
‘If none of you will go and fight,
May I go out and try?
I have my sling, my faith, my God,
We can’t let this pass by!’
So David with his one small sling
Went out and met the giant,
On his way he picked up stonesOn God he was reliant.
The most
common
verse found in
Ballads is the
Quatrain or
four-line
stanza
Rhyming
patterns canbe varied
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One small stone went in the sling
Around and round it spun,
The stone went sailing through the air,
Goliath’s down! We’ve won!
So when you have an enormous task
And the problems are all new,
Just ask the Lord to be with you,
And He will guide you through.
Creates a list to
provide a collage
of images about
a particular idea
Catalogue Poems
Green is the grass
Green is some glass
Green on the trees
Green on my knees
Green is so cool
Green is a jewel
Does not
necessarily
have to rhyme
Each line
does not
necessarily
have to start
with the theme
Five line poem to
present an image
Cinquain
Pathfinders
exciting, challenging
full of fun
campouts are the best
great!
1 word to statesubject
2 word
description
3 word
description
4 word
comment
1 word
comment
Visual imagesand layout
Concrete Poetry
it that
is we
why always
like
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to
qu
es
ti
on
?
A five line poem
Diamante
Caterpillar
soft, white
crawling, creeping, eatingfeet, cocoon, colours, wings
flitting, flying, fluttering
vivid, beautiful
butterfly
1 word to name first
subject
2 adjectives
3 -ing words
2 nouns related to
first subject then two
nouns to introduce
second subject
3 -ing words
2 adjectives
1 word to name
second subject
A question
followed by a
descriptive line
Dylan Thomas Portrait
Have you ever seen a cloud?
Fluffy-white, floating-gently, sparkling-crystal, raindrops
Intricate noun
group of four
pairs of
adjectives(or a single
noun at the
end)
Two lines. The
second line a
contrasting
Ezra Pound Couplet
A class full of infants
A box of playful kittens
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image to expand
the first
Japanese poem
with three lines
that describes
some aspect of
nature
Haiku
Fire comes from its mouth
Its stomach grumbles and groans
Volcano erupts
5 syllables
7 syllables
5 syllables
five line poem
which tells about
something funny
Limerick
There once was a girl from Barcoo,
Who could not decide what to do.
She first was a nurse,
And then drove a hearse,
And finally tried teaching too.
Lines 1,2 and
5 rhyme (3
strong beats)
Lines 3 and 4
rhyme (2
strong beats)
Epics
An epic is a long poem that describes deeds
and events and that usually tell a story.
Odes
An ode is a reflective poem of praise or satire.
Sonnets
Sonnets are lyric poems with 14 lines. They
have a structured rhythmic pattern and usually
rhyme.
Lyrics and Songs
Lyrics and songs are short poems that
express feelings or emotions usually with a
regular rhythmic pattern.
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Discussion
Purpose
To present contrasting views on an issue
Structure
Statement of Position This is the basic position that is being discussed.
Background information and overview often included.
Argument Arguments for and against the basic position are written
in a logical sequence with supporting evidence. The
arguments for are usually presented first.
Summary This can be recommendations, a summative
evaluation of the arguments, personal conclusions, or
open choice for the audience.
Grammar
• Uses generalised nouns.
• Uses intricate noun groups
• Uses a variety of verbs ( action, speech and mental).
• Uses causal connectives that indicate reasoning (therefore, so, firstly).
• Uses varying degrees of modality ( perhaps, should, must).
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Text Type:Discussion
Structure Grammar
(Examples)
Statement
of Position
Arguments
for
Arguments
against
Summary
School Lunches
Many people believe that yoghurt is good in school
lunches.
A healthy lunch is most important for growing children.
Yoghurt is nutritious as well as delicious and kids love it.
The Australian culture has developed a race of
sandwich-eaters at lunch time and it is time that this
concept was changed. Carrot sticks, fresh fruit, salad
and yoghurt should be included lunch time treats.
In many families both parents are working and yoghurt is
a good and easy selection for the children’s lunches.
However, there can be many problems with yoghurt in
school lunches.
Many times the yoghurt stays in the school bag during
40 degree temperatures when the owner could have put
it in the school fridge.
Then there are the times that the yoghurt has had an
accident and it is all over the homework, theshow and
tell, and the jumper. Sometimes the broken yoghurt is
not noticed until it is lunch time and the students have to
ask the teacher for help. So by this time the yoghurt has
set to a sticky consistency and the smell is not nice.
In conclusion, yoghurt is a good food for the students
but there is definitely a great risk in school bags.
Generalised
nouns
Mental verbs
Intricate noun
groups
Action verbs
Contrasting
connective
Medium
modality
Causal
connectives
High modality
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Explanation
Purpose: To explain how and why things occur.
Structure
Definition Defines the phenomenon.
Operation Uses a series of logical statements which outline how
or why something works.
Application (Optional) Gives application for the phenomenon.
Conclusion Concluding statement or summary.
Grammar
• Generalised non-human nouns
• Use of technical terms
•Occasional intricate noun groups
• Uses timeless present tense
• Mainly uses action verbs
• Occasionally uses passive voice
• Uses time connectives to indicate sequence
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• Cause and effect (consequently, because of this, then...)
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Text Type:Explanation
Structure Grammar
(Examples)
Definition
Operations
Conclusion
How do Grasses Pollinate?
Pollination describes the process whereby grass seeds
germinate.
Pollination for grasses begins with tiny flowers, usually
about five millimetres long, which have no petals or
sepals. A grass flower opens only once for about an
hour or so. Some grasses open early in the morning.
Others, like wheat and oats, open in the afternoon. On a
dry, sunny day when the temperature is right, these tiny
flowers split open and spout out pollen.
After the male part of the plant discharges the pollen,
the female pistil pushes up to receive the pollen floating
around in the air from other plants. When exactly the
right pollen grain arrives at the tip end of a pistil ready to
receive it, the material adheres to the sticky stigma.
Like a tiny plant suddenly coming to life, it begins to
grow. Soon a long tube has grown down inside the pistiluntil it reaches the ovules then an egg, or seed
is produced with the characteristics of the two plants.
E and J Lantry (1976)Stop Look and Listen. Review and
Herald: Washington.
Non-human
nouns or noun
groups
Timelesspresent tense
Intricate noun
groups
Time
connectives
Action verbs
Technical
terms
Cause and
effect
Passive voice
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Exposition
(Argument and Persuasion)
Purpose
To present logical, well ordered statements or arguments from a particular viewpoint.
Structure
Statement of Position This is the basic position that is being discussed.
Background information and overview often included.
Argument Arguments for the basic position are written in a logical
sequence with supporting evidence.
Summary This can be a re-statement of the issue, a summative
evaluation of the arguments or personal conclusions.
Grammar
• Uses generalised nouns.
• Uses a variety of verbs ( action, linking, speech and mental).
• Mainly uses timeless present tense.
• Uses nominalisation (actions changed to things) to make argument sound objective.
• Uses technical terms related to the issue.
• Uses causal connectives that indicate reasoning (therefore, so, firstly).
• Frequent use of passive voice.
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• Uses high modality to stress point of view (will, must, always).
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NOTE:First Stepsincludes arguments both for and against in the
exposition text type.
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Text Type:Exposition
StructureGrammar(Examples)
Statement
of Position
Argument
Danger Pay
Kindergarten teachers should definitely get an extra
wage allowance: Danger money! There are three main
dangers that the kindergarten teachers must face.
First, at the beginning of the school day, a mother dragsher screaming daughter into the classroom and shouts,
‘Here, you take over. I can’t do a thing with her!’ She is
not dressed in uniform and she has not had breakfast.
The mother then shoves clothes and food at the teacher
and runs out the door. The result is a sudden panic
attack.
Secondly the teacher may come to school feeling fit and
healthy but then just after recess, during quiet time,
someone decides to share his breakfast with the floor.
All the other students race for the door. The kindergarten
teacher must use crowd control tactics, keep the class in
order, clean up the mess, deodorise the room and
resume teaching, leaving the teacher with a panic attack
and anupset stomach.
Finally, there iswater on the knee. After lunch when it is
show and tell time, one student somehow silently sits
on the teacher’s knee. The unsuspecting teacher begins
to notice the first warm trickle. Then it is too late! The
deed is done, the teacher has a panic attack, an upset
stomachand a wet patch on the knee.
Because of these issues, kindergarten teachers must
receive danger money. If they do not receive this money,
then there will be a major shortage of kindergartenteachers in the future, which will cause far reaching
implications for our society.
Generalised
nouns
Action verb
Saying verbs
Linking verbs
Mental verbs
Nominalisation
Causal
connectives
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Summary
High modality
Timeless
present tense
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Report
Purpose
To organise and record information about a whole class of things.
Structure
Opening Statement Often a definition or a general statement on the
topic.
Facts Sequenced facts that build a description of the
topic.
Summary (Optional)
Grammar
• Uses nouns to describe a whole class of things.
• Uses some action verbs when describing behaviour.
• Uses linking verbs (is, are, have)
• Uses timeless present tense
• Uses factual descriptive language
• Uses technical terms
• Uses paragraphs with topic information
• Uses pronouns
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Text Type:Report
Structure Grammar
(Examples)
Opening
Statement
Facts
Summary
Hummingbirds
There are about 400 different kinds of hummingbirds
that live in the Western Hemisphere at all altitudes and
climates from forest to high mountains to deserts. They
range in size from the tiny Cuban Hummingbird only
2cm long to the largest variety, a native of the Andes
measuring twenty centimetres.
The hummingbird is like a glittering fragment of rainbow.
Few birds are so brilliant and able to flash iridescent
colours with such intensity and beauty. As the bird turns
its body, what at first appeared black flashes shows
brilliant metallic hues.
Almost everything about a hummingbird denotes speed.
The hummingbird’s wings beat seventy-five times a
second. They are the only birds that can hoverindefinitely, fly backwards, forwards or sideways. Bathing
quickly on the wing, they dash under a small waterfall,
plunge into clear pools, or flutter through dewy leaves.
Their tiny nest, a work of art beautifully camouflaged, is
often built in a single day. Though built in plain sight, it is
often invisible.
Usually twins hatch from pea-sized eggs. These naked,
blind babies must receive food every few minutes at first.
The mother inserts her long bill into the wide-open
mouths, literally pumping food into the young ones.
As you see the blur of the hummingbirds as they dart
from flower to flower take time to remember the One
who created them.
E and J Lantry (1976)Stop Look and Listen. Review and
Herald: Washington.
Technical
terms
General
nouns
Linking verbs
Paragraphs
with topic
information
Timeless
present tense
Factual
descriptive
language
Action verbs
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Procedure
Purpose
To instruct someone how to make or do something
Structure
Goals This section states what is to be done
Materials Lists the materials needed to reach the goal
Methods Sequential steps needed to be taken to reach the goal
Evaluation (Optional) How successful was the procedure in reaching the
goal
Grammar
• Uses generalised nouns
• Mainly action verbs
• Timeless tense
• Uses imperative mood (Do this!, Do that! )
• Time connectives
• The reader is referred to in a general way
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Text Type:Procedure
StructureGrammar
(Examples)
Goal
Materials
Method
Quick Chocolate Cake
To make a quick chocolate cake you will need:
• 1 3/4 cups of self raising flour
• 1 1/4 cups of sugar
• 1/4 cup of cocoa
• 1/4 teaspoon of salt
• 1/2 teaspoon of Carb Soda
• 125 gms of butter
• 1 cup of milk
• 2 eggs
Steps
• Sift together flour, sugar, cocoa, salt and carb soda.
• Next melt butter and add it to dry mix.
• Then add milk
• Beat mixture for 1 minute
• Add the eggs
• Beat mixture for 2 minutes
• Pour into a greased cake tin and bake for 1/2 an hour
General
reference to
reader
Generalised
nouns
Imperative
mood
Time
connectives
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on 200° C
Action verbs
Timeless
tense
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Recount
Purpose
To tell what happened in time sequence
Structure
Orientation This provides background information
Events The events are placed in chronological order
Concluding comments These may include personal comments
Grammar
• Uses specific nouns and first person pronouns
• Uses action verbs
• Usually written in past tense
• Uses time connectives to sequence events
• Uses time and place phrases (Yesterday, before lunch, at school)
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Text Type:Recount
StructureGrammar(Examples)
Orientation
Events
Concluding
Statements
Letter
Daring Station
RD 1003 North Road
Alice Springs NT 0954
Dear Sir and classmates,
This has been the best holiday that I have ever had. The
day after school finished Mum and Dad packed the car
and we headed off to the Northern Territory. It took
about twenty-eight hours to drive here and on the way
we helped a hitch-hiker, rescued a flying fox and
changed six tyres (my Dad did not like that part!).
When we arrived at the station, Mrs Daring gave me a
horse of my own for the holidays. I explored all over the
station and then when night came I was given the loft to
sleep in.
During the first night I saw four satellites, two comets,
and three planets.
The next three days were spent mustering the cattle and
we had to sleep in tents. In that time I had to save Dad
twice as he kept falling off his horse.
In the last week I went crocodile wrestling and saw 16
platypus in the river.
Looking forward to seeing you all again,
Love
Jacquie.
Action verbs
Specific
nouns
Past tense
Time
connectives
Time phrase
Place phrase
1st person
pronouns
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AN APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF TEXTS
The Language System
Texts convey the meaning they do because of certain distinctive features. These features relate
and work togethersystematically within the text to achieve their purpose. One way to make sense
of this function is to recognise what some define as the language system. The following notes
explain briefly what makes up this language system and the relationship between them.This
explanation provides a basis for the notes on the following pages.
The Language System
Semantic Level Grammatical Level
Meanings Words and Structure
Graphological/
Phonological
Level
Letters, sounds &
visual features
Explanation:
Semantic Level
How ideas, information, issues, opinions, etc are organised within the text, eg.
the ordering of ideas,time sequence,
cohesion patterns and text structures,
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visual features such as illustrations, etc.
Grammatical Level
How structural patterns function within texts for particular purpose, eg.sentences and clauses,
words and word groups
- participants/nouns/noun groups,
- processes/verbs/verb groups,
- circumstances/phrases, reference chains, modality, mood.
Graphological/Phonological Level
The function of letters and speech sounds, punctuation, layout and visual images.
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FOCUSING ON TEXTS
Text Structure and Presentation
1. Introduce arangeof texts over time. Draw attention to their purpose, and theirsimilarities and differences.
Ask questions like:
What is the text about?
What text type is this?
How do you know? (Look at its features.)
What other texts like this have you read? (Encourage students to compare texts.)
What makes them similar?... different?)
What is it trying to achieve? (Find heading, pictures.)
Who might write a text like this?
Who might read a text like this? (Talk about audience.)
Why?
Do you think it achieves that purpose?
What is effective about it?
2. When planning and setting tasks:
Be specific about the purpose of the task.
Who is the audience? What text type is appropriate?
Provide sample texts as models. (Draw attention to the way the text is organised.)
Support students with reference models showing structure and subheadings.
Inferring Context from Text
Text and Context
In order to understand the purpose of any particular text, that is, how it works, we
need to consider its cultural context, and thespecific situation in which it was
produced.
Contextinfluences thegrammatical patterns found in the text. As the context changes,
so will the grammatical patterns change. Three major factors influence the language
choices:
What the text is about (thefield);
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Who is involved in the interaction (thetenor);
The channel of communication (themode).
Field —What the text is about; subject matter or the content.
Fields can include such areas as 'assisting hungry people in developing countries,
'describing features of a trip', 'the way our government works, 'different types of
mammals', etc. In language, are concerned about developing different fields of
knowledge. It can be about things that are part of our everyday life, or abstract,
scientific and technical areas.
Each field has its own characteristic way of constructing knowledge through
language. Students need to be familiar with the language needed to construct and
understand these different fields.
Tenor —Who is involved in the interaction?
We make different language choices according to whom we are interacting with.
Obviously we would speak differently to one of our best friends than we would to
someone whom we don't know and who has some authority over us.
The tenor can be described in terms of the roles assumed by the people in the
situation at the time ('teacher', 'student', 'principals', 'director', 'friend', 'acquaintance',
'mother', 'daughter', 'husband', 'wife', and so on) and the relationships between those
involved in the interaction (hostile, familiar, affectionate, neutral, etc.). In particular,
we need to consider such aspects as power status, authority, expertise, degree of
familiarity, feelings and the like.
Mode — The channel of communication.
The language patterns of a spoken text are significantly different from the language
patterns of a written text. But it is not a simple matter of 'spoken' and 'written',
because there are many types of spoken texts and many kinds of written texts.
The mode can be described in terms of a continuum ('the mode continuum') ranging
from those texts which are closest tospontaneous oral interaction(e.g. language
accompanying some activity) through to language which isconsidered, crafted and
carefully edited and organised,where there has been the opportunity to distance
oneself from the activity and to reflect upon it.
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Implications for Teaching
As teachers, we are constantly constructing contexts for learning for our students. If
we are aware of key features of the contexts we construct and how these influence
the sort of language being used (and hence the sort of learning going on throughlanguage), we are in a better position to make decisions in our programming. Such
decisions might include the following:
Field
What purpose do l want the students to be able to achieve through writing in this
unit?
What type of text best achieves this purpose? How would such a text be
structured?
What field of knowledge am I trying to develop?
How can I help the students to move from their everyday, familiar understandings
of the world to more systematised, generalised, technical and abstract
understandings?
What language patterns might be involved in shifting from commonsense fields
to educational fields?
Tenor
What range of roles do lwant my students to be able to take up?Where necessary, how can I help them to operate not only on a personal,
informal level, but when necessary in a more formal, objective manner?
What interpersonal language skills will students need to gain control over so that
they can operate confidently in a wide range of contexts?
Mode
How can I move the students along the mode continuum from exploratory oral
interaction where they are coming to an understanding of the field and
purpose, through to final draft written texts where they are pulling together their
knowledge of the field and organising it coherently?
Do I need to give them the opportunity for an 'oral rehearsal' before they write
their texts, as a 'bridge' between the oral and written?)
What knowledge about written language will the students need in order to make
the transition from the oral mode to the written mode?
Using a Text
Field
Does this book contribute toward the field being developed in this unit?
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What particularly effective or significant vocabulary might l highlight?
Can we identify any major patterns or relationships in the text?
What new terms might need clarifying?
Tenor
How does the author involve the reader?. Can I take advantage of this?
Am I allowing the students to participate in an active way?
Am I allowing them to identify various characteristics of the text?
Mode
What is the purpose of this piece of writing?
Would this book provide a good model for the students' writing in this mode?
Am I sharing a variety of written modes and demonstrating how they achieve
their different purposes through language?How can I guide the students to identify the overall structure of the text, and the
language characteristic of the various stages?
How are the pictures contributing to the text?
How does the text rely on diagrams, illustrations, etc?
Planning a Unit of Work
Field
What knowledge or fields will l want to help the students develop?
What new concepts? (ultimately new language)
What relationships or patterns might it be useful to make explicit?
What sort of logic or reasoning might be involved?
If have ESL children, will the field involve unfamiliar cultural references? Is there
any way I can integrate the cultural background of the ESL children into the
field?
Tenor
What sorts of roles might the students adopt during the learning process?
What sorts of roles might the teacher adopt during the learning process?
Do the relationships within the classroom allow the students to adopt different
roles?
What is the power relationship within the classroom? Is it based on negotiation,
mutual respect, responsibility?
Are the students encouraged to express their knowledge and ask questions? Are
they given enough opportunity to talk? To demonstrate their developingexpertise?
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What sort of roles and relationships do the students need to use in their written
language?
What sorts of questions might the teacher ask?
Are the activities or learning experiences structured so that the students
progress from an exploratory, tentative tenor through to a position of
confidence and control of knowledge?
Mode
How do the different modes of language play different roles in the learning
process?
What purposes do the different modes serve?
Does the unit of work take the children from 'language accompanying action'
through to 'reflection'?
Monitoring Student Work
Field
Is the student using the most appropriate or effective vocabulary for that particular
field?
Does he or she need to be introduced to more specific terms?
Tenor
Is the student adopting the most appropriate tenor for the reader involved?
Mode
Is the text structured according to its purpose?
Is the reference internal to the text?
Is the student learning to distance himself or herself through writing?
Is the student using external reference, making assumptions about shared
knowledge and experiences, or relying too heavily on illustrations e.g. sharedbook.
Monitoring My Own Language In the Classroom
Field
Am l introducting the students to new words or technical terms? In a meaningful
way? Am I helping the students to order their experience through various patterns of
language?
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Tenor
Am I asking a variety of question-types?
Am I encouraging the students to ask a variety of questions?
Am I allowing them to take responsibility for their learning?
Am I encouraging them to voice opinions, express judgements, make decisions,
etc.?
Mode
Am I encouraging the use of a variety of modes and media?
Am I stressing the interplay between speaking-writing-reading?
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SUGGESTIONS FOR THE USE OF A ‘BIG BOOK’ IN SHARED
READING
Book used as an example:‘Wilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge’ by Mem Fox, Illustrated by Julie Vivas (Omnibus Books)
Semantic and Contextual Information (NP: 2.5, 2.6)
Making sense of the text
• Talk about the title, author, illustrator, features of the illustrations.
• Look at the artwork to determine possible clues
• Using the cover, determine whatWilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge might be about.
• Focus on field knowledge and concepts that need to be understood to make sense of text.
e.g. old people’s home, memory, memories.
• Ask questions e.g.
Who is in this story? Is there anybody else?
Look at the expression on the people’s faces.
What do you think could happen?
What places do you think we will see?Who will read this story? What makes you say that?
• Reconstruct text using sentences from a page.
• Identify main events. List on cardboard strips. Arrange strips in order.
• Hot seat activity e.g. the various characters
• Draw one of the characters. List known facts about this character as provided in the text
e.g. Miss Nancy, old lady, ninety-six years of age, lost memory, lost a brother at war, etc.
Purpose and Audience
•Ask, ‘Why do you think the chair on the last page is empty?’
• Ask, ‘Does this story teach us anything?’
(To entertain children but in so doing, to stimulate sensitivity and respect for others.)
Using Prior Knowledge
• Activate knowledge of the field —
e.g. Discuss student’s own experience of old people, possibly relatives.
Discuss personal memories
• Concepts —
Linking with own experience of old people/relatives. Some may have visited an old people’s
home.
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•Language Experience —
Language associated with narrativese.g. There once was a small boy.
Discuss personal interpretations of words used in different situationse.g. memories,
precious, remembered, medal, war.
Linguistic Structure and Grammar of Narrative Text (NP: 2.5, 2.7)
• Identify thematic repetition -
‘What’s a memory?’ he asked.
‘Something that makes you - , my - , something that makes you - .’• Identify noun/noun group (participants)
Wilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge, Mrs Jordan, organ, Mr Tippett, cricket, Miss Mitchell,
wooden stick, etc.
• Identify adjectives (modifiers) in noun groups
• Identify reference chains (Noun/pronoun links)
• Identify verbs/verb groups (processes)
(action/ material) Played, listened, walked, told, heard, lost, etc.
(mental) thought, remembered;
(verbal) said, asked;
(state of being or having) was, had, wasn’t
• Ask questions about place and manner - phrases/circumstances
with a wooden stick, with sadness (how); in a basket, next to the shells, to Miss Nancy’s
(where), etc.
• Look for words that link ideas (connectives)
(addition) and, and what’s more
(contrast) but
(time) suddenly
(causal) because.
• Identify statements and questions.
• Identify simple narrative structure as an example ofnarrative text.
• Develop a story map.
Punctuation
• Mask punctuation marks. Students provide missing symbol.
• Find examples in text of full stops, question marks, exclamation marks, commas, etc.
Visual Features of Words and Concepts About Print (NP: 2.5, 2.7)
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Spaces and Directionality
• Pointing to text by teacher/child, emphasising left to right and words one-by-one.
• Stop and ask for the next word in text.
• Use marker to emphasise direction/line being read (beneath or above)
Capitals
• Why are capitals used? Discuss. Find other examples in this text and other familiar texts.
Sight Vocabulary
• Create word banks of high frequency words with removable cards for use in own writing.
Sound/Symbol Relationships
Letter Knowledge
• Create words using ‘th’ (voiced and voiceless); hard and soft ‘g’.
Hearing Sounds in Words
• Find which begin or end with the same sound; in familiar texts (read aloud).
• Play games which emphasise listening for sounds, e.g. ‘I Spy’
• Try tongue twisters emphasising beginning sounds.
Separating Sounds in Sequence
• Clap/tap the syllables or phonemes in words... how many?
e.g. some/thing..(2), mem/or/y .. (3), re/mem/ber/ed..(4), etc.
Making Generalisations
• Find other words in familiar text which have similar letter patterns.
e.g. something, mother.
Letters Represent Multiple Sounds
• Identify all words with ‘g’. What sound does it make?
• Make word banks of words with hard g or soft g.
• Locate these in familiar texts, environment, own writing.
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Blending
• Say words from text slowly...stretching e.g. mm - eee - mm - oorr - yy then sliding sounds
together.
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STRATEGY FOR WRITING TEXT TYPES
The following sequence of activities may be followed as a guide to the writing of each
of the text types.
A. PREPARATION — BUILDING A KNOWLEDGE OF THE FIELD
• Decide which text type best suits the context, audience and purpose of the
writing task.
• Consult useful resources.
• Engage children in activities to familiarise them with the subject matter.
B. MODELLING THE TEXT TYPE
• Discuss the purpose of the text type in society.• Refer to reference samples of the text type.
• Review the structure and features of the selected text type.
• Discuss the function of each stage.
C. JOINT CONSTRUCTION OF A TEXT
• Pool information gained
• Develop lists of information with the children relevant to the topic.
•
Set out the information in a useful form (e.g. lists, tables, flowcharts, etc.) forchildren to access.
• Teacher act as a facilitator and guide for children as they contribute
information and ideas to the collaborative construction of the planned text.
• Teacher write the text on the board or overhead transparency as it is
developed.
• Class assesses the text in relation to on of the models used earlier.
D. INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTION
• Children research and write drafts of a similar text on a related topic.• Refer periodically to the model .
E. CONFERENCING
• Children share their drafts with peers and the teacher to gain comments and
suggestions.
F. EDITING AND PUBLICATION
• Edit and refine texts.
• Publish and share texts.
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GRAMMATICAL TERMS
Term Definition Example
Active voice The grammatical subject is performing the
action.
Jim climbed the tree
Adjective (Modifier) Adds to the image of the noun. Thered flower
Adverb (Modifier) Adds to the meaning of the verb. I walkedslowly
Antonym Words that are opposite in meaning. big - little
Apostrophe Can be used to indicate ownership, or to replace
missing letters
Heather’s shoes
don’t, can’t
Circumstance Phrases or word groups that tellhow,where,
when orwhy an action is happening
He walkedto the car
Classifiers Words in the noun group that classify the noun
(usually other nouns or adjectives)
Steamtrain,football match
Clause A group of words that contain a unit ofinformation. It must have a verb group.
The child ran to the fence andslid under it.
Colon A punctuation mark (:) which is used to
introduce a list of items or an explanation which
completes the sentence.
The bag contained a number of
items: some clothing, toiletries,
a few books and some gifts.
Comma Can be used to separate parts of a sentence
when it is important to meaning. Can be used to
separate words eg. in lists
I ran, waited, and kept going.
One, two, three! Off we go!
Commands (Imperative mood) A demand. Ends with an
exclamation mark.
Go away!
Conjunctions See connectives
Connectives Additive connective -
Used when adding information
Temporal connective -
Used when linking phrases through time
Contrastive Connective -
Link words by comparison Causal Connectives -
words linking cause and effect
And, also
When, after
On the other hand, likewise
Because, unless
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Dash A punctuation mark used to show a pause.
Increasingly used in place of a comma, colon
and semi-colon.
We went to the recent pet show
— a squarking, noisy affair!
Determiners Words in the noun group that specify, query, or
indicate ownership.
Specify (this, that, those)
Query (who, whose, which,
what)
Ownership ( my, our, their)
Direct speech Words that indicate actual words spoken. Bob said, ‘It is hot.’
Field The particular topic or subject that the text is
about.
Idiom Words that are peculiar to a culture. ‘All thecracks had gathered to
thefray.’
Indirect speech Words that have reportedly been said — not the
exact words. Verbs in past tense.
I heard Bob said that it was hot.
Lexical chain Chains of nouns and verbs that relate directly to
one another.
Metaphors A statement that describes something by using
another idea not literally applicable to it.
Amighty fortress is our God.
Mode Whether a text is spoken, written or visual
media.
Modality A way for expressing the writer’s level of
assertiveness toward the subject:
High Modality
Low modality
Always, must, never
Maybe, sometimes
Modifier See adjectives and adverbs.
Mood See Statement (Declarative mood)
Question (Interrogative mood)
Command (Imperative mood)
I am going
Are you going?
Go now!
Nominalisation When an action is turned into a thing. Thebarking dog is noisy. The
bark of the dog is loud.
Noun or noun group (Participant) A word or word group that
represents a person, place, thing or idea.
Table, Jim, Australia
The quick brown fox jumpsover the lazy dog.
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Participants (see noun)
Passive voice The subject is the goal or focus of the action. The tree was climbed by me.
Prepositional Phrases A group of words beginning with a preposition
but without a verb.
near the pool
Prefix An addition in front of the base word. judge becomesmis judge
Process (see verb)
Pronoun Stands in place of a noun. The dog was barking.It was
very noisy.
Questions (Interrogative mood) A sentence that asks a
question. Always ends with a question mark.
Will it rain today?
Quotation marks Marks (‘ ‘) to indicate direct speech, titles of
articles, poems or songs and to emphasise a
word for a particular reason.
‘What a nice day’, said Bill.
‘Mulga Bill’ by A B Paterson
He was a special ‘helper’.
Reference chains The words which link references to particular
nouns through the text
Thefrog jumped out of the
pond.He was sick ofit.
Semantics The area of the language system that focuses on
meanings in the text.
Sentence A unit of language that contains one or more
clauses. It contains at least one verb or verb
group.
The runaway horse cleared the
fence with a mighty bound.
Similes Likens a thing or person to something else. It
begins with ‘like’ or ‘As — as”
He was like a hungry lion.
She wasas cool as a
cucumber.
Statement (Declarative mood - providing information)
A sentence that states something.
I am going to Queensland for
my holidays.
Suffix An add-on to the end of a base word. Judge becomes judgment
Synonym Words that have similar meaning. Cool, chilly, brisk
Tenor Refers to who is speaking to whom in a
particular context.
Takes into account roles, relationships, status,
age and level of formality.
Tense Past Iwent to school
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Present Iam going to school
Timeless present Igo to school
Future Iwill go to school
Verbs (Process) Words dealing with action, speech,
and thoughts
Action verbs Jump, run, skip
Speech verbs Sheshouted, Hesaid
Relational verbs She is here. Weareall
students.
Thought verbs Ibelieve I will.
Verb group A group of words connected with the verb Wewill soon be celebrating
Ann’s birthday.
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REFERENCES
Note: The list of references related to contemporary English is extensive. This is only a
selective list of highly recommended resources from within this range. They are included
because of their direct usefulness for teachers. In most cases the following materials are
available on loan from the SPD Curriculum Unit.
Bremner, S (1995),Teaching Grammar Through Everyday Language Activities, Pen 99, Primary
English Teaching Association (PETA).
• An article on how to use grammar throughout language activities
Collerson, J (1990),Grammar Part 1, Pen 77, PETA.
• A practical introduction to grammar
Collerson, J (1990),Grammar Part 2, Pen 77, PETA.
• A practical introduction to grammar
Cusworth, R (1994),What is a Functional Language Model? Pen 95, PETA.
• An excellent introduction to functional language.
Derewianka, B (1990),Exploring How Texts Work , PETA.
• The language and structure of text types are examined in detail. Examples are given
throughout the book.
Derewianka, B (1991),Exploring How Texts Work : The Video, PETA.
• A resource kit with video, assessment activities and work sheets. Excellent forthose teachers who are serious about teaching functional English.
Dillon, F and Cahill, M (1991),Key into Literacy,Longman Cheshire.
• Gives suggested ways of teaching text types and lists resources and ideas that can readily
be used in the classroom.
DSP Centre Marketing, Earthworms, Teaching Factual Writing in the Early Years of School,Erskinville,
NSW.
• A stimulating video that demonstrates a year 2 classroom teacher using the
functional language approach while teaching about earthworms.
Education Department of Western Australia (1994),First Steps Literacy Program, Addison-Wesley
Longman Australia: Melbourne.
Writing Developmental Continuum and Resource Book
Reading Developmental Continuum and Resource Book
Oral Language Developmental Continuum and Resource Book
Spelling Developmental Continuum and Resource Book
Parents as Partners
Era Publications. These publications represent the full range of specific text types. Most are published in both big and small book format. Titles and order form available from
Lioncrest Pty Ltd, PO Box 522, Roseville, NSW. 2069.
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PETA (Primary English Teaching Association) publications, Laura Street, Newtown NSW 2042
Swan, S (1995),Thinking Books, Pen 101, PETA.
• An excellent paper on helping children reflect on their learning.
Walker, Kate (1991),Step By Step Stories, Kate Walker Ink, New South Wales.
• A wonderful guide to narrative writing in the infant grades
Wing Jan, Lesley (1991),Write Ways, Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
• An excellent overview of text type writing and assessing.