Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Cell Division/Meiosis

Sexual

Variation

Recombination

Gametes

Offspring

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Cell Division/Meiosis

Meiosis produces haploid gametes for Sexual Reproduction

4 genetically unique haploid cells!

Get different chromosomes = Independent Assortment

4 genetically unique haploid cells!

Chromosomes undergo Crossing-Over = Different Gene Combos!!

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Chromosomal Defects

There Should be two copies of every chromosome (i.e., 23 pairs for Humans) in every cell due to Sexual Reproduction.

But, chromosomes stick together during Crossing-Over and can accidentally stay

attached.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Punnett Squares

Parents are Purple because:

However, they are Heterozygous - So:

Offspring show Variation because:

Random because:

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Genetics/Inheritance

Their Offspring receive:

Complete Dominance!

Heterozygous for Red Fruits

Red is dominant to yellow

Rr x Rr

R

r

R r

RR Rr

Rr rr

What if it was Incomplete

Dominance?

Examples such as Snapdragon or Four-

o’Clock Flowers?

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Genetics/Inheritance

What if it was Codominance?

Examples such as Sickle-Cell Anemia or

Roan Cows?

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Genetics/Inheritance

Blood Types

Three Alleles.

IA, IB, and i.

Heterozygous Type A Parent = IAi

Type O Parent = ii

i i

IA

i

IAi IAi

iiii

What is the first parent was AB?

Not all Traits have just the two allele choices.

ABO Blood Types are controlled by one gene, but have three options.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Genetics/Inheritance

Not all Traits have just the one controlling Gene.

Polygenic Traits show great Variation due to the options.

Three identical Genes with two possible alleles showing Incomplete

Dominance!

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Human Genetics

You supposed to know about Human examples of each type of Inheritance and possible Mutational Mistakes.

Huntington’s Disease and the Brain – Dominant!!

Cystic fibrosis - recessive!!

Sickle-Cell Anemia - codominant!!

PKU – defective enzyme = diet

can be adjusted!!

Hemophilia – X-linked!!

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Pedigree

For this Pedigree

If the Trait is recessive – who

is affected?

Who is a Carrier?

For this Pedigree

If the Trait is Dominant – who

is affected?

Who is a Carrier?

Why is this NOT a Sex-Linked Trait?

?

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Recombinant DNA

Since DNA is “Universal”, it can be cut and transferred from species to species. You need to understand the basic process.

Restriction Enzyme to “cut”, Plasmid = Vector to transport Gene, as Recombinant DNA, and Transgenic Organism that Expresses foreign

DNA

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Cloning

Transgenic Organisms can be difficult to form. Cloning will produce Identical “Offspring” that also express the new Genes.

Dolly (right) is a clone,

Polly (left) is a clone that carries a human gene for Factor IX that is a treatment for

Hemophilia B.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – DNA Fingerprint

Why is it clear that D2 and S2 are NOT children of these parents?

What is interesting about D2?

Who Did It?!

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Pasteur Experiment

Remember!

The Cell Theory states:

1) The Cell is the Basic Unit of Life.

2) All living things are Cells or made of Cells.

3) Cells come from Pre-existing Cells.

Pasteur showed BioGenesis!!

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Miller/Urey Exp.

Miller/Urey demonstrated that Organic Molecules

could form in conditions similar to

the early Earth.

Organic Molecules are the Building Blocks of

Life!

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Endosymbiosis

Prokaryotes are the simplest and oldest living things on Earth.

Eukaryotes appear later as Team Players = Endosymbiosis!

Mitochondria 1st!

Aerobic Respiration!

Chloroplasts 2nd!

Photosynthesis in Algae!

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Evolution

Evolution refers to the fact that organisms Change through Time.

Horse evolution is

well documented in

the Fossil Record.

They change from smaller,

four-toed swamp

dwellers into huge grass-

eating, single-toed

grasslands specialists!

Individual organisms DO NOT evolve! They already

have their DNA that

codes for their traits!!

Populations evolve as they

sort out the possible genes /

alleles that support their survival and

Fitness!

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – The Fossil Record

The Fossil Record shows real organisms from the past. Allows comparison to modern groups to evaluate how they have changed.

All comparisons of Shape and Structure = MORPHOLOGY!!

Newest

Advanced

Oldest

Primitive

Paleozoic

w/first vertebrates, trilobites, early

plants and animals!

Mesozoic

Age of Dinosaurs, 1st Angiosperms/Insects!

Cenozoic

Age of Mammals!

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Natural Selection

Evolution occurs to make organisms “Adapted” to their Niches. Occurs through Competition that modifies the Survivors.

Adaptations:

Any structure, process, or behaviors that allows an organism to survive in its

Niche.

Competition:

Direct interactions for the same Resources. There can be Only One

per Niche.

Saw-whet Owl and Kestrel are both small predators. Coexist because?Peppered Moths of Europe

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Selection, Evolution

Evolution leads to differences in Populations that were once all similar. Experiment by Diane Dodd – 1989.

2. Separated into two groups using

different Food Sources.

3. Generations = Sex/Meiosis/Mutations that form new alleles =

Difference!.

1. Original Population / Species.

4. Stay Separate! New Species of Flies!

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Variation in Evolution

If all organisms of a species were THE SAME, they could not be differentiated through Competition. They would be Evenly Matched!

Lions in a Pride all look very similar – WHY?!

How do Lion Prides make sure there is some Genetic Variation?

Cheetahs are in REAL trouble due to Inbreeding. Why is this picture

so Rare?

A “King” Cheetah importantly represents?

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Variation in Evolution

Variation in Populations is essential to Evolution = Choices!

All different patterns of Garter Snakes.

Variation in Ladybugs.

This Variation is in color banding patterns, but could also be in any other

trait since they all change randomly and could be important features.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Variation in Evolution

Species always start highly as small inbred populations, but develop Variation over time through what processes?

Mutation forms New Alleles / Options!

Meiosis allows for Random Spread of all of those differing traits.

Hawaiian Happy-Face Spider

Khoisan “Bushmen” of S. Africa are most ancient recognized “race” of H.

sapiens.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Speciation

Members of the SAME Species should:

Look Alike = Same Adaptations = Morphological Species Concept,

Interbreed Only with “Their” Species = Biological Species Concept.

Now! Sexual Selection and Reproductive Isolation Keep them Separate from other species. Do Not Interbreed and they are

Different SPECIES!!

They were split up as they were separated into small discrete

populations = Geographic Isolation!

Bald Eagles and Golden Eagles are obviously related! Once the Same!

Interbreeding!!

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Fitness

Survival of the Fittest is based on the ability to survive and have Offspring. Offspring then pass on the Genes that provide for the

successful Adaptations of Evolution.

Pallidus Octopus guarding its eggs.

And

Newly hatched Octopus.

Three Striped Poison Dart Frog carrying its eggs on its back until

they hatch.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Evolution/Adaptation

PRO!EU!

Endosymbiosis!

Multicellular!

Different Niches = Different Adaptations.

All from the same original Organism!

Life on Earth is all related!

But the broad diversity stems from Evolution of new and different

Traits for new and different Niches.

Prokaryotes 1st

Eukaryotes 2nd

Multicellular Kingdoms Next

And so on!

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Evolutionary Traits

All have same basic structure indicating that they are related = Tetrapod Vertebrates!!

BUT – Both are adapted for Flight via different successful structure. Wings Fly and LOOK similar, but Different!

But, These are

Wings!

HOMOLOGOUS!!

Divergent Evolution.

ANALOGOUS!!

Convergent Evolution.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Adaptive Radiations

In some spectacular cases, major groups start with a single species that separates into many species = Divergence.

Organisms have to come from somewhere! Pre-existing species CHANGE as they adapt to new environments. Divergent Evolution.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Convergent Evolution

Organisms that live in similar Niches tend to possess similar adaptations. This is called “Convergent” because different groups become alike.

All “LOOK” Similar because they have adapted to fill similar Niches – Ant and Termite Eaters!

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Names and Groups

Naming Organisms is important to separate and recognize them.

Linnaeus’s Seven Levels.

K-P-C-O-F-G-s!

Binomial Nomenclature provides very specific names for organisms that

cannot be confused with other organisms,

Genus species are two words!

Panthera pardus

White-Yellow animal, panther

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Virus

Viruses are NON-LIVING Particles that use Host Cells!

This is HIV.

Retrovirus with RNA.

Lysogenic Virus!

Infects T Cells of the Immune

System which compromises the ability to fight off

Infection and Cancer.

Also similar to Influenza which causes Flu!

Viruses can only be defeated by YOUR Immune System! Smallpox has a 30% death Rate depending on your Immune System.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Vaccines / Immunity

Viruses are difficult to treat because they use Host Cells. But they can be prevented by helping your Immune System Target Them!

T Cells activate your Immune

System IF THEY CAN IDENTIFY

the Invader =

ANTIGEN!

They then Activate the B

Cells and attack Cell Targets like

Tumors and Viral Infected Cells!

B Cells make ANTIBODIES!

These Bind to and Target the

Antigens for Destruction!!

Antibodies spread throughout the body to “Mark”

the Antigens.

Since Vaccines expose your body to Antigens safely, your Immune System Can Now Make Antibodies for Survival!

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Bacteria

First and simplest Cells. Characterized by lack of a Nucleus and other Membrane-Bound Organelles.

DECOMPOSERS!!

Critical Recyclers that finish breaking

down/Recycling matter back to the

Producers!

Different species can Metabolize anything

if they have the correct Enzymes!

DISEASE Causing!!

Can use living tissues to survive!

Consume flesh or release toxic

molecules that damage the organism!

ANTIBIOTIC TREATMENTS can

Kill them!

Should Know about Streptococcus as a Disease example.

Remember NITROGEN-FIXING Bacteria in Legume Root Nodules

that produce Nitrates.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Natural Selection, Conjugation, and Homeostasis

Green is more adapted than Brown – Unless?!

All about overcoming Antibiotics!

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Protista

Unicellular Eukaryotic Organisms. You need to know Four (4)!

Paramecium with Cilia and Contractile

VacuolesEuglena with Chloroplasts

and Flagella

Plasmodium showing “spores” erupting from red blood cells and their “Vector” mosquito

Amoeba showing Pseudopodia and Food

Vacuoles

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Fungi

Multicellular Terrestrial Decomposers. Niche involves break-down of tough food sources such as Cellulose.

Extracellular Digestion. Drill, Digest, and Drink!

Many Fungi compete with bacteria and produce various Antibiotics.

Yeast are Fungi and are important in food

production of bread and alcohol.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Plant Adaptations

Bryophytes = Mosses

First – small, non-vascular, spores,

swimming gametes.

Ferns = Vascular Plants

Second – Vascular and Large, but spores and swimming gametes?

Seedless.

Gymnosperms = Conifers

Third – Large and Vascular, Pollen, Cones with Seeds.

Angiosperms = Flowering Plants

Fourth – Flowers and Pollination.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Plant Diversity

Multicellular Autotrophs! Know the basic forms of plants to recognize Names and Traits.

Gymnosperms possess Cones to protect their Seeds.

Angiosperms produce Flowers and often Fruits to facilitate Sexual

Reproduction with Insects.

Seed Plants make Pollen which can Spread through the Air!

Fully Terrestrial!!

Monocots and Dicots.

Two main groups of Angiosperms.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Animal Kingdom

Multicellular Heterotrophs that ingest and consume their Prey.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Annelids

Annelids are the Segmented Worms. Highly advanced and specialized.

Semented with different specialized portions of the body.

Coelom separating the internal organs from the body wall.

Closed Circulatory System with multiple “Hearts”.

Cutaneous Respiration – through the skin - no lungs or gills!

Hermaphrodites that make both sperm and egg cells.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Insecta

Insects possess Exoskeletons and have highly specialized body parts.

Can See the Tracheal Tubes that Insects Breath through via Spiracles in each Segment.

But no Blood Vessels = Open Circulatory System.

Weaver Ant

Metamorphosis with different stages in Development.

Internal Fertilization in Terrestrial Environments.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Amphibians

Amazon Horned Frog

Amphibians require Water to Reproduce.

Cutaneous Respiration with a three-chambered Heart.

External Fertilization in Water.

Gelatinous Eggs that hatch as Tadpole Larvae.

Metamorphosis into adult stage Frogs and Salamanders.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Placental Mammals

Advanced Mammals that carry Offspring internally until they are well developed at Birth. Then fed with Milk from Mammary Glands.

Complex animals that require Parental Care during extensive development.

Four-Chambered Heart with Closed Circulation (high pressure = Active!).

Large Lungs = Aerobic!

Placental embryo showing the placenta with its connecting

circulation to the Uterus.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Immunity

Breast Feeding is Important because it provides the baby antibodies from the Mother.

Passive Immunity.

When Antibodies are donated to the person. Either injection or breast

feeding in infants.

Short-term protection from another source.

Active Immunity.

When the Immune System activates and responds to infection by

producing Antibodies that target the Pathogen.

Long Term – Vaccines provide this Protection!!

Bottle Won’t Help!!

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Innate Behavior

Innate Behaviors are Genetically Determined and “Inborn”. Instincts and Reflexes!

Suckling

Hibernation, Dormancy, Estivation.

Migration

Imprinting on Mother.

So Instinctive that Whooping Crane Chicks will follow an

Ultralight Aircraft.

Second Semester Exam Review Topics – Learned Behavior

Learned Behaviors are acquired during the lifetime of the organism. Allows organisms to adjust to their Environment.

Classical Conditioning with Pavlov’s Dogs!

They have been trained to respond to a Bell = Food!

Habituation

They are Instinctively Opposites, but are so

used to each other that they can reject their natural tendencies.

Trial and Error Learning

Not born with these behaviors, but through persistent “Practice”

they can increase their abilities.