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Second Ex-Ante Evaluation of EIGE focusing on the Institute’s specific objectives and operations: Final Report Lot N° 3, EIGE/2010/OPER/49, Identification N° 038

European Institute for Gender Equality

8 September 2011

Second Ex-Ante Evaluation of EIGE: Final Report

Second Ex-Ante Evaluation of EIGE focusing on the Institute’s specific objectives and operations: Final Report Lot N° 3, EIGE/2010/OPER/49, Identification N° 038

European Institute for Gender Equality

A report submitted by GHK in association with

Fondazione G. Brodolini


Contents

List of abbreviations ...................................................................................................... vi Background and introduction .....................................................................................................................i Why a second ex-ante evaluation? ...........................................................................................................i The evaluation questions...........................................................................................................................i The problem of gender inequality in Europe ............................................................................................ ii EIGE’s work programmes and activities ................................................................................................... ii Stakeholders’ views: the potential European added value of EIGE ........................................................ iii Recommendations ....................................................................................................................................v

1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Rationale and scope of the evaluation ..................................................................................... 1 1.2 Key research questions............................................................................................................ 1 1.3 Methodological framework and approach ................................................................................ 1 1.4 Report structure ....................................................................................................................... 3

2 The gender equality landscape in Europe ......................................................... 4 2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 4 2.2 The establishment of EIGE ...................................................................................................... 4 2.3 Gender equality policy context within which EIGE operates.................................................... 5 2.4 The problem of gender inequality in Europe ............................................................................ 8

3 EIGE’s service offer relative to the gender equality policy context and identified problems ......................................................................................... 24

3.1 EIGE’s objectives and tasks .................................................................................................. 24 3.2 Work programme and activities ............................................................................................. 25 3.3 The European added value of EIGE ...................................................................................... 26 3.4 Summary of findings .............................................................................................................. 34

4 The activities of other stakeholders: how these effect EIGE’s objectives and activities ........................................................................................................... 35

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 35

5 Overall, specific and operational objectives of the European Institute for Gender Equality ............................................................................................... 49

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 49 5.2 Objectives identified in the EIGE proposal............................................................................. 49 5.3 General, specific and operational objectives of EIGE ............................................................ 50

6 Framework for monitoring and evaluation ..................................................... 59 6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 59 6.2 Strategic monitoring and evaluation activities: definition and scope ..................................... 59

7 Monitoring and evaluation for suggested Operational Objectives ................. 66

8 Conclusions and recommendations ................................................................ 79 8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 79 8.2 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................ 79 8.3 Recommendations ................................................................................................................. 82

Annex 1 Evaluation methodology ...........................................................................

Annex 2 Organisations consulted ...........................................................................

Annex 3 Statistical tables .......................................................................................

Annex 4 Overview of the activities and identified outputs of EIGE .......................

Annex 5 Identitified needs at the national, European and international levels ....


Annex 6 Gender mainstreaming ............................................................................


List of abbreviations

ATGENDER: The European Association for Gender Research, Education and

Documentation

BPfA: Beijing Platform for Action

CAHVIO: Ad Hoc Committee on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and

Domestic Violence

CEO: Chief Executive Officer

COP: Conference of the Parties

DG: Directorate-General

DG DEVCO: Directorate-General Development and Cooperation

DG EAC: Directorate-General Education and Culture

DG ENTR: Directorate-General Enterprise and Industry

DG EMPL: Directorate-General Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion

DG Home: Directorate-General Home Affairs

DG JUST: Directorate-General Justice

DG RTD: Directorate-General Research and Innovation

DG REGIO: Directorate-General Regional Policy

EC: European Commission

ECS: European Company Survey

EEPD: European Equal Pay Day

EGGE: Expert Group on Gender and Employment

EGGSI: Expert Group on Gender Equality, Social Inclusion, Health and Long-term care

EIGE: European Institute for Gender Equality

EP: European Parliament

EPSCO: Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs Committee

EQLS: European Quality of Life Survey

ERDF: European Regional Development Fund

ESF: European Social Fund

EWCS: European Working Conditions Survey

EU OSHA: European Agency for Safety and Health at Work

FEMM: Women’s Rights and Gender Equality Committee

FRA: Fundamental Rights Agency

GBP: Great Britain Pound

GBV: Gender Based Violence

GDP: Gross Domestic Product

GE: Gender Equality

GEI: Gender Equality Index

GII: Gender Inequality Index

GM: Gender Mainstreaming

HLY: Healthy Life Years

ILO: International Labour Organisation

ISCED: International Standard Classification of Education

LFS: Labour Force Survey

MOU: Memorandum of Understanding

MS: Member State

NGO: Non- Governmental Organisation

OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

OP: Operational Programme

PLE: Peer Learning Event

p.p.: Percentage point

QA: Quality Assurance

SIGI: Social Institutions and Gender Index

SILC: Statistics on Income and Living Conditions

SMART indicators: Significant, Measurable, Appropriate, Resourced, Timely available

SWD: Staff Working Document

UN: United Nations


UNDP: United Nations Development Programme

UNECE: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

UOE: Unesco/OECD/Eurostat database

WINE: Women Information Network Europe

WP: Work Programme


i

Executive summary

Background and introduction

The European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) came into being as an agency of the European

Union in December 2006 (Regulation (EC) No 1922/2006). The Institute gained its administrative

independence in June 2010. As stated in the Regulation its general objective is:

“to contribute to and strengthen the promotion of gender equality, including gender

mainstreaming in all Community policies and the resulting national policies and the fight

against discrimination based on sex and to raise EU citizens’ awareness of gender equality

by providing technical assistance to the Community institutions, in particular the Commission

and the authorities of the Member State”

More than 15 years passed between the initial idea for a gender equality institute and EIGE gaining its

administrative independence. The idea for a gender equality institute was first raised in the 1990s at a

time when the political climate was favourable towards gender equality: the 1997 Amsterdam Treaty

promoted gender equality and introduced gender mainstreaming while the 2009 Lisbon Treaty

established it as a value of the Union.

Originally envisioned as having a political role in promoting innovation in gender equality policy making

based on analysis and research, the Institute’s Regulation primarily adopts a technical support role

whereby EIGE provides support (technical assistance) to the Community Institutions and Member

States. This role is consistent with the role of EIGE as specified in the Roadmap for Gender Equality

2006-2010 which stated that EIGE would “provide expertise, improving knowledge and heightening

visibility on gender equality”. EIGE’s support role includes: relevant information collection, analysis

and dissemination ‘comprehensible to the final users’; data development (methodology, indicators,

surveys) and dissemination; tools development (for better policy design, implementation and

evaluation) and dissemination; and networking and awareness-raising.

Following administrative independence, EIGE is a new entrant into the complex and multifaceted

gender equality policy arena in Europe. EIGE is not a political actor, though is accountable to political

actors at the European and Member State levels. The gender equality policy arena in which EIGE

operates comprises well established stakeholders which deliver a multitude of initiatives, projects and

networks operating across a wide range of themes. As the Institute’s remit states that in discharging

its activities it should avoid duplication and ensure the best possible use of its resources, the research

to inform the evaluation has sought to understand the present day gender equality context and

establish whether the mandate afforded to EIGE through its Regulation remains relevant to

stakeholders’ needs.

EIGE’s current funding comes from the EU's employment and social affairs policy area (04) covering

the period 2007-2013.

Why a second ex-ante evaluation?

In view of the delay in the establishment of EIGE and the launch of its operations, the Management

Board decided to conduct a second ex-ante evaluation to provide guidance to EIGE’s management to

finalise objectives and activities. The terms of reference for the evaluation described its purpose as

follows:

“to provide the necessary guidance to EIGE’s management for the finalisation of the

Institute’s mandate and the definition of its specific tasks – with particular attention to the

aspects relevant to the goal of promoting gender mainstreaming – so that the Institute can

contribute with high quality work to gender equality progress in Europe”.1

The evaluation questions

The terms of reference identified four evaluation questions which underpinned the evaluation method

and approach:

1 Request for services, EIGE/2010/OPER/49, p 6


ii

▪ What specific effects should the activities of the Institute produce? ▪ What operational objectives and activities would be expected to produce these effects? ▪ How can progress be assessed in terms of both implementation and impact of the Institute’s

activities?

▪ On the basis of the proposed operational objectives and activities, what impact is the Institute’s work expected to have?

The evaluation work comprised: background research and research design; primary research

involving an on-line survey of stakeholders working in the national context and interviews with

representatives from European and International organisations; and the preparation of an evaluation

framework.

The problem of gender inequality in Europe

Gender inequalities persist in most social policy areas across Europe. Data suggests that significant

inequalities exist in employment, equal pay for work of equal value, education, health, decision-making

and the environment. Inequalities are also visible in the stereotypical portrayal of women and men in

the media and in gender-based violence.

Inequalities affect both women and men. In some cases inequalities affect the female population as

whole, evidenced by lower female employment rates and in the lower female participation in economic

and political decision-making. In other cases certain groups are particularly disadvantaged and are

disproportionately affected, e.g. individuals from immigrant backgrounds, single parents, disabled or

the elderly.

In some cases (e.g. employment, education and decision-making), comparative statistical data are

available and provide clear evidence about the scale of the problem of inequality in Europe. In other

cases though, as for instance in relation to gender-based violence and inequalities within minority

communities, reliable comparative statistical data do not exist.

Some Member States perform better than others in gender equality. This is for instance suggested by

an article discussing a Gender Equality Index2 which both shows a North-South divide in relation to

overall gender equality in Europe and a very uneven capacity of Member States to deal with the

various components of gender equality.

The causes of gender inequality also vary significantly. In some cases, the problem is caused by

legislation which promotes inequalities between men and women in Europe. This is particularly

evident concerning the reconciliation of work and family life where provisions at national level vary

significantly in terms of length, levels of payment and eligibility criteria.

In other cases though, the problem is lack of enforcement of existing legislation. In the past few years,

EU legislation has been introduced to prohibit discrimination on the grounds of gender in employment,

goods and services and social protection. Despite the existence of legislation, gender inequalities

persist in most of these areas.

The main effects of persistent gender inequalities are first and foremost, the violation of the

fundamental right of women to be treated as equals and secondly, the economic cost that

underutilisation of the population has for individuals, families and society as a whole.

EIGE’s work programmes and activities

EIGE has prepared a mid-term (2010 – 2012) and annual work programmes (2010, 2011) which

outline its activities. The activities identified in these work programmes are fully consistent with the role

EIGE was given in the European Commission Strategy for Equality between Women and Men 2010 –

2015. Hence, in 2010, EIGE focused on: providing assistance to the Presidencies of the Council of the

European Union concerning the Beijing Indicators; launching research studies on methods, tools and

good practices for gender mainstreaming; launching a study on the development of a Gender Equality

Index and establishing a European Network on Gender Equality (an online platform to allow

2 Plantenga, J., Remery, C., Figueiredo, H. and Smith M. (2009). Towards a European Union Gender Equality

Index, Journal of European Social Policy, vol. 19 no. 1 19-33.


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exchanges amongst practitioners and researchers in this regard) and identifying stakeholders

interested in joining efforts towards improved gender equality in Europe. The 2011 work programme

emphasises EIGE’s aim to become a European competence centre on gender equality issues and the

increasing importance of its role as a resource and documentation centre.

Stakeholders’ views: the potential European added value of EIGE

Stakeholders identified three key areas where EIGE should add value to existing activities: provide

technical assistance to the Community Institutions and the Member States; disseminate information on

gender equality and gender mainstreaming policies; and support dialogue and networking. These

suggestions are consistent with the tasks identified in the Regulation and, to a large extent, with the

current activities of the Institute.

Concerning technical assistance, stakeholders suggested that EIGE should: collect data and statistics

in areas where information is not available; collect information on gender equality policies and

legislation in Member States; develop tools and methods on gender mainstreaming and collect good

practices. However, not all of the stakeholders consulted were fully aware of DG JUST’s activities

concerning gender equality, hence, some of the activities suggested that EIGE might deliver are

already being taken forward by DG JUST, e.g. the network of legal experts in the field of gender.

Stakeholders were divided in relation to the need to develop a Gender Equality Index. Concerns

related to the risk of duplication between EIGE’s Index and indices that other international

organisations have emerged and to the risk that the Index might rank Member States without taking

into account socioeconomic and cultural factors that may affect performance.

The resource and documentation centre is central to EIGE’s dissemination activities while the gender

equality community's active information exchange between actors appears limited. Stakeholder

interviews confirmed that the documentation centre (that EIGE is currently developing) is a potentially

useful resource for policy makers and researchers as it is expected to house pertinent publications of

various sorts, as well as good practices of gender mainstreaming policies and tools.

Networking and dialogue are two key tasks identified in EIGE’s Regulation and the Institute has

already taken steps to implement them. Networking and dialogue legitimises policy-making as they

provide a mechanism to allow the views of affected individuals to be heard. Participants suggested

that there is a need to map stakeholders in the field of gender equality in Europe: this suggestion

indicates support for the mapping study EIGE commissioned in 2010.

Regarding networking, some questions were raised about the added value of another European

Network on Gender Equality. It was not clear to some interviewees how EIGE’s specialised network

would differ from other networks coordinated by the Commission on this issue. This misunderstanding

was partly linked to the use of the term ‘network’ by different European bodies to describe different

activities. What EIGE describes as The European Network on Gender Equality is an electronic

platform that brings together stakeholders at Member State, European and third country level to “share

competence and experience”. This challenging project is indeed unique: no other organisation is trying

to create this type of platform for networking.

More generally, and considering EIGE’s potential activities relative to other actors, the risk of

duplication of efforts appear limited as resources dedicated to ongoing initiatives are, relative to the

scale of the gender inequality problem, limited. This assessment assumes that EIGE carefully

identifies and aligns its activities to other organisations operating in this policy arena to minimise any

potential duplication.

What differentiates EIGE from other actors active in gender equality is that it has stable human and

financial resources which allow the Institute to achieve concrete and useful results through its multi-

annual and annual work programmes. This stability allows EIGE to sequence its activities and outputs.

There are widespread expectations for potential products from qualified actors and EIGE has the

potential to address them effectively. However, it is important to prioritise activities and have a clear

rationale for the choices made.

EIGE’s objectives: proposals for specific and operational objectives

Taking into consideration the research findings, what existing actors already do, the Regulation,

EIGE’s status as a new actor and indeed what the work programmes say about how the Institute will


iv

carry out its responsibilities, three specific objectives supported by operational objectives are

proposed and linked to the delivery of technical assistance, dissemination and management (see

Table 1 below). These objectives should help the Institute to deliver on its general objective, as

described in Article 2 of the Regulation.

Table 1 General objective and suggested specific and operational objectives for EIGE

General objective Suggested specific objective Suggested operational objective

Contribute to and

strengthen the

promotion of gender

equality, including

gender

mainstreaming in all

Community policies

and the resulting

national policies, and

the fight against

discrimination based

on sex, and to raise

EU citizens'

awareness of gender

equality by providing

technical assistance

to the Community

institutions, in

particular the

Commission, and the

authorities of the

Member States

Specific objective 1:

EIGE will provide technical assistance

/ support to the Community Institutions

and Member States to facilitate and

sustain the implementation of a

gender perspective in relevant policy

processes at the national and EU

levels

Operational objective 1.1: Knowledge building

to inform the policy making process through the

production and provision of relevant comparable

information in the EU MS (linked into the Beijing

Platform for Action - relevant for both MS and

EU level actions) and other support work

Operational objective 1.2: Knowledge

management to inform policy making and

practices through sharing information on

practices and developing tools for gender

mainstreaming (GM) policies


EIGE will communicate high quality

information to national, EU and other

international stakeholders on:

▪ The gender equality situation; and ▪ Gender equality and gender

mainstreaming policies and

measures

Operational objective 2.1: Establishment and

continual update of a resource and

documentation centre which acts as a repository

for information on gender equality and gender

mainstreaming tools and practices

Operational objective 2.2:

EIGE acts to coordinate dialogue and networking

on GE issues across the EU


EIGE will operate to be recognised as

a functioning, efficient and effective

EU body that adds value through its

activities and competencies to other

actors’ efforts towards gender equality


Management structures in place and reviewed

as appropriate to ensure the efficient and

effective delivery of (i) each new mid term work

programme (ii) each new annual work

programme


Administrative structures in place operating in

accordance with the applicable EU rules

Measuring progress towards achieving these objectives

EIGE has introduced a number of activities in the areas of technical assistance, dissemination and

dialogue and networking. Examples of the Institutes key activities include, among others, the collection

of good practices in the field of gender mainstreaming, the development of a Gender Equality Index

and the establishment of an online platform to allow exchanges amongst practitioners and

researchers. All these activities will help the Institute to achieve its objectives. A key question of this

evaluation was how to assess progress in terms of both implementation and impact of the Institute’s

activities.

Given the budget afforded to EIGE and the scale and scope of gender inequality as an issue in

Europe, the framework proposed is outcome orientated, i.e. it focuses on what EIGE delivers and how

this is used to affect change. While impact is anticipated, the key issue for EIGE is that its impact is

dependent on how its stakeholders use its deliverables to underpin policy decisions and the difference

these decisions (and resulting policies) make. In practice, this means that to measure impact for EIGE

one has to carefully calculate attribution, i.e. the relative importance of EIGE’s actions and

deliverables in the overall policy impact. While this is possible, an assessment of impact may suggest

that EIGE’s impact is minimal, even though its outputs and outcomes are widely used.

EIGE’s impact, relative to its objectives as stated in the Regulation, is intrinsically tied to the work of

the Community Institutions, as presented in the Commission’s Strategy for Equality. The objectives as

described in the Regulation clearly state that EIGE shall ‘contribute to and strengthen the promotion of

gender equality, including gender mainstreaming’. EIGE alone cannot affect change across the gender


v

equality community, though its actions and deliverables can be used to evidence decisions that can

bring about change.

The outline evaluation framework provided has been developed taking the issues identified above into

account.

Risks and potential ways to address them

Risks have been considered linked to the objectives identified in Table 1. Three overarching risks

emerge from the analysis:

▪ Risk 1: EIGE covers too many thematic areas in relation to resources available, which is further exacerbated as it becomes known by the gender equality community.

▪ Risk 2: the outputs delivered and the methods that EIGE has selected to use to engage with its stakeholders, i.e. outputs such as the gender equality index, the online platform / network fail to

meet their needs.

▪ Risk 3: Its remote location (as defined in Decentralised Agencies Evaluation)3 prevents EIGE acting efficiently and effectively in carrying out its activities.

Concerning the first risk identified above, EIGE is aware of this as an issue especially concerning ad

hoc requests. Simple actions can be undertaken to address this issue: the development of a

framework that allows staff to process and respond to such queries and allocating such requests a

concrete budget line provides EIGE staff with the means to respond to such requests in a clear and

transparent manner.

The second risk is important as research to understand stakeholders’ needs only started after EIGE

began to deliver the activities identified in its 2010 work programme. While stakeholders’ perceived

needs were generally in line with EIGE’s activities, questions were raised through the primary

research, for example, concerning the value of a gender equality index the added value of another

network (even though these are clearly identified in the European Commission’s Strategy for Equality

between Women and Men and the Regulation respectively).

Concerning the third risk, issues are emerging for EIGE about its remoteness. EIGE is one of eight

agencies that scored highly on this factor in the decentralised agencies evaluation. Remoteness is one

factor that can affect the attractiveness of EIGE as a place to work and which in turn affects the

efficiency of EIGE in carrying out its responsibilities. It is essential that this risk is monitored.

Recommendations

Proposed recommendations link to four categories

▪ Process and delivery: − Consideration is required concerning whether the Regulation needs to be revised to simplify

the presentation of EIGE’s tasks or whether these are simply interpreted and accommodated

in the annual and mid term work programmes.

− Outputs from commissioned research need to be made available.

− There is a need to ensure that mechanisms and activities are in place to assure and cement a close working relationship between EIGE and its parent DG JUST to ensure that EU funding is

delivered efficiently, effectively and value added is maximised.

▪ Responding to gaps: − EIGE needs to develop a fair and transparent process through which staff consider requests

for support, assess relevance, take decisions and communicate them to stakeholders. The

3 3 Ramboll et al (2009) Evaluation of the decentralised agencies in 2009 Final Report Volume III Agency level

findings


vi

results of this decision making process needs to be systematically communicated to its

stakeholders to ensure transparency.

− Consideration should be given to how EIGE fills data gaps: two possible approaches have been identified: working directly with Eurostat and Member States’ National Statistical services

or legislate.

− EIGE needs to consider how it might work with the European Commission concerning its gender mainstreaming training. There is a potential role for EIGE in developing gender

mainstreaming training material for Commission officials.

▪ The gender equality context − EIGE staff need to keep abreast of policy developments, what gender equality actors do and

how they relate to one another. EIGE is in a unique position to broker knowledge across the

gender equality community, though to do so staff need the underpinning knowledge to

understand how the policy community works so they can signpost stakeholders to activities,

research and other actors from which they can learn.

▪ Planning, monitoring and evaluation − The human and financial resources allocated to planning, monitoring and evaluation need to

be reviewed on an ongoing basis.

− Funding needs to be set aside for research to inform external evaluation as well as for the external evaluation.

− Consideration needs to be given to aligning the timetable for the mid-term work programmes to the Commission’s policy making process.


1

1 Introduction

The European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) came into being as a regulatory agency

of the European Union in December 2006 (Regulation (EC) No 1922/2006). EIGE gained its

administrative independence in June 2010. Article 2 of the Regulation states that its

objectives are:

“to contribute to and strengthen the promotion of gender equality, including gender

mainstreaming in all Community policies and the resulting national policies; to contribute to

the fight against discrimination based on sex; to raise EU citizens’ awareness of gender

equality by providing technical assistance to the Community Institutions, in particular the

Commission and the authorities of the Member States, as set out in Article 3 of the

regulation establishing the European Institute for Gender Equality”.

This report is the final report for the study Lot N° 3, EIGE/2010/OPER/49, Identification N°

038, Second Ex-Ante Evaluation of EIGE focusing on the Institute’s specific objectives and

operations.

1.1 Rationale and scope of the evaluation

As stated in the request for services the main purpose of the evaluation is:

“to provide the necessary guidance to EIGE’s management for the finalisation of the

Institute’s mandate and the definition of its specific tasks – with particular attention to the

aspects relevant to the goal of promoting gender mainstreaming – so that the Institute can

contribute with high quality work to gender equality progress in Europe”.4

Given the purpose identified above, the task of the evaluation team is threefold:

▪ To provide an overview of the context and current situation in respect to gender equality in general and the implementation of gender equality and gender mainstreaming policies

in Member States;

▪ To assess the short-term and long-term needs of EIGE’s stakeholders at national, EU and international level; and

▪ To provide guidance to EIGE’s management for the finalisation of the Institute’s mandate and recommendations that can contribute to:

− The development of objectives and indicators − The development of an evaluation framework that includes baseline values and

targets and specific monitoring arrangements

− An assessment of the expected and future impact of EIGE’s work.

1.2 Key research questions

The terms of reference identified four evaluation questions, as follows, that together govern

the evaluation method and approach:

1. What specific effects should the activities of the Institute produce?

2. What operational objectives and activities would be expected to produce these effects?

3. How can progress be assessed in terms of both implementation and impact of the

Institute’s activities?

4. On the basis of the proposed operational objectives and activities, what impact is the

Institute’s work expected to have?

1.3 Methodological framework and approach

Two key principles underpin the evaluation methodology: a logic model to shape the

development of the evaluation framework and a participatory approach involving EIGE’s

management team in the evaluation process. These two principles are discussed in turn

4 Request for services, EIGE/2010/OPER/49, p 6


2

below along with a short overview of the evaluation process. Detailed information about the

evaluation methodology is found in Annex 1.

1.3.1 The logic model

The evaluation methodology is based on a logic model. The nature of this logic model has

evolved during the research process. The starting point was a theory approach logic model5

that typically presents inputs, activities, outputs, outcomes and impact, informed by the

context and intervention logic (or rationale). As the logic model for this assignment is being

applied in an institutional context driven by the regulation, mid-term and annual work

programmes and annual activity reporting then the evaluation framework needs to evolve as

EIGE itself evolves. In response, the concept of a recursive logic model was introduced. This

recursive approach aims to place monitoring (and evaluation) at the heart of EIGE’s planning

processes where needs and objectives are revisited on a regular basis to ensure that inputs

and activities are relevant given the gender equality context and that associated outputs,

outcomes and impacts are measurable.

1.3.2 The participatory approach

The rationale for the participatory approach was to ensure that EIGE’s staff were actively

involved in the evaluation process. As EIGE’s management team will be responsible for the

implementation of the resulting evaluation framework, it was considered essential to build in

a feedback loop that allowed an exchange of information between the evaluation team and

the management team.

Two workshops were used to present and discuss research findings linked to the inception

and interim reports. The first workshop acted as an opportunity for the research team to

discuss the research findings presented in the inception report and present initial views on

EIGE’s role, objectives and activities relative to its policy context. The second workshop

provided an opportunity to discuss needs emerging from the stakeholder research (see

section 1.3.3 below for further information) and:

▪ How these needs relate to what EIGE is required to deliver, according to its Regulation and available financial and human resources;

▪ How needs could be used to develop proposals for SMART6 objectives and associated indicators.

1.3.3 Overview of the evaluation process

The evaluation process has comprised three discrete elements:

▪ An inception phase, comprising research design and collating material on the gender equality policy context and gender mainstreaming activities at the EU and national levels;

▪ Primary research to understand stakeholders’ needs. This comprised two elements: − An online survey to capture the views of stakeholders working within the national

context

− A series of semi-structured stakeholder interviews conducted with representatives from international organisations, social partners and civil society organisations and

the Community Institutions, including various services of the European

Commission, the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union (a

representative from the Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs

Committee – EPSCO) and, other decentralised agencies

▪ Development work on a framework for monitoring and evaluation and the application of the Commission’s impact assessment methodology to systematically assess the costs

5 W.K Kellogg Foundation, Logic Model Development Guide, see http://www.wkkf.org/knowledge-

center/resources/2010/Logic-Model-Development-Guide.aspx for further information; see also, EC External Services Evaluation Unit. ‘Outcome and impact level intervention logic and indicators: Methodological Approach’ Working Document, http://ec.europa.eu/europaid/how/evaulation/methodology/impact_indicators/wp_meth_en.pdf 6 SMART objectives are specific, measureable, accepted, realistic and timebound.

http://www.wkkf.org/knowledge-center/resources/2010/Logic-Model-Development-Guide.aspxhttp://www.wkkf.org/knowledge-center/resources/2010/Logic-Model-Development-Guide.aspx


3

and benefits linked to the current work programme and proposed objectives and

associated actions.

1.4 Report structure

The report is structured as follows:

▪ Chapter 2 comprises an overview of the gender equality landscape in Europe and presents a baseline, outlining the scale and nature of the problem of gender inequality in

Europe

▪ Chapter 3 explores EIGE’s service offer relative to the gender equality policy context and identified needs of its stakeholders

▪ Chapter 4 provides an overview of the activities of other stakeholders and explores how these effect EIGE’s objectives and activities

▪ Chapter 5 presents proposed specific and operational objectives for EIGE that appear relevant based on the research findings

▪ Chapter 6 provides an outline framework for monitoring and evaluation based on the proposed operational objectives

▪ Chapter 7 presents a practical tool for monitoring and evaluating progress of the activities of the Institute

▪ Chapter 8 presents outline conclusions and recommendations.

A series of annexes provide the following supporting material:

▪ Annex 1: Evaluation methodology ▪ Annex 2: Organisations consulted ▪ Annex 3: Statistical tables ▪ Annex 4: Overview of the activities and identified outputs of EIGE ▪ Annex 5: Identified needs at the national, European and international levels ▪ Annex 6: Gender mainstreaming


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2 The gender equality landscape in Europe

2.1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is twofold:

▪ To provide an overview of the establishment of the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) and of the policy landscape within which the Institute operates; and

▪ To explore the scale and nature of the problem of gender inequality in Europe.

This overview acts as an introduction to the presentation of the objectives and activities of

EIGE as currently defined in its Regulation and annual and mid-term Work Programmes

and the examination of the extent to which these objectives correspond to the needs of its

stakeholders that follows in Chapter 3.

2.2 The establishment of EIGE

The idea of setting up a gender equality institute in Europe was introduced in 1995. Since

then, several initiatives were taken to examine the need, potential role and activities of the

institute. As detailed below, the preparatory process for the establishment of the Institute

lasted more than ten years and key advocates for the creation of the Institute were members

of the Women’s Rights Committee of the European Parliament.

As specified above, the initial premise for establishing a European Gender Institute Equality

emerged in 1995. Subsequently Ms Margareta Winberg, the then Swedish Minister for

Gender Equality, presented a draft proposal for its establishment at a seminar in Stockholm

in June 1999. Participants at the seminar confirmed the need for a gender institute that acted

as a ‘knowledge centre’ that coordinated and distributed information and exchanged

knowledge.7

In 2000, the final version of the social policy agenda, approved by the Nice Council, explicitly

referenced the establishment of a European Gender Institute as a means to further promote

gender equality and identified the need to conduct a feasibility study. This feasibility study

was conducted by PLS Ramboll on behalf of the European Commission in 2002 (hereafter

referred to as the EC feasibility study), which confirmed that “there was a clear role for a

European Institute for Gender Equality”.

While the feasibility study supported the rationale for establishing a European Gender

Institute, no concrete steps were taken. Hence, the Women’s Rights Committee of the

European Parliament, concerned by the lack of activity, put the idea of a European Gender

Institute back on the political agenda with its Resolution in March 2004 which invited the

Commission to accelerate its efforts leading to the creation of an Institute. This resolution

was underpinned by research conducted by Yellow Window Management Consultants which

was published in June 2004 (Role of a Future European Gender Institute). This report

provided a rationale for a European Gender Institute as well as presenting initial proposals

concerning the objectives, roles, tasks, target groups, structure of a European Gender

Equality Institute as well as its size and budget.

In March 2005, Vladimír Špidla, the then EU Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs

and Equal Opportunities, proposed the establishment of a new European Institute for Gender

Equality. The core tasks for the Institute, identified in the proposal, were those outlined in the

EC’s 2002 feasibility study:

▪ To collect and disseminate information, especially with a more practical emphasis and work on developing information standards which can be made more compatible;

▪ To promote cooperation and networking; ▪ Develop and test tools, models and methods for the implementation of gender

mainstreaming;

7 Directorate General Internal Policies (15 June 2004) Role of a Future European Gender Institute


5

▪ Increase the visibility for gender equality through campaigns, seminars and workshops; and coordinate research.

8

This proposal turned into an operational initiative when the European Parliament and the

Council adopted Regulation (EC) No 1922/2006 of 20 December 2006 on establishing a

European Institute for Gender Equality9. The Institute was established in May 2007, with

financial and administrative autonomy granted in June 2010. The preparatory process from

Ms Winberg draft proposal to autonomous Institute took eleven years.

2.3 Gender equality policy context within which EIGE operates

Throughout this preparatory period significant developments have taken place in the gender

equality policy context in Europe that affected the role of the Institute. Agnès Hubert and

Maria Stratigaki point out that when the Institute was initially agreed in 1999 there was a

favourable political climate in Europe towards gender equality10

. The Treaty of Amsterdam

introduced gender mainstreaming in 1997, the Charter of Fundamental Rights included

provisions on gender equality beyond the labour market and the Lisbon Treaty enlarged the

scope of gender mainstreaming and established gender equality as a value of the Union.

Furthermore, since 1999, anti-discrimination and equality policy has taken a more prominent

role on the EU’s social agenda due to the alleged increase of racist incidents in Member

States. Taking these changes into consideration they argue that there is a discrepancy

between the rationale of the creation of the Institute and its final character as shaped by the

Regulation. Their recent article states that when the concept of the Institute was first raised

in 1995 the European women’s constituency envisaged the creation of an institute that had a

political role to play in decision-making about gender issues. However, in their opinion, the

Council Regulation of 2006 establishes an institute whose role is primarily

scientific/technocratic rather than political and its remit more procedural than innovative.

Starting with the Roadmap for Equality between women and men (2006-2010), this sub-

section provides an overview of some of the policy developments and legislation that have

been introduced that either make direct reference to EIGE or concern EIGE’s activities since

the first ex-ante evaluation of EIGE, and provide the context within with the Institute currently

operates. This section also makes references to the European Commission’s Strategy for

equality between women and men 2010-2015, outlining resolutions concerning

developments in the areas of gender-based violence, health inequalities and the Resolution

on Beijing +15. These are the key documents that set the thematic priorities and policy

context within which EIGE operates.

2.3.1.1 Roadmap for equality between women and men (2006-2010)

The year 2006 was momentous for development in gender equality policy. In addition to the

establishment of EIGE, the year was marked by the launch of the Roadmap for equality

between women and men and the agreement on the Gender equality pact by the Council of

Ministers (EC 200611

; 200612

). The Roadmap set six priorities for gender equality policy,

namely:

▪ Equal economic independence for women and men; ▪ Reconciliation of private and professional life;

8 Feasibility study for a European Gender Equality Institute, presented in Commission Staff Working Document,

Annex to the Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a European Institute for Gender Equality, Ex-ante Evaluation {COM(2005)81 final} 9 Council Regulation (EC) No 1922/2006 of 20 December 2006 (OJ L 403/9 of 30.12.2006). http://eur-

lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:403:0009:0017:EN:PDF 10 Agnès Hubert and Maria Stratigaki (2011). The European Institute for Gender Equality: A window of opportunity for gender equality policies?, European Journal of Women’s Studies, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 169-181 (p. 170). 11

"Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social committee and the Committee of the Regions - A Roadmap for equality between women and men 2006-2010", Commission of the European Communities 2006/275 12

“European Pact for Gender Equality”, European Council 23 -24 March 2006

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:403:0009:0017:EN:PDFhttp://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:403:0009:0017:EN:PDF


6

▪ Equal representation in decision-making; ▪ Eradication of all forms of gender-based violence; ▪ Elimination of gender stereotypes; and ▪ Promotion of gender equality in third countries.

As negotiations for EIGE’s Regulation and the Roadmap were taking place concurrently, it

appears that the two documents complement each other. The identified actions that are

required to implement the Roadmap are similar to the ones that appear in EIGE’s

Regulation, and include among others:

▪ Modernisation of the existing EU gender equality legislation; ▪ The integration of gender into all community policies; ▪ Raising awareness as a means to eliminate gender stereotypes; ▪ Dialogue with EU citizens; ▪ Better statistics and data disaggregated by sex, new indicators and a new composite

Gender Equality Index to facilitate comparisons across EU Member States;

▪ Research activities; ▪ Further development of the European database on women and men in decision-making; ▪ Better data collection capacity on gender mainstreaming in developing countries in the

context of the Beijing Platform for Action.

As a newly established agency specialising on gender issues, EIGE had a prominent role in

the Roadmap: its responsibility was to monitor most of the above mentioned actions for the

implementation of the European Commission’s strategy.

Even though the Roadmap raised the profile of gender equality issues in Europe, its

achievements were modest. According to the 2010 Parliament report on assessment of the

results of the 2006-2010 Roadmap for equality between women and men, and forward-

looking recommendations, the Roadmap has been credited with raising the profile of gender

equality issues it lacked the political force to translate its ambitions into practice. This raises

the following inter-related issues:

▪ Whether delayed establishment of the Institute was a contributory factor in the lack of progress concerning the objectives of the European Commission’s strategy; and / or

▪ Whether the lack of progress concerning the European Commission’s strategy delayed the establishment of the Institute?

2.3.1.2 European Commission’s Strategy for equality between women and men 2010-2015

Following up on the Roadmap, the key policy developments that provide the context within

which EIGE currently operates are as follows:

▪ The European Commission’s Strategy for equality between women and men 2010-2015; ▪ Council Conclusions and European Parliament Resolutions on gender-based violence; ▪ Parliament Resolution in the area of health inequalities; and ▪ the EU Parliament resolution on women's rights: strategic goals of Beijing Platform not

yet achieved

The European Commission’s Strategy for equality between women and men 2010-201513

,

which was endorsed by the Commission on the 21 September 2010, builds on the Roadmap

for equality between women and men 2006-2010 and the European Pact for Gender

Equality. The Strategy represents the Commission's work programme on gender equality for

the next five years. It follows the dual approach of specific initiatives and measures (e.g.

getting more women into company boardrooms or tackling gender-based violence) and the

integration of equality between women and men into all EU policies and activities ("gender

13

The European Commission‘s Strategy for equality between women and men, 2010-2015, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, 21 September 2010, Brussels COM(2010) 491 final


7

mainstreaming") which has become the hallmark of the EU's work to promote gender

equality.

The European Commission’s Strategy outlines actions under the five priority areas defined in

the Women’s Charter as follows:

▪ Equal economic independence; ▪ Equal pay for equal work and work of equal value; ▪ Equality in senior positions; ▪ Dignity, integrity and tackling gender-based violence; and ▪ Gender equality in external relations.

Horizontal issues accompany the above priorities such as actions to eliminate gender

stereotypes in education and employment, which directly builds on one of the priorities from

the earlier Roadmap. The European Commission’s Strategy includes a series of actions

around the priority areas, such as:

▪ Activities directed at increasing female labour market participation and helping to reach the Europe 2020 target employment rate of 75 percent;

▪ Putting forward targeted initiatives to get more women into top jobs in economic decision-making;

▪ Promoting female entrepreneurship and self employment; ▪ Instituting an annual European Equal Pay Day to raise awareness of the fact that

women’s pay is 17.5 per cent less than men’s across the EU;

▪ Working together with all Member States in combating violence against women, especially eradicating female genital mutilation in Europe and beyond; and

▪ Work together with accession countries to the EU in the field of equal treatment between men and women, and assist Western Balkan countries and Turkey with the transposition

and enforcement of legislation in this area.

EIGE is mentioned in the Strategy and its role is defined as follows:

▪ Support the development and up-date of indicators in the critical areas of the Beijing Platform for Action (2011 – 2015);

▪ Set up a documentation centre accessible to the public with existing statistics, data and information, functioning models and approaches to gender mainstreaming (2012);

▪ Provide support to the development of mainstreaming tools and methods (2011 – 2015); ▪ Develop a gender equality index (2012); and ▪ Establish a virtual European Network on gender equality (2012).

2.3.1.3 Council Conclusions and European Parliament Resolutions on gender equality issues

Gender based violence, health inequalities and the strategic goals of the Beijing Platform not

yet achieved are the three other thematic areas that are prioritised in Council Conclusions

and Parliament Resolution, and in which EIGE is identified as having a role to play.

The elimination of gender-based violence is not only a priority of the European Commission’s

Strategy (described above) but also of the European Commission’s Women’s Charter

adopted in March 2010 and of two recent Council Conclusions and Parliament Resolutions14

.

Even though the primary responsibility for combating gender based violence is with the

Member States, both the European Union in general, and EIGE more specifically, have a

role to play in this area. EIGE is currently undertaking studies in this area (on gender-based

14 Council Conclusions on the eradication of violence against women include the following: (i) Council

Conclusions (8 March 2010, Employment and Social Policy Council meeting); (ii) Council Conclusions from the

General Affairs Council (26 April 2010) on improving prevention to tackle violence against women and care to its

victims within the scope of law enforcement. In addition, two recent resolutions by the European Parliament were

adopted in 2009 in this area: (i) The elimination of violence against women’ (P7_TA(2009)0098); (ii) Combating

female genital mutilation in the EU’ (P6_TA(2009)0161).


8

violence and men and masculinities, a study to identify and map existing data and resources

on sexual violence against women in the European Union) and staff have recently met with

policy practitioners and researchers working in this field.

On 8 March 2011 the European Parliament (EP) adopted a Resolution on ‘Reducing health

inequalities in the EU’.15

The Resolution is a significant step forward in ensuring equitable

access to healthcare for women and men, with no discrimination linked to legal status or the

financial resources of individuals. Even if the text is not legally binding for the EU Member

States, it sends a clear message to national and EU policy makers that gender-based

inequalities in health need to be addressed in Europe. Key recommendations of the

Resolution include:

▪ The recognition of male violence against women as a public health issue; ▪ The recognition of sexual and reproductive rights; ▪ The inclusion of gender mainstreaming and the use of gender budgeting in health

policies, programmes and research;

▪ The need to pay attention to the vulnerable position of members of minority groups (e.g. migrant or disable women); and

▪ The rights of undocumented migrant women, men and children to have access to health care.

On 25 February 2010, the European Parliament adopted the resolution on Beijing +15 - UN

Platform for Action for Gender Equality16

, This resolution assesses the targets set at the

Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing in 1995. In this resolution, the

Parliament urges the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) to develop strategies

and tools for gender mainstreaming, particularly in the areas of gender impact assessment

and gender budgeting. It also encourages EIGE to promote the exchange of knowledge

between Member States in all fields addressed in the Beijing Platform.

2.4 The problem of gender inequality in Europe

The above mentioned documents outline the key thematic priorities of gender equality in

Europe and provide a framework of how EIGE should operate. This sub-section provides an

overview of the scale (including their current magnitude and trends) and nature of the

problems that the Institute seeks to address.

This is necessary in order to examine the potential added value of EIGE’s activities to

address these problems and the extent to which the Institute’s current activities reflect needs

or whether they should be revised (Chapter 3).

2.4.1 Scale and nature of the problem of gender inequality in Europe

While significant advances have been achieved concerning gender equality since the

establishment of the European Union, inequalities persist. EU action continues concerning

the achievement of gender equality to protect fundamental rights, combat discrimination,

strengthen social cohesion, reaffirm shared values and mobilise women’s full potential in

boosting EU competitiveness, growth and prosperity.

The section explores the following aspects of the problem:

▪ The gap between male and female employment rates and its associated costs; ▪ Unequal division of unpaid work between men and women and lack of childcare facilities; ▪ Gender pay gap; ▪ Lower rates of female entrepreneurs;

15

European Parliament, Report on reducing health inequalities in the EU (2010/2089(INI), http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+REPORT+A7-2011-0032+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN 16

http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=MOTION&reference=B7-2010-0118&language=EN

http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+REPORT+A7-2011-0032+0+DOC+PDF+V0//ENhttp://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+REPORT+A7-2011-0032+0+DOC+PDF+V0//ENhttp://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=MOTION&reference=B7-2010-0118&language=EN


9

▪ The limited influence that higher levels of educational attainment among women has had on their employment rates;

▪ The higher risk of poverty for women, especially for single parents and those aged above 65;

▪ The limited participation of women in political and economic decision-making; ▪ The fact that women are the main victims of gender-based violence; ▪ The reproduction of gender stereotypes in the media; ▪ The fact that women live longer but have less healthy life years; ▪ Gender inequalities in the framework of the environment; ▪ The negative impact the economic downturn has on gender equality issues; and ▪ Gender inequalities within immigrant and minority communities.

The section presents data from Eurostat and the European Commission’s DG Justice

database. Annex 3 contains detailed statistical information to support the analysis presented

here where data are available. The analysis has been supplemented by information from

other sources including the Commission Staff Working Document accompanying the

European Commission’s Strategy for equality between women and men 2010-2015, the

European Commission’s 2010 Report on Equality between Women and Men, the 2009 and

2010 Reports of the Advisory Committee on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men,17

the

Special Eurobarometer Report on Gender Equality in the EU (2009)18

and the OECD report

on Gender and Sustainable Development: Maximising the economic, social and

environmental role of women (2008)19

.

2.4.1.1 The gap between male and female employment rates and its associated costs

According to the OECD report on Gender and Sustainable Development ‘women, which

constitute half of the world’s human capital, are one of its most underutilised resources’20

.

Even though in the last ten years the gap between female and male employment rates has

reduced by 5.2 p.p., in 2010 female employment rates (for 15-64 year olds) remain lower

than male ones in 25 of the 27 EU Member States21

. The 2010 female employment rate

(for 15-64 year olds) at 58.2 per cent is 11.9 p.p. lower than the equivalent male employment

rate (70.1 per cent) (Tables 1 and 2, Annex 3). While the equivalent male employment rate

remains higher in all Member States, Lithuania and Latvia are the exceptions..

By 2010 the EU female employment rate22

was 58.2 per cent, 1.8 p.p, lower than the 60 per

cent target for 2010 outlined in the Lisbon Strategy (Table 1, Annex 3). While the EU target

is in sight, there are considerable differences at the Member State level: eleven countries

have reached or surpassed the target, while others fall considerably short:

▪ In two countries the employment rate of women exceeds Lisbon’s total employment rate target of 70 per cent (DK, SE)

▪ In a further nine countries the employment rate of women exceeds the 60 per cent target (AT, CY, DE, EE, FI, NL, PT, SI, UK)

▪ The Lisbon target of 60 per cent has almost been reached in three countries (FR, LT, LV).

17

Advisory Committee on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men (2009). Opinion on the Gender Perspective on the Response to the Economic and Financial Crisis, http://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=2878&langId=en and Advisory Committee on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men (2010). The Future of Gender Equality Policy after 2010, http://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=5362&langId=en 18

http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_326_en.pdf 19

http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/58/1/40881538.pdf 20

OECD (2008). Gender and Sustainable Development: Maximising the economic, social and environmental role of women’. 21

Eurostat, LFS, ; (fsi_emp_a). Data extracted on 22 June 2011. 22

The employment rate is calculated by dividing the number of persons aged 15-64 in employment by the total population of the same age group. The indicator is based on the EU Labour Force Survey.

http://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=2878&langId=enhttp://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=5362&langId=enhttp://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_326_en.pdfhttp://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/58/1/40881538.pdf


10

▪ In ten countries the employment rate falls below both the 60 per cent target and the achieved EU average employment rate of 58.2 per cent (BE, BG, CZ, ES, HU, IE,LU, PL,

RO, SK) but is higher than 50 percent

▪ In three countries the female employment rate is below 50 per cent (EL, IT, MT).

Any positive assessment of the trend in women’s employment is offset by the fact that a high

percentage of them work part-time. Eurostat data for 2010 show that an average of 30.8 per

cent of women in the EU in work, work part time, compared with only 7.2 per cent of men

(Tables 5 and 6, Annex 3). More than 40 per cent of women work part time in Austria,

Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. The share of female part time

workers is also high (above 30 per cent) in Denmark, Ireland, Luxembourg and Sweden.

Conversely, the share of part-time workers is below 10 per cent in Bulgaria, the Czech

Republic, Hungary, Lithuania, Romania and Slovakia.

Having children affects women and men’s employment rates quite differently:

▪ For women their labour market participation drops by an average 12 p.p.; ▪ For men, labour market participation increases by 9.1 p.p.

In 2009, the employment rate for women aged 20-49, with one child under six years old was

65.1 per cent, compared to 77.1 per cent for those without children, a difference of 12 p.p.

(Tables 13 and 14, Annex 3). Data across Member States show considerable difference. In

the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary and Slovakia, for example, the percentage point

difference between the employment rates of women with children and those without exceeds

25 p.p. The percentage point difference between the employment rates of women with

compared to those without children in Bulgaria, Finland, Latvia, Malta and the United

Kingdom exceeds 15 p.p..

However, in a small number of Member States (BE, FR, NL, PT, RO and SI), the impact of

parenthood on the female employment rate is limited at less than five p.p.

Looking forward, the Europe 2020 strategy, launched in March 2010, established a new set

of EU headline targets. Concerning employment, the relevant EU headline target23

is to aim

to raise to 75 % the employment rate for women and men aged 20-64, including through

greater participation of young people, older workers and low-skilled workers and better

integration of legal migrants. Data for 2010 concerning 20-64 year olds indicate that

employment rate for women was 62.1 per cent whereas the equivalent male figure was 75.1

per cent (Tables 3 and 4, Annex 3). Supporting the 2020 strategy, the Employment

Guidelines (see text box below) state that gender equality should be integrated into all

relevant policy areas and national policies should improve the situation of women in the

labour market and combat discrimination in order to increase female labour force

participation.24

Employment Guideline 7 aims at increasing labour market participation of women and

men, reducing structural unemployment and promoting job quality, and encourages

policies to fight against gender inequality, by promoting equal pay and conditions for a

better work-life balance.

Employment Guideline 8 aims at developing a skilled workforce responding to labour market needs and promoting lifelong learning encouraging Member States to create policies promoting further opportunities for training, skills and professional experience of women, including the fields of scientific, mathematics and technology.

Source: Adapted from the Commission Staff Working Document accompanying the European

Commission’s Communication ‘Strategy for equality between women and men 2010-2015, (COM

(2010) 491, SEC (2010) 1079), Brussels 21.9.2010

23

European Council Conclusions 17 June 2010 (EUCO 13/10). 24

Commission Staff Working Document accompanying the European Commission’s ‘Strategy for equality between women and men 2010-2015, (COM (2010) 491, SEC (2010) 1079), Brussels 21.9.2010


11

Closing gender gaps in the employment rate is primarily an issue of equal treatment between

women and men in Europe; it is also considered a matter of efficiency. Lower female

participation in the labour market has significant economic costs in society as a whole.

According to the OECD’s report on Gender and Sustainable Development, from a

macroeconomic perspective, the increase in women’s participation in the labour market has

accounted for a quarter of annual economic growth since 199525

. It is estimated that if

female employment were raised to the male rate, growth in gross domestic product (GDP)

would be substantial in developed countries. For example, a UK study by the Women and

Work Commission identified that the country could gain two per cent of GDP by better

harnessing women’s skills26

. This translates into a loss of approx. 29.1 billion GBP (EUR

33.1 billion) to the UK economy27

. If the costs to the UK economy are scaled up to the EU 27

level, the total loss can be estimated at EUR 236.4 billion.28

2.4.1.2 Unequal division of unpaid work between men and women and lack of childcare facilities

2007 data from the Second European Quality of Life Survey shows that employed women

still undertake the bulk of unpaid care work: employed women spend 46 hours a week on

average on home care activities compared to 26 hours for men (Table 10, Annex 3).

The availability of care services for children and other dependent persons (e.g. an elderly

relative) is an important factor affecting women’s opportunities to participate in the labour

market. Most Member States have failed to reach the EU targets for the provision of care

facilities for children29

(90 per cent for children aged between three and the age when

compulsory schooling begins and at least 33 per cent for children below three years of age),

considered important in enhancing work-life balance for parents.

Data for 2009 shows that 27 per cent of children aged under three are covered by formal

care services (Table 11, Annex 3). However, the proportion of children covered varies

enormously across Member States and acts as key barrier to labour market participation. In

the EU, in 2008 around 30 per cent of working-age women with care responsibilities are

inactive or work part-time because of the lack of care services for children and other

dependent persons. Also in this case, there is considerable variation across Member States:

inactivity affects less than 10 per cent of working age women in Denmark, the Netherlands

and Sweden but is much higher (60 per cent or above) in Greece and Spain and more than

80 per cent in Latvia and Romania. 30

As well as access to care services, the cost of childcare is also highlighted as a key

concern.31

Another aspect of the problem is that women continue to discharge the bulk of household

duties and, without pay, their work at home remains undervalued. According to the OECD,

women would account for more than half of GDP in the OECD area if the value of housework

and childcare were included in national accounting32

. However, female “non-financial”

activities are not reflected in official statistics, a situation that undercuts the contribution of

women’s unpaid work to the economic growth of countries.

25

OECD (2008) Gender and Sustainable Development: Maximising the economic, social and environmental role of women. 26

Women and Work Commission (WWC) (2006), Shaping a Fairer Future, United Kingdom. 27

Exchange rate (GBP1 = EUR 1.14) calculated using www.xe.com as at 13 July 2011. 28

UK GDP (at current prices) in 2010 accounted for nearly 14 per cent of EU 27 GDP. 29

COM (2008) 638, quoted in Commission Staff Working Document accompanying the European Commission’s ‘Strategy for equality between women and men 2010-2015, (COM (2010) 491, SEC (2010) 1079), Brussels 21.9.2010. 30

European Commission (2010) Report on Equality between Women and Men 2010, p. 25. 31

Special Eurobarometer (February 2010) Gender Equality in the EU in 2009 32

OECD (2008). Gender and Sustainable Development: Maximising the economic, social and environmental role of women.

http://www.xe.com/


12

2.4.1.3 Gender pay gap

Data for 2009 shows that the gender pay gap is 17.1 per cent33

for the European Union (Table 15, Annex 3). There is considerable variation across Member States as follows:

▪ A gender pay gap at or above the EU average in Austria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Germany, Finland, Hungary, the Netherlands, Slovakia, the United Kingdom

▪ A gender pay gap at between 10-17 per cent in Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Ireland Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Portugal, Spain, Sweden,

▪ A gender pay gap of less than 10 per cent in Italy, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovenia.34

Despite best efforts, for EU Presidencies, in 2009 the gender pay gap increased in seven

Member States (BG, FI, IT, LV, LU, PT, SK)35

.

The recent Eurobarometer report on Gender Equality in the EU in 2009 highlighted the

gender pay gap as one of the top two priorities for action, along with violence against

women.

2.4.1.4 Low female entrepreneurship rates

Female entrepreneurs account for only 33.2 per cent of the self-employed36

and just 30

per cent of business start-ups. A recent Eurobarometer survey showed that more men than

women express a preference for self–employment: around one in two men expressed such a

preference, compared to around four in ten women37

. Often, women do not consider

entrepreneurship as a relevant career option and report that their decision to start a business

is driven by an unmet social or ecological need (60 per cent of women compared to 52 per

cent of men). Low female entrepreneurship rate results in missed opportunities given that

entrepreneurship creates employment and innovation.

2.4.1.5 Higher levels of education attainment among women has limited influence on their employment rates

Data indicates a trend towards young women, aged 20-24, out-performing young men in

terms of educational attainment in all Member States, Bulgaria and Slovakia excepted.

In practice, this means that they leave school qualified at ISCED level 3, which corresponds

to upper secondary education. On average, 81.8 per cent of young women left school at this

level in the EU in 2010 compared to only 76.2 per cent of young men (Tables 16 and 17,

Annex 3).

Turning to tertiary education, in 2006 59 per cent of university graduates in the EU are

women and women represent more than half of all graduates in all Member States38

. In

Estonia, Hungary, Latvia and Lithuania, women account for more than 65 per cent of all

graduates.

Even though women outnumber men among university graduates, they are under-

represented among high level researchers and academic staff. Women represent only

19 per cent of the grade A academic professors in public universities39

. Even though women

account for more than half of all university graduates, they are under-represented in certain

subjects (e.g. science, maths, informatics and engineering).

33

Provisional figure, sourced from Eurostat, 22.06.11. Table reference: Gender pay gap in unadjusted form in % [tsiem040]. 34

2009 data are not available for Belgium, Estonia and Greece. 35

2008 data are not available for Estonia and 2009 data are not available for Belgium, Estonia and Greece.. 36

Eurostat EU-25, referenced in Commission Staff Working Document accompanying the European Commission’s Strategy for equality between women and men 2010-2015, (COM (2010) 491, SEC (2010) 1079), Brussels 21.9.2010. 37

Flash Eurobarometer on Entrepreneurship 283 (2009). 38

European Commission (2010). Report on Equality between Women and Men 2010, p. 8. 39

European Commission, She Figures 2009 – Statistics and Indicators on Gender Equality in Science, 2009, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/document_library/pdf_06/she_figures_2009_en.pdf

http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/document_library/pdf_06/she_figures_2009_en.pdf


13

While an increasing proportion of women are achieving academically and these trends are

expected to have a positive impact on women’s labour market outcomes in the future, to

date high levels of academic achievement does not always translate into employment

outcomes.

Headline statistics from the recent DG EAC Communication Tackling early school leaving: A

key contribution to the Europe 2020 Agenda40

identifies that more than six million young

people left secondary education with secondary level education or less, which equates to

12.2 per cent of female 18-24 year olds and 16 per cent of males in 2010 (Table 18 and 19,

Annex 3). To explain the gender dimension of the problem of early school leavers the

Communication indicates that boys tend to experience more difficulties than girls in adapting

to the school environment and have lower achievement levels. As well, boys are over-

represented among pupils with disabilities and are more likely to show emotional and

behavioural problems or specific learning difficulties. Other research indicates that boys from

working class backgrounds among all ethnic and minority groups are the most likely to have

literacy problems and to leave school early.41

2.4.1.6 Women are at higher risk of poverty, especially single parents and those above 65

On average women have lower pension income and a higher exposure to poverty

(income at or below 60 per cent of the national median income) than men. Significant

gender inequalities are evident, especially among elderly women (over the age of 65) whose

risk of poverty in 2009 was 24.2 per cent compared to 18.3 per cent among elderly men

(Table 22 and 23, Annex 3). Single parents, who are mainly women, are also exposed to a

high poverty risk (with a risk of poverty in 2008 of 35 per cent), women with disabilities and

from minority ethnic groups also experience higher poverty risks. While comparisons

between the sexes are based on the assumption of equal sharing of resources within

households, women are often secondary earners or are without income42

, hence their

economic independence is often limited and some of them face a high risk of poverty in the

event of relationship break-up, divorce or death of their partner.43

Therefore, the current

figures of at-risk-of-poverty rates at household level cannot fully reflect the individual

situation of women and men.

Integrated Guideline 10 of the Europe 2020 Strategy44

Promoting social inclusion and

combating poverty seeks to promote national policies that protect women from the risk of

exclusion, ensuring income security for one-parent families, elderly women and men.

Even though reducing both the threat of and actual poverty among women and other

vulnerable persons is a human rights issue, there is also the wider economic argument

behind poverty reduction. The 2010 Global Gender Gap report identified a link between

40

COM (2011) 18 final, 31.1.2011 41

GENDER AND EDUCATION (AND EMPLOYMENT) Gendered imperatives and their implications for women and men, lessons from research for policymakers, an independent report submitted to the European Commission by the NESSE networks of experts, 2009. 42

Bettio, F. and Verashchagina A (2009) Fiscal systems and female employment in Europe, EGGE – European Network of Experts on Employment and Gender Equality issues, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini. Based on EU-SILC data, the authors argue that the proportion of couples in which the woman is the secondary earner (accounting for less than 45 per cent of the household earnings) or does not earn a salary is 63.5 per cent in the EU on average (non weighted). It ranges from 53 per cent in Slovenia to 81 per cent in Austria. http:// ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=5545&langId=en

43 The Belgian Gender and Income Analysis (BGIA) project has calculated individualised at risk of poverty rates

(based on individualised income for women and men) which lead to much higher gender gaps between women and men. For Belgium in 2007, this individualised risk of poverty was 36 per cent for women and 11 per cent for men, compared to 16 per cent for women and 13 per cent for men based on household measurements. Although these calculations are based on the strong hypothesis of absence of sharing of resources between household members (instead of the hypothesis of total sharing of resources), they reflect certain gaps in the economic independence of women and men and the risk of poverty women would face in the event of break-up, divorce or death of their partner. 44

Proposal for a Council Decision on Guidelines for Employment Policies of the Member States: Part II on the Europe 2020 Integrated Guidelines, Council document 10907/10 (June 2010).


14

poverty alleviation in countries and the development of their female human capital. The

Gender Gap Index, introduced by the World Economic Forum in 2006, shows a correlation

between gender equality (as measured by the economic participation, education, health and

political empowerment of women), the level of competitiveness and Gross Domestic Product

(GDP) per capita (see Figure 2.1 below). This evidence suggests that although economic

progress can improve the status of women, a country cannot progress if its women are left

behind.

Figure 2.1 Relationship between GDP per capita and the Global Gender Gap Index 2010 scores

Source: World Economic Forum (2010). The global gender gap report,

http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GenderGap_Report_2010.pdf

2.4.1.7 Participation of women in political and economic decision-making remains low

Despite some positive developments in women’s representation in decision-making, gender imbalance continues to exist at all levels in both the public and private sectors. Indeed, the Special Eurobarometer on Gender Equality in the EU in 2009 highlighted that more than half of the Europeans polled (55 per cent) thought that the female / male ratio in parliaments should be addressed urgently.

In 2011 in the EU, wome

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