sea and human secursea and human securityity · sea and human secur ity lbj school ut austin lyndon...

Edited by Nassrine Azimi • Matt Fuller • Hiroko Nakayama

Proceedings of an International Conference

Hiroshima, March 2002Sea an

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man

Security LB

J School UT A

ustin

Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs

The University of Texas at Austin

Sea and Human SecuritySea and Human SecuritySea and Human Security

Published in cooperation with theUnited Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR)

Hiroshima Prefectural Government

Institute and Seminar Proceedings SeriesISBN: 0-89940-118-X

Sea and Human Security: Proceedings of an

International Conference

Hiroshima, March 2002

Edited by Nassrine Azimi, Matt Fuller, and Hiroko Nakayama

Published in cooperation with the United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR)


Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs The University of Texas at Austin

Library of Congress Control No.: xx-xxxx ISBN: 0-89940-118-X

©2002 by The University of Texas at Austin

Cover and book design by Doug Marshall LBJ School Office of CommunicationsCover photo: View of the Seto Inland Sea from Mount Yasumi, Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan (courtesy of the Hiroshima Prefectural Government)

Printed in the U.S.A. All rights reserved

In Memoriam

This conference and its proceedings are dedicated to Professor Elisabeth Mann Borgese

in honor of her life and her tireless work for the oceans

ContentsAcknowledgments vii

Foreword ixContributors xi

List of Acronyms xix

Welcome and Opening Remarks 1Yuzan Fujita 1

Yuji Ikeda 1Nassrine Azimi 2

Otinielu Tauteleimalae Tausi 3

Keynote Address: Integrating Sustainable Development and Security 7Gunnar Kullenberg

Session I: An Overview of the Sea and Global Change 19

Climate Change: Impacts, Adaptations, and Vulnerability 21Rabinder MalikDiscussion 26

Challenges and Obstacles for Coastal Zone Management in India 29Senthil Vel

Discussion 31

Session II: Interrelationship between Degradation of Coastal Zones and the Environment 33

East Asian Seas Initiatives 35Chua Thia-EngDiscussion 41

Thailand’s Coastal and Marine Management 45Saksit Tridech and Pornsook Chongprasith

Session III: Impact of Fish Stocks and Issues of Food and Economic Security 63

Mankind’s Impact on Fish Stocks and the Issues of Food and Economic Security of Coastal Communities 65

John CaddyDiscussion 70

Sustainable Marine Fishery Habitat: Its Impact on Human Security 73

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Sea and Human Security

B.A. HamzahDiscussion 76

High-Seas Fisheries Governance: Recent Trends and Issues in the Asia-Pacific Region 79Moritaka HayashiDiscussion 88

Session IV: The Sea and Man-Made Disasters 91

Contemporary Issues of Pollution in the Marine Environment: Risks and Challenges 93Rudolf Wu

Twelve Recommendations on Oil Spills 97Akio Inoue

Discussion 101

Sea Transportation Industry 105Hasjim Djalal

Discussion 109

The Sea Transport Industry and the Challenges of State Regulation 113Alan Khee-Jin TanDiscussion 119

Closing Remarks 121Fumuo Kono 121

Marcel A. Boisard 121Hiroyuki Nakahara 124

Mohamed Tangi 127

Appendixes 131

Appendix A. Conference Participants 133Appendix B. Conference Agenda 137

Appendix C. Background on UNITAR Hiroshima Programmes 141Appendix D. Panel of Experts Press Conference 143

Acknowledgments

The objective of this publication is to ensure that the largest number of individuals and institutions around the world are able to benefit, in a timely manner, from our discussions and findings at the “sea and human security”

conference, cohosted in March 2002 in hiroshima by the united nations institute for training and research (unitar) and the hiroshima prefectural government.

first and foremost we wish to express our deep gratitude to the conference resource persons, who constitute the authors of this volume. though we are guilty of exercising much undue pressure on them for the submission of their papers, they have graciously and generously met all our requirements and impossible deadlines. We wish to thank them here for their commitment and inspiration. each and every one, in his or her particular area, brought a perspective that has given depth and reality to our topic.

We wish to thank the staff of the hiroshima prefectural government for their unrelent-ing and devoted commitment to this work and to unitar, and for their hard work prior, during and after the conference.

professor David eaton at the university of texas at austin has been an ally of unitar for many years, and once again demonstrated his intellectual generosity and command of the substance as he wisely guided us in the choice of the topics and speakers, and then spent many precious hours editing the manuscript. he is not our only partner at ut aus-tin’s lyndon b. johnson school of public affairs: Dean ed Dorn has personally been fully supportive of the many joint initiatives with unitar; Moira foreman was relentless with her review of the manuscript; and in the office of communications, Marilyn Duncan and María de la luz Martínez made things happen. We are grateful to all of them.

it would not be possible to mention the many people who helped in the conference preparations but a few, at least, should be acknowledged: Dr. stjepan Keckes, whose immense knowledge and generous nature made him a gold mine of information; ambas-sadors tommy Koh and Mohammed tangi, who went far beyond the call of duty to help us identify speakers; unitar special fellows professor akio inoue and Mr takeshi inoue, who were always available to provide counsel and helpful suggestions; and the hiroshima university, in particular professor shuichi nakayama and his outstanding team of associates Kaori okabe, Kayo ikeda and hideki nakashima, who have become the most invaluable and loyal partners.

our cochairs, governor Yuzan fujita and Dr. Marcel boisard, were patient and sup-portive of our ideas and our work throughout, and contributed personally to all aspects. We are grateful for their example.

last but not least, we wish to thank the conference participants who, in their very day-to-day work, seek to manage and protect this most glorious piece of the common heritage

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of humanity–the sea. it is their enthusiasm and excellence that made us feel that our work is worthwhile, and that progress is possible.

nassrine azimi, Matt fuller, hiroko nakayama editors geneva, july 2002

Foreword

H iroshiMa has a Direct anD profounD experience of the iMpor- tance of the marine environment. the prefecture is embraced by the seto in land sea, which provides it with food, a rich landscape, industry and transporta-

tion means. this dependency on seas and marine resources is not unique to hiroshima or to japan. given their rapid population growth and industrial development, many countries of the asia-pacific region rely increasingly on the seas for their livelihoods and the coastal zones are like mirrors, reflecting the critical interdependence between man and the seas.

this delicate interdependence was reconfirmed by the leading scholars and high level government officials who came together in hiroshima from March 6-8, 2002, for a conference on sea and human security, organized by unitar and the hiroshima prefectural government. the conference is part of a series of events organized in hiroshima to prepare for a long-term collaborative initiative in training for the asia-pacific region.

the thoughts and experiences of this eminent group, as contained in this publication, were both encouraging and alarming. constant challenges are being faced at national, regional and international levels and, almost 20 years after the signature of the united na-tions convention on the law of the sea (unclos), there still seems a long way to go. the resources of the sea have been, since ancient times, objects of exploration and exploitation. for centuries they were considered res nullius, belonging to none. the high seas, in which the freedom of action was enjoyed, were considered res communis, belonging to all, but could not be free from states’ expansionism and competing ambitions on their resources. it was with the recognition of the principle of the common heritage of mankind and its incorporation in the unclos that the ocean governance regime slowly started shifting perspective and direction, from a purely possessive and competitive one – concentrating mostly on delimitation – to a more harmonized one looking at benefit sharing among dif-ferent peoples and the future generations.

unclos has achieved tangible developments, but the issues that were debated through-out the hiroshima conference—global change, interrelationship between degradation of coastal zones and the environment, impact on fish stocks and the issues of food security and man-made disasters—still remain present and pressing concerns, requiring multidis-ciplinary and multi-country approaches. as all conference participants reminded us aptly, the seas cannot be handled by bits and pieces, but only as a whole; therein lie both their challenge and their promise to humanity.

We were by turn inspired and impressed by the quality of the speakers and participants, and hope that this gathering was as useful to them as it was satisfying to us. the unitar hiroshima programme received pertinent guidance from all present, and we hope that

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this book amply reflects the depth of their knowledge and the generosity with which they shared it with each other and with us.

Marcel a. boisard and Yuzan fujita conference cochairs, March 2002

Contributors

Nassrine Aziminassrine azimi has a postgraduate degree in urban studies from the school of architecture of the university of geneva. she is a graduate in political science from the university of lausanne and in international relations from the graduate institute of international studies in geneva, and has completed a program of communication and journalism at stanford university. Ms. azimi has served as coordinator of environmental training programs, deputy to the executive director, and chief of the new York office of unitar. she directs the publications for the unitar/institute of policy studies/japan institute of international affairs (unitar/ips/jiia) conference series in peacekeeping, for which she has edited five books. Ms. azimi is currently the senior coordinator of the unitar hiroshima programmes and a coeditor of this publication.

Marcel A. BoisardMarcel boisard has a doctoral degree from the graduate institute of international stud-ies in geneva and a certificate from the institute of World affairs in the united states of america. he was counselor to governments of developing countries and a delegate of the international committee of the red cross for almost 15 years. Member of several scientific societies, he is the author of some 30 publications dealing with cross-cultural relations, the arab and Muslim world, multinational negotiations and intergovernmental organizations. Mr. boisard is currently assistant secretary-general of the united nations and the executive director of unitar.

John Caddyjohn caddy is an international fisheries expert currently working with the imperial college, london, and professor at the centro de investigación y de estudios avanzados (cinvestav), Mérida, Mexico. a canadian citizen, born in ulverston, cumbria, he holds a doctorate in marine ecology from the university of london, Queen Mary college. throughout his 20 years of work within the fao (including his former post as chief of the Marine resources and fisheries Department), and his previous work within fisheries and oceans in canada (last as assistant director for marine resource issues), Dr. caddy has gained considerable experience of fisheries resource and management issues, both nationally and globally. he has written a chapter on policies for sustainable and responsible fisheries for a forthcoming encyclopedia of global environmental change, and an overview of trends in fishery management for a millennial review of fisheries and ocean science issues, both in press.

Chua Thia-Eng chua thia-eng was trained in marine biology, marine pollution, and coastal and marine area management. he has had extensive professional experience in research, management, train-

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ing and education, policy development and administration and has authored more than 180 articles and reports on these subjects. for the past 34 years, he has served in various capacities in international organizations. in 1994, Dr. chua was appointed by the international Maritime organization (iMo) as regional program manager to execute the global environmental facil-ity/united nations Development program (gef/unDp) regional program for the preven-tion and management of marine pollution in the east asian seas, and subsequently became regional program director for building partnerships in environmental Management for the seas of east asia (peMsea). among his many other achievements, Dr. chua founded the Malaysian society of Marine sciences and was elected as its first president. he also served as the founding president of the asian fisheries society (1984-92).

Hasjim Djalalhasjim Djalal obtained his doctoral degree from the university of virginia, and also earned a graduate degree from the national Defense college. he joined the foreign Ministry of indo-nesia in 1959 and has been an active participant in the development of indonesian maritime and regional policies, dealing with numerous aspects of the law of the sea and maritime affairs. he was secretary of the legal committee of the Maritime council, a vice-chairman of the indonesian delegation to the unclos iii and its seabed committee, chairman of the preparatory commission to establish the international seabed authority and the law of the sea tribunal. Dr. Djalal also was the first president of the international seabed authority in jamaica and several times chairman of the group of Developing countries and of the asian group on the law of the sea. his diplomatic career included postings in Yugoslavia, guinea, West africa, singapore, Washington, D.c., the united nations in new York, ot-tawa and bonn. he has also been ambassador at large for the law of the sea/Maritime affairs (1994-2000). currently he is a member of the indonesian Maritime council, special advisor to the naval chief of staff, member of the expert team for constitutional reforms of the indonesian national consultative assembly and a professor of international law and relations at pajajaran university, bandung, indonesia. he is also the initiator and convenor of the south china sea workshop process. he has written extensively on the law of the sea, maritime, political, and regional issues in both english and indonesian.

Matthew FullerMatthew fuller has a b.a. in spanish, a b.s. in business administration from pepperdine university in Malibu, california, and an M.p.a. from the university of texas at austin’s lyndon b. johnson school of public affairs. he has working experience in secondary educa-tion in japan and at the latin american network information center at the university of texas at austin. currently, Mr. fuller is a fellow with the unitar hiroshima programmes and a coeditor of this publication.

Yuzan FujitaYuzan fujita is currently governor of hiroshima prefecture. he graduated from the faculty of commercial science of Keio university in tokyo in 1972. from 1972 to1982 governor

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Contributors

fujita worked for Mitsui & co., ltd.. from 1982 to 1989 he served as secretary to Mr. Masaaki fujita, previous president of the house of councilors. in july 1989 he was elected as a member of the house of councilors. he was elected as the governor of hiroshima prefecture in 1993 and reelected in 1997 and 2001. governor fujita is married and has one son and two daughters.

B.A. Hamzahb.a. hamzah received an M.a. and a ph.D. in law and diplomacy from the fletcher school of law and Diplomacy, Medford, Massachusetts. he completed the law of the sea program at harvard law school and attended the institute of social studies at the hague. Mr. hamzah was a visiting scholar at the lauterpacht research centre for international law at cambridge university, attended the european school of public policy in Maastricht, netherlands and was visiting fellow at the european commission and at the institute of south east asian studies, singapore. before serving for seven years as director general of the Maritime insti-tute Malaysia (MiMa), Dr. hamzah was a lecturer at the university of science in Malaysia. he established the Department of strategic international studies at the armed Defense college, Ministry of Defense and was then appointed head of that department. he helped found the institute of strategic and international studies of Malaysia (isis), where he was first appointed fellow and later promoted to assistant director general; he spent ten years at isis. Dr. hamzah also served as the head of strategic studies and international relations at the armed forces Defense college of Malaysia’s Ministry of Defense. Dr. hamzah has published a number of articles and books in the areas of defense, law of the sea, petroleum and maritime issues; he was member of the international World commission on the oceans (iWco) and helped write the iWco report on “the oceans . . . our future.”

Moritaka HayashiMoritaka hayashi is a professor at the school of law of Waseda university in tokyo. his expertise is on the law of the sea, international organizations and international relations. before joining Waseda in april 1999, he was assistant director general (head of the fisher-ies Department) of the food and agriculture organization of the united nations (fao) in rome, italy. before holding that office, he was an official at the united nations headquarters in new York, serving mainly in its office of legal affairs, his last post there being director of its Division for ocean affairs and the law of the sea. he also served as a member, counselor, and then minister of the japanese mission to the united nations in new York.

Akio Inoueakio inoue is currently a professor and director of the institute for the study of religion at tenri university. he graduated from the university of hawaii in 1959, majoring in philosophy. after studying at the university of california at los angeles graduate school, he was a lecturer on mission theology at tenri university from 1965-70. he served as director of the tenrikyo Mission center from 1971-77 and as director of the tenrikyo Yamato culture congress, organizing a number of international conferences over a period of 20 years. he has edited

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serveral scholarly periodicals, including, currently, glocal tenri. he was the initiator of the japan international space culture congress, and now serves as a special fellow of the institute for future technology in tokyo. Dr. inoue has also served as vice-president of the academy of international Management cultures and trans-disciplinary studies, and is a special senior fellow of unitar and a member of the japan pen club. he is the author of numerous books, including evolution of Mind-awakening to cosmic consciousness, the World as a Mirror, the path to the World religion, communication between americas, catechism of tenrikyo, future of tenrikyo theology (in japanese), study of suicide-posthumous Works of ryunosuke akutagawa, and ethics on brain Death and organ transplantation. More recently, Dr. inoue has been applying eco-alternative architecture reconstruction in gujarat, india, china, and afghanistan, through building shelters and check-dams, and developing adobe, sandbag, and straw-bale (including bamboo) technology.

Fumuo Konofumuo Kono is currently the vice-governor and treasurer of hiroshima prefecture, japan. he graduated from the faculty of law of chuo university in tokyo. Mr. Kono’s experience includes serving as deputy director general of the public Works and construction Depart-ment, deputy director general of the citizens affairs Department, director general of the personnel commission secretariat, director general of the public enterprise bureau, and director general of the commerce, industry and labor Department, all under the auspices of the hiroshima prefectural government. in December 2001, Mr. Kono became treasurer of hiroshima prefecture

Gunnar Kullenberggunnar Kullenberg attended the swedish naval academy and then received a ph.D. in oceanography in 1967 from the university of göteborg and a D.sc. in oceanography awarded by university of copenhagen. he was professor of oceanography at the universities of co-penhagen and göteborg. from 1985 to 1988 he served as senior assistant secretary at the intergovernmental oceanographic commission (ioc) of the united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organization (unesco), from 1989 to 1998 as executive secretary of the ioc, and in May 1995 became assistant director general at unesco. after retiring from unesco in 1998 he became executive director of the international ocean institute (ioi), based at its headquarters in Malta. professor Kullenberg teaches and conducts research in oceanography (currents, mixing, physical and biological processes, air-sea interaction, marine pollution, and ocean optics). he has participated in many research expeditions as well as in the construction and testing of equipment and has published more than 100 research papers and books.

Rabinder Malikrabinder Malik has served within the united nations system in various capacities for more than four decades, holding positions in the World health organization, the united nations Development program and, for 20 years, with the united nations university in

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Contributors

japan. following his retirement in 1996 as executive officer in the u.n. university’s office of the rector, Mr. Malik became a visiting scholar and lecturer in international relations at universities in the united states and japan. he was also an adviser to the government of japan’s “ship for World Youth” program on two occasions. he plays an active role in promoting multicultural exchange and understanding, and is a member of several social and cultural organizations in japan. Mr. Malik currently serves as the coordinator of tata energy research institute (teri) japan and is helping develop collaborative programs between teri and japanese institutions.

Hiroyuki Nakaharahiroyuki nakahara currently is the managing director of the research institute for ocean economics. he received a b.a. from sophia university, tokyo, japan, Department of foreign language studies and, in 1983, a Master of Marine affairs degree from the in-stitute for Marine and coastal studies at the university of southern california. in 1972 he joined the research institute for ocean economics, and served as chief researcher from 1983 to 1988. from 1989 to1995 he served as secretary-general and director of the research Division, and since 1995 has been the managing director of the secretariat of the institute’s japan section. Mr. nakahara is also a fellow at the Marine technology society (Mts) and serves on the board of directors of the japan hydrographic society. he is on the board of directors of the techno-ocean network (ton) and is a coeditor-in-chief of the ship and ocean newsletter. he also belongs to the ship and ocean foundation, the japan society of coastal Zone studies (jacZs), and is on the editorial board of ocean and coastal Management, published by elsevier press. he is currently a lecturer at hok-kaido tokai university.

Hiroko Nakayamahiroko nakayama has a higher studies Diploma in international relations from the gradu-ate institute of international studies in geneva. she obtained a master’s degree in law and a b.a. in communications from seinan gakuin university in fukuoka, japan. she previously worked in the field of training and international trade and joined unitar in 1999, initially with its international affairs Management program and thereafter as an associate program officer for unitar’s environmental law programme and unitar hiroshima programmes. she is a coeditor of the present publication.

Alan Khee-Jin TanDr. alan Khee-jin tan is an associate professor in the faculty of law of the national uni-versity of singapore (nus), where he teaches maritime law, environmental law and public international law. before joining the nus, he had been a justices’ law clerk in the chief justice’s chambers, supreme court of singapore. alan recently earned his doctoral degree (j.s.D.) from the Yale law school, with a thesis entitled “vessel-source Marine pollution: the law and politics of international regulation.” Dr. tan is on the executive committee of the asia-pacific centre for environmental law (apcel), based at the nus law school.

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he has published widely on international and environmental law issues. his major pub-lications include “environmental laws of the southeast asian countries: a preliminary assessment” (1998, apcel, singapore) and “forest fires of indonesia: state responsibility and international liability” (1999 international and comparative law Quarterly, u.K.). he has been a consultant to several environmental projects, including the united nations Development program (unDp)/government of vietnam 1997 project on “strengthening legal capacity in vietnam” and the swedish international Development agency (siDa) 1997 project on nature conservation laws in vietnam.

Mohamed TangiMohamed tangi is ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary of his Majesty the King of Morocco to japan. before that he was the director of central administrations in charge of international cooperation and legal affairs, Ministry of ocean fisheries and Merchant Marine, in rabat. ambassador tangi received an M.a. from the university of ottawa, canada, and also studied at the graduate institute of international studies, university of geneva, switzerland. he is a coauthor of several books and an author of specialized papers on international cooperation, in particular in the fields of protection of oceans and conservation of marine environment and living resources. ambassador tangi was the program administrator for the center for oceans and coastal areas, united nations environment programme (unep), geneva, switzerland from 1977-85. he was also the program administrator, Mediterranean action plan, unep, geneva, switzerland from 1975-78. he has been awarded the Medal of the throne, Knight class, by his Majesty King hassan ii of Morocco.

Otinielu Tauteleimalae Tausiotinielu tauteleimalae tausi is the deputy prime minister and minister for home affairs and rural development of the government of tuvalu. previously he served for 10 years as a police officer and for 13 years as a member of parliament. he received his education at the gilbert and ellice islands colony.

Saksit Tridechsaksit tridech received a sc.D. in water quality management from tulane university in 1980. Dr. tridech is now the deputy permanent secretary of the Ministry of science, tech-nology and environment in thailand. he has also chaired the subcommittee of the asean committee on science and technology (cost) and participated in the working group on coastal and marine environment under the asean senior officials on the environment (asoen). Dr. tridech was secretary general of the office of environmental policy and plan-ning (oepp), Ministry of science, technology and environment from 2000 to 2001. he was also director general of the pollution control Department (pcD), Ministry of science, technology and environment. Dr. tridech was awarded the Knight grand cordon of the most noble order of the crown of thailand.

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Contributors

Senthil Velsenthil vel is currently joint director in the coastal zone management division of the gov-ernment of india, an office within the Ministry of environment and forests of the govern-ment of lodi, india. his primary area of focus is coastal zone management, including the preparation of the integrated coastal Zone Management (icZM) plans and implementing icZM rules and clearances for coastal projects.

Rudolf Wurudolf Wu is internationally known in the field of marine pollution. he received his ph.D. from the university of british columbia and has worked in canada, the united states, aus-tralia and hong Kong. he is currently a chair professor at the city university of hong Kong and serves as the director of the university’s centre for coastal pollution and conservation. professor Wu has received the annual award of the canadian society of Zoology and won the “award for excellence” offered by the american association for the advancement of sciences. he has published one book and more than 100 papers in international refereed journals in the fields of marine pollution, marine ecology, and ecotoxicolgy. Dr. Wu serves on the advisory/editorial boards of two international journals, and was chief guest editor of three special issues of Marine pollution bulletin. he serves on a number of working/expert groups of the united nations and the international Maritime organisation (iMo), and contributed to the second review of the health of the oceans commissioned by the united nations. professor Wu has been commissioned by unDp/iMo/global environment facility (gef) to conduct regional training and is currently a member of the coastal ocean observations panel of the intergovernmental oceanographic commission.

List of Acronyms

aaMeti asean association of Marine education and training institutionsaaecp australia asia economic cooperation program aege asean experts group on the environment aMMe asean Ministerial Meeting on the environment anZ australia and new Zealand apcel asia-pacific center for environmental law apec asia pacific economic cooperation apec Mrc Wg asia pacific economic cooperation Marine resource conserva-

tion Working group asean association of southeast asian nations aseon asean senior officials on the environment asep asean subregional environment program asp amnesic shellfish poisoning bapeDal indonesia environmental impact Management agency ccsbt commission for the conservation of southern bluefin tunacesi coastal environment sensitivity index chM common heritage of Mankind cinvestav centro de investigación y de estudios avanzados clc civil liability convention cobsea coordinating body on the seas of east asia cost committee on science and technology cpps permanent commission of the south pacific crZ coastal regulation Zone cscap council for security cooperation in the asia pacific cZerMp coastal Zone environmental resources Management projectDDt Dichloradiphenyltrichloroethane Denr Department of energy and natural resources Dsp Disease-state plasma Dvt Deep venous thromboembolism ec european commission eeZ exclusive economic Zone eMp euro-Mediterranean process enso el ninõ southern oscillation fao food and agricultural organization funD international convention on the establishment of an international

fund for compensation for oil pollution Damage g77 group of 77 nations gef global environmental facility

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gesaMp group of experts on the scientific aspects of Marine environmen-tal protection

gis geographic information systems gpa global program of action hab harmful algal blooms helMepa hellenic Marine environmental protection association hns hazardous and noxious substances hpa hanoi plan of action htl high tide line hva homovanillic acid iattc inter-american tropical tuna commission icM integrated coastal Management icZM integrated coastal Zone Management iMo international Maritime organization ioi international ocean institute ioMac indian ocean Marine affairs cooperation iotc indian ocean tuna commission ipcc intergovernmental panel on climate change intertanKo international association of independent tanker owners isis institute of strategic and international studies ito international traffic organization itopf international tanker owner pollution federation iucn international union for the conservation of nature and natural re-

sourcesiuuf illegal unregulated unreported fishing iWco international World commission on the oceans jacZs japan society of coastal Zone studies los law of the sea ltl low tide line Marina Maritime industry authority Marpol international convention for the prevention of pollution of ships

at sea Meh Marine electronic highway MiMa Maritime institute Malaysia MsY Maximum sustainable Yield Mts Marine technology society ngo nongovernmental organizations niDs national institute for Defense studies npafc north pacific anadromous fish commission nsp neurotoxic shellfish poisoning nus national university of singapore oepp office of environmental policy and planning

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List of Acronyms

opK ocean peace Keeping oprc oil pollution preparedness, response, and cooperation pah phenylalanine hydroxylase pcb polychlorinated biphenyls pcD pollution control Department peMsea partnerships in environmental Management for the seas of east asiapop persistent organic pollutant ppp public-private sector partnership psa prostate specific antigen psp paralytic shellfish poisoning Qa/Qc Quality assurance/Quality control rcu regional coordinating unit sar search and rescue sbt southern bluefin tuna seafDec southeast asian fisheries Development center siDa swedish international Development agency solas safety of life at sea spae strategic plan of action on the environment stcW standards of training, certification, and Watchkeeping for seafarerstbt tributyltin tcb total coliform bacteria teri tata energy research institute ton techno-ocean network tss traffic separation scheme ubc university of british columbia uKc under-Keel clearance unceD united nations conference on environment and Developmentunclos united nations convention on the law of the sea uncsD united nations conference on sustainable Development unDp united nations Development programme unep united nations environment programme unesco united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organizationunfccc united nations framework convention on climate change unitar united nations institute of training and research uv ultra-violet vinaMarine vietnam national Marine bureau vMs vessel Monitoring system Wais West antarctic ice sheet Wri World resources institute WssD World summit on sustainable Development WWf World Wildlife fund

Welcome and Opening Remarks

Yuzan Fujita Governor, Hiroshima Prefectural Government

I would like to express my sincere welcome to all of the participants gathering here in hiroshima to attend the second unitar/hiroshima pro gram. as the theme of this conference is “sea and human security,” researchers and

scholars from the asia pacific region, recognized authorities on the environment and the management of marine resources, have gathered here to share their knowledge with us.

southern hiroshima prefecture opens up to the seto inland sea, which is blessed with a mild climate particular to enclosed seas. the sea’s wealth of small islands provides an exquisite vista, and its oyster production is the largest in Japan. the sea is close and dear to our hearts, interwoven into our very lives. accordingly, hiroshima is eminently suitable to host an in-ternational conference on the appropriate relationship between the sea and human beings. although this conference lasts only three days, i trust that it will be a worthy experience for you, through active discussion and mutual exchanges among the participants.

last but not least, i hope this conference will be meaningful for you. at its close, may you all continue your productive courses of action upon returning home to your respective countries.

Yuji Ikeda Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Tokyo

as the Japanese member of the Board of trustees of unitar, i would like to welcome the resource persons and participants from 22 countries in asia and other regions and congratulate mr. Boisard and other organizers of this unitar symposium. as a former diplomat myself who has dealt with multilateral affairs in many postings, i am particularly pleased to note among you such distinguished resource persons, academicians, heads of institutions, ambassadors, representatives of ministries, and deputy prime ministers. the objective of the conference is to enhance the capacity of the participants from the asia-pacific region to manage environmental aspects in coastal surroundings. By focusing on “sea and human security,” the conference addresses the general theme of environment and development, a key issue for the united nations today. Just ten years after the 1992 united nations conference on environment and development in rio de Janeiro, another world summit on sustainable development will be held this august and september in Johannesburg. in preparing for this important event, it is necessary for each country to work toward ensuring a realistic and pragmatic outcome without revisiting what has been done in the past decade.

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i hope this conference will help all the participants to obtain knowledge and skills in managing the coastal environment. i hope, as well, that it will provide a good firsthand opportunity for those of you who are visiting hiroshima, perhaps Japan, for the first time to observe how hiroshima has risen from the ashes. through your visit to hiroshima, you also may form an impression of how Japan as a whole is doing, not only environmentally, but also economically, socially and in other ways. and i hope you will take useful experi-ences and good memories from hiroshima back to your own countries.

Nassrine AzimiSenior Coordinator, UNITAR Hiroshima Programmes

it is always inspiring to come to this great city which, with its wide avenues, green parks, outstanding museums, and lush setting on the seto inland sea, has become, in a profound way, a symbol of hope and revival for many people around the world.

we are gathered here to debate the question of sea and human security. Both these issues are considered in their holistic sense. By seas we mean oceans, inland seas, and lakes, and by human security we consider “security” in its wider implications, notably those related to food and environmental security. our focus will be on policy-related issues, but we will approach these through different prisms: physical, cultural, economic, legal and institu-tional. we are fortunate to have with us a group of remarkable and outstanding scholars, scientists and policymakers from different countries and with diverse backgrounds and perspectives. our hope is to hear a frank assessment of the situation as it stands today through their views, and a clear idea of what we should look forward to and realistically prepare for throughout the coming decades.

the question of man’s relationship with the seas should, indeed, preoccupy us daily. sometimes the essence of the issue is hidden under scientific jargon or political showman-ship, but in fact, at the highest levels of international relations, the importance of the proper governance of seas and oceans has been evident to all for decades. succeeding negotiations under the auspices of the united nations, known as the united nations convention on the law of the sea (unclos) had already begun in 1958. it took almost 25 years and three rounds of hard negotiations to reach an agreement in montego Bay, Jamaica, in 1982. a legal framework was established with this historic agreement, and many agencies and programs were set up at international, regional, and national levels, or adapted to use this framework.

But where do we stand today in terms of our management of the seas and their resources? what kind of progress, if any, can we report 20 years after montego Bay, and indeed, what can we expect to see 20 years hence and beyond? in the interval since the adoption of the united nations convention on the law of the sean (unlcos), other related landmark events have taken place, most notably the united nations conference on environment and development (unced), the so-called earth summit of 1992 in rio de Janeiro. unced, through chapter 17 of agenda 21, re-emphasized the importance of the oceans, their inalien-

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able quality as the heritage of mankind, and the need for comprehensive management and governance of their resources. continuous pollution or accidental spills, mismanagement of coastal zones and over-fishing, all set against the larger menace of sea-level rise due to climate change, can only sober us up in our assessments. we are faced with dangerous combinations: increasing populations yet more vulnerable coastal zones, higher demands for food yet depleting fish stocks, need for long-term planning yet the uncertainties of climate change and industrial accidents.

any overall review undertaken today would thus not be all that encouraging. But the good news is that more of us—individuals, institutions, and governments—understand the intricacies and complexities involved, and the interdependency of man and the seas. we understand this intellectually, but are we able to act upon it? in other words, can we find better ways to relate our practices to the policies set in place?

it is against this backdrop that the hiroshima prefectural Government and unitar decided to dedicate this conference to the theme of sea and human security. it is our hope that all of you gathered here will help to assess the contributions our combined resources and training programs should make in the years ahead, to best respond to existing needs. thanks to the generosity of the people and prefecture of hiroshima, we have been given an opportunity to listen and to learn. with your guidance we should be able to plan pragmatic and useful work that has added value for the efforts of many others. hiroshima has a legitimate desire to participate in the ongoing debates on international peace, security, and sustainable development, and unitar is committed to bring its contribution to that effort.

elisabeth mann Borgese was among the very first speakers who accepted our invitation to attend this conference, a testimony to her passion for and dedication to seas and oceans. in her comprehensive and evocative book, the oceanic circle, she offers these prescient words, and i quote: “we see a vision of human evolution and history, not as confrontation with nature but as part of nature; not called by any god to subdue her, but led, by nature herself, to cooperate. this cooperation calls for interaction with nature (and) for coopera-tion among human beings. for the environment in general (not only the sea), both natural and social, is an extended mirror of man’s soul. for better or for worse, just as we perceive ourselves, so we see the world around, oceans and all.”

this is indeed how we see the issue, and we hope it will be an apt framework to your deliberations in the next few days.

Otinielu Tauteleimalae Tausi Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Home Affairs and Rural Development, Tuvalu

on behalf of the people and Government of tuvalu, i wish to pay tribute to the late professor elisabeth mann Borgese, whose invaluable contribution to the study of the environment and oceans has made it possible for us to come this far. our deep and sincere condolences to her family.

i am honored and privileged to be here in hiroshima and to experience the warm

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hospitality of the people and the government of Japan. Being here has much significance as this is the place where in december 1997, world leaders endorsed the kyoto protocol. all of us who are here today share the common goal of continuing the effort to make the kyoto protocol a reality.

the kyoto protocol is a unique achievement. it is unique in the sense that, despite the wishes of the nations in what they like to have and in what they like to be, all of them, big and small, developed and underdeveloped, rich and poor, recognized the truth that humanity must make a concerted effort to make and to keep this planet earth environmentally clean. the message is clear: “keep the planet clean, or face the consequences of a dirty home.”

my country is fully committed to the cause of the kyoto protocol, and to prove its com-mitment, tuvalu is now the only third world country to ratify the kyoto protocol. my country wishes to thank and congratulate the european parliament in pronouncing that the european union will ratify the kyoto protocol. this is the type of commitment that the world needs. it is my prayer, mr. president, that every country ratifies kyoto.

tuvalu’s fears of climate change and sea level rise are real. the tuvalu islands are but a mere two meters above sea level, and the sea is our closest neighbor. tuvalu will be one of the first countries to become uninhabitable, if not totally disappear, due to the impacts of climate change and sea level rise.

tuvalu is deeply disheartened at the recently announced clean skies initiative by the president of the united states. this is a restatement of the united sates of america’s rejec-tion of the kyoto protocol. the united states produces 40 percent of the industrialised world’s greenhouse gas emissions and the president’s announcement is therefore a blow to international cooperative efforts in combating climate change. the package of domestic measures in the Bush initiative directs attention away from greenhouse gases. instead he has focused on pollutants more relevant to domestic concerns. it will do little to address climate change.

tuvalu fears that other countries will follow the united states and not ratify kyoto—a protocol that we believe to be already compromised. representatives of tuvalu’s friend, australia—the biggest land mass in the south pacific region, a region made up of many islands like tuvalu and facing the same fate as tuvalu—have made public statements to the effect that australia will not ratify the kyoto protocol unless the united states does. such a rejection of the kyoto protocol amounts to nothing less than environmental vandalism.

the small islands that God has given us provide a home for us and our children. the sea that surrounds us provides food for us and our children. the combination of these two, land and sea, is, itself, life to us. take one away, and human life cannot exist in my country, or in any other country like tuvalu.

the kyoto protocol was made to protect humanity and the global ecosystem, and this includes the sea and its resources. it is a move in the right direction i believe, and all nations must embrace it as a matter of human responsibility. it is based on the principles of caring for our environment and being responsible human beings. the kyoto protocol offers a way for people to be more conscious of their environment and this translates into proper management of our resources, including land, air and the sea.

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our ability to anticipate the threats of climate change provides a means to an end, and should make us reconsider how we treat and use our environment. it is not solely the re-sponsibility of governments or environmental agencies to take part in this campaign, but it is also imperative that each one of us to does our part.

we have to protect our God-given resources and promote the idea of sustainability. in order for resources to be sustainable, we need to put in place policies that pave the way for conservation. such policies need the political will of governments and the participation of every one of us.

tuvalu is doing its part to make this planet earth a safe and clean home for all of us. it is in the process of developing a national implementation strategy for climate change. at the same time we also are investigating renewable energy options for the country.

tuvalu’s strategy focuses on action to adapt to the impacts of climate change. we are also seeking assistance for building the country’s natural defenses against these impacts. sea level rise from climate change is the most significant threat to our existence. we hope to take certain actions to address the means of building natural defenses against severe weather events. these include

• constructing seawalls,

• protecting shoreline vegetation,

• protecting water supplies,

• waste management to limit sea pollution,

• managing in-shore fisheries, and

• protecting wildlife to maintain the ecological balance.

these actions will have numerous social and economic benefits for all. they will help preserve traditional practices and maintain a strong cultural identity in island life. the envi-ronment has been sacrificed in order for human beings to progress. as the united nations environment programme puts it, “the world, the climate and all living things, is a closed system; what we do has the consequences that eventually will come back to affect us.”

if the protocol were ratified and implemented by all parties, it would result in a 5.2 percent reduction of greenhouse gas emissions below 1990 levels, thus anthropogenic emis-sions would be reduced from around 7.2 billions tons per year to about 6.8 billion tons per year. from an environmental point of view, this agreement falls woefully short of measures needed to head off the warming of earth. we need a 50 percent reduction of present levels. it seems, therefore, that the kyoto protocol is a very tiny step in the right direction. if even this small measure fails to receive the necessary support it needs, however, the future for my country and our planet is in great doubt.

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tuvalu is seeking international financial cooperation in strengthening its natural de-fenses. this will require both bilateral and multilateral assistance. But, no matter how hard our endeavours may be, the threat of climate change will be a constant fear for us always.

honorable delegates, we all live on this planet under one atmosphere. we all live on the shores of one global ocean. our countries are linked by flows of people, money, goods, ideas, images, drugs, and weapons. whatever we do, wherever we may be, planet earth is our home. let us therefore strive to make our common home good and safe for all of us, and for our children and the future generations of planet earth.

Referencesmann Borgese, elisabeth. the oceanic circle (tokyo: united nations university press, 1998), pp.

57-58.

Keynote AddressIntegrating Sustainable

Development and SecurityGunnar Kullenberg

Executive Director, International Ocean Institute (IOI)

Iwould like to make this presentation as a triBute to professor elisabeth mann Borgese, who was to have given this keynote. she passed away sud denly on the night of february 8. so i am a stand-in. i cannot replace elisabeth. i am

very honored that the organizers wanted me to come, and i am most honored to be here—but i am also very sad for being here. i had the great honor and reward of working closely with professor mann Borgese over a number of years, however. it is my duty now to try to follow her path and spirit. you will have to bear with me, and i apologize from the start for my limitations. i am only a very sad, albeit honored stand-in.

this is a conference on “sea and human security,” and i do not need to elaborate on the linkage between we humans and the sea. i will turn directly to the question of integrating sustainable development and security. this was the title of the address chosen by profes-sor mann Borgese, and it was a subject we had worked on for some time. it was professor elisabeth mann Borgese who gave her ideas, vision, stimulation, and dedication for many years to most of the work summarized in this presentation, and i will remain grateful to her as long as i live for the few years we were allowed to work together. i also wish to thank dr. francois Bailet, who was her personal assistant, for valuable help with the preparation of the manuscript.

Background in september 2000 we organized an ioi seminar in malta on mediterranean Basin-wide codevelopment and security, where elisabeth mann Borgese presented a note entitled “inte-grating sustainable development and regional security.” the concepts discussed there were also used in a recent study on ocean governance by her and dr. francois Bailet. i will draw on these papers and the work of ambassador arvid pardo, with the aim of achieving an overview of where we presently stand. to do so is also timely, as elisabeth was well aware, in that the upcoming world summit on sustainable development must recognize that peace, security and stability are necessary elements for achieving sustainable development and ensuring that sustainable development benefits all, with equity and solidarity of purpose.

Definitions sustainable development has many dimensions: according to the Brundtland report it requires elimination of poverty and deprivation, the conservation and enhancement of the resources base which alone can ensure that the elimination of poverty is sustained,

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broadening of the concept of development so that it includes not only economic growth but also social and cultural elements, and unification of economy and ecology in decision making at all levels.

sustainable development can be understood as “a set of development programs that meets the targets of human needs satisfaction without violating long-term natural resource capacities and standards of environmental quality and social security.”

concepts of security are no longer limited to the military form, but include other factors: economy, ecology, and social, with human health, the environment and people’s means of livelihoods of central governmental concern. security has traditionally focused on individual states, and has not been considered at the regional level. many regional security alliances exist, however.

Regional Cooperationregional cooperation has resulted from concerns about regional semi-enclosed seas. this cooperation has focused on the environment, marine life resources, and transportation, and has essentially been localized. the marine environment is, however, a great integrator, and has transnational environmental problems, such as pollution, global warming, sea level rise, habitat and biodiversity losses, fisheries depletion, seafood contamination, and harmful algal blooms, which call for an integrated approach in dealing with them. such factors also may influence human security. there is a need for a comprehensive approach in addressing security. a possible statement of the problem at the regional sea level is that “comprehensive regional security demands both the prevention of armed conflict and the fulfillment of basic human needs and amenities.”

we can see that environmental factors play an important role in satisfying the first requirement and a key role in meeting the second. sustainable development likewise calls for the adoption of joint policies and joint responsibilities.

An Integration Modelhow can we achieve the required integration and take a holistic approach to solving our problems? is there a model? some of us argue that yes, there is. such a model is given to us by our father, the ocean, the Great integrator. arvid pardo formulated this model by stating in his speech in 1967 that “all aspects of ocean space are interrelated and should be treated as a whole.” a sense of “how to achieve this” was also introduced by him through his other seminal idea that “the resources of the deep seabed constitute the common heritage of mankind.”

when ambassador pardo made that statement, he was thinking of the sea beyond existing national claims. he gave the concept of the common heritage of mankind four dimensions:

• economic: the common heritage had to be developed.

• ethical: the common heritage had to be managed on behalf of mankind as a whole, with special consideration for the needs of the poor.

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Integrating Sustainable Development and Security

• environmental: the common heritage had to be conserved to be shared with future generations, which are also part of mankind.

• peace and security: the common heritage was to be reserved exclusively for peaceful purposes; otherwise it could not benefit mankind as a whole.

he understood that without peace and security it would be impossible to develop resources, to manage and distribute them equitably, and to protect the environment. since all these factors were closely interrelated, one institutional framework was needed to consider them as a whole. the concepts of sustainable development and the common heritage of mankind pose exactly the same challenges. peace and security are necessary requirements for both.

our understanding of security has undergone profound changes. threats to security have shifted from international military aggression to intranational terrorism fanned by social and economic inequity, racial prejudice, linguistic, or religious differences. natural disasters, anthropogenic or otherwise, have affected growing numbers of people, especially in crowded and highly vulnerable coastal zones. the ranks of refugees and boat people have been swelling, and crimes at sea, including piracy and armed robbery, drug smuggling, and the mafia-run transport of illegal immigrants, has taken on unprecedented dimensions. the occurrence of such trends has broadened our concept of security. what has become known as comprehensive security, or human security, now includes economic and environmental components intertwined with the traditional political/military dimension.

this development obviously calls for new types of responses, especially at the regional level, which is most affected by the new threats to security and the challenges they pose. such responses will have to be as complex as the challenges they address. they will have to integrate military, economic, environmental, cultural, and humanitarian factors. Both civil-ians and military personnel will be engaged in sustainable development as well as defense. all this was anticipated in the un secretary-general’s “an agenda for peace,” and it applies to regional seas no less, and perhaps more, than to terrestrial regions.

Ocean Governancewe turn now to the specifics of the ocean governance model framework, as conceptualized by elisabeth mann Borgese. “Governance” here is taken in the broad sense to include the ways families are organized in terms of customs, traditions, and culture, and its definition is rooted in philosophy. “ocean governance,” then, would refer to the way ocean affairs are governed, not only by governments, but also by local communities, industries, and all other concerned parties or stakeholders. this concept includes national and international law, and public and private law, as well as custom, tradition, and culture and the institu-tions and processes they created. professor mann Borgese endeavored to order the complex system of ocean governance in a sequence as follows:

• legal framework.

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• institutional framework.

• tools for implementation.

• effects of the historical context.

i will now discuss these elements briefly, using the word “ocean” in the same way as this conference understands “sea.”

The Legal Frameworkthe basis for the legal framework of ocean governance is the united nations convention on the law of the sea (unclos), which entered into force in november 1994. this conven-tion is referred to as a “constitution for the ocean.” the convention also provides a legal framework for the enhancement of peace, through a number of innovations including

• replacing often-conflicting claims by coastal states with universally agreed-upon limits on the territorial sea, on the contiguous zone, on the exclusive economic zone and on the continental shelf;

• an elaborate system for mandatory peaceful settlements of disputes, the most ad-vanced so far ever designed and accepted by the international community;

• introducing the principle of the common heritage of mankind (chm) as a new principle of international law;

• establishing a framework for the development of international environmental law in part xii of the convention: “protection and preservation of the marine environment” which has had a profound influence on the unced process; and

• creating a new regime for the conduct of marine scientific research in part xiii: marine scientific research, striking an equitable balance between interests of the research states and the coastal states.

the law of the sea convention should be seen as a “process,” capable of interacting with changing conditions and able to provide for integration. the convention provides for regulation of economic activities, and thus can contribute to both economic and food security. if ocean-based and ocean-dependent goods and services were managed sustain-ably and equitably, the positive impact on economic security would be very large. ocean services influence all sectors of our current service economy. part xii of the convention is the most comprehensive and binding instrument to protect the ocean ecosystems and their services, and thus makes an important contribution to environmental security. part xii also provides the legal framework for the ocean-related parts of all subsequent treaties,

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agreements, and programs resulting from the unced process, including the enforcement of rules, regulations, and standards. the convention also includes other enforcement re-quirements, including that of coastal states to promote and cooperate in the establishment, operation, and maintenance of an adequate and effective search-and-rescue service, by way of mutual regional arrangements.

how can this legal framework be implemented? to do so requires institutions that are in harmony with the holistic approach. such institutions did not in exist in the 1970s, and have only gradually started to emerge in the last decade. the locally focused structure of our institutions still dominates, and has to some extent even increased with the generation of a number of new agreements or pieces of law addressing regional needs. until recently there has been no institution capable of dealing with them all in an integrated fashion.

The Institutional Frameworkthe second basic component of ocean governance is found in the law of the sea and in results of the unced 92 process, in particular agenda 21. the unclos established four institutions:

• the international seabed authority.

• the commission on the limits of the continental shelf.

• the international tribunal for the law of the sea, with associated arrangements permitting conciliation commissions, arbitral tribunals.

• the meeting of states parties.

the convention also mandated the establishment of regional centers for the advancement of marine science and technology, although these do not yet exist. the four institutions have been established, however, and are currently functioning and also gradually adjusting to changing situations. for instance, the international seabed authority and the convention on Biological diversity are discussing the management of the deep seabed ecosystems. new discoveries of resources on the seabed since the mid 1970s have given it a high potential for the economy: the ecosystems for pharmaceuticals; the hydrates for fossil energy; and optical cabling for the deep sea. these assets should be designated part of the common heritage of mankind, but have not been as yet.

the commission on the limits of the continental shelf has encountered two major difficulties, both related to the complex definition of the limits of the continental shelf as set forth in article 76 of the convention. the first problem is that it is costly and difficult to prepare the required declaration; the second is that a number of states have already advanced claims for exceeding their continental shelf boundaries beyond those defined in article 76. more such claims may well emerge. if boundaries cannot be agreed upon, this threatens to destabilize the convention and the efficiency of ocean governance.

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the international ocean institute has advanced an alternative approach based on the concept of joint development or joint management zones, temporary or permanent, in cases where there are overlapping claims between states. likewise, coastal states with extensive boundary claims could be given the option of freezing these claims and establish instead joint development or management zones with the seabed authority. these proposals were submitted to the new un informal consultative process at its first session in 2000.

the un system for peaceful settlements of disputes is an important part of ocean governance, with the international tribunal for the law of the sea, the international court of Justice, arbitration and special arbitration tribunals and conciliation commissions. the tribunal has heard a number of cases and has delivered judgments swiftly and competently. there are some loopholes in the system concerning shipping as regards open registries and the responsibilities of the flag states. the globalization of the shipping industry makes it difficult or impossible to identify the real criminals (or culprits). the globalization of crimes constitutes another increasing problem. the number of cases of piracy and armed robbery is rising at an alarming rate. these crimes may be connected with the drug trade, or the illegal transport of people or goods such as hazardous wastes. the enhanced emphasis on implementation, compliance, and enforcement, including that through joint regional enforcement and surveillance mechanisms, should help in achieving control. there is still the problem, however, of how to try the culprits on a ship registered in an-open registry state having no control over them. the need is emerging for an international tribunal for international crimes at sea to which all such cases could be mandatorily submitted. the international tribunal for the law of the sea might become such a tribunal.

the meetings of the states parties to the law of the sea convention have dealt primarily with elections to the tribunal and the commission. their mandate is limited to adminis-trative matters. the need for an expansion of this mandate, to consider questions arising from the implementation of the convention, or the need for amendments or protocols, has been noted in other fora.

there is a need for an even broader mechanism, however, which would include all inter-ests and sectors and be open to all states as well as to un organizations and major groups. such a mechanism at the global level can emerge only from the un General assembly. this possibility has been pursued and advocated by ioi for a number of years.

The UNCED Processthe legal framework for ocean governance developed through the unced 92 process includes essentially seven other conventions, agreements, or programs: agenda 21, the straddling stocks agreement, the convention on Biological diversity, the united nations framework convention on climate change, the food and agricultural organization (fao) code of conduct for responsible fisheries, the Global program of action for the protection of the marine environment from land-based activities, and the program of action for the sustainable development of small island developing states. all these provide for elements essential to achieving sustainable development; all have strong association or interfaces with the ocean and coasts; all are part of a comprehensive

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ocean governance and are building blocks for achieving the integration of sustainable development and comprehensive security.

the impact of the unced 92 process on unclos is clearly large. first, it extends the scope of the “constitution for the ocean” to the coastal land areas where the majority of humankind lives. this is extremely important. for one thing, 80-90 percent of marine pollution originates from our activities on land. the problems of the densely populated coastal zone, including conflicts between various users of the space and of the resources, the sustainability of living resources, human health, food and water security, all require an integrated approach. this is now referred to as integrated coastal area management, and reflects the seminal idea of arvid pardo that “the problems of ocean space are closely inter-related and need to be considered as a whole.” it was also recognized that such management must be done in conditions of uncertainty and risk. the need for precaution principle has become recognized as a substantial element in sustainable development during conditions of uncertainty.

integrated coastal management cannot be applied without proper linkages between institutions at all levels: community, state, regional, and global developments must work together and in harmony at all levels of ocean governance. the whole system must be

• comprehensive, comprising the four levels identified initially;

• consistent, having harmonious and corresponding decision-making processes;

• participatory, including all interests such as civil society, major groups, socio-economic sectors, local communities and nongovernmental mechanisms in decision making; and

• bottom-up, i.e., rules and regulations cannot be imposed from outside or distant authorities.

the unced results also all concur with the crucial importance of regional coopera-tion, organization, and development. political and ecological space do not coincide, while regional seas match fairly closely the large marine ecosystem concept.

most problems of management of the environment, of living and non-living resources, of scientific and technical cooperation, of monitoring, surveillance, compliance and enforce-ment, and suppression of crimes at sea can best be addressed at the regional level. such an approach offers economies of scale and represents a commonality of interests. unclos and unced together reinforce this concept of ocean governance. the institutional framework must thus encompass local, national, regional, and global levels.

the local level’s proposed institutional framework would take the form of community-based comanagement, which is in place in some parts of the world and emerging in others. comanagement provides for the best institutional framework in relation to the use of knowledge, blending indigenous and new technologies, introduction of economic

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incentives, use of existing assets, and mutual insurance or risk reduction. the insurance industry should be brought in as a partner to participate in the decision-making process. the ioi has been working on this since 1998.

the national level framework requires horizontal and vertical integration, with effective linkages between the local and national systems. an inter-ministerial council is required, to shape a mutually agreed-upon policy, an integrated national ocean and coastal area policy.

at the regional level, an intersectoral approach must also be achieved. one example is provided by the development of the Barcelona convention system for the european medi-terranean and possibly another by the pacific ocean policy currently being negotiated. the regional implementation and the strengthening of the regional seas program might also be stimulated by the implementation of the Global program of action (Gpa) for the protection of the marine environment from land-based activities. the land-based sources of marine pollution constitute threats to the coastal areas. this can be attacked best through regional cooperation. the economic return from the decrease of marine pollution required to im-prove the environment is undeniable. this also requires an integrated approach, however, involving all interests and all institutions. almost all un bodies can be involved with the implementation of the Gpa; regional policies should work toward this goal.

at the global level, the newly created united nations open-ended informal consultative process on oceans and the law of the sea is an integrating institution at the highest level. it has addressed such problems as illegal, unregulated, and unreported fishing; the economic and social impact of pollution from land-based activities; marine science, development and transfer of marine technology; and piracy and armed robbery at sea.

Tools for Implementationthe legal and institutional frameworks will not function or at will least be ineffective, if there are insufficient material tools for their implementation. these tools include educa-tional, technological, and financial resources, and the means for monitoring, surveillance, and enforcement.

an education and training system is required to help change attitudes, enhance under-standing, and achieve participation, awareness and responsibility. an advocacy mechanism/institution may be part of this system.

in the unclos there are provisions for technology cooperation and transfer, including regional centers for the advancement of marine science and technology. there has, how-ever, been limited progress on this matter. the ioi has done studies and made proposals, emphasizing the regional perspective and the possibility of building networks, rather than having regional centers requiring special infrastructures.

the most recent analysis of the subject was given in the note “technology cooperation and transfer: the new international technology order,” which included a discussion model for a regional protocol on the establishment of a regional center for research and development in marine industrial technology. this study was presented to a recent meeting of G77 and china, and was fully accepted and endorsed. it was also presented to

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the second session of the un informal consultative process. it was there agreed to propose the implementation of articles 276 and 277 of unclos.

the problem of obtaining financial means still appears to be the greatest obstacle to implementation. the ioi has proposed that public-private partnerships be pursued, arguing that, by putting the legal and institutional frameworks in place, governments (authorities) should have created an environment friendly to private enterprise. these partnerships could provide the required services and operational systems, such as those required for waste management, water and food security, health control, nutrition, education, and training, and would generate employment and income. case studies have examined the tourism, insurance, and deep-sea cabling industries.

as an example of public-private partnership, government cooperation with the insurance industry has identified common interests in coastal area management and development. one such interest is risk reduction. insurability has been eroded through natural and man-made disasters, e.g., pollution, el niño, tsunamis, and the spread of disease in densely popu-lated poverty-stricken parts of coastal megacities. the coastal zone is our most vulnerable zone. the coastal manager must work toward reducing poverty, and improving livelihood in coastal zones. required elements for doing this are risk assessment and management, disaster preparedness and mitigation through awareness, education, response capacity, and protection. such coastal zone improvements will reduce risk and thus enhance insurability, which is of great interest to the insurance industry.

including integration of the insurance industry in the process of integrated coastal management would help achieve the common goal of risk reduction. the ioi is continuing to work on specifications for doing this by developing specific local case studies in different parts of the world. this integration would generate a new financial mechanism: user fees and taxes on all uses of ocean space and resources have been suggested and analyzed, and the “polluter pays” principle seems to have gained the most interest.

progress is being made on the acceptance of the concept of integrated maritime en-forcement. this concept has been developed at the national level through use of navies for peaceful purposes, following the end of the cold war. a comprehensive program on national integrated maritime enforcement has been developed at dalhousie university. the dalhousie study focuses on marine activities that are wealth generators, such as marine resource development, marine transportation, sea-borne trade, marine recreation, and tourism. maintaining order and security on the seas requires marine safety, maritime de-fense, compliance, and law enforcement. the next step is to analyze how to achieve regional integrated maritime enforcement, which should grow out of effective national enforcement capabilities enhanced by regional developments.

Joint regional surveillance and enforcement programs have already been implemented in parts of the south pacific and in the caribbean to control illegal transport of drugs and migration of people. the malaysian institute of maritime affairs, as well as proposals on maritime cooperation within the council for security cooperation in the asia pacific (cs-cap), are moving towards multinational maritime cooperation in enforcement in order to obtain ocean stabilization through ocean peace keeping (opk). as conceived by the

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Japanese national institute for defense studies (nids), ocean peace keeping has three components: early warning and fact finding, maritime preventive deployment, and mari-time stability enforcement.

using ocean observations to monitor marine resources and the environment includes fact-finding and confirmation, and monitoring of illegal migration, piracy, terrorism at sea, illegal unregulated unreported fishing (iuuf), and smuggling. maritime preventive deployment includes preventive peacekeeping operations in waters where conflict is likely to occur. maritime stability enforcement is similar to peace enforcement; situations where use of force must be considered will require the authority of a security council resolution. the nids study states that because the concept that the ocean is international has been commonly accepted, if an international protocol is established, multinational maritime operations ought to be readily accepted.

high-level decisions, in a revitalized regional seas program, are to be made by ministerial segments either in the framework of regional commissions for sustainable development, where these exist or may be created, or within the comprehensive institutional framework to be created within the regional seas program for the regional implementation of the Gpa. while ministerial segments thus far have been constituted at the regional level as well as that of the uncsd exclusively by the ministers for the environment, both the secretary-general of the united nations and the under-secretary-general responsible for the uncsd have repeatedly invited states to send ministers from other departments responsible for other sectors of ocean affairs (foreign affairs, agriculture and fisheries, minerals and mines, transport and shipping, finance, etc.). to this open-ended list one should now add the secretaries of the navies or the ministers of defense. their participation in decision making on matters pertaining to sustainable development would formally integrate sustainable development and regional security and facilitate steps, at the national and regional level, for the establishment of regional coastguards and naval cooperation for effective surveil-lance, control and enforcement of rules and regulations and the suppression of iuuf and other crimes at sea.

in the context of the revitalization of the regional seas programme, the time may have come for regional coordinating units (rcu) to consider the possibility of drafting pro-tocols on regional integrated maritime enforcement, precisely defining the mission and mandate of regional navies in relation to all the conventions, agreements and programs of the unclos/unced process.

the development of ocean governance provides a good example of how idealism and real-ism, and especially their interests in the economic sphere, can meet. in the recent past we have seen slavery and colonialism abolished in this way. we are presently facing the possibility of abolishing international warfare as well as various sorts of terrorism and crimes. the global-ization process has made us more vulnerable, but it will also force us to cooperate more fully and involve all nations. we are now really all in the same ship. cooperation, solidarity, and greater equity at all levels can integrate development and security. our experiences also have shown us the need for, and the importance of, advocacy and mechanisms that can pursue, analyze, and test new or alternative ideas. the ioi is such a mechanism.

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Conclusionsopportunities exist when idealism and realism coincide. in 1982, unclos transcended the regional approach. in 1992, unced witnessed the integration of development and environment into the concept of sustainable development. the world summit on sus-tainable development (wssd) joined sustainable development to human security in 2002, and principle 25 of the rio declaration declared that sustainable development and security are indivisible.

high-level decision making at the ministerial level, involving all relevant parties such as offices of foreign affairs, finance, agriculture and fisheries, environment, minerals and mines, transport and shipping, education, defense and authorities of navies and coast guards is key. we must create debate and advocacy through the appropriate mechanisms of nongovernmental organizations (nGo), such as the ioi. this kind of participation also requires education and awareness, and we must pursue more education and training.

Referencesakimoto, kazumine. ocean peacekeeping (opk)—multilateral naval cooperation for ocean stabi-

lization. tokyo: national institute for defense studies, 1990.

—————. ocean stabilization—a new security concept. tokyo: national institute for defense studies, 1996.

Bruntland, G., ed. our common future: the world commission on environment and development. oxford: oxford university press, 1987.

Session I:An Overview of the

Sea and Global Change

Climate Change: Impacts, Adaptations, and Vulnerability

Rabinder MalikVisiting Special Fellow, Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI), Japan

It is a Great honor and a privileGe for me to Be present here today. on behalf of my institute teri, i would like to convey our sincere gratitude and thanks to unitar and the hiroshima prefectural Government for your kind invitation

to participate in this conference on a theme of critical global importance. we are happy to join with you in paying a tribute to the memory of professor elisabeth mann Borgese and to the pioneering work done by her towards the study of oceans and environment.

for me, coming to the beautiful city of hiroshima is always a pleasure and has a special meaning. a city once destroyed by the atomic bomb serves as a constant reminder to the world about the horrors of war and has now become a messenger of peace. it is laudable that unitar has joined hands with the hiroshima prefectural Government in establish-ing forums for dialogue and action on issues related to human security with a view to enhancing peace and security and promoting economic and social development in the asia-pacific region.

teri is a unique developing-country institution, a wholly independent and nonprofit institution. established in 1974 as an urgent response to the energy crises facing the world, it has since grown into a dynamic and flexible global organization with a local focus. teri is deeply committed to every aspect of what is now referred to as sustainable development: from providing environment-friendly solutions to rural energy problems to advancing solutions to growing urban transport and air pollution, and from tackling global climate change issues across many continents to enhancing forest conservation efforts among local communities. all activities in teri move from formulating local-level strategies to suggesting global solu-tions to critical energy and environment-related issues. it is with this purpose that teri has established a presence in different parts of the world, including Japan.

the former speaker, the honorable deputy prime minister of tuvalu, has emphasized very eloquently the importance of making the kyoto protocol a successful one for the everlasting and overall protection of planet earth. he has also stressed the need for all countries, big and small, to work together to make the world a cleaner and a better place for our future generations to live in, without fear from the threats of climate change. as the honorable deputy prime minister has mentioned, for small island countries like tuvalu and others the threats from climate change and the consequent rise in sea level are very real. i have not yet had the pleasure of visiting tuvalu, but when i visited tonga and western samoa, i could feel the dangers of global warming and the rising sea levels.

the growing evidence of climate change and global warming, recently documented by the third assessment study of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc),

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raises serious concerns for agriculture and food security, mountain glaciers and water supplies, land degradation due to natural and other disasters, fisheries and other ocean resources and the rise of sea levels. while mitigation efforts must be continued, it is important, particularly from the point of view of developing countries, to promote and undertake country-specific, regional, and international research and activities to advance understanding of the likely consequences of and adaptation to climate change. resources—both technical and financial—will be required to facilitate the study of the problems and potential solutions.

teri maintains a constant focus on global climate change. emphasizing the need for the south to take a determined stand in global negotiations, teri has been active in all sessions of the conference of the parties to the united nations framework convention on climate change (unfccc).

Changes in Sea Level: The Scientific Basislet us assess the current state of knowledge of the rate of change of global average and re-gional sea level in relation to climate change. the conclusions of recent analyses comparing past changes in sea level are as follows:

• since the last Glacial maximum about 20,000 years ago, sea level has risen by over 120 meters at locations far from present and former ice sheets, as a result of loss of mass from these ice sheets, and there was a rapid rise between 15,000 and 6,000 years ago at an average rate of 10 mm/yr.

• Based on geological data, global average sea level may have risen at an average rate of about 0.5 mm/yr over the last 6,000 years, and at an average rate of 0.1 to 0.2 mm/yr over the last 3,000 years.

• vertical land movements are still occurring today as a result of these large transfers of mass from the ice sheets to the ocean.

• Based on the few very long tide gauge records, the average rate of sea level rise was larger in the twentieth century than in the nineteenth century.

Factors Affecting the Present-Day Sea Level ChangeGlobal average sea level is affected by many factors. our assessment of the most important ones is as follows:

• ocean thermal expansion leads to an increase in ocean volume at constant mass.

• the mass of the ocean, and thus sea level, changes as water is exchanged with glaciers and ice caps; observational and modeling studies of glaciers and ice caps indicate

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a contribution to sea level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the twentieth century.

• Greenland and antarctica have contributed 0.0 to 0.5 mm/yr over the twentieth century as a result of long-term adjustment to past climate changes.

• changes in terrestrial storage of water over the period 1910 to 1990 are estimated to have contributed from –1.1 to +0.4 mm/yr of sea level rise.

as for projected sea level changes from 1990 to 2100, we project a sea level rise of 0.09 to 0.88 m, with a central value of 0.48 m. the central value gives an average rate of 2.2 to 4.4 times the rate over the twentieth century. Beyond the twenty-first century, sea level rise will depend strongly on the emissions scenario.

the west antarctic ice sheet (wais) has attracted special attention because it contains enough ice to raise sea level by 6 m and because of suggestions that instabilities associated with its being grounded below sea level may result in rapid ice discharge when the sur-rounding ice shelves are weakened.

Impacts, Adaptations, and VulnerabilityGlobal climate change will affect the physical, biological and biogeochemical characteristics of the oceans and coasts, modifying their ecological structure, their functions, and the goods and services they provide. large-scale impacts of global warming on the oceans will include

• increases in sea level and sea surface temperature,

• decreases in sea ice cover, and

• changes in salinity, alkalinity, wave climate, and ocean circulation.

feedbacks to the climate system will occur through changes in ocean mixing, deep water production, and coastal upwelling. collectively, these changes will have profound impacts on the status, sustainability, productivity, and biodiversity of the coastal zone and marine ecosystems.

scientists recently have recognized the persistence of multi-year climate-ocean regimes and shifts from one regime to another. changes in recruitment patterns of fish populations and the spatial distribution of fish stocks have been linked to climate-ocean system varia-tions such as el niño-southern oscillation (enso) and decadal-scale oscillations. fluctua-tions in fish abundance increasingly are regarded as a biological response to medium-term climate-ocean variations, and not simply a result of overfishing and other anthropogenic factors. of course, such factors can exacerbate natural fluctuations and damage fish stocks. Global warming will confound the impact of natural variation and fishing activity and make management more complex.

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Growing recognition of the need to understand the role of the climate-ocean system in the management of fish stocks also is leading to new adaptive strategies that are based on the determination of stock resilience and acceptably removable percentages of fish. we need to know more about these interactions. climate and ocean-related changes in the distribution of fish populations suggest that the sustainability of many countries’ fishing industries will depend on increasing flexibility in bilateral and multilateral fishing agreements, coupled with international stock assessments and management plans.

marine mammals and seabirds are large consumers of fish and have been shown to be sensitive to interannual and longer-term variability in oceanographic and atmospheric parameters. several marine mammal and bird species, including polar bears and some seabirds, may be threatened by long-term climate change.

marine aquaculture production has more than doubled since 1990 and is expected to continue its upward trend. aquaculture may be limited, however, if key fish species used in feed production are negatively impacted by climate change. increases in seawater temperature may directly impact aquaculture; such increases already have been associated with increases in diseases and algal blooms.

the adaptive capacities of marine and coastal ecosystems vary among species, sectors, and geographical regions. in the broader oceans, marine organisms will be relatively free to move to new geographical areas; organisms in enclosed seas and coastal zones are more constrained by the physical features of the shore, making natural adaptation more difficult.

coastal zones are among the world’s most diverse and productive environments. with global warming and sea-level rise, many coastal systems will experience

• increased levels of inundation and storm flooding,

• accelerated coastal erosion,

• seawater intrusion into fresh groundwater,

• encroachment of tidal waters into estuaries and river systems, and

• elevated sea-surface and ground temperatures.

tropical and subtropical coastlines, particularly in areas already under stress from hu-man activities, are highly susceptible to global warming impacts. particularly at risk are the large delta regions—especially in asia, where vulnerability was recognized more than a decade ago and continues to increase. midlatitude temperate coasts often comprise coastal plains, barriers, soft sedimentary cliffs, and bluffs that have been the subject of historical and model studies, virtually all of which confirm the high vulnerability of these coasts. high-latitude coastlines also are susceptible, although impacts in these areas have been less studied. a combination of accelerated sea-level rise, increased melting of ground ice,

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decreased sea-ice cover, and associated more energetic wave conditions will severely affect coastal landforms, settlements, and infrastructure.

coastal areas also include complex ecosystems such as coral reefs, mangrove forests, and salt marshes. in such environments, the impact of accelerated sea-level rise will depend on vertical accretion rates and space for horizontal migration, which may be limited by the presence of infrastructure. many mangrove forests are under stress from excessive exploi-tation, and salt marshes are under stress from reclamation. many coral reefs already are degraded. in such situations, ecosystem resilience will be greatly reduced through human activity as well as rising sea levels, increasing sea temperatures, and other climate-ocean-related changes, including prevailing wave activity and storm waves and surges.

progress in evaluating the potential effects of climate change and sea-level rise on socioeconomic systems has not been as substantial as that relating to biogeophysical impacts. with reference to coastal zones, socioeconomic aspects have been considered in several ways:

• as a component of v ulnerability assessments of natural systems.

• with an emphasis on either market-oriented or non-market-oriented approaches.

• with a focus on costs for infrastructure and adaptation options.

although some countries and coastal communities have the adaptive capacity to mini-mize the impacts of climate change, others have fewer options; the consequences may be severe for them. Geographic and economic variability leads to inequity in the vulnerability of coastal communities and potentially in intergenerational access to food, water, and other resources. techniques for the integration of biophysical and socioeconomic impact assessment and adaptation are developing slowly, while human population growth in many coastal regions is increasing socioeconomic vulnerability and decreasing the resilience of coastal ecosystems.

integrated assessment and management of open marine and coastal ecosystems and a better understanding of their interaction with human development will be important com-ponents of successful adaptation to climate change. also important will be the integration of traditional practices into assessments of vulnerability and adaptation.

Oceanic and Coastal Ecosystems in Asiaconsistent with global trends, more than half of asia’s population of 1.7 billion people presently resides in the coastal zone. Given the relentless and cumulative process of global environmental change driven by, among other factors, demographic changes, urbaniza-tion and industrial development, trade and transport demands, and lifestyle changes, the coastal zones of asia are under increasing anthropogenic pressures. the consequences of this process pose a significant threat to environmental and socioeconomic systems located in asian coastal zones. all coastal areas face an increasing range of stresses and shocks, the

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scale of which now poses a threat to the resilience of human and environmental coastal systems and are likely to be exacerbated by climate change.

Potential Impacts and Coastal Zone Managementas outlined in ipcc, climate-related stresses in coastal areas include loss and salinization

of agricultural land resulting from changes in sea level, likely changes in the intensity of tropical cyclones, and the possibility of reduced productivity in coastal and oceanic fisheries. Based on estimates of potential land loss resulting from sea-level rise and the number of people exposed, assuming no adaptation, we may note that these effects are most dramatic in Bangladesh and vietnam, where 15 million and 17 million people, respectively, could be affected given a relative change in sea level, although it should be recognized that a 1 m sea-level rise is at the extreme range of presently available scenarios. nonetheless, these examples demonstrate the sensitivity of coastal areas to climate change impacts and the unsustainable utilization of resources in these areas.

to conclude, the message is quite clear. these environmental factors can pose a threat to the very existence of humanity. the issue of climate change and global warming must be addressed urgently. the kyoto protocol is just one tiny step in the right direction, as the honorable deputy prime minster said. there is a great need to build capacity among the governments, industry, and civil society to address global environmental issues, and use internationally available resources for greenhouse gas mitigation and adaptation to climate change. the forthcoming world summit for sustainable development in august and september 2002 in Johannesburg is another opportunity for the world community to move forward in ensuring a balance between economic development and environmental protection. i would like to mention that teri had organized a delhi sustainable develop-ment summit, which met last month and was attended by a wide range of environmental leaders from all over the world—political, government, business, and civil society. it is hoped that the recommendations arising from the delhi summit will prove useful input for the world summit.

Discussionhasjim djalal: the deputy prime minister of tuvalu mentioned the establishment of sea walls. also, ratifying the kyoto protocol is important. are there any other ways to fight climate change?

Gunnar kullenberg: is your institute doing any research in terms of alternative energy policies? climate change will be with us regardless of what we do about co2. we will see the effects over the next 100 and even the next 1,000 years. alternative energy resources are imperative. is your institute looking into any of these measures? there is a need for a continued search for the right kind of policies. the kyoto protocol is just a tiny step.

rabinder malik: on the first question, each country has its own kind of problems and seeks solutions to cope with those problems. the bigger question is: where do economic

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problems end and where do environmental problems begin? a change in attitudes is neces-sary but that is easier said than done. i was born in the developing world and now live in the developed world. to expect that everything will just become like currently developed countries is to expect too much. island states have a real problem. the islands did not cre-ate these problems, but have to suffer because of pollution created by the entire world. i cannot offer you an immediate solution. this is the challenge for all of us. on the second question, india itself is worried about energy issues, and teri is very much involved in the search for alternative sources of energy.

B.a. hamzah: on the issue of development and climate change, i am not sure whether the last word has been spoken. specifically on the topic of sea-level rise, in my view, this phenomenon has happened before. for example, this morning i took a stroll outside the hotel. i saw a temple built in the 1600s dedicated to a god of the sea in Japan. according to the caption explaining the origin of the shrine, the temple was actually built in the sea. in other words, the sea has risen and receded, leaving the shrine on its present location on land. are we now witnessing a repeat of the same phenomenon, the oscillation between sea level rise and fall, and how this oscillation will impact global development?

in my view, the ipcc should also highlight some of the benefits likely to be associated with sea level rise. for example, studies have shown that plants may grow in today’s deserts as a result of the climate change. this should have an impact on global growth and human migration patterns in a future where deserts become more productive. can i have your comments on this, please?

fakavae taomia: the Government of tuvalu is now developing a migration scheme of moving 75 people every year to new Zealand. it is very difficult for us to find how to deal with these problems. we encourage further discussions and research on how to go about assisting islands like ours. according to your predictions, we will be totally inundated. we hope that such institutions will cooperate with smaller island states. we would like to be involved in the development of solutions.

ha xuan thong: vietnam could face great impacts in the future. But there also are some positive opportunities in the area of agriculture if we recognize some positive impacts of a future rise in salinity. we must be prepared. there is also the situation of the rivers. the flooding of the mekong delta is a daily concern for vietnam and cambodia.

rabinder malik: these are profound problems. we are only talking about countries which are near the sea. i have lived in Japan for 25 years. Before that i lived in the middle of india and had no idea about the sea. in Japan the sea is God. it provides food. it takes care of the people. the greatest challenge is persuading those who are creating the greatest pollution about the importance of these issues. each of us is looking at our problems in our own way. that is why it is important to share our ideas. nature is beyond human control. unless we treat it with respect we will never be able to deal with these issues.

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moritaka hayashi: i was surprised to hear this morning that of all the developing countries, only tuvalu has ratified kyoto. i wonder why this is. i know that many people say that the treaty is too weak. isn’t it better than nothing? isn’t it a nice start? why are developing countries hesitant to ratify it?

hasjim djalal: in my country, authorities have not been able to bring the kyoto protocol to the attention of our parliament. climate change issues are highly technical and scientific, and raise many questions, and it is incumbent upon us to bring the problem to the attention of all. perhaps we might focus on three or four issues. one is how to slow down the process. long-term impact is important. how do we accomplish this? kyoto is part of the answer. second, in the meantime, even if you cut a certain percentage of emissions, you will still be threatened. we have to take preventive measures. is moving to new Zealand or australia the answer? if we are the experts and even we have questions, how will the common people comprehend the issue? people do not understand the significance of moving ahead.

Gunnar kullenberg: climate change is one of the environmental problems that has hit the front page. there is no question that we have a problem. public information is very important. the reason the eu is in favor of kyoto is simply because of public pressure, primarily because of the fairly consistent presentation of information by the media. the media as a means for raising public awareness is important. climate change is very much related to the ocean and to climate problems such as el niño. the north atlantic has seen a great deal of this.

saksit tridech: regarding the question of developing countries’ ratification of kyoto, i believe they do plan to do so later this year. many countries still cannot convince their top authorities about its importance and the mechanisms for its implementation, however. only 55 countries have ratified or plan to ratify. of those, only 50 percent of the contribution to greenhouse gases has been covered. the Johannesburg session (august and september 2002) will be very important for the process of ratification.

nassrine azimi: there was a modest rise in gas prices in the united states two years ago, and even though that country has some of the cheapest gasoline prices in the industrialized world, there was a great uproar. those of us living in rich countries simply do not seem to make the connection between the way we live and what we preach, and our own role and responsibility in curbing greenhouse gases.

Challenges and Obstacles for Coastal Zone Management in India

Senthil VelMinistry of Environment and Forests, India

The suBcontinent of india has the araBian sea on its west and the Bay of Bengal on its east. india has a coastline of about 7,500 kilometers, of which the mainland accounts for 5,422 kilometers. the lakshadweep islands

have a coastline of 132 kilometers and the andaman and nicobar islands’ coastline is 1,962 kilometers. nearly 250 million people live within a distance of 50 kilometers from the coast. the coastal zone of the country is important because it is endowed with a wide range of coastal ecosystems and geomorphologic features. major economic development activities such as ports and harbors, tourism, fisheries, aquaculture, and defense establishments are located on the coasts. the coast is also prone to natural disasters such as cyclones, flooding, and erosion. india’s major coastal and marine ecosystems include the following examples.

india has 24,720 square kilometers of mangrove forest dominating river deltas, lagoons, and estuarine areas. the sundarbans mangroves, india’s largest mangrove forest, is located in the state of west Bengal. there are several patches of mangrove areas all along the east and west coasts of india. these act as coastal stabilizers and shelter beds, protecting the coast from erosion and cyclonic winds. the mangrove areas are ideal places for spawning and breeding, and are nursery grounds for several species of fish and shellfish.

india has 2,342 square kilometers of coral reefs, which are found mainly in the Gulf of kuchch, the Gulf of mannar, palk Bay, and the lakshadweep, andaman, and nicobar island groups. the coral reefs act as natural wave breakwaters and thus prevent the coast-line from erosion. these reefs are also important in harboring vast biodiversity. the local communities of andaman, nicobar, and lakshadweep depend for their livelihoods on fish and shellfish found along the reefs.

sea grasses are found along the coastal areas, especially on the east coast and on the andaman and nicobar islands. these grass beds prevent coastal erosion and are feeding grounds for several types of fish, dugongs, and turtles.

vast coastal wetlands such as chilka lake and pulicat lake are found on the india’s east coast, and there are small brackish water bodies on the west coast. these wetlands act as natural buffers during flooding and cyclonic conditions by absorbing floodwater and dis-sipating wave energy. the wetlands also are home to several varieties of fish and shellfish, and are nesting and feeding grounds for migratory birds.

the indian coast has numerous estuaries and lagoons. some of the major estuaries include tapi, mahanadi, cauvery, and Ganga. there are creeks, bays, and lagoons all along the coast of india. these water bodies act as natural wave-energy dissipating areas, especially during storm surges and cyclonic conditions. the brackish water contained in these water

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bodies provides a unique environment for economically important populations of fish and shellfish. the coast is also the breeding and nesting grounds for olive ridly turtles, horseshoe crabs, dugongs, and several types of migratory birds.

Geomorphological Featuresimportant geomorphologic features of india’s coast include sand dunes, mud flats, cliffs, and rocky shores. sand dunes are found extensively along the eastern coast of india. on its western side, sand dunes are found along the Gujarat and malabar coasts. the sand dunes not only minimize the wind energy during cyclonic conditions, but also absorb rainwater, thereby recharging the coastal freshwater aquifers. large tracks of mud flats are found along the coasts of Gujarat and andhra pradesh. these mud flats act as buffer zones that take in floodwaters during cyclones and floods and thereby prevent damage to life and property inland. mangroves and several other species of flora and fauna are known to thrive on these mud flats. cliffs and rocky shores of various geological forms, such as volcanic and laterite, are distributed along the coast of the country, and act as a natural sea wall in preventing danger to coastal life and property from storms and floods.

Coastal Management Practice in Indiathe government of india issued a coastal regulation Zone (crZ) notification in february, 1991 to conserve and protect the coastal environment, including the important ecological and geomorphologic features described above. coastal stretches of seas, bays, estuaries, creeks, rivers, and backwaters which are influenced by tidal action (on the landward side) are included in crZ areas up to 500 meters from the high tide line (htl)—including the land between the low tide line (ltl) and the htl—and also included in the crZ are areas on both sides of rivers, creeks, and backwaters from the htl. the width of the crZ area is 100 meters from the htl or the width of the creek, river or backwater, whichever is less.

the crZ notification prohibits activities such as industrial development, destruc-tion of habitats, or discharge of untreated effluents within the crZ. projects requiring foreshore facilities are permitted in the coastal zone but are subject to environmental impact assessments.

within the notification are firm classes based on ecological diversity, land use, and development of the coastal area. crZ i includes all areas having ecologically sensitive systems; no developmental activities are permitted except for very essential facilities like pipelines. crZ ii includes built-up areas. crZ ii includes mainly developed areas such as metropolitan cities. development in cra ii zone can take place beyond the limits of an authorized structure. crZ iii categories refer to rural areas where developments like tourism can be extended beyond 200 meters on the landward side. the island groups of lakshadweep and andaman are covered under crZ iv where developments are required to meet the approved coastal Zone management plan.

the problems and challenges that india faces in the management of coastal areas include natural disasters, coastal erosion and accretion, safe drinking water, protection of ecosystems, and abatement of pollution. these topics are discussed below.

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Challenges and Obstacles for Coastal Zone Management in India

india’s coastal areas experience severe cyclonic conditions and occasional tidal surges. the most heavily affected coastal regions are from tamil nadu to west Bengal on the east coast and Gujarat on the west. natural disasters, including the recent super-cyclone in orissa in 1998, have resulted in huge loss of life and property on these coastal stretches. though little can be done to prevent such hazards, the government of india is taking steps for improving communication systems, evacuation measures, and movement of relief measures to the effected.

the processes of erosion and accretion are exacerbated by both anthropogenic activi-ties and natural phenomena. erosion and accretion phenomena are not uniform along the country’s coast. to minimize them, the crZ notification permits only those activities that require foreshore activities, and these are permitted along the coast only after critical exami-nation of environmental impact assessment reports. the indian coastline is experiencing erosion in several stretches especially along the east coast, however.

the availability of safe drinking groundwater is a critical issue along the coastal stretches of the country. sand dunes are one of the major geomorphologic features that help in absorb-ing rainwater, and coastal forests, which help in retaining the rainwater, are protected. no developmental activity is permitted on the dunes. to protect this resource, identification and mapping of the dunes and the ecosystems along the coast are being carried out.

the protection of ecosystems, such as mangroves, coral reefs, and turtle-breeding grounds is a major challenge. increasing economic pressures have put enormous stress on the survival of these ecosystems and species. we have undertaken the work of identifying, mapping, and digitizing information on these ecosystems. a management plan for conserv-ing them will be prepared after completion of the ecosystem mapping.

protection from pollution by land-based activities is a major challenge in the conserva-tion of coastal areas, marine waters, and the habitats and ecosystems in these areas. coastal water pollution in india comes from three sources: discharge of domestic sewage, discharge of industrial effluents, and runoff from agricultural areas and solid waste dumps. accidental spillage of oil and other chemicals by ships and pipelines also contributes to marine pollu-tion, but is a minor problem compared to the above three sources. pollution from sewage is the major source of coastal water pollution. the bulk of the sewage in untreated form is discharged from cities and towns located along the coast. the crZ notification prevents discharge of untreated effluents in the coastal areas. however, the pollution load in river waters bringing effluents from upstream has an adverse effect on the coastal and marine ecosystems. Because of this, the government of india has initiated the national river action plan with the objective of cleaning up its rivers.

Discussionhasjim djalal: regarding your coastal zone regulations, can we have the text of those regula-tions? also, you said reclamation has contributed to environmental degradation. singapore has a messy problem in this area. could you provide us with a study of the environmental impact of this occurrence?

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nassrine azimi: in your experience, during the last ten years, has waste and pollution increased, decreased, or stayed the same?

senthil vel: without a doubt it has increased. coastal waters of Bombay, for example, are completely polluted by waste. large-scale investment is necessary.

Gunnar kullenberg: have you tried public/private partnerships for waste management? this is a problem in most of the world.

senthil vel: we did have a world Bank scheme operated by the municipalities. we were supposed to collect taxes for implementation, but this did not work because monitoring and enforcement were poor.

fakavae taomia: focusing on local critical issues is important and should continue to be addressed by unitar.

nassrine azimi: unitar has conducted a series of seminars on public/private partner-ships for the last three years. there is not much progress to report, however, as the two sides have profoundly different cultures. public/private is, however, clearly the way to go, as the public sector cannot withstand the costs of dealing with the increasing costs of services and major utilities.

Session II:Interrelationship between Degradation of Coastal Zones and the Environment

East Asian Seas InitiativesChua Thia-Eng

Regional Program Director, GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Program on Partnerships in Envi-ronmental Management for the Seas of East Asia Marine Pollution Prevention

The 2001 state of the marine environment report, “the sea of troubles” by the Joint Group of experts on the scientific aspects of marine environmental protection (Gesamp) presents a rather alarming situation pertain-

ing to the current environmental conditions of our coasts, seas, and oceans. the experts concluded, “the state of the world’s seas and oceans is deteriorating. most of the problems identified decades ago have not been resolved, and many are worsening. new threats keep emerging. the traditional uses of the sea and coasts—and the benefits that humanity gets from them—have been widely undermined” (Gesamp 2001). this conclusion certainly reflects the current situation of the seas of east asia, a region inhabited by more than 1.9 billion people where no less than 60 percent of them live close to the coasts.

the seas of east asia, which is made up of the yellow sea, east china sea, south china sea, the sulu-celebes sea, and the indonesian seas, are semienclosed by the association of southeast asian nations (asean) in the south and china, Japan, and the korean peninsula in the north. the semi-enclosed nature of the region contributes to the economic as well as ecological interconnectivity and interdependency among its nations in terms of safety in navigation, food security, livelihood, maritime trade, protection of the marine environ-ment, and use of shared natural resources.

while the region as a whole is enjoying a period of accelerated economic growth, it also has its share of environmental problems. common among these are rapid loss of habitats, degradation of water quality, erosion of coastal areas, serious sedimentation at river mouths, increased frequency of toxic algal blooms, oil and chemical spills, loss of biodiversity, sea level rise and overexploitation of fishery resources. if the current situation continues, not only will the region’s remaining natural heritage be endangered, but its economic growth will also be affected, thus reducing the economic gains that many nations in the region have been able to achieve in the last several decades.

marine environmental degradation is often a result of inefficient management of the multiple uses of coastal and marine areas. inadequacy in environmental planning at local and national levels, coupled with policy, institutional, and enforcement failures, are key contributing factors. remedial measures are often expensive and may take up as much as 0.8 to 1 percent of the national Gross domestic product (world Bank 1998). the direct cause of environmental degradation is, however, the lack of needed capacity, especially at the local level, to plan and manage natural resources. the lack of political will is most often blamed for environmental failures, but the inability to link economic and social benefits to environmental management often makes environmental issues low in the political and

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economic agendas of most countries. this paper presents the collective effort of 12 east asian countries (Brunei darus-

salam, cambodia, china, dpr korea, indonesia, Japan, malaysia, philippines, ro korea, singapore, thailand, and vietnam) in addressing the degradation of their coastal areas and shared water resources by implementing a regional program on environmental protec-tion and management (in effect from 1994 to the present). much of the regional program, known as partnerships in environmental management for the seas of east asia (pemsea) is funded by the Global environmental facility (Gef) through its implementing agency, the united nations development programme (undp), and is executed by the international maritime organization (imo).

East Asian Seas Initiatives: PEMSEAa major effort of the regional initiative is to demonstrate the viability and effectiveness of multistakeholder partnerships in addressing many of the localized environmental and sustainable development problems encountered in coastal areas. this partnership approach involves multistakeholders at the local level (i.e., local line agencies, the business sector, civil society, local communities, and academe) through the implementation of integrated coastal management (icm) programs. two demonstration sites in xiamen (china) and Batangas (philippines) were established to develop icm working models. their success has led to the wider application of icm in seven other locations in the region, including nampo (dpr korea), danang (vietnam), chon Buri (thailand), port klang (malaysia), Bali (indonesia), Bataan (philippines), and shihwa (ro korea). the joint icm efforts cover not less than 900 kilometers (km) of coastline and a sea area of about 10,000 square kilometers. the success of these icm demonstration projects could directly or indirectly benefit about 6 million people.

the pemsea demonstration sites are used to demonstrate the effectiveness of integrated planning and management in resolving multiple-use conflicts, improving environmental quality, promoting interagency cooperation, and contributing to the attainment of the objectives of agenda 21. each demonstration project follows a standard planning and implementation process and adopts a common management framework to develop and execute an icm program (chua 1998). each icm program undertakes the development and implementation of

• a coastal strategy and a set of action plans which provide a longer time frame for management interventions;

• a sea-use zoning scheme that regulates sea use based on functional characteristics and traditional practices;

• an institutional arrangement that provides a mechanism for frequent consultation of stakeholders;

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East Asian Seas Initiatives

• a sustainable financing mechanism for the implementation of the program;

• a set of improved legislation and enforcement mechanisms; and

• a mechanism for monitoring and assessing environmental changes as a result of management interventions.

the icm demonstration projects will develop appropriate working models based on the socioeconomic, political, and cultural characteristics of each country. in xiamen, the icm working model is being promoted by the national government for application throughout the coastal provinces. the successful implementation of the sea-use zoning scheme and the permit systems developed and tested in xiamen has become a foundation for the recently enacted national law on sea area use management for the people’s republic of china (ruan and yu 1999).

several collaborative activities were undertaken to promote greater cooperation among stakeholders in addressing cross-boundary, multijurisdictional issues pertaining to environ-ment and natural resource management. existing efforts focus on four marine pollution hot spots/subregional sea areas, covering a total coastline of approximately 8,791 km, a sea area of 547,084 square kilometers and a population of no less than 250 million people living along the coasts.

over the last several years, serious efforts have been made by the littoral malacca straits states to bring together various interest groups to address issues concerning oil and chemi-cal spills, and to share the burden among these states in ensuring navigational safety and environmental protection as well as tackling issues of piracy. technical cooperation also has been promoted through the standardization of environmental databases and the develop-ment of oil spill models and valuation of marine resources. these efforts have led to the implementation of the marine electronic highway, a superinformation management system that could provide a technical solution to improving navigational safety and the protection of the marine environment of the malacca straits (chua and ross 1999).

manila Bay and the Bohai sea are large, semienclosed waters with cross-boundary, multijurisdictional complications in terms of the management of their shared resources, protection of ecosystems, improvement of water quality, and use of navigational routes. By working with the concerned stakeholders at the municipal, provincial, and national levels, pemsea was able to promote the development of a shared vision, strategies, and action plans for the sustainable use of these internal waters. the Bohai declaration and manila Bay declaration, as well as the corresponding environmental management strategies, were endorsed by various stakeholders from policymakers and business and scientific communi-ties, to communities at the village level (tropical coasts 2000; 2001).

regional efforts in the Gulf of thailand have promoted cross-country cooperation and participation in the management of this subregional sea, where habitats had been severely damaged, fishery resources overexploited, and environmental quality de-graded. collaborative programs have been initiated in addressing the cross-boundary,

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multijurisdictional issues through a risk assessment-response-restoration/compensa-tion perspective.

pemsea promotes the ratification and implementation of international conventions related to marine pollution by increasing public awareness on their usefulness and respon-sibilities, as well as national obligations to implement these instruments. it has developed a regional network of legal experts on marine environment, and supported developing countries in need of technical assistance in developing corresponding national legislation. a total of 58 instruments have been ratified by the 11 participating countries as of the end of January 2002, as compared to 33 at the end of 1994.

increased efforts also have been made to promote corporate responsibility in protect-ing the environment and ensuring the sustainable use of coastal and marine resources in Batangas Bay and the province of Bataan, philippines. in Bataan province, 18 national and multinational business corporations formed the Bataan coastal care foundation to under-take environmental protection and improvement projects that contribute to the efforts of the public sector and other interest groups. similar efforts are seen in Batangas Bay, where 21 major corporations formed the Batangas coastal resources management foundation, inc. to support government efforts in the management of the bay. corporate responsibility can be enhanced through stakeholders’ involvement and partnership.

more than 100 nongovernmental agencies, people’s organizations, women’s organizations, and religious groups have joined regional efforts to mobilize community support, create public awareness, consult people on issues such as solid waste and wastewater management and their willingness to pay for environmental services, and protection of critical habitats.

another major effort of the pemsea regional initiative is to reduce communication barriers among stakeholders affected by policy and management actions. communication plans have been developed to reach out to targeted groups though the use of various public communication facilities employing different types and levels of communication materials. communicating with policymakers on the use of scientific results for planning, policy, and management interventions is also an important task. research outputs in the form of policy support are being developed to increase the chance of science-based policy and management interventions. policy support is provided at present in specific areas such as environmental carrying capacity, impacts of maritime trade on endangered species, socioeconomic benefits of integrated coastal management, trade-offs between economic development and ecological benefits, and transboundary impacts of national economic activities.

possibilities for turning environmental issues into investment opportunities are being pursued at all of the regional programs’ environmental management sites. the icm man-agement framework makes possible the identification of priority environmental concerns requiring management/technological interventions. the icm process facilitates consensus building among the stakeholders and creates a policy environment conducive to private sector investment. this approach applies only in areas where a national policy for private sector investment is in place.

the innovative public-private sector partnership (ppp) working model being developed by pemsea, along with the lessons that have been learned, are being extended to other

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countries wishing to engage the private sector in providing environmental services. ppp is especially attractive for small- and medium-sized investment projects and particularly ap-propriate for local governments. its process enables investment-sound projects to develop that might attract public-private sector joint cooperation in risk reduction, risk sharing, and creating increased opportunity/incentives for securing favorable loans from national and international banking institutions (ross 1999).

one priority of the regional initiative is to build capacity at local and regional levels. this is undertaken through hands-on training at the demonstration sites, specialized training courses, internship and fellowships programs, and regional networks. the capacity to plan and manage coastal resources can be effectively developed by involving the concerned local line agencies, universities, and research institutions, and local nGos in actively participat-ing in developing and implementing icm programs. icm demonstration sites throughout the participating countries apply this format to create a critical mass of stakeholders and experts familiar with the integrated management approach.

the university professionals and technical personnel gain the needed practical man-agement experience, which certainly contributes to the effectiveness of their environment management courses. for example, at xiamen university, china, the active involvement of various disciplinary experts in the xiamen icm project has resulted in developing a pool of multidisciplinary expertise and experience, based upon which the university is developing a national training program to promote coastal management for the country. the xiamen university has now become a regional icm training center of pemsea, undertaking regional training activities to help build regional capacity.

several training courses have been developed and offered by pemsea:

• integrated coastal management.

• oil spill response and cooperation.

• oil spill damage claims.

• port safety and environment auditing.

• project development and management.

• environmental risk assessment.

• integrated environmental impact assessment.

• port state control.

in 2001 alone, about 600 national professionals benefited from the above training courses.

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internships and fellowships facilitate professional upgrading, enabling national experts to work with their colleagues on areas of mutual interest. most interns undertake pemsea activities in their respective countries. this form of training had been found to be cost-effective.

Regional Networksapproximately ten local governments in nine countries have formed the regional network of local Governments to promote the sharing of experiences, lessons, and benefits from implementing icm programs in the participating countries. each member takes a turn to host a regional workshop for the exchange of information, visions, approaches, and expertise. they collaborate in sharing environmental monitoring results and the use of information management software. another regional network on maritime affairs is being developed through other international initiatives, and is made up of national maritime affair institutions currently active in the region.

Develop a Functional Framework for Regional Cooperationa major initiative of the participating nations of pemsea is to develop a functional environ-mental management framework that can streamline national, regional, and international environmental management efforts, mobilize and create a pool of human and financial resources, and accelerate national resolutions and commitment in attaining sustainable development goals.

a draft “sustainable development strategy for the seas of east asia” has been devel-oped with the collaboration of the world Bank, Gef, undp and imo as well as other partners. through implementation of this strategy, regional environmental governance can be strengthened.

a major goal of pemsea is to forge a common vision among the various governments and other stakeholders of the east asian seas. such a shared vision would provide a con-sensus on the use and protection of the resource systems.

the regional strategy promotes collaboration and cooperation by addressing environ-mental relationships across national boundaries, strengthening synergies and linkages between the un and international agencies, encouraging participation from the private sector, nGos, academe, local communities, and other members of the civil society, and identifying and developing opportunities for environmental investments.

the regional strategy also recognizes the importance and role of international environ-mental instruments, and therefore adopts an integrated approach to using them. moreover, the strategy stresses the need to document and assess changes arising from its implementa-tion of the regional strategy. approximately 19 action objectives and 180 action programs were developed based on six strategies: sustain, preserve, protect, develop, implement, and communicate. national governments are being encouraged to develop national environ-mental strategy and action programs based on the regional framework.

Conclusion it is a matter of urgency to understand environmental and natural resource governance is-

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sues in the east asian seas region in terms of loss of habitats, biodiversity, and water quality, which threaten the functional integrity of many coastal and marine ecosystems.

the conventional approach to environmental and natural resources management is no longer effective. there is a need to move away from single sector to multisector manage-ment, from single agency command and control to multistakeholder partnerships, from being dependent on donors and the public sector for funding to using the expertise and financial resources of the private sector. in fact, the time has come to put the environmental adage, “think globally and act locally,” into action to include local concerns in national and global agendas.

environmental management requires multisectoral cooperation and interagency col-laboration. in many countries, single sector resource governance policy implemented by a government line agency has become a management problem contributing to the unsustainable use of coastal and marine resources. the “turf ” issue is a major cause of interagency conflicts. failure to reduce interagency conflicts will slow down the process of sound management intervention. similarly the lack of donor coordination in the region also contributes to a replication of international efforts and inefficient use of already limited external financial resources.

on the other hand, the active participation of all concerned countries in the east asian seas region in addressing environmental and natural resource governance issues certainly indicates that they realize the need for effective collective efforts in resolving many com-mon adverse environmental threats. in fact, the expansion of geographical cooperation to cover the regional seas of east asia can help alleviate the existing conflicts and tension in the south china sea. the pemsea regional strategy provides countries in that region not only an environmental management framework, but also a platform for all stakeholders to work together to increase confidence, strengthen partnerships, and reduce conflicts by working towards the common goal of a shared vision.

finally, building partnerships is a long-term, continuous process. pemsea’s efforts over the last several years have yielded benefits. the benefits of pemsea partnerships include the creation of development opportunities, mobilization of resources, increased effective-ness of networks, and cost-effectiveness of project implementation. certainly all partners involved have also benefited from sharing knowledge, expertise and experiences.

Discussionhasjim djalal: in your explanation, i detected something important. the process of monitoring results could be used in implementation. how do you establish databases? without them you have difficulty claiming change: for example, we are often told that the sea will heal itself after oil spills. lastly, it takes a long time to understand environmental problems. any claim of environmental degradation is long-term and governments are not always patient enough to wait. how do you confront these problems?

chua thia-eng: let’s say you have an oil spill and you have no data. you are not prepared to file a claim. insurance companies often impose a three-year time limit. many countries

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just waive their legal rights. But we have a damage claim manual. we organize training courses. a country must know the claim process. Japan is excellent at making claims. on the other hand, there have been 17 oil spills in manila Bay and not a single one has been claimed. we have to develop data management systems. there are a lot of discussions in this area. we need action.

insurance companies will also find ways to get around paying. we have to start developing databases. every country spends millions of dollars each year to develop data. much of the data is eventually proved wrong in court. in the Gulf of thailand, the likelihood of an oil spill is great. through data collection you can prove that degradation is taking place.

nassrine azimi: tell us more about how you have done it, how this program has been set up? can this rosy picture be repeated?

chua thia-eng: every time i do this presentation i think it is too good to be true. it takes a lot of cooperation to be successful. for example, the marine highway project was rejected time after time, and now everyone claims it was their idea. there is no magic. you have to know the problem, know the countries, and design a good project. if you focus on the consultants, you have a nice project to fit nicely on your shelf. a good project must take into account the interests of the locals.

John caddy: you have emphasized the multistakeholder approach. what about the mul-tidisciplinary approach and the area-by-area approach? the region you discuss has local rights and access and the multistakeholder approach may not be applicable elsewhere.

chua thia-eng: i have not used the word “multidisciplinary” but have used the word “ex-pert.” in the straits of malacca, we tried to calculate the costs, and we needed economists. social costs required the expertise of sociologists, and so on. you have to start at specific local levels. narrow a problem down and start from the bottom up. in xiamen, i started with a team of experts and in three years i got nothing, i used the locals and did it in a year.

Gunnar kullenberg: you mention using the locals. our experience is exactly that. start locally, use the locals. secondly, insurance companies, wouldn’t they also be interested in risk reduction and enhancing insurability? aren’t these mutual interests?

chua thia-eng: sometime locals are not experts, and they need training, but an important word is ownership. we have had very poor reports written by locals but they have invested in them. training the local community is sometimes necessary. the framework is most important. this is still on a trial-and-error basis. how do you increase investment in the environment? the risk factor is high. fees cannot be collected. the local government must create, through policy, incentives for investments. it is a political environment. it is very important to bring in the local government.

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Qamar raza rizvi: do you have plans to share this information with other countries?

chua thia-eng: yes, i have gone to latin america, africa, and the south pacific, but we have little time. i would like to encourage local training programs to pick up on the progress we have made.

alan khee-Jin tan: despite all the nice policies you have outlined, what obstacles have you actually faced? haven’t you faced a company or a local government that absolutely does not buy into what you are doing?

chua thia-eng: of course we have faced a lot of those. the main problem is corruption. a mayor might say, what is there for me? if you say nothing, you may not be able to move forward. this is where civil society is important. they are among the partners in building it up. two steps forward and one step backward is often the motto we live by. this was even the case in xiamen. each situation experiences a series of personality changes. for example, the mayor might change. in the philippines i have gone through five presidents. the lesson is that you have to keep trying. like ambassador djalal, we have to keep talking until we are all gray. the young people must pick it up from here.

References chua, t.e. “lessons learned from practicing integrated coastal management in southeast asia.”

ambio, vol. 27, no. 8 (1998), pp. 599-610.

chua, t.e. and s.a. ross. “the marine electronic highway: concepts and challenges.” paper pre-sented to the international conference on navigational safety and the control of pollution in the straits of malacca and singapore: funding and managing international partnerships, singapore, october 14-15, 1999.

imo/fao/unesco-ioc/wmo/who/iaea/un/unep Joint Group of experts on the scientific aspects of marine environmental protection (Gesamp) and advisory committee on protection of the sea. “a sea of troubles.” reports and studies, Gesamp, no. 70 (2001), p. 35.

pemsea. “the Bohai sea declaration: policy at work.” tropical coasts, vol. 7, no. 2 (2000), pp. 40-41.

—————. “manila Bay: making partnerships work.” tropical coasts, vol. 8, no. 2 (2001), pp. 32-33.

ross, s.a. “implementation of public-private partnerships: the Batangas case study.” in challenges and opportunities in managing pollution in the east asian seas, ed. t.e. chua and n. Bermas. mpp-eas conference proceedings 12/pemsea conference proceedings, 1999, pp. 164-172.

ruan, w and h. yu. “design and implementation of marine functional Zoning scheme in xiamen, china.” in challenges and opportunities in managing pollution in the east asian seas, ed. t.e. chua and n. Bermas. mpp-eas conference proceedings 12/pemsea conference proceedings, 1999, pp. 341-354.

world Bank. east asia: the road to recovery. washington, d.c., 1998.

Thailand’s Coastal and Marine Management

Saksit TridechDeputy Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Science,

Technology, and the Environment, Thailand

Pornsook ChongprasithPollution Control Department, Thailand

Thailand has 2,614 km of coastline richly endowed with natural resources such as fertile soil, minerals, beautiful scenery, and mangrove and hardwood forests. coastal seas support coral reefs, sea grass beds, and diverse fish

stocks. about 70 percent of thailand’s population lives in 24 provinces on or near its coast. fishing, aquaculture, marine traffic, mining, recreation, and the construction of large-scale infrastructure take place in coastal areas and offshore. inappropriate use of the coastal zone has an adverse impact on coastal resources and marine ecosystems, such as mangrove forests, estuaries, the sea-grass bed and coral reefs, which are key factors in keeping the sea productive. in addition, increasing populations and economic expansion accelerates the rate of coastal reclamation. rock and sand beaches, mud plains, and mangrove forests have been developed as wharves, recreation areas, industrial estates, aquacultural sites and settlements. moreover, seawater and sediment qualities have been negatively altered by waste and wastewater from land-based sources. to prolong and maintain the productivity of the sea, a policy and prospective plan is needed to deal with

• control of coastal area development and utilization of coastal resources,

• preservation and rehabilitation of coastal ecosystems, and

• pollution management.

Coastal and Marine Activities and Their Impact on Fisheries fish are among thailand’s top ten exports and represent 10 percent of its export income. the number of fishing boats far exceeds thailand’s remaining resource capacity, however. the critical state of the fishery resources is shown in the reduction in catch per unit effort, from 265 kg per hour in the early 1990s to 25 kg per hour today. nonselective fishing practices, such as trawling and push nets which can destroy the natural environment within 3,000 meters of the coast, have became more popular with small-scale fishers. such practices can not only destroy marine habitats, such as the coral reef and sea grass bed, but also can induce conflict

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between fisherman and shellfish culturers. antifouling boat paints contain tributyltin, which can affect the reproduction, population, and overall abundance of shellfish. at present, the department of fisheries is improving the existing fisheries laws, formulated in 1947, and aiming for a better and more effective management of fisheries in thailand.

Coastal Aquaculture total production from coastal aquaculture has been increased more than threefold over two decades to 283,900 tons in 1999, accounted for in shrimp (76 percent), shellfish (22 percent), and fish (2 percent). this upward trend has been due mainly to the expansion of farming areas for tiger prawn, which have been developed into intensive farming systems. areas for shrimp farming and production have rapidly expanded. at present, shrimp cultivation is greatly affecting coastal water quality due to the inappropriate treatment of wastewater and trespassing on mangrove forests. mangrove areas have declined from 0.37 million hectares in 1961 to 0.16 hectares in 1996. moreover, salinization and sulphate acidification of soil and aquifers often accompany fish and shrimp ponds in mangrove areas. due to the self-pollution effect of improper practice, the farm operators tend to abandon ponds and then encroach upon new mangrove areas and build new ponds. chemicals have affected pond ecosystems causing, among other things, antibiotic resistance in microbial communities. also, increased coastal water pollution (feces and waste food) has triggered disease outbreaks and phytoplankton blooms.

to combat these problems, the ministry of science, technology, and environment initi-ated the environment management plan and action plan for coastal aquaculture for the period of 2002-2006. the plan has three components: an environmental management plan for coastal aquaculture, an environmental management action plan for coastal aquaculture, and preliminary criteria for selecting aquaculture areas and monitoring water quality to mitigate impacts on the environment from coastal aquaculture. this plan promotes a sus-tainable development of aquaculture activities that limit their impacts on natural resources and coastal environments. the plan also supports the rehabilitation of coastal resources affected by improper aquaculture activities.

the ministry has proposed an effluent standard for coastal aquaculture that will be established in the very near future to reduce waste loading from shrimp culture. this standard regulates the water quality discharged either from shrimp culture or other coastal aquaculture activities. for the first phase of implementation, its enforcement will focus on large shrimp farms of more than 1.6 hectares. implementation of the standard should control the quality of 800 million tons per year, or 72 percent of the effluent discharged into the environment from 25,400 hectares of aquacutural farms.

Maritime Transportationin 1997, ships embarked or departed from thailand’s waters 23,248 times, carrying 95 percent of the total goods entering or leaving the country. wastes discharged from shipping activities include lubricating oil, fuel residues, and sludge. ships also dispose of illegal waste, spill oil, and antifouling paints containing tributyltin, which can affect the abundance of

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shellfish. maritime transport requires support, such as large-scale ports, waste-disposal facilities, and shipyard operation. major harbors in thailand tend to have problems with dredging due to inappropriate site selection; a port on a poorly selected site will require much dredging, which has a negative impact on other water uses, especially aquaculture, which require a healthy environment. extensive dredging causes increased turbidity. dump sites from dredge spoil tend to fill up or to take up an unacceptable area of estuaries and mangrove. tidal exchange in these parts decreases, and fisheries, mariculture, and the receiving capacity for wastewater are negatively influenced.

the ministry of transportation has established the master plan for water transportation management for effective implementation of transportation in inland waterways and in the sea, and the provision of safety regulations to prevent accidents to vessels in thailand.

Marine Mining and Oil and Gas Exploration tin, a key resource for thailand, requires marine excavation. in 1997, 83 mines were located within 5 km from the coastline. wastes from mining activities include silt, toxic chemicals, or metallic substances. these reach the sea via direct discharging or surface runoff, especially from abandoned mine areas. such activities tend to increase the turbidity of seawater and destroy marine habitats. due to a drop in the price of tin, mining has decreased significantly. one offshore mine for tin and tungsten remains in thai waters.

the exploration concessions in thailand for oil and gas operators were awarded in 1962. thailand is currently producing natural gas and condensate from 1,225 wells. in may 2001, thailand’s natural gas production averaged 1,950 million cubic feet per day, while accompanying condensate production averaged 55,830 barrels per day. the highest-volume waste source is water produced as a byproduct from the offshore oil and gas industries. the total volume of water discharged by oil and gas production was estimated in 2000 to be 56,340 barrels per day, some of which was reinjected back into depleted wells. tech-nologies for removing contaminants from this produced water have simultaneously been developed to mitigate the impacts of mercury and other compounds. treatment systems available are the separator, deoiler cyclone, and chemical flocculation processes, including gas flotation, the skim tank, and the hydrocyclone. monitoring programs to examine the levels of mercury in seawater, sediment, and finfish are conducted extensively to assess carrying capacity and ecological risk.

a subcommittee on environment and industry management coordination has recently agreed on measures to minimize the impact of wastes from oil and gas exploration. oil and gas operators have been asked to adopt a zero discharge policy for mercury, and to follow procedures set by the department of mineral resources for benchmarking international good practices. if zero discharge is not attainable, then operators are expected to adopt the most effective technology for mercury removal. all organizations should adopt a zero discharge policy as part of their standard procedures; if conditions are unsuitable for zero discharge, then the most effective or best available technology should be used. the thai government is developing mass load-based discharge permits. for example, in determining an appropriate mass load of mercury to be discharged, the carrying capacity of the receiving

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environment and the potential risks to public health and the ecosystem will be considered. the regulatory task force will coordinate with oil and gas operators on joint monitoring of discharges to the environment. to assist farms, the thai government will establish a training course on zero discharge policy and relevant wastewater treatment systems. such measures are expected to reduce mercury contamination in thailand’s aquatic environment.

Tourism almost 10 millions tourists visited thailand in 2000. Beaches are the destination for most coastal tourism and a major source of revenue for thailand. rapid expansion has led to the improper construction of hotels on unsuitable sections of the coastline. this has aggravated the natural problem of erosion, and the construction of protective barriers has spoiled the aesthetic value of some beaches. one serious impact from tourism development is the discharge of sewage from accommodation and restaurants without adequate treatment. Bacterial levels are the most common source of adverse effects on tourist health and the biota, and destroy valuable fishing and nature habitats. thus improper activities associated with tourism hinder both the function and health of marine habitats and the prosperity of the coastal and marine environment. the thai government provides a large budget to promote eco-tourism, and has launched many programs to remedy the degradation of natural resources, especially beaches and islands, and improve tourist activities.

Coastal Water the inner Gulf of thailand has been affected by human activities and degraded as it re-ceives the outflow from four major rivers. the amounts of total coliform bacteria (tcB) and ammonia-nitrogen measured in some monitoring stations were found to exceed the coastal water Quality standard, 1,000 mpn/ 100 ml and 0.4 mg/l, respectively. on the east coast of the Gulf of thailand, water quality has improved in some areas. monitoring results have shown only a few stations where tcB levels were over the standard. larger amounts of floatable solids were widely found, especially near communities along the coast, tourist beaches, and jetties. the west coast of the gulf receives the outflow from many river and canals. tcB levels in the west greatly exceeded the standard, especially during the rainy season that flushes out intensively populated areas. suspended solids were also high at river and cannel mouths and aquaculture sites.

water quality along the andamanin is still good, although high volumes of floatable solids and bacteria contamination are a major concern in the highly populated areas. for important tourist attractions such as phuket and phi phi islands, where more than 3 million tourists visit each year, water quality has deteriorated. a 5,250 m_/day-capacity wastewater treatment plant was installed to treat the sewage before discharging it into the sea.

according to figures from coastal water quality monitoring programs, amounts of tcB and floatable solids were major problems in 2000, especially at river mouths, and near communities and tourist destinations. untreated wastewater continues to be discharged from various sources along the river due to the insufficient capacity of wastewater treat-ment plants. in order to tackle this problem, additional measures must be taken to control

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the discharge of wastewater from point and nonpoint sources; these should include the construction of new wastewater treatment plants and the establishment of standards for different types of effluents. for example, the pollution control department has released a set of standards to control the quality of effluent associated with pig rearing, coastal aqua-culture, and fish piers. if these standards are adopted and met in actual practice, coastal water quality will improve.

Pollutiona combination of land-based (domestic, agricultural, and industrial wastes) and marine-based (water transportation, shipping activities, petroleum exploration) sources account for pollution in thai waters. land-based sources contribute approximately 80 percent of marine pollution, most of which comes from domestic sources. major sources of pollution are sewage and industrial effluents, sediments, oil, and agricultural wastes. marine pollut-ants include heavy metal contamination (especially from industrial activities), oil pollution, algae bloom or red tide, sediment transportation and accumulation, and pathogenic and organic wastes. lower levels of dissolved oxygen and higher levels of nutrient concentration were observed in coastal areas than in offshore areas; rarely did levels exceed thailand’s coastal water standards. trace metals, petroleum hydrocarbons, and organochlorine pesti-cides in seawater, sediment, and aquatic tissues have remained at safe levels, but these tend to be higher in the semienclosed areas and at river mouths. only a few cases have been of primary concern but no extreme levels have been found. the surveillance and monitoring of pollutant levels is a necessary part of an effective management strategy for achieving sustainable utilization of the thai sea.

coastal development has degraded but not yet seriously polluted the coastal and marine environment. water quality is generally good apart from some major river mouths and in-shore areas close to large coastal cities or industrial areas, where low levels of dissolved oxygen can be found. coastal water quality is classified by utilization. for example, the thai coastal water standard is based on seven classes of seawater quality for nature conservation, coral, aquaculture, swimming, recreation, and industry. monitoring of seawater quality along the thai coastline shows that only those areas close to main river mouths and major cities cannot meet the level of compliance required by the coastal water standard.

large amounts of organic materials from domestic, industrial, agricultural, aquacul-ture, and other sources have contributed significantly to oxygen depletion. one example of degraded water quality is the serious adverse impact of shrimp farms on the inner Gulf of thailand, where more than 6,000 hectares had to be closed down. the production of shrimp from three provinces during 1988-95 was about 107,377 tons. as a result of oxygen depletion, shrimp farm areas decreased from 6,841 hectares in 1988 to 808 hectares in 1995, leading to a decrease in shrimp production from 4,735 million baht in 1988 to 587 million baht in 1995.

the most conspicuous and widespread pollution impact on the marine environment is that of nutrient enrichment, which causes the accelerated growth of plankton, algae, and higher forms of plant life, producing an undesirable disturbance of aquatic organisms.

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nutrient enrichment contributes to a massive bloom of phytoplankton, which can harm other marine organisms and humans. algal blooms have been observed in thailand since 1957. in the past, this phenomenon was considered a natural incident and did not cause any deleterious impacts on the marine environment. its frequency has been increasing for the last three decades, however. during the rainy season, algal blooms have often occurred at the river mouth areas. the most common species found is blue-green algae trichodesmium erythraeum and noctiluca scintillans. furthermore, coscinodiscus sp., rhizosolenia sp., hemidiscus sp., Bacteriastum sp., ceratium sp., and nitzschia sp. have occasionally been observed. one major cause of algal bloom may be excessive nutrient and organic pollutants from the major rivers.

algal bloom can affect aquatic organisms and the appearance of the sea. a mass death of phytoplanktons produces a bad smell and changes the color of seawater to yellow-green, green, reddish, brown, or milky, depending on the type of phytoplank-ton. during may and June 1983, a major loss in fish farming production in thailand was caused by a trichodesmium erythraeum bloom along its east coast. a large bloom of noctiluca sp. caused a mass mortality of fish in sriracha Bay in august 1991, and along the pattaya beach in august 1992. normally, the algal blooms caused by the common species, trichodesmium sp. and noctiluca sp., have no direct harmful effect on fish, but fish may die due to a sudden reduction of dissolved oxygen, or the increase of ammonia in the water.

Increase of Suspended Matter and Disturbance of Sedimenta large amount of suspended matter, increasing water turbidity, is created by runoff, dredg-ing activity, coastal erosion, and mining. mining operations and their wastes are sources of suspended matter affecting the water quality and the ecosystem. many mines have oper-ated in thailand, resulting in high suspended matter and turbidity in the water column. the development of coastal infrastructures has also had an impact on benthic ecosystems. the sediment disturbed during a dredging activity has been reported to suffocate benthic organisms, and is particularly damaging to coral reefs. dredging directly affects marine organisms, especially benthos, by smoothing and disrupting habitats. dredging increases suspended solids in the water column, which consequently affects filter-feeder organisms. sediment also affects coral reef ecosystems and diminishes the light intensity essential for phototrophic organisms such as coral, algae, and seagrass.

coastal erosion is another consequence of the destruction of wetlands, because these are natural buffers providing protection against erosion and wave damage. coastal erosion in many areas is an entirely natural process, which, however, can be exacerbated by human activities. the destruction of mangroves, wetlands, and coastal forests to make room for aquaculture, agriculture, urban settlement, and industrial development has aggravated the erosion problem.

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Degradation of Aquatic Lifethe assessment of pollution impacts on aquatic life is complicated. the response of organ-isms to pollution can manifest itself from a low level of biological organization to higher levels for cellular, biochemical, and metabolic change, through species diversity and popula-tion, and finally to community patterns.

pollution impacts on aquatic organisms can be assessed by a quantifying of the bioac-cumulation of pollutants. in other words, pollutant residues normally are studied in aquatic tissues; especially commercial species. numerous studies have so far rarely pointed out an extreme bioaccumulation of great concern. a catastrophic pollution impact causing a mass mortality of marine species has never been observed in thailand. yet we cannot be assured that there are absolutely no pollution impacts on aquatic life in this region. such impacts possibly are latent at lower levels of biological organization; for example, there may be decreases in the growth and reproduction rates, thus diminishing the abundance and variety of species. studies of this problem in thailand have been inadequate.

thailand’s commercial aquatic species are a major source of seafood for human consump-tion; investigations of trace metal, petroleum hydrocarbons, and organochlorine in aquatic tissue have seldom indicated high levels of these substances that would exceed seafood quality regulations. further surveillance and monitoring of potential pollution sources is essential. Because oil and gas exploration in the Gulf of thailand is extensive, the risk of contamination by metals, hydrocarbons, and production wastes is of concern. extensive studies are now being conducted to assess the wastes discharged from oil and gas exploration activities in the Gulf in order to assess the need for the mitigation measures mentioned above.

Policy and Management of Coastal and Marine Environment in Thailanduse of coastal and marine resources critically affects their environmental quality because of the wastes generated by such use, and the overexploitation of these resources. complicated problem areas are conflicts of use, pollution, loss of natural resources, and degradation of the environmental quality. integrated management of the coastal and marine environment is, therefore, vital for conserving natural resources, facilitating economic development, and minimizing pollution. thailand has developed numerous programs and projects to man-age its coastal and marine environment. thailand’s emergency plan on coastal resource management: mangroves and coral reefs (1991-96) was established to develop measures for the conservation, rehabilitation, and protection of mangrove areas and coral reefs. the action plan for coastal environment management at pa tong Beach, ka ron Beach, and ka ta Beach, phuket province (1992-96) includes management of water quality, land use, waste/garbage, and coral reefs, and the promotion and improvement of public awareness and support for the environmental management program for the coastal area of phuket province. the policy, measure, and action plan for coastal environment and resource management (1993-94) includes legal measures for land use management and meeting coastal water quality standards, as well as measures of investment for dealing with water pollution and garbage. the master plan for national coral reefs management (1993-94) classifies coral reefs, according to use, into three zones: local community, tourism and

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recreation, and conservation and research, and also specifies prohibited and allowable activities in each zone.

current policies for management of coastal and marine environment address the recovery of the thai sea, national security, and environmental health. the office of the prime minister has set up a policy and plan of recovery of the thai sea resources and the environment. its major activities are developing policy and guidelines, and establishing criteria for recovering marine resources and the ocean environment, and improving ways to achieve their sustainable use. furthermore, the cooperation between thailand and neighboring countries will be promoted and/or developed. a committee to administer and coordinate the implementation of a policy for the national security of the sea has been established. the main objectives to be addressed by this committee will relate to coastal and marine environmental management, in order to gain maximum benefit and sustainable use of marine resources, conserve and recover these resources and the environment, and raise public awareness about the importance of the sea to encourage its appropriate use.

two recent ministerial plans affect environmental quality. one is a cabinet council approved plan (1997-2016) for natural resources, prevention and removal of pollution, cul-tural heritage, communities’ environments, environmental education and promotion, and green technology (technology friendly to the environment). another is the environmental Quality management plan on coastal resources (1999-2006) which was established to conserve coastal resources, recover damaged resources and improve coastal environment management, and achieve sustainable and appropriate use of coastal resources. this plan sets out to increase participation and awareness of local communities on coastal resource conservation, solve problems of natural resources and the environment, and strengthen related legislation, organizations, and infrastructures.

ongoing natural resource and coastal environment management plans address man-grove wetlands, environments of coastal aquaculture, seagrass management, and a study of the environmental capital of shrimp culturing. thailand has implemented programs for environmental impacts assessment and the polluter pay principle, and for environmentally protected pollution control areas. action plans also have been established for environmen-tal quality management at the provincial level. one tool for integrating all these plans is thailand’s coastal environment sensitivity index (cesi) map, which identifies sensitive and vulnerable coastal resource characteristics and features. the cesi map is used for oil spill response, planning policy for critical coastal environment maintenance, and conservation and protection of critical habitats/resources. thailand’s pollution control department has undertaken the “coastal sensitivity mapping project with its application for pollution surveillance and contingency planning,” to develop an up-to-date coastal environment database in Geographic information systems (Gis) and cesi maps for coastal zone man-agement, pollution surveillance, and contingency planning.

Thailand’s Regional Cooperation in Coastal and Marine Environmentsthailand cooperates on a regional level with five different marine groups:

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• asean-australia economic cooperation program (aaecp) phase iii: coastal Zone environmental and resource management project (cZermp).

• asia-pacific economic cooperation (apec) marine resource conservation working Group (apecmrcwG).

• asean-european commission (ec) phase ii: interdisciplinary methodologies for the sustainable use and management of coastal resource systems.

• asean working Group on coastal and marine environment.

thailand has selected sri racha and lam chabung as the areas to carry out a five-year (1999-2003) project on integrated coastal management. this project was established under pemsea. asean cooperation on the environment began in 1977, when the asean sub-regional environment program i (asep) was implemented by the asean experts Group on the environment (aeGe) under the purview of the asean committee on science and technology (cost). in 1989, cooperation on the environment was strengthened with the upgrading of the status of the aeGe to the level of asean senior officials on the environ-ment (asoen). asoen meets annually and is assisted in its work by six working groups in the following areas: nature conservation and biodiversity, coastal and marine environment, and multilateral environmental agreements.

the working Group on coastal and marine environment meets annually, and at its first meeting in 1999 it formulated its scope of the work to include five elements:

• formulate and implement a detailed regional action plan for the sustainable develop-ment and management of coastal and marine resources, including eco-development and protection of the coastal and marine environment from land and sea-based activities.

• strengthen the coordination, cooperation, and information exchange with asean regional bodies and international organizations for the integrated protection, con-servation, and management of coastal zones and marine environment.

• interface and collaborate with other relevant organization such as coordinating Body on the seas of east asia (coBsea), in order to enhance implementation of activities under the working group.

• promote and support activities on public awareness and public participation to protect and conserve the coastal and marine environment and resources.

• exchange views and information on emerging issues relating to the protection of coastal and marine environment.

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the first asean strategic plan of action on the environment (1994-98) provided a firm base for regional and subregional cooperation within asean, through 10 strategic initiatives and 27 supporting actions to ensure success in attaining the plan’s objectives. at the last informal asean ministerial meeting on the environment (amme) in hanoi, asean environment ministries directed asoen to formulate a strategic plan of action on environment (spae) for the period 1999-2004 based on the environment section of the hanoi plan of action (hpa). the hpa components related to the coastal and marine environment include a call to develop regional coordination for the integrated protection and management of coastal zones by the year 2001, and an action plan for the protection of the marine environment from land and sea-based activities by the year 2004.

the member countries identified seven topics:

• coral reefs, seagrass and mangrove wetlands.

• tanker sludge and ballast water.

• solid, liquid, and hazardous waste management.

• clean technology.

• coastal erosion.

• eco-tourism.

• coastal wetlands including protected marine areas.

the plan calls for establishing criteria for designating areas to protect critical marine habitats and resources, and it will also be necessary to create an asean marine water quality standard. the current marine water quality criteria were developed under the asean-canada cooperative programme on marine science phase ii. Guidelines for management, and conser-vation plans for marine resources, including community-based coastal surveillance for a clean coastal environment, will be developed, along with a framework for national action plans to protect the marine environment from being degraded by sewage discharge, industrial waste, hydrocarbons, and tanker desludging activities to be developed in the near future. regional mechanism to enhance surveillance and follow-up action against illegal discharge, including tanker desludging activities at sea, also are being developed.

Conclusionsinappropriate land use along the coasts and the seabed degrades coastal resources. for ex-ample, mangrove forests were converted to different purposes (mainly aquaculture), which resulted in a decline from 0.37 million hectares of forest in 1961, to 0.16 million hectare in 1996. rock and sand beaches and mud plains have been developed as wharves, recreation

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areas, and settlements. waste generated from these activities has been released into coastal environments in excess of their carrying capacity, resulting in irreversible damage, with land- and sea-based pollutants discharged into seawater and affecting coastal resources.

approximately 30 percent of coastal seagrass and seaweed have been degraded. fishery resources have declined both quantitatively and qualitatively. high-risk land use practices in seabeds create an enormous impact on sensitive environments, and land reclamation and construction of sea walls can cause an accretion of sand deposits along offshore barri-ers, as well as coastal erosion. mineral and energy extraction and development undertaken without proper control measures to prevent environmental damage generate conflicts between resources usage and conservation of the environment.

these problems tend to intensify with economic development that does not take envi-ronmental impacts into proper consideration. the thai government’s land use zoning rules (based on land capability, urban planning, and control) for use of coastal and marine areas are not always followed, nor are waste discharges adequately controlled. laws and regulations against encroachers of coastal areas are not enforced strictly. for some projects that may have negative environmental impacts in the future to be approved, informed decisions must be made that take the precautionary principle into account. there continues to be a lack of aware-ness, knowledge, and understanding of sustainable development and resources conservation principles. thailand needs to put into place effective mechanisms to foster cooperation among government agencies, the private sector, nGos, and local people.

thailand has developed 12 policies to manage and conserve its coastal and marine resources. these seek to adhere to the following goals:

• preserve at least 0.16 million hectares of mangrove forests.

• conserve and rehabilitate all types of coastal resources to protect the balance of coastal ecosystems.

• conserve and develop mineral and geological resources on a long-term basis in order to preserve valuable mineral resources for future development and national security.

• integrate utilization and environmental conservation, while reducing conflicts in the management of other natural resources.

• Generate and develop sufficient energy sources to meet requirements, taking into consideration resource conservation and the protection of the natural balance.

• conserve, protect, and rehabilitate natural environment for the natural heritage of the country.

• encourage all communities to manage their environment and green areas in ways appropriate for increasing people’s quality of life while conforming to the natural

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ecosystem, socioeconomic system, cultural heritage, and technology.

• promote the awareness and spirit of communities at all levels and the general public to ready them to participate in appropriate environmental management.

Policy and Implementation Guidelines

Policy 1: Minimize environmental impacts on coastal development.• promote development and control land use in coastal areas based on carrying

capacity, including establishing development-free areas important to maintaining environmental quality.

• formulate regulations and control development and expansion of communities in coastal areas throughout the country, including beaches; provide proper solid waste and wastewater treatments in all areas; ensure continuous monitoring and evaluating of the implementation of these measures.

• formulate measures to prevent the degradation of seawater quality resulting from government- and private sector-sponsored development projects.

• protect and conserve seawater quality in 23 coastal provinces based on water quality standards.

• formulate short, medium, and long-term measures for strict protection, control, and suppression of destructive coastal encroachment.

• prohibit landfills at beaches, along coastlines and offshore, and in public areas, except for government projects of national economic, security, and environmental importance that have been approved by the cabinet and undergone an environmental impact assessment.

• accelerate establishment of coastal aquaculture zones in all coastal areas of the country, and prepare management guidelines conforming to environmental quality management plans that include preparing land use management plans based on land capacity and control, protection, and solution of environmental problems from aquaculture in mangrove forests and nearby areas.

• establish zones for the mining industry in coastal areas, on the continental shelf, and in deep-sea areas as appropriate, and prepare management plans for all areas, taking environmental impacts into consideration.

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• conduct extension programs to educate and raise the awareness and consciousness of administrators and politicians at all levels, local people, nGos, and academic institutes, to help them understand the value and importance of coastal resources.

Policy 2: Utilization of coastal resources must be based on conservation principles and productivity of those resources.

• create integrated systems for administering and managing coastal resources, while controlling their utilization and preserving the balance of the coastal ecosystem.

• accelerate preparation of management and implementation plans for all types of coastal resources at regional and provincial levels.

• promote tripartite institutions (government, private sector, and concerned producers) to participate in formulating plans and monitoring coastal resource management.

• modify laws and regulations relevant to coastal resources, effectively reorganize ad-ministrative structures, and intensify the vigorous enforcement of these measures.

Policy 3: Establish zones for coastal land use and seabeds, while formulating guidelines and criteria for controlling utilization, protecting the environment, and solving land-use conflicts.

• establish zones for coastal area land use and for seabeds, including transition zones between terrestrial and coastal zones, formulate suitable land-use guidelines based on carrying capacity, and control land use in each zone to reduce environmental im-pacts.

• encourage the rigorous and uninterrupted implementation of master plans for coral reef management.

• promulgate a ministerial decree for master city planning that addresses the problem of coastal areas throughout the country, including the use of various legal measures for controlling land along the coast.

Policy 4: Reserve and maintain coastal ecosystems as suitable for sustainable development.

• designate environmental protection areas in zones for mangrove and coral reef con-servation, and formulate action plans for rehabilitation, protection, and control of coastal ecosystems; establish utilization zones inside coral reef conservation zones; prepare maps and rehabilitation plans for all provinces.

• declare areas containing abundant seagrass and seaweed as brood-stock protection zones, according to the fishery act of 1947, and prepare action plans for rehabilita-

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tion and preservation of seagrass and coral reefs. in areas of degraded seagrass and seaweed, encourage small-scale fisheries activities.

• accelerate formulation of prevention measures and emergency plans for promptly dealing with accidents caused by the spread of pollutants at regional and provincial levels.

• formulate measures for protecting coastal areas and controlling and solving the prob-lem of degradation of coastal resources due to mineral mining, petroleum extraction, discharge of contaminated water with petroleum, and the release of solid waste and other polluting substances; prepare a protection plan to control and treat pollution from petroleum spills.

• conserve and rehabilitate beaches to serve as natural buffers between terrestrial and marine areas, including preventing the degrading of sand beaches, rock shores, and mud flats, in order to preserve the value of the ecosystem and the beauty of the area.

• encourage research on conservation of endangered flora and fauna—for example, dug-ong, dolphin, and sea turtles—and apply the research results in a practical manner.

• assign the royal forest department and the department of fisheries to formulate a ministerial decree based on the wild animal and preservation act of 1992, designating species to be protected, and supervise the act’s implementation, designating dugong as a rare species and dolphin, sea turtles, and coral as protected species.

• control the capture and export of beautiful (exotic) fish and sea turtles; prohibit the trophy hunting of sea animals and the vandalism of coral reefs considered important for conservation, and promote marine life aquaculture.

• conduct extension programs to educate and increase public awareness and raise consciousness concerning the value of preserving endangered flora and fauna, and of conserving coastal resources.

Policy 5: Increase capacity to administer and manage mangrove forests on a systematic and continuing basis.

• improve and clearly demarcate mangrove forest conservation zones along the coast-lines of the andaman sea and the Gulf of thailand, and prepare clear boundary maps.

• accelerate formulation of provincial mangrove forest management plans, and control utilization of mangrove forests, within zones and in adjacent areas as deemed suitable

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to maximize utilization while minimizing environmental impacts.

• rigorously enforce laws as appropriate against illegal encroachments in mangrove forests, and repeal land-use rights.

• formulate measures and implementation guidelines to prevent degradation and encroachment of mangrove forests, based on the ministerial decree of august 23, 1991.

Policy 6: Accelerate the rehabilitation and restoration of degraded mangrove forests.

• improve and amend laws, regulations, and rules relevant to utilization and conserva-tion of mangrove forests, including their strict enforcement.

• accelerate and promote private sector participation in mangrove forest planting in degraded areas, and assign the royal forest department to rehabilitate mangrove areas encroached upon for now-abandoned aquaculture farms.

• promote planting of mangrove forests in degraded mangrove areas and on newly emerged mangrove flats.

Policy 7: Conserve coastal and island environments for sustainable tourism development.

• prepare management plans for all marine national parks and establish coastal reserves for protection of the natural balance of coastal ecosystems.

• declare coastal areas with unique natural ecosystems or vulnerable ecosystems as environmentally protected areas.

• control the administration and development of coastal tourism to ensure no damage to coastal areas and to all categories of coastal resources.

• conserve and rehabilitate beach and coastal areas that will be established as natural and cultural heritage sites, and formulate regulations for beaches conforming to urban plans, ensuring they are solid waste and waste water pollution-free zones.

• strictly enforce laws against encroachments and those impeding access to public ar-eas.

Policy 8: Efficient utilization of mineral and geological resources based on conservation principles and taking into consideration the balance of nature and the envi-

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ronment, including integrating mineral use with other natural resources. • amend the minerals act and other relevant laws and ensure their conformity to

efficient development and utilization. establish appropriate penalties and ensure effective enforcement. formulate specific laws to control selected geological re-sources such as laterite, sand mining (both terrestrial and under coastal waters), and removal of topsoil.

• clearly designate suitable areas for commercial mining, and formulate measures for preventing of environmental impacts on surrounding areas.

• formulate criteria for planning mining and mineral utilization projects to be prepared by concessionaires, including mitigation measures for proper protection, resolution, and monitoring of environmental impacts of each concession area.

Policy 9: Develop and provide sufficient energy sources to meet economic development requirements while conserving and maintaining the natural balance.

• accelerate surveys and develop energy resources such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas, for effective utilization while preserving environmental quality.

• prepare guidelines for provision and development of energy sufficient to meet eco-nomic requirements at appropriate price levels, while minimizing environmental impacts; compare the advantages and disadvantages of developing various types of energy; and prepare personnel for future energy development.

Policy 10: Create and maintain a protected area system conforming to ecological principles and manage natural environment as appropriate.

• support the establishment of forest parks, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, histori-cal areas, and watersheds currently in the survey and study phases, to be completed by the termination of the 8th national economic and social development plan, and accelerate formulation of management plans for all protected areas by the end of the 9th plan.

• designate natural areas that should be environmentally protected.

Policy 11: Conserve natural resources and preserve green areas for recreation and promote good environmental

quality for future communities and future generations. • conserve surveyed and registered wetlands, coastal areas, flora conservation zones,

biosphere reserves, reserve areas for education, nonhunting areas, historical commu-nities, historical parks, and valuable ecosystems adjacent to communities, in order to maintain the uniqueness of the communities, and to provide areas for recreation.

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Policy 12: Encourage the private sector, NGOs, and general public to participate in environmental education and extension programs on a continuing basis.

• formulate incentives for the private commercial sector to organize and establish a private sector network and an environmental fund for each activity, including the participation of nGos and communities in activities related to maintaining envi-ronmental quality in urban and rural locations.

• cooperate with the private commercial sector and nGos to improve information and database systems, and disseminate environmental information through the curriculums of various training programs.

• promote cooperative environmental campaigns, and exchange data and indigenous and up-to-date technical knowledge with other countries and international organiza-tions.

• promote the strengthening of family and community institutions, particularly the role of women in environmental management.

Session III:Impact of Fish Stocks and Issues of Food and Economic Security

Mankind’s Impact on Fish Stocks and the Issues of Food and Economic

Security of Coastal CommunitiesJohn Caddy

Senior Research Fellow, Department of Environmental Science and Technology, London, England

What Is the Current State of World Marine Fisheries?marine fisheries currently seem to be at a crossroads. Judging from food and agricultural organization (fao) statistics breaking down world fisheries landings over the period 1950-94, and assessing their state of exploitation, the evidence suggests that we reached a global limit for marine production over a decade ago. the main feature of marine fisheries has been their flexibility: as target resources were fished down to less profitable levels, other resources were located, hence total marine landings have remained close to a plateau. how much longer this flexibility will persist in face of heavy human pressures is anyone’s guess! apart from a steady overexploitation, economic performance is also suboptimal due to overcapitalization. large fleets are sustained in many countries by ‘hidden’ subsidies.

using the fao fishery database, analyses (Grainger and Garcia, 1996, caddy et al., 1998) showed that despite a steady rise in world marine catches peaking in the mid-1990s, overfishing dates back to the 1960s for longer-lived, bottom-dwelling species (e.g. cods, snappers, flatfish). in general, the level of world marine landings has been sustained by new species “coming on line.” a high proportion of tonnage now consists of the lower-value pelagic species.

an fao study of the bioeconomics of world fisheries on a global scale (Garcia and newton, 1997) confirmed this picture of global overfishing since the 1980s also from an economic point of view. large subsidies have been used to maintain fleets, despite the fact that they operate with a global overcapacity of some 30 to 50 percent over the fleet size needed to harvest the sustainable yield.

climate change and climate variability determine ocean productivity: sardines and an-chovies that dominate the bulk of landings are particularly susceptible. they are mainly low value and mostly used for fishmeal production. during the 1970s and into the mid-1980s, the population sizes of pacific sardines collapsed, along with those of the peruvian anchoveta and the southern african pilchard. this was a period of global temperature rise, suggest-ing that climatic variability may be the driving force for small pelagic fishes (kawasaki and omori, 1988). this was also a period of strong el niños, marked by a progressive collapse of the southern oscillation index. the el niño-southern oscillation (enso) appears to be the dominant force driving short-period climatic variability throughout the world. we can expect that long-term climate changes will lead to dramatic changes in fishery produc-

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tivity. Global warming is linked to changing wind patterns and upwelling strength, and will affect pelagic fish stocks. for pelagics, overfishing is also harmful, but environmental effects predominate in affecting the size of fish populations. is there a global synchrony in fish population variations?

as more experience accumulates with regard to the long-period variability in fish populations, a remarkable pattern emerges. many of the largest pelagic fish stocks of the world seem to be growing and collapsing with a high degree of synchrony between them. the simultaneous rise and fall of sardine (pilchard) populations in widely separate areas of the pacific ocean was first pointed out by the Japanese expert kawasaki (1983). since then, the pattern he reported has continued to hold.

for example, the peruvian anchoveta—which supported the world’s largest fishery—the southern african pilchard fisheries, and the Japanese fishery for flying squid all rose and peaked between the late 1950s and early 1970s, during which period the large pacific pilchard stocks essentially vanished. the synchrony of this pattern for small pelagic fish seems to be largely independent of fishing practices.

in addition to overfishing, other human activites adversely affect fishery resources. uncontrolled freshwater usage, nutrient and other anthropogenic runoffs, have impacted estuarine and riverine fisheries. coastal ecosystems have been degraded through a progres-sive “litoralization” of human populations and the impact of urban developments along coastlines. Global warming over the last few decades and the reduction of the ozone layer has seriously affected coral reefs. the response of fish stocks to overexploitation is more accentuated for long-lived species and those restricted to continental shelves.

studies to date have led to greater appreciation of trends in global marine fish stocks and the causes of these are better known, if difficult to predict. short-lived pelagic fish and squids often tend to respond to climatic fluctuations in a more accentuated way than do longer-lived species where multiple spawnings in the life span tend to ‘buffer’ accentuated population changes. longer-lived shelf species are, however, more likely to be decimated by uncontrolled overfishing and the most serious stock declines have occurred for demersal or bottom-feeding species (e.g., cods, groupers, flatfish, rays, and sharks).

when the large catches of pelagics are subtracted from the world’s total catch, the decline in the large, high-value species landings becomes more evident. what emerges is that demersal species were already globally overfished by the 1980s. insofar as humans have control over the health of fish stocks, it is essential that these be properly managed. experience shows that the optimal fishing strategy and precautionary fishing to avoid col-lapse both require fishing to be carried out at a lower level than will provide the maximum sustainable yield (msy). while yield increases with fishing effort up to a certain point, it falls subsequently as fishing effort exceeds the productive capacity of the resource. different levels of effort correspond to different levels of social use of the resource. the effectiveness of fishery management measures generally diminishes with distance from the shore. we may, therefore, expect more progress to be made with fisheries management in nearshore areas, spreading offshore as new technologies improve control and surveillance capabili-ties. technological advances are likely to influence fishery management in the future. for

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Fish Stocks and the Issues of Food and Economic Security

example, satellite monitoring of vessels equipped with transponders not only allows a government to monitor their activities distant from shore, but lends credibility to area-specific fishing rights in offshore regions.

for the northwest pacific region, pauley et al. (2000) have drawn attention to likely overestimates in the fishery production statistics of china and their implications. china’s fishery is now among the world’s largest, so that such overestimates (which also occur in other countries) are important not only for this region, but also affect global statistics. in the above authors’ view, biases in reporting “hide” the downward trend in oceanic resources, particularly in the northwest pacific. they do, however, point to the importance of reporters’ training in statistics. the dramatic rise in catches by china, and their possible impacts on the global levels of fishery productivity, regionally and globally, is being studied by china’s fishery scientists in cooperation with fao.

Potential for Improving the Proportion of Fish Supplies Going to Human Food the proportion of fish used for human consumption has remained steady at about 72 percent over recent decades according to fao statistics, with about 30 percent of the world catch going to fishmeal (about 1/3 of this to aquaculture feeds and most of the remainder to livestock and other uses). substantial quantities of fresh fish probably are also being used as “wet feed” in aquaculture. fish converted to meal, and the large amount of discards (about 20 million tons per year) are potential reserves of food fish for human consumption, but there are problems in their handling, transport, and marketing.

fao’s perspective is that the limiting factor is more likely to be the buying power of those in need of food security, rather than the fish supply. in other words, as demand increases, the rural poor will have difficulty in affording fish protein in a flourishing global market for fish priced in hard currencies.

what has been the net effect of the law of the sea on fishery management? the total potential of marine stocks is about 100 million tons, out of which, for practical reasons, only about 80 million tons may be caught (fao, 1971). the new law of the sea has not led to the expected improvement in the state of marine stocks and fisheries that (1984) ideal-ists hoped for. while the declaration of exclusive economic Zones (eeZ) has given states exclusive rights within 200 miles of the coast, many states have been unable to control access to their own nationals. of the limited net revenue that has come to governments from the fishery after subsidies, an inadequate proportion has been spent on monitoring, control and surveillance of the fishery, hence regulations are not always respected.

Availability of Fish and Food Securitydespite environmental threats, and overfishing, the fao’s current view is that the sea’s overall contribution to global food supplies is not significantly threatened in the medium term. a less optimistic view is that the poor state of key government management infra-structure is of serious concern. when combined with growing demand, the inadequacy of management measures to conserve stocks is evident in many areas.

though fish supplies continue to be available, formerly common and highly desired

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species have becoming expensive or rare, and fish prices have risen compared with other foodstuffs (e.g. the cost of grain). hence, the access to fish resources across all income groups also has changed. the likelihood of improvement of world fisheries requires trained personnel, and government and local infrastructures need to make hard decisions on access. fao (2000) noted that fish supply per capita in africa has been declining, and will decline further if african countries cannot better manage their resources, or increase aquaculture production. access to training in coastal resources management is in short supply in the developing world, and not satisfied by ad hoc short-term training courses which depend on when opportunistic funding become available. the need for trained personnel for resource management in local and national government (e.g., for monitoring, control, surveillance, and statistics) and in national research institutes, is currently unsatisfied in most developing countries.

Food Securityfood security depends on three elements: the supply (production + imports - exports), local availability (production ± trade -wastage), and accessibility (buying power). availability of fish cannot be separated from total food available (e.g., agricultural sources), as consumers can easily shift between other sources of protein and fish.

How Has per Capita Fish Production Changed in Recent Decades?a wider appreciation of serious downward trends in fish availability led to the international fishery agreements drawn up in the 1990s. the findings of the fao on the state of world stocks, together with similar analyses at the regional and national level, fueled public con-cerns expressed to national governments and through nGos. this provided an incentive for the unprecedented changes in global legislation on fisheries management that have occurred since 1990. these included the un fish stock agreement, and the fao code of conduct for responsible fisheries and other regional agreements.

apart from conservation, any cure for overfishing requires an appropriate infrastructure for decision making, close attention to access rights and private-sector investments and a decentralization of decision making. for developing countries, fair and precautionary fishing access agreements are required so that distant water fleets do not impact severely on the rights of the coastal small-scale fishermen who supply food to local communities.

The Role of Coastal Communities Marine Resources Managementin general, fishery resources monitoring and management are undertaken on a national basis, and/or by region of the world (in international fishery commissions). progres-sively, however, it is proving necessary for governments to cede some authority over local resources to provinces, native peoples, municipalities, cooperatives, or even individuals (such as delegated through improving training Quality workshops). this increases the demand for training at the local government level, which currently is largely unsatisfied. multidisciplinary training is required, including exposure to the fundamentals of ecology and oceanography, resource economics, environmental issues and conservation, integrated

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coastal area management, Gis, dispute resolution and marine legislation, both national and international.

Marine Fish Stock Declineat least partly in response to the perception of stock declines, coastal states’ actions have

• brought into force the 1982 convention on the law of the sea (1994);

• adopted the un fish stocks agreement (2001);

• adopted the fao code of conduct for responsible fisheries (1995);

• aligned their national laws with these instruments; and

• begun in many cases to implement the precautionary approach.

the concept of ecosystem-based fisheries management has been accepted by attempting to reduce incidental catches of marine mammals, turtles, sea birds, and other protected species, and in reducing incidental impacts of fishing on the environment. there is a growing perception that the role of traditional fishing rights needs to be restored. in many parts of the world, such as Japan, traditional fishing rights were originally vested in the local coastal communities. the industrialisation of fisheries before world war ii did not generally emerge as an offshoot of artisanal or inshore fisheries, but usually grew out of the industrial revolutions of the countries concerned.

policy makers frequently saw it as modern for industrial fleets to replace the low-technol-ogy inshore fishery, even though these provide protein resources to local populations. many systems of local rights and tenure were allowed to lapse in consequence. recently there has been an affort to restore such rights to local communities and aboriginal peoples (such as the rights ceded to north american indians, maoris, and australian aborigines).

The Conflict between Industrial Fisheries and Local Coastal Communitiesthe conflict between industrial trawling and artisanal fishing has been most acute in the tropics, since here the depth range for the most productive fishing grounds for bottom fish and shellfish is generally within 100 m deep and consequent conflicts have led to the banning of, for example, trawl gear in some countries.

in cold temperate regions, by contrast, fleet interests have tended to move offshore, and now target oceanic pelagics, and stocks of very long-lived deep water species are being fished down to 500 m and below. Given the age and lifespans of many of these old fish, their populations will not be rapidly replaced. hence a growing proportion of new catches now comes from the high seas where fishery regulation is least effective. there is a need to monitor high-seas fleets by the uniform application of satellite telemetry using black boxes as conditions for licensing, as has already been done for distant water fleets in some eeZs.

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as the fishing capacity needed to harvest resources was exceeded in local seas, catch rates dropped, and industrial fleets moved to new grounds offshore from developing countries. some developing countries (peru, venezuela, mexico, cuba, thailand, korea, and china) have developed considerable capacity, or inherited surplus capacity from developed country fleets. the former leaders in developed country fishing states have been constrained by higher costs and lower catch rates, and now satisfy a growing proportion of their needs for fish through a large international market.

technology unfortunately has been applied mainly to fish catching and processing, rather than to controlling of adherence to responsible fisheries regulations. for example, rapid technological developments in the capture, freezing and transport of fish have boosted international trade. for countries such as Japan, the united states, spain, and other devel-oped countries, high quality seafood continues to rise in price as demand exceeds supply, which reduces the quantity and types of of fish available to the rural poor in the countries of origin, since fish tend to be exported from soft- to hard-currency areas. unfortunately, the technology applied to control and surveillance of illegal fishing has not kept pace with rapid developments in catching technology. in some countries, intensive aquaculture oc-cupies critical coastal habitats, and does not necessarily provide employment and income to the local rural poor (e.g., shrimp ponds in kerala, india, and in south america).

in summary, a simple solution to complex fishery problems is not easy to come by, as depleted resources are unable to support existing fishing fleets. stocks can be rebuilt through enhancement and habitat restoration, but this will only be possible if fleet capacity and access are limited. priority in use rights will probably have to be given to local communities over coastal resources since this usually reflects food security needs. industrial-scale fish-ing should ideally avoid inshore grounds and resources essential to coastal communities. retraining in other job skills will be needed for displaced fishers. coastal communities will need to find added value for their coastal resources through tourism, for example. multi-disciplinary training will also be needed for local administrators, to run an infrastructure for assessing and managing coastal resources. the local fisheries management of inshore resources may be incorporated into an integrated coastal area management framework. for managing high seas stocks, coastal states will need to allocate more extensive powers to international fisheries commissions and to apply satellite monitoring and other technolo-gies to improve adherence to regulations by offshore fishing fleets.

DiscussionQamar raza rizvi: which is the best method for assessment?

John caddy: in canada they looked at commercial statistics and didn’t pay attention to survey data. that was a mistake. limiting reference points is also a key. if things look ambiguous then they are probably not going well and you should cut back. you will also never have perfect information. the margin of error is sometimes plus or minus 30 percent. in order to recover, stocks have to be fished at two-thirds of the maximum. you must be precautionary. surveys are a good approach but there are other indicators.

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Gunnar kullenberg: regarding discarding, one suggestion for its occurrence is that you have to report it. there have been attempts made to limit excess over periods of time. do you have any information on limitations?

John caddy: on the discards, the problem is that different species have different values. Boats that go out for days on end have limited space, ice, and so on, and so bring back only high-grade stock and throw out the rest. in near-shore fishing this doesn’t happen because these are one-day trips. on reducing capacity, unfortunately there are not many cases to point to in which capacity has been reduced. population dynamics in the north sea were realized after world war i began, when no fishing took place for several years. again, there was little fishing in the former yugoslavia during the recent conflict, and stocks recovered there as well. such a recovery is not guaranteed, however. you cannot overfish and then simply reduce fishing to repair it.

hasjim djalal: sometimes in indonesia it is very difficult to explain this concept of declining fish stocks to governments. why can we fish only 1.7 million dollars worth a year while thailand can fish 5 million dollars worth? you tell the government to reduce the catch and you are thought to be crazy. Japan wanted to export 10 billion dollars worth a few years ago. how do you explain that? how shall we develop a system where the excess in the north can be converted to the south?

John caddy: i doubt the capacity in indonesia is really that low. the Gulf of thailand is a highly productive area. most exports are high-value, farm-raised exports. a few years ago you banned trawling. another aspect is that many catches are not entering into national statistics. more big boats will certainly not help your local fishermen.

rudolf wu: how effective is it to ban fishing during the reproductive season? how good is it to ban certain species?

John caddy: the most important thing is not to increase yield. one of the major driving concepts of fishery management is that you let a fish mature and then you catch it. this is wrong. we should let fish develop and keep some mature age groups in the population. you can do this through closed areas.

Referencescaddy J. f., f. carocci and s. coppola. “have peak fishery production levels Been passed in conti-

nental shelf areas? some perspectives arising from historical trends in production per shelf area.” Journal of northwest atlantic fishery science, vol. 23 (1998), pp. 191-219.

caddy, J. f. and l. Garibaldi. “apparent changes in the trophic composition of world marine harvests: the perspective from the fao capture database.” ocean and coastal management, vol. 43, nos. 8-9 (2000), pp. 615-655.

food and agriculture organization of the united nations (fao) fisheries department. world review

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of highly migratory species and straddling stocks. technical paper t337 (1994).

fao. review of the state of world fishery resources: marine fisheries. fisheries circular c920 (1997).

—————. the state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2000, fao (2000). online. available: http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x8002e/x8002e00.htm.

—————. national seminar on the system of food and agriculture statistics, vol. i and vol. ii (proceedings of a conference held in Beijing, china, september 23-24, 1999).

fao fisheries department. fishery statistics: reliability and policy implications. online. available: http://www.fao.org/fi/statist/nature_china/30jan02.asp.

Garcia, s.m. and i. de leiva moreno. “Global overview of marine fisheries” (paper presented at the fao-iceland conference on responsible fisheries in the marine ecosystem, reykjavik, october 1-4, 2001).

Garcia, s.m. and c. newton. “current situation, trends and prospects in worldcapture fisheries.” in Global trends: fisheries management, ed. e.l. pikitch, d.d. huppert and m.p. sissenwine. Bethesda, maryland: american fisheries society symposium, 1997, pp. 3-27.

Grainger, r. J. r. and s.m. Garcia. chronicles of marine fishery landings (1950-1994). trend analysis and fisheries potential. fao fisheries department technical paper t359 (1996).

klyashtorin, l.B., climate change and long-term fluctuations of commercial catches: the possibility of forecasting. fao fisheries department technical paper t410 (2001).

watson, r. and d. pauly. “systematic distortions in world fisheries catch trends.” nature (november 29, 2001), pp. 534-536.

Sustainable Marine Fishery Habitat: Its Impact on Human Security

B.A. Hamzah Director General, The Maritime Consultancy Enterprise

There are twists of irreconcilaBle irony to the GloBal fishery story. it is a story of paradoxes and contradictions as well as stark reality. a rap idly growing world population and healthy living have resulted in greater demand

for fish protein and fish products. poverty, hunger, wealth, greed, subsidies, and excess fleet capacity have helped expedite their destruction. the number of people who eat fish and depend on the fishing industry is in the billions; only 51 million are fishers. ninety-five per cent of these are from developing countries and 98 percent are small-scale fishermen who rarely make ends meet. the irony is that, together, the 51 million small-scale fishers catch less than 20 percent of the world’s fish. long-distance fleets from 20 nations catch 80 percent of global fish.

the oceans have always been a major food source and never more so than today. But how long the oceans can support humanity with this much-needed sustenance remains a big question. the evidence of a sustainable ocean is not very encouraging. this is because the oceans that provide important life-support systems are now under severe stress and strain. this stress has triggered a man-made global fisheries crisis. in term of sustainability, this crisis has a costly impact on the environment and adverse consequences on world food security. it affects human security directly. conflicts at sea over access to scarce fishery resources are rampant. the conflicts are not confined to any particular region; they are all over the place: in the atlantic, north sea, adriatic, pacific, Japan sea, south china sea, and many other places. in some places the conflicts are intraregional in nature but in some regions there are also fish-related regional military conflicts involving external forces. with the depletion of the fishery resources armed conflicts are likely to be more intense in the very near future. it is a well-known fact that some countries have deployed their maritime forces to protect their codfish. new international rules have been written to prevent illegal fishing.

several decades of overfishing in most of the world’s major fisheries have resulted in the collapse of many commercially important fish populations (for example, canada’s cod). the north sea cod is also in trouble. the north sea squid was fished out in the 1980s by east asian fleets. atlantic mackerel, redfish, and herring catches are all less than half their size of 30 years ago.

in 1883 thomas huxley, the english biologist, remarked, “i believe that cod fishery, the herring fishery, the pilchard fishery, the mackerel fishery and probably the great sea-fisheries are inexhaustible; that is to say nothing we do seriously affects the numbers of fish.” as a scientist, huxley thought sustainable fishery management could be easily practiced; he did not anticipate human greed and destructiveness. he thought mother nature would ensure

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that fish remain plentiful. sustainable fishing management would ensure that. he failed to account for human interference with mother nature and other socioeconomic factors.

perhaps, like many, huxley never imagined the exodus or mass migration of his own kind to coastal cities. Because of poor facilities and amenities to support their growing populations, many cities have been transformed into megaslums. this migration has placed pressure on the limited and scarce resources in the coastal zones, including adjacent sea space. it would also be fair to suggest that the scientist the did not anticipate the tragedy of the commons that Garrett hardin advocated in an article published by science in 1968.

humanity gets 16 percent of its animal proteins from marine sources worldwide. half of the one billion people gain their livelihoods from harvesting the oceans. the fao has estimated that worldwide demand for fish will top 110 million tons, but catches will fall short by more than 40 million tons. the fao has also warned that rising demand for fish protein, shrinking catches, and declining stocks will result in a shortfall of more than 20 million tons each year. But on the whole the fao has adopted a more optimistic approach: the world is not running out of fish and the global fisheries catch is still stable. with more sustainable fishery management, the fao has argued, the decline in global catch could be curbed.

a recent study has challenged the fao forecast, advocacy, and statistics. according to drs. reg watson and daniel pauly of the university of British columbia (uBc), dramatic increases in the exploitation of the world’s fisheries over the last 30 years and the introduc-tion of some of the most destructive fishing technology, has led to excess fleet capacity and overfishing. this situation, according to the uBc researchers, should have resulted in a cor-responding decline in fish catch worldwide; yet the fao statistics reflected the contrary.

By most estimates, the marine fish catch had peaked in 1989 at 86 million tons but the global catches reported by the fao generally increased through the 1990s, driven largely by catch reports from china and an increase in the landing of peruvian anchoveta. watson and pauly had discovered a major discrepancy in the data submitted by china to the fao. according to the researchers at uBc, fishermen in china have been catching fewer fish but their reported statistics showed otherwise. according to both researchers, chinese statistics account for 40 percent of the deviation between reported and corrected, although chinese waters cover only 1 percent of the world’s water surface.

the findings by uBc researchers call into question the very basis of international fisheries management and have painted a different picture of the actual state of the oceans. if their findings are verified, we may have to revisit the rationale for present-day international fishery management policy and economic decisions. Good decisions and policies are premised on correct statistics. consequently, statistics will have an impact on fishery management policy planning and food security. flawed statistics will result in flawed policies.

clearly, in the interest of international sustainable ocean management, the three thousand-plus fishing vessels and some us$50 billion a year in subsidies to them can no longer be justified. similarly a large number of the destructive supertrawlers (some one million large industrial floating factories) have to be reined in to allow the living resources of the oceans a chance to rejuvenate. of course, enforcing this policy

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prescription is easier said than done. if only the 20 distant-fishing nations controlling 80 percent of the global catch could reduce their supertrawler fleets by half, it would help with sustainable ocean development.

one workable solution would be to come to grips with the problem of overcapacity. in a study commissioned by the world wildlife foundation (wwf) and the international union for the conservation of nature and natural resources (iucn), the world conserva-tion union estimates that the world fishing fleet has more than twice the level of catching power needed to achieve a catch level that would not deplete stocks. it would certainly be consistent with the fao code of conduct for responsible fishing for all states to take mea-sures to prevent or eliminate excess fishing capacity. the wwf has recommended revising the existing fishing access agreements to make them consistent with sustainable fishing. similarly the wwf has recommended that multilateral plans establish sustainable levels of fishing capacity for highly migratory fishes and straddling fish stocks. the international community has succeeded in introducing positive policy prescriptions in managing the migratory and straddling stocks. the issues of overfishing, excess capacity, and subsidy removal require committed political will and effective enforcement policies.

it is true that subsidies to the fishing industry go hand-in-hand with the world’s fishing fleet and with the collapse or threatened collapse of many commercial fisheries. these subsidies are underwriting overfishing and unsustainable trade in global fishery. subsidies come in different forms. they include direct grants and loan guarantees for fuel credits and free marine insurance. there is also the subsidized access to fish in foreign waters. while a small portion of these subsidies has produced a positive impact and contributes to the reduction of excess fishing, the majority have had negative impacts and encouraged overfishing and excess capacity.

reducing wasteful bycatch could also have a positive impact on global fishery manage-ment. it is said that on average some 27 million tons of unwanted fish are caught annually. along with these, some millions of other marine animals are being accidentally captured and killed in fishing operations. some countries have taken positive steps to link the destruc-tion of marine mammals with trade. it is not very clear whether this policy has resulted in a decline of irresponsible fishing; nonetheless it is an important step.

the world resources institute (wri) has also raised the alarm on the global marine crisis. wri believes that unless something positive is undertaken at national, regional, and global levels the current global marine crisis will go down a slippery slope. not only are the resources showing signs of decline, but more importantly, the ecosystems upon which the marine environment depends are also in danger of collapse. the wri is not alone in pointing to the destruction of coral reefs, mangroves, and sea grasses, and its direct impact on fish depletion and food security. human life itself depends on the continuing capacity of the fragile marine ecosystems to provide their multitude of benefits. we depend on the ecosystem to sustain us, but the continued health of ecosystems depends in turn on our care. there is a symbiotic relationship between mankind and the ecosystems; neither one can prosper without the other.

how should the world respond to this global marine resource crisis? a stop to fishing

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would result in more sociocultural and economic crisis. a moratorium on fishing would also be impractical, although a selective moratorium has produced positive results in canada. this selective moratorium approach comes with heavy investment in enforcement forces.

some find new hope in aquaculture, which has expanded global fishery resources and helped reduced the demand-supply gap. some critics have charged that aquaculture practices have their downside too, as more wild stocks are harvested and more precious proteins wasted as animal feed. Besides, according to the critics, aquaculture has become a major threat to coastal ecosystems, particularly mangroves. some of these criticisms are misplaced because the failure is less in policy prescriptions and more on implemen-tation. the critics are barking up the wrong tree. it is the nonfriendly environmental aquaculture practices that should be curbed, not the practice of aquaculture per se. at the end of the day, it is sustainable fishery practices linked to sustainable development that can ensure more fish to the starving world. the solution to protein shortage and deficiency must be examined in the context of global food production, its distribution, access, and allocation. we must also address alternative proteins as a way of lessening pressure on marine fish production.

Better ways of managing the oceans need to be developed. we have seen many good proposals on the table, such as low-impact fishing; reducing fleet overcapacity; taking a sustainable approach to managing the fragile ecosystems; using chemicals to rejuvenate the sea; making the ocean more productive; expanding aquaculture; using international instruments like the fao code of conduct for responsible fishing, the treaty relating to the conservation and management of straddling stocks and highly migratory fish stocks; removing subsidies; and adopting a better system of managing the coastal zone. where have we gone wrong with our prescriptions? could it be that we fail to realize the importance of larger issues facing mankind like population explosion, poverty, hunger, or greed? will a more integrated approach solve the crisis? can the crisis be resolved without the necessary political will on the part of the powers that be?

we are not short of ideas. But we lack political will and personal discipline. we let the market forces dictate the fate of humanity and we are all greedy. we put blame on everything, except ourselves, for the crisis: pollution, drift nets, deep-sea trawlers, climate change, and a host of other factors. But never us.

yet, we are the culprits. hence the solution to the problem lies with us all.

Discussionesmaeil rajabi: population is growing and needs are increasing. we must use marine re-sources more and more. as we do this, how should we protect the marine environment?

B.a. hamzah: the world is increasingly relying on marine resources to meet its food short-age and other needs. this is why we need to protect the sea from all threats that could directly and indirectly affect the marine environment and its resources. preserving the sea is a monumental task and one that requires the cooperation as well as support from all at national, regional, and global levels. But the biggest culprit is mankind itself. how

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do we rationalise human greed with human needs for development without jeopardising the resources of the sea? how do we reform or harness human greed in a positive way for a more productive world?

Gunnar kullenberg: Johannesburg (rio + 10) is coming up. paris emphasized the need for a coastal development and an ocean fee. in that context, education was supposed be a high-priority item in Johannesburg. it was also part of agenda 21. it is nice to be trained. wouldn’t it also be nice to insert ocean education into schools in the world? there is a program in the pacific to try to get schools to take on the tracking of certain instruments. if we want to change attitudes we have to succeed, but it takes two generations. this is where we have to go.

Qamar raza rizvi: this discussion is very nice. But once i go back to the policymakers in my country these points may not be useful. i challenge the un to make people aware. there should be somebody sitting on the dock to make sure that these things are implemented at the grass roots level.

B.a. hamzah: your observation points out the importance of education in managing sustainable development. policy planners and all stakeholders need to be educated on the importance of the sea, its impact on life itself. who should educate the stakeholders? it is the responsibility of everyone, and it should not be the sole responsibility of any inter-national organization like the united nations. education about the sea must start at the elementary level, and it should proceed on a continuing basis just like any other form of education. unless we educate the citizens of the world about the importance of the sea to humankind, we may lose the sea one day. all because of our ignorance; by then any effort to educate the world will be too little too late.

nassrine azimi: much has rightly been said about the importance of primary education, but in the short term we have to do other things too. there have indeed been some changes. taking people out of their working environments to train them is different from helping them in their daily element and activities. now through technology, for example, unitar has been somewhat better able to provide follow-up. distance learning, too, can have a catalyzing effect. when people are on the job they do not have time to reinvent the wheel or constantly try new things—that is important to realize if training is to have an impact.

hiran w. Jayewardene: with regard to regional fisheries, it has now been more than 15 years since unclos started. developing countries do not have the resources to develop the capacity to roam the high seas beyond the 200-mile zone. this is demonstrated by the fact that much of the fish from the large fisheries on the high seas is taken to europe. with regard to statistics, the colleague from pakistan mentioned that there is no overall regula-tory agency for statistics.

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sheila marie m. encabo: on subsidies, in december 2001 an expert consultant said that no link between subsidies and overfishing existed. four types of subsidies have been identified, but what is their real impact?

B.a. hamzah: perhaps mr. caddy can address the question. there is a direct relationship between subsidies and overcapacity. without the subsidies, there would be fewer fishing ves-sels, which would have a positive impact on the fish catch. the real impact of subsidies on the international fishing industry is the long-term impact of misallocation of resources. Besides, it is an established fact that subsidies tend to result in the distortion of market forces.

John caddy: the problem is that when a fishery is allowed to develop naturally, there is no flag going up when you are at an optimum level. to the colleague from sri lanka, all you have to do is charter a deep-water vessel and you can participate beyond 200 miles. the problem for small island states is that they can’t negotiate very well. producer countries need to realize that putting fish on the market is not always the most profitable thing to do. maximizing the yield is the best goal. a comparison to opec production can be made here.

High-Seas Fisheries Governance: Recent Trends and Issues in

the Asia-Pacific RegionMoritaka Hayashi

Professor, Waseda University School of Law

The focus of this paper is the leGal and institutional aspects of the high-seas fisheries. although the role which the high seas plays in global fisheries has diminished considerably since the nearly universal establishment of

exclusive economic zones (eeZs), high seas resources and fisheries remain important for many states and peoples as sources of food security and economic and social well-being. a notable exception to this practice is the mediterranean sea, where no eeZ has been es-tablished. indeed, the high seas are also of crucial interest to the whole of mankind as one of the global commons left, in principle, for peaceful uses by everybody. the “high seas” here excludes the seabed and subsoil thereof beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. the activities relating to mineral resources therein are regulated through the international sea-bed authority. major fishing grounds for some of the world’s most important commercial resources are located on the high seas. these resources include migratory species like tuna and so-called straddling stocks which move in and out of eeZs, like cod, pollock, and other ground fish. the state of such stocks on the high seas and their management thus are of great concern not only for those who fish on the high seas but also for the coastal states within whose eeZs they migrate.

although freedom of the high seas still prevails with respect to many aspects of its uses, its living resources are not completely free for all nations to catch. the conservation and utilization of most of the sea’s important resources are governed by a network of legal instruments, both global and regional. some of these instruments contain well-established legal regimes, while some others provide basic guidelines or codes of conduct for nations and people engaged in fishing activities. the bulk of them came into existence only within the last ten years. this is certainly related to the declining fish stocks, as described by dr. caddy.

Basic Global Frameworksituated at the top of this governance structure, the un convention on the law of the sea (los convention) provides the overarching global regime, binding on all states. this conven-tion contains fundamental, but rather simple, provisions relating to high seas fisheries.

it provides that the freedom of fishing on the high seas is subject to the rights and duties, as well as the interests, of coastal states with regard to, among others, straddling stocks, highly migratory species, and marine mammals, as specified in the convention (article 116). for straddling stocks, the convention provides that the coastal states and those states fish-

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ing for such stocks in adjacent high-sea areas shall seek, either directly or through regional fishery bodies, to agree upon the measures necessary for the conservation of such stocks in the high-seas areas (article 63 (2)). with regard to highly migratory species, the conven-tion obliges the coastal and fishing states to cooperate, directly or through regional fishery bodies, with a view to ensuring conservation and promoting their optimum use throughout the region, both within and beyond the eeZ. it further provides that the coastal states and others fishing such species in the region shall cooperate to establish a regional fishery body in case no such body exists (article 64).

more generally on the conduct of high seas fisheries, all coastal and fishing states are required, with respect to their nationals, to take measures for the conservation of high-seas resources (article 117). they have a duty to cooperate in the conservation and management of such resources, and, where their nationals exploit resources, they have a particular obligation to enter into negotiations with a view to taking the necessary conservation measures, and, as appropriate, to establishing a new regional fishery body (article 118). the los convention also sets out the factors to be considered in establishing conservation measures, stressing the need to rely on the best scientific evidence available to maintain or restore populations of harvested species at levels which can produce the maximum sustainable yields, as well as to take into account the effects of harvested species on associated or dependent species (article 119 (1)). one of the more important duties of the states is to regularly contribute and exchange scientific information, especially statistics and data, through the un food and agricultural organization (fao) (article 119 (2)).

in short, the essence of these provisions is that states have basic duties to conserve resources and cooperate with other states, including relevant coastal states, in their conserva-tion and management. such duties are cast in rather broad general terms because regional agreements or organizations are expected to identify more specific ones.

although the los convention did not enter into force until 1994, these provisions had been accepted widely by states as reflecting basic principles before the un conference on environment and development (unced) was convened. unced confirmed, in chapter 17 of the agenda 21, that the los convention provisions provided “the international basis upon which to pursue the protection and sustainable development of the marine and coastal environment and its resources.”

unced, however, identified a number of problems with regard to high seas fisheries as indicated in program area c of agenda 21’s chapter 17. in several areas, more detailed rules or guidelines than those contained in the convention were considered necessary. these included: conservation and management of straddling fish stocks and highly migra-tory fish stocks; improvements in fisheries management, especially management of fishing capacity, multispecies management and ecosystem protection, data collection and sharing and the introduction of the precautionary approach; improvements in fishing operations; reflagging of fishing vessels; control of unregulated fishing; and strengthening of regional fishery bodies.

in my view, remarkable progress has been achieved in tackling these problems over the last ten years, at least in their normative and institutional aspects. i must hasten to add,

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High-Seas Fisheries Governance: Recent Trends and Issues in the Asia-Pacific Region

however, that not all efforts have been successful and serious problems remain in some cases. these developments have occurred at both the global and regional levels. i shall summarize first the global developments and trends, and then look at the situation in the asia-pacific region.

Global Developmentsat the global level, three major instruments have been elaborated. first, unced’s particular attention to the need for effective conservation of straddling stocks and highly migratory fish stocks led to the convening by the un General assembly of a conference on the subject. in 1995 that conference adopted the agreement for the implementation of the provisions of the un convention on the law of the sea relating to the conservation and management of straddling fish stocks and highly migratory fish stocks (the un fish stocks agreement). this agreement, which entered into force in december 2001, is aimed at implementing the los convention provisions. it also supplements and further develops the relevant general principles and rules of the convention.

the un fish stocks agreement imposes obligations upon its parties—as of december 31, 2001, australia, canada, cook islands, fiji, micronesia, nauru, new Zealand, papua new Guinea, russian federation, samoa, solomon islands, tonga, and the united states. each state has an obligation to apply the precautionary approach according to the rules and guidelines as provided for in the agreement. each state must ensure the compatibility of conservation and management measures adopted for its eeZs, as well as those adopted, jointly with fishing states, for adjacent high-seas areas. in order to fish in a given region, each signatory is obliged either to join the existing regional fishery body or to agree to comply with its conservation and management measures. each state, in signing, also recognizes the right to on-board inspec-tions of a state party’s fishing vessel by other state parties that are members of the regional body concerned, even if the former state is not a member of the body. the agreement also strengthens the duties of the flag states of fishing vessels to a considerable degree, particularly to ensure its vessels’ compliance with regional conservation and management measures. furthermore, the agreement contains detailed provisions for the collection and sharing of various kinds of data and scientific information.

the legal effect of the agreement on regional bodies is of particular importance. should more fishing states become parties to it, the powers of regional fishery bodies and effects of their conservation and management measures would expand. should the agreement be universally accepted, there would no longer be any room left for the freedom of fishing in the high-seas areas covered by a regional fishery body. such interrelationship between the global agreement and regional bodies has made it essential that measures adopted by regional bodies be equitable and scientifically sound, and any new regional body be set up to include all interested states and other fishing entities.

unced has facilitated the development of a second treaty relevant to high-seas fisher-ies. it has endorsed the call by the declaration of cancun, adopted earlier, for effective action to deter reflagging of vessels as a means of avoiding compliance with applicable fishing rules on the high seas. the main issue here was how to control the practice of some

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vessel owners to register their vessels in the so-called flag-of-convenience states, which are not members of regional fishery bodies and generally do not enforce high-seas regulatory measures, and to engage in profitable operations with impunity. the negotiations on this issue under the auspices of fao had, however, to shift their focus to broader issues relating to the responsibility of flag states for the activities of all their fishing vessels on the high seas. as a result, the fao conference adopted the agreement to promote compliance with international conservation and management measures by fishing vessels on the high seas (the compliance agreement) in october 1993. this agreement prohibits its parties from authorizing their vessels to be used for high-seas fishing unless they can exercise ef-fectively their responsibilities. it also obliges parties not to authorize any re-flagged vessel to be used for high-seas fishing in cases where that vessel previously had undermined the effectiveness of conservation rules

the compliance agreement also envisages a mandatory system of data and informa-tion collection and exchange with respect to fishing vessels. it thus requires the parties to make available to the fao a range of information on fishing vessels operating on the high seas, and the fao to circulate periodically the information so received. that information would include name, flag and registration details, ownership, physical features of vessel, operator or manager, fishing method, and any changes. although the agreement has yet not entered into force, the fao has developed a database to which some states have started to provide relevant information on a voluntary basis. this database, once it becomes fully operational with the participation of a sufficient number of fishing states, would become a valuable tool for ensuring the transparency of high-seas fishing operations, as well as for monitoring, control, and surveillance purposes.

as of January 1, 2002, the compliance agreement has received 22 ratifications—argen-tina, Barbados, Benin, canada, cyprus, egypt, ec, Georgia, Japan, madagascar, mexico, morocco, myanmar, namibia, norway, peru, st. kitts and nevis, seychelles, sweden, tan-zania, the united states, and uruguay—with three more needed for entry into force. while major fishing nations like canada, Japan, mexico, norway, peru, and the united states have ratified it, no states whose vessels are often accused of undermining conservation measures have accepted the agreement. it may also be pointed out that very few asian and pacific states have ratified the agreement, in sharp contrast with the fish stocks agreement. what is needed, therefore, is a concerted effort by the fao and the united nations to promote ratification. if the pattern of ratifications remains unchanged for some time, they should explore other ways to secure its wider acceptance.

the third global instrument is the code of conduct for responsible fisheries (the code), adopted by the fao conference in 1995. the call for developing a code for responsible fish-ing was originally made at the international conference for responsible fishing organized by mexico in may 1992, which adopted the above-mentioned cancun declaration. the proposal was formally adopted by the fao council later that year together with the man-date for drafting of the compliance agreement. indeed, the latter instrument constitutes an integral part of the code of conduct.

the code represents, in the words of the then legal counsel of fao, “the most complete

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and up-to-date expression of the principle of sustainable fisheries management and devel-opment.” although voluntary, the code sets out principles and international standards of behavior for responsible practices with a view to ensuring the effective conservation, management, and development of living aquatic resources, with due respect for ecosystem and biodiversity. it is a comprehensive document directed not only to states but also to all international organizations, national and local entities, nongovernmental organizations (nGos), as well as individuals concerned with all aspects of fisheries, the fishing industry, and other users of the aquatic environment in relation to fisheries. the code calls upon all of them to apply and give effect to its provisions.

it would be of special interest for the theme of this conference today to point out that the code of conduct stresses as one of its objectives “to promote the contribution of fisheries to food security,” recognizing the nutritional, economic, social, and cultural importance of fisheries, and the interests of all those concerned with the fishery sector (article 2 and preamble).

the code constitutes the basis of the fao’s fisheries department strategic framework, as well as for its activities at global, regional and national levels. despite the fao’s efforts to assist in the implementation of the code, however, many governments and regional fishery bodies are facing difficulties and constraints due mainly to lack of funding and human capacity. more should be done, in my view, by the fao itself to disseminate the code to all relevant sectors. for this purpose, greater cooperation by governments and other national entities, as well as nGos and other groups, must be secured.

i should add that the fao has recently elaborated four sets of action plans on certain priority areas within the framework of the code. these are the international plans of ac-tion for, respectively, reducing incidental catch of seabirds in longline fisheries, for the conservation and management of sharks, for the management of fishing capacity, and to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (iuuf). these plans of action are also voluntary, but call upon states to take measures as specified in the documents, often within a specified timeframe, and such national actions will periodically be reviewed by the fao’s committee on fisheries.

it is too early to assess to what degree these action plans have been implemented. it appears, however, that the picture is not so encouraging. should initial implementation not improve, the fao and member states will need to find realistic ways of securing their wider adoption.

in addition to the three major instruments mentioned above, the kyoto declaration on sustainable contribution of fisheries to food security, an important declaration particularly appropriate for this conference, was adopted in 1995 at the international conference on that subject organized by Japan in cooperation with the fao. the declaration notes in its preamble the need to secure enough food for the continuously growing world population, “the significant contribution of fisheries to income, wealth and food security for all people,” and the essential role played by fisheries in providing high-quality protein for human use. it issued a strong warning, on the other hand, that unless appropriate action was taken very soon, the combination of population increase and economic growth, in conjunction

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with continued overfishing, excess fishing capacity, and degradation of the aquatic envi-ronment, would place enormous strains upon the fishery sector’s capability to sustain its necessary contribution to food security. in the declaration’s operative paragraph, the 95 states participating in the conference recognized the significant role which fisheries play in providing food security for the world, in terms both of food supplies and economic and social well-being. confronted with the fao’s projection of a potential substantial shortfall by 2010 of fish and fishery products to meet the demands of an increased human population, these states recognized that such a shortfall could be reduced substantially through fish and fishery products if a combination of measures were taken. the declaration then enumerates the needed measures, together with an action plan for immediate implementation.

Regional Developments in Asia and the Pacific the recent trends in high-seas fisheries governance in the asia-pacific region are character-ized notably by the conclusion of a series of multilateral agreements dealing with specific areas or specific stocks, some of which are accompanied by the creation of new regional fishery bodies. these agreements are all designed to implement the los convention or to establish specific regimes within the framework of the los convention. most of these instruments have been generally accepted by the states concerned, while certain others have caused difficulties. these instruments cover, respectively: anadromous stocks in the north pacific, southern bluefin tuna, alaska pollock in the Bering sea doughnut hole, tuna species in the indian ocean, the south-eastern pacific high-sea areas off south america, and, lastly, the highly migratory stocks in the western and central pacific. each of these will be discussed briefly below.

first, the major salmon-fishing nations in the pacific, i.e., canada, Japan, russia and the united states, adopted in 1992 the convention for the conservation of anadromous stocks in the north pacific ocean. the most significant achievement of this convention, which entered into force in 1993, is the complete prohibition of fishing for salmon on the high seas. it has established the north pacific anadromous fish commission (npafc), replacing the old international convention for the high seas fisheries of the north pacific, for the conservation of anadromous stocks in the region. no major problems have been reported in recent years with regard to this arrangement.

a convention for the conservation of southern Bluefin tuna (ccsBt) was signed by australia, Japan, and new Zealand in 1993, and entered into force the following year. the commission for the conservation of southern Bluefin tuna (Bluefin tuna commission) which it has established has the objective to ensure the conservation and optimum utilization of southern bluefin tuna (sBt), which migrate in the southern parts of the indian ocean and the areas south of australia. the Bluefin tuna commission encountered difficulties in the assessment of the stock, which had been sharply declining for a number of years before it started working. soon afterwards, scientists from australia and new Zealand (anZ) were not able to agree with those from Japan on the state of recovery of the stock. the commission was thus unable to set the annual total allowable catch and the quota allocation for the three members starting in 1998. this disagreement and the subsequent

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“unilateral experimental fishing program” by Japan in that year caused anZ to bring the dispute to arbitration under the los convention. the arbitration was concluded in august 2000, with the tribunal finding no jurisdiction over the dispute.

despite this dispute, the Bluefin tuna commission has subsequently been making good progress. soon after the first phase of the dispute was completed with provisional measures ordered by the international tribunal for the law of the sea in august 1999, it adopted the sBt statistical document program for controlling export of sBt that are not caught in conformity with the commission’s measures. it also has adopted procedures for using independent external scientists to devise a scientific research program, and agreed on a program. in addition, it has been successful in incorporating the cooperation of nonpar-ties catching sBt by enabling the republic of korea to become a new member. it is also expected that the commission will find a way for taiwan to join.

a third regional instrument is the convention for the conservation and management of pollock resources in the central Bering sea (the so-called doughnut hole convention) concluded by china, Japan, poland, the republic of korea, russia, and the united states in 1994, and entered into force in 1995. due to the rapid expansion of catch efforts in the doughnut hole in the 1980s, the pollock fishery had collapsed by 1992. the conference of states parties to the convention has effectively maintained a total ban on fishing for pollock in the doughnut hole until the biomass reaches levels as specified in the convention.

the doughnut hole convention has been called a state-of-the-art agreement, containing several highly advanced provisions. this is particularly true for the innovative provisions concerning flag-state responsibilities and other aspects of monitoring and enforcement. some of these new ideas were quickly introduced into a compliance agreement and a un fish stocks agreement, both of which were being negotiated at about the same time as the convention.

a fourth instrument, the agreement for the establishment of the indian ocean tuna commission (iotc), approved by the fao council in 1993 and entered into force in 1996, covers the entire indian ocean and adjacent seas north of the antarctic convergence, includ-ing the areas south of australia. several asia-pacific countries are parties thereto, including australia, china, Japan, the republic of korea, malaysia, and thailand. it is also expected that taiwan will shortly be associated with iotc activities. the iotc’s competence includes also the conservation of sBt, although it is recognized that the Bluefin tuna commission has the prime responsibility for this. within a relatively short time after its commencement, the idtc adopted several measures regarding the management of fishing capacity, control of flag-of-convenience vessels, collection of data, and others.

the fifth agreement is the framework agreement for the conservation of the fisher-ies resources on the high seas of the south-eastern pacific (the so-called Galapagos agreement), concluded in august 2000 by chile, colombia, ecuador, and peru, which are the members of the permanent commission of the south pacific (cpps). this is a unique agreement, distinct from all the other instruments mentioned above, because it was elaborated and signed by the four coastal states out of which only one (chile) is a party to the los convention.

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the Galapagos agreement covers the high sea areas outside the 200-mile zones of the four states extending to 120 degree meridian of w longitude, from 5 degree parallel of n latitude to 60 degree s latitude. most of this area is located within the much wider area of competence of the inter-american tropical tuna commission (iattc), which has been in existence since 1950 for the conservation of various tuna species. the objective of the Galapagos agreement is the conservation of the fisheries resources with special reference to straddling stocks and highly migratory stocks. the area falling under the Galapagos agreement’s jurisdiction thus overlaps largely with that of iattc, though the former provides that the states parties shall take into due consideration the provisions of existing multilateral instruments regarding one or more of these species to which they may be applicable.

it should also be noted that the Galapagos agreement asserts that “the relevant provisions of international law” imply the recognition of “a preferential status for coastal states” over other states in the high-sea areas, and that the measures adopted for the high sea areas may not be less strict than those established for the same species in areas under national jurisdic-tion of the adjacent coastal states. these two provisions are clearly contrary to the generally accepted interpretation of the los convention provisions and the text of the un fish stocks agreement. furthermore the Galapagos agreement is open for signature initially to the four cpps states only, and it will enter into force when all of them have ratified it. these provisions have serious implications for future fisheries in the high sea area in question, and are bound to cause disputes should the four states start adopting conservation measures without the participation of noncoastal fishing states. this will be all the more true if such measures are more stringent than those they apply to their 200-mile zones.

finally, the last and latest instrument is the convention on the conservation and man-agement of highly migratory fish stocks in the western and central pacific ocean (the honolulu convention), adopted in september 2000 over the negative votes of Japan and the republic of korea, the largest tuna-fishing states in the area covered. the honolulu convention’s objective is the long-term conservation and sustainable use of highly migra-tory fish stocks in its region. it is designed to be consistent with the los convention and the fish stocks agreement: it must be “interpreted and applied in the context of and in a manner consistent with” those two instruments. the honolulu convention area covers most part of the pacific ocean, including the north pacific and portions of the southeastern pacific, overlapping the jurisdiction of the iattc in some areas. at its south, the honolulu convention area also overlaps partially with areas covered by the Bluefin tuna commis-sion and iotc. the western limit of the honolulu convention area is not clearly defined by any geographical line.

participants in the negotiations for the honolulu convention have initiated the prepa-ratory conference anticipating its entry into force. the convention is, however, faced with serious political difficulties, primarily due to nonparticipation by Japan, which, together with the republic of korea, and, to a certain degree, china, has raised several procedural and substantive issues regarding the conference and convention provisions. the issues include the exclusion of some interested states and the ec from the negotiating process of the honolulu convention and the preparatory conference, the inclusion of the north

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pacific in the convention area, the majority-based decision-making procedure which allows no objection to be filed, compulsory on-board verification procedures, and compulsory dispute settlement procedures.

Conclusion and Recommendationsin the last decade of the last century, the international community adopted a number of measures to deal with rapidly declining resources and a growing fishing capacity, both at the global and regional levels. although most of these measures were taken too late to reverse the trends in a short time, they have laid a generally solid ground on which further developments may be built. a basic governance framework is firmly in place, with the los convention at its foundation. this is complemented by a number of global and regional instruments, including those creating new fisheries bodies to cover almost all major regions of the world. not all developments have been positive, however. of particular concern are the two recently adopted agreements for parts of the pacific ocean. all states concerned should seek mutually acceptable solutions. the need to secure broadly acceptable regional regimes is of utmost importance under the global governance structure set forth by the un fish stocks agreement. no state party to that agreement may permit vessels flying its flag to fish for those stocks which are subject to a regional body’s conservation measures unless it is a member of that body or otherwise agrees to apply the measures. thus any state not satisfied with the regional body or its measures would be strongly motivated not to become party to the fish stocks agreement.

although, at the fao level the necessary normative instruments have been adopted for improving high-seas fisheries governance, their implementation at the national level is far from satisfactory. this is especially true for such voluntary instruments as the code of conduct for responsible fisheries and the four plans of action recently adopted within the framework of the code. unlike the minimum common denominator contained in hard-law instruments such as conventions and agreements, these soft-law instruments are quite comprehensive and extensive in identifying relevant actors. far more attention, therefore, should be given to the enforcement of such instruments, and more widespread efforts are needed for securing greater mobilization of funds and human resources for this purpose. this should not be done through the fao alone, however. other intergovernmental agencies and bodies, as well as nGos and private donors, should be more actively involved. indeed, unitar and the hiroshima prefecture could usefully be involved in this endeavor in close cooperation with the fao.

the code of conduct itself must also receive greater political attention. one specific way to do so would be to place it on the agenda of the un General assembly, or at least on the agenda of the consultative process annually conducted at the un on oceans and the law of the sea. there should be a full consideration of the ways and means for a wider and more effective implementation of the code.

the principle of the sustainable use of living marine resources to benefit human food security was recently reconfirmed in the reykjavik declaration on responsible fisheries in the marine ecosystem, adopted at the conference on that topic organized by iceland and

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the fao in october 2001. a formal recommendation is needed that includes ecosystem considerations of fisheries management with a view to contributing to long-term food security and thus to human development. in that context, there is a need for “an increased attention to interactions, such as predator-prey relationships, among different stocks and species of living marine resources.” in the scientific symposium immediately preceding the adoption of the declaration, a Japanese scientist reported that marine mammals were found to consume a large amount of commercial fish stocks that otherwise would be available for human consumption. scientists supporting this view estimate that the amount of such predation is several times larger than the global catch of marine fishery resources. although this estimate is disputed by some other scientists, evidence appears to be undeniable that large-scale predation does occur, particularly by some species of whale, including minke, pilot, and sperm whales, which are believed to be sufficiently abundant to remove serious concern for their future. it is important, therefore, that more research be conducted on the interaction between marine mammals and fisheries.

Discussionhasjim djalal: Japan has boycotted several international meetings on the convention for the conservation of tunas in the pacific, specifically in new Zealand and papua new Guinea. they had some problems in the provisions. i just wanted to note that.

chua thia-eng: on the code of conduct for fisheries, do you have any information on what level implementation has taken place?

moritaka hayashi: i don’t have recent information. there are only a few countries seriously taking implementation measures and reporting to the fao. there seems to be little serious action on nationwide implementation. one exception is canada. the united states also has taken some strong measures. in asia, the southeast asia fisheries development cen-ter (seafdec) has taken the initiative to regionalize the code of conduct. they say that some of the provisions are not geared to the type of fishery in that region. they are trying to localize the code and make it easier to implement. they have held several seminars and workshops on the subject.

there are also some local communities who have taken it seriously. i saw a cartoon version of the code of conduct coming from a south american community. this type of effort is necessary to send the message to local communities.

alan khee-Jin tan: this information from professor hayashi is very frightening because he is both an academic and a practitioner. so i ask this, why do you think that these instru-ments are not being implemented in a satisfactory way? these things took years to work out. what is the problem?

moritaka hayashi: i am talking about the code of conduct, which is not binding and therefore has not been implemented satisfactorily. the main reason for my general conclu-

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sion is that most of these resolutions are still relatively new. Governments may in fact need more time. many have not yet become party to some of the recent agreements. it will take a long time. the code of conduct is a perfect comprehensive model for any government, community, or individual fisherman on how to fish properly. there should indeed be more pressure for governments to take it more seriously. the General assembly of the united nations should take up this matter to make it a more serious one.

alan khee-Jin tan: may i refer to the last few sentences of your paper? you referred to some evidence that marine mammals may be contributing to degradation of some stocks. is there not a risk that this could give license to certain countries to increase whaling?

moritaka hayashi: i knew this would be controversial. scientists are discussing it. many scientists in Japan have been researching this. many point out that several times more than the global catch for human consumption is being consumed by mammals. many scientists didn’t believe that they were eating so much. this was very surprising. i know this causes some serious concern, particularly in the antiwhaling community and with some nGos. there are scientists on their side that say this is not true. many of them have not done as extensive research as the Japanese have done. this is not just an excuse for continuing whaling. norway has continued whaling legally, i might add. that whaling is not illegal. the are even reports that many whales have been abundantly recovered. political pressures prevail, however, and some governments are against it, despite the fact that it is scientifically proven to be safe to kill some of the whales. i am not advocating large-scale whaling but i am saying that the research should continue.

Gunnar kullenberg: an important element of enhancing the code of conduct is training and human resource development. thank you.

moritaka hayashi: there should indeed be more training. perhaps unitar and the hiroshima prefecture could engage in such training. also, it should be done at a higher political level.

Session IV:The Sea and Man-Made Disasters

Contemporary Issues of Pollution in the Marine Environment:

Risks and ChallengesRudolf Wu

Chair Professor, Department of Biology and Chemistry, The City University of Hong Kong

In the last two decades, there have Been a numBer of siGnificant changes which have substantially altered our views towards pollution in the marine environment. first, the improvement in pollution control technology (e.g., membrane

technology, plasma arc, resin exchanges, and chemical-enhanced treatment) has made it possible to remove pollutants from domestic and industrial effluents in a more cost-effective way, thereby reducing the amount of pollutants entering the marine environment. second, improvement in pollution monitoring technology (e.g., remote sensing, satellite monitoring, and telemetry) has provided information on the extent of pollution over very large marine areas so that a more accurate and balanced picture can be provided. third, improvement in analytical capability has made it possible to identify certain types of pollutants in the marine environment, which we were not able to do before. at the same time, the validity of some of the chemical data collected in the 1970s has been challenged, due to their poor Quality as-surance/Quality control (Qa/Qc) procedures. fourth, there has been a significant change in government policy and priority, which has led to greater environmental consciousness and therefore tighter pollution control. finally, the increase in research on marine pollution has provided a much better scientific understanding of the problems.

as a result of the above, metals, oil pollution, and radionuclucides, once considered important threats to the marine environment on a large scale, have become of less concern compared with our general perception before. on the other hand, eutrophication, water-borne pathogens, and synthetic organic chemicals are now major global concerns.

Eutrophication human population is expected to double by 2020. the fact that most of the population increase is near the coast means there is a strong likelihood that a significant amount of sewage will enter the marine environment, either directly or indirectly. at present, the magnitude of the global anthropogenic flux of n and p is comparable to that of natural flux. the large influx of nutrients into the coastal system has upset the balance of the marine ecosystems. despite the problem of eutrophication having been identified for more than a few decades, the situation has deteriorated rather than improved, because:

• non-point source discharge and atmospheric fallout are significant, making pollution control difficult.

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• large-scale clearing of land vegetation, deforestation, and intensive farming practices have occurred in the last couple of decades.

• the volume of wastewater is large, and nutrient removal is expensive.

• treatment facilities cannot match population growth.

eutrophication has caused major changes in ecosystems over large areas. this has caused substantial changes in species composition and a decrease in diversity of marine communi-ties. the replacement of diatoms by dinoflagellates in the phytoplankton community has been well documented in eutrophic waters. likewise, changes from demersal to pelagic fish, alternation of trophic relationships (e.g., decrease in abundance of predators) in benthic communities, and changes in the diet of demersal fish have been reported. mass mortality due to hypoxia (as a result of eutrophication) has been reported worldwide.

eutrophication has posed a significant threat to coral reefs. increase in algal biomass reduces light penetration, thereby affecting the symbiotic zoonxanthallaes. the overgrowth of macrophytes in corals, which retards coral development (growth, reproduction, and settlement), has been reported over large areas in Barbados and the Great Barrier reefs.

eutrophication may affect harmful algal blooms (haB), and increased frequencies of algal blooms, red tides, and fish kills have occurred around the world over the last decade. for example, the blooming of chrysochromulina polylepis in norway over large areas (75,000 km2 ) has caused fisheries to lose more than us$10 million. in china, increases in frequency and spatial occurrence of red tides have occurred from 1980 to 1990, with affected areas ranging from 10 to 6,100 km2. in 1989, a red tide in Bohai affected 150,000 hectares of shrimp farms and caused a loss exceeding us$40 million. in 1998, a red tide caused by Gyrodinium aureolum and other species occurred for one month along the coast of south china and hong kong (greater than 100 km2), and 3,400 tons (exceeding 80 percent) of mariculture fish in hong kong were killed, with a total loss of us$40 million.

harmful algal blooms may pose a significant public health problem. certain red tide species are toxic, and may cause a range of diseases, including prostate specific antigen (psa), disease-state plasma (dsp), amnesic shellfish poisoning (asp) and neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (nsp), through consumption of contaminated shellfish. in the philip-pines, over 1,000 people have suffered from psp, and 24 people died. in indonesia, three major paralytic shellfish poisoning (psp) outbreaks occurred in 1983, 1987, and 1988, and 441 people were infected and 15 died. in france, some 3,000 people suffered from dsp after consuming mussels.

while there is no shortage of technology for nutrient removal, the major problem is the cost-effectiveness of these methods, since the volume of wastewater needed to be treated is typi-cally huge. the cost of nutrient removal is often a major impediment. for example, the cost for reducing n input by 50 percent in the Baltic was estimated at us$20 billion. thus, innovative and cost-effective nutrient-removal technologies or reduction strategies are urgently required. changes in land use and farming practices and wetland restoration may prove effective.

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Contemporary Issues of Pollution in the Marine Environment: Risks and Challenges

Water-Borne Pathogens consumption of contaminated seafood and direct contact with water contaminated with sewage has been firmly linked to serious illness, including hepatitis and cholera. in develop-ing countries, a very high percentage of sewage is untreated and discharged into the sea, and levels of water-borne pathogens are high in areas where this is done. major epidemic outbreaks of gastrointestinal infection often occur in coastal areas with high population densities, especially in west africa, asia, the pacific, and the caribbean.

hepatitis a virus acquired through consumption of seafood is a major public health problem worldwide. annual sales of shellfish come to us$800 million, and there have been 4 million clinical cases of hepatitis a (with 40,000 fatalities) every year. studies in the united states and the united kingdom have shown that in non-epidemic period, some 20-25 percent of global hepatitis a cases have been caused by eating raw shellfish, and the economic impact of hepatitis a alone is estimated at us$12 billion per year.

epidemic outbreaks caused by water-borne pathogens have been well documented. for example, in 1988, 400,000 people were infected by hepatitis a in china, due to the consumption of polluted shellfish (acra spp.). in 1988, 1,187 cases of hepatitis a were reported in hong kong; 80 percent of these patients had consumed shellfish shortly before becoming ill, and 60 percent of them had consumed oysters harvested from polluted areas of the deep Bay.

epidemic outbreaks caused by water-borne pathogens are not restricted to developing countries. for example, high levels of enteric virus have been found in major urban markets in europe and the united states, suggesting that existing sanitary practices, standards, and regulation needed to be examined. twenty-eight percent of shellfish harvested from u.s. waters meeting current standards carried enteric virus, and 20 percent of shellfish harvested from french waters carried enteric virus. conventional depuration is evidently not effec-tive in removing viruses, and secondary contact may also be hazardous. some water-borne pathogens (e.g., staphylococcus aureus, pseudomonas aeruginosa and certain viruses) may cause ear, eye, and skin infections or respiratory diseases through secondary contact (e.g., swimming). epidemiological evidence shows that swimmers in sewage-polluted water have a significantly higher incidence of gastric disorders and respiratory and skin infections.

uv and ozone treatments are not effective in removing certain pathogens (e.g., viruses and vibrio). there is an urgent need to develop cost-effective shellfish depuration tech-nology, especially those effective in the removal of pathogenic viruses, in order to protect public health. recent epidemiological evidence has shown that pathogens and pathogenic incidence do not correlate well with total coliform, fecal coliform, and e. coli. for example, bathing-related gastrointestinal diseases better correlate with enterococcus than with e. coli, and are not related to fecal coliform counts. moreover, t90 of bacteria indicators differ from pathogens, especially enteric viruses (e.g., adenovirus and hva). clearly, the present bacteria indicators (e.g., e. coli and fecal coliforms) cannot afford adequate protection to public health. such protection calls for an urgent review of current bacteria indicators and health standards.

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Synthetic Organic Chemicalsthe term “synthetic organic chemicals” encompasses a wide range of chemicals with very different natures and characteristics. they include organochlorines, organophosphates, pahs, and organometals. many of these compounds are highly toxic and persistent in the environment, and are lipophilic (soluble in lipids), and therefore can be bioconcentrated along marine food chains and pose high trophic-level health threats to predators.

threats of synthetic organic chemicals to marine life are still not well understood. sublethal effects over long periods of exposure to these chemicals may cause significant damage to marine ecosystems, particularly when considering that a number of these toxic compounds may affect animal reproduction through endocrine disruption.

some of these chemicals may disrupt the hormonal systems of marine animals at ex-tremely low concentrations (e.g., ng/l), thereby having major ecological effects. tributyltin (tBt) for example, is known to cause imposex (females with male characteristics) in more than 40 species of gastropods, and is associated with population declines over large coastal areas in the u.k. and new Zealand.

reproductive impairment associated with the disruption of sex steroid hormones in fish populations downstream of bleached kraft pulp mills has been reported. Body burdens of pcB have been related to the sterility of the common seal (phoca vitulina) in the Baltic and wadden seas. halogenated hydrocarbons have been shown to reduce egg hatches in the flounder (platichtys flesus).

so far, the overt effects of synthetic organic chemicals on public health have been confined to exceptional cases. current levels of toxic organics in seafood do not appear to pose a significant public health hazard. however, fishery produce in several parts of the world (e.g., the mid-atlantic Bight, the u.s.) contains residues of unacceptable levels of synthetic organic compounds.

regular monitoring has shown a decline in annual means of trace organic in mussels at 154 sites in the coastal waters of the united states. likewise, a significant decrease has been observed in ddt and pcB found in the blubber of 109 specimens of ringed seals, grey seals, and harbor seals in swedish water since the early 1970s. levels of ddt have decreased in the antarctic. despite an expected decrease in the environmental concentration of synthetic organic chemicals in the coastal waters of developed countries, the opposite is likely to be true for developing countries.

many synthetic organic chemicals are highly persistent in the environment. thus, long-lasting effects can be expected once the environment is contaminated. it will take some 15 years to remove the negative effects of ddt on eagle reproduction in the Baltics, and another 10 years for the population to recover. the recovery of dog whelks from the effects of imposex has been reported from new Zealand and europe several years after the banning of tBt.

clean production technology is required to minimize the production and release of harmful synthetic organic chemicals. the development of cost-effective treatment methods at source (e.g., plasma arc) is required, especially those suitable for use by developing countries

Twelve Recommendations on Oil SpillsAkio Inoue

UNITAR Senior Special Fellow and Professor, Tenri University, Nara, Japan

As the international ocean trade expands, oil tankers and other ocean vessels increase both in size and number. this tendency surely aggravates congestion of marine traffic. collisions and stranding of these vessels

cause spills of crude oil and fuel. large scale marine pollution caused by these accidents has been creating serious environmental and economic, as well as social, problems. it is therefore important that effective legal and technologically preventive measures should be taken to avoid such accidents. if unfortunate accidents occur, quick emergency response to minimize the amount and extent of damage, and to restore quality to the marine ecosystem, should be ready for implementation.

i would like to introduce the 12 recommendations arising from the review of the oil contamination in fukui and adjacent areas from the russian tanker nakhodka in Janu-ary 1997, submitted to the Japanese government. this is the result of the research works developed by the Joint american and Japanese researchers Group organized by the institute for the future technology in tokyo, of which the author is a special fellow. in addition, i would like to discuss several cultural reasons for Japan’s slowness in adopting current bioremediation technology.

Bioremediation is the most ancient of nature’s methods of self-cleansing. naturally oc-curring microorganisms consume and thereby remove hydrocarbon-based pollutants from a pollution source. Bioremediation has long been considered a safe and cost-effective method of providing favorable conditions for this process to occur. Bioremediation has been used extensively in the united states and to a lesser extent in other countries. the effectiveness of biodegradation for contaminated soils and sediments is well-proven. we must also admit, however, that the effectiveness of biodegradation processes for spills on open waters is far more controversial because of its difficulty, based on the ambiguity of open-water monitoring as seen in the mega Borg and apex oil spills in Galveston Bay, 1990.

Recommendation Number Oneoil spills can be major damaging events to human health, human welfare, and the environ-ment. in recognition of serious hazards that can be present, we recommend that in response to an oil spill the highest priority should be given to protecting the health and safety of workers and volunteers. this concern should be addressed through the development and implementation of a comprehensive health and safety program that would include such elements as identification of the specific health and safety hazards present at a site; com-munication of those hazards to workers and volunteers through systematic instruction and training; screening of workers to avoid inappropriate tasks; provision of personal

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protective equipment appropriate to the hazard and appropriate training on the proper use of that equipment; and the carrying out of appropriate monitoring and supervision by trained professionals.

Recommendation Number Twoto respond appropriately and quickly to a spills of oil or other hazardous substances, it is very important to identify immediately the specific chemical properties and hazards of the spilled materials and the changes to those that occur after the materials enter the environment, such as inhalation hazards that may be present from evaporation, or from atomization during cleanup. we recommend that further research be done on how, in the event of a spill, these chemical properties and hazards can be promptly identified and communicated to responders and to the public.

Recommendation Number Threeoil spills present difficult problems of remediation, and it is important that all environ-mentally safe and effective measures be available for use in appropriate circumstances. we recommend, therefore, that Japan develop bioremediation, which is used extensively in the united states and other countries, as an environmentally safe, effective, and economical means to speed the natural healing processes of nature, as a technique for treating oil-contaminated shorelines, through the following approach:

Step 1conduct a thorough survey of all shoreline areas that may have been affected by the spill to determine, for example, the current level of surface and subsurface contamination, the type of geology, the degree of access to the site, the marine habitats present, and the potential for re-oiling. from this, a plan of priorities and methods of remediation appropriate to the circumstances would be developed. the survey should be carried out using standard classification terminology and measurement techniques.

Step 2as a means of introducing bioremediation, carry out controlled bioremediation experiments on appropriate areas of remaining oil contamination along shorelines in affected prefectures facing the Japan sea, using the cooperation and expertise of the u.s. bioremediation industries and government regulators expert in the use and application of this technology.

Step 3Building on this demonstration and experiment, apply the technique more widely where appro-priate to other contaminated areas, in cooperation with the u.s. and Japanese corporations.

Step 4carry out carefully controlled monitoring in a scientifically valid manner to aid in decision making for further scientific study and application in future spill events.

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Twelve Recommendations on Oil Spills

Step 5establish a remedial microorganism Bank and an associated microbial research insti-tute in Japan to identify, collect, store, and culture the various indigenous oil-degrading microbes that exist along the Japan seacoast and coastlines, to aid in more rapid, effective and economical response to future contamination events.

Recommendation Number Fouron-water recovery can help to limit or reduce the amount or extent of damage to onshore and near-shore areas, and spilled oil becomes progressively more difficult to collect and recover the longer it is in the environment. we recommend, therefore, that the government or industry review resource equipment needs, determine the shortfalls, and purchase ap-propriate equipment. this may include building multipurpose and multifunctional oil spill recovery vessels, which are already under development and design by ship builders. these ships would be able to operate in adverse weather conditions in the open ocean, building on the experience with such vessels in the united states and the north sea.

Recommendation Number Fivean effective system of national oil spill response will require a substantial source of funding to acquire and maintain that system in a state of readiness. we recommend that additional research be done, drawing on the experience of the united states and other countries, on developing an effective and efficient method for funding oil spill preparedness and response.

Recommendation Number Sixoil spills are of major concern and interest to the public. we therefore recommend that a priority be given to providing accurate and complete public information on a timely basis during an oil spill event.

Recommendation Number Sevenan effective response to major spill events requires careful planning and close coordina-tion among national, regional, and local governments, private response organizations and others, all of whom need to work effectively together in a highly coordinated fashion. we therefore recommend that the ties and coordination among these groups be strengthened through the development of detailed contingency plans for specific geographic areas, through the joint efforts and participation by all who would be involved or affected dur-ing an actual spill event in that area. these plans would include identification of potential spills that could occur, knowledge of natural resources and areas of special vulnerability that would be threatened by those spills, identification of available response equipment or other resources, and specific response strategies and countermeasures.

Recommendation Number Eightthe response to a spill event requires the efforts of many different national, regional, and

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local governmental units, private companies, and other organizations and volunteers. Given the dynamic nature of the problem, and the need to closely coordinate the actions of diverse organizations and interests, it is important that someone with operational expertise and experience be given overall responsibility and authority for the response effort. we therefore recommend that predesignated on-scene coordinators be established for specific geographic areas and be given authority and responsibility to direct all response efforts, and that these on-scene coordinators be appointed based on their appropriate training, expertise, and experience in responding to these types of emergency events.

Recommendation Number Nineoil spills can result in widespread damage to wildlife. we therefore recommend that there be established a wildlife rescue veterinary care and research center to be prepared to respond to and mitigate damage to wildlife from oil spills.

Recommendation Number Tenmajor oil spill events do not occur very frequently and it is important that each spill and response to it be reviewed carefully and comprehensively so that improvements in future preparedness and response, compensation, and restoration may occur. therefore, we recommend that a comprehensive, objective, multidisciplinary review of the entire spill event be carried out. this review should include legal, technical, scientific, operational, and managerial factors, with the involvement, assistance, and cooperation of outside experts. its purpose should be to develop a full understanding of all the factors that contributed to the spill event, and the response to and consequences of the event. the purpose of this review is not to cast blame, but only to improve the national and international system of oil spill prevention, preparedness, response, and compensation.

Recommendation Number Elevensome of the recommendations listed above may require enactment of new laws and regulations and adaptation of existing ones. we therefore recommend that any necessary revisions in the law be made to enable the recommendations described above to be carried out.

Recommendation Number Twelveoil spills are an international problem and many organizations from different countries engage in cooperative oil spill research programs and activities. Japan has had only limited participation in these efforts in the past, however. we therefore recommend that Japan participate more actively in cooperative research and programs with other countries.

these recommendations are made by the Joint u.s. and Japanese researchers Group, whose staff members are listed below:

• yosaku hasegawa, director, the institute for future technology

• hiro hieda, senior fellow, the institute for future technology

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• akio inoue, director, tenri yamato culture congress

• donald s. Jensen, principal, Jensen and associates (u.s.)

• Joseph e. lees, partner, nixon, hargrave, devans, and doyle, l.l.p. (u.s.)

• robert t. rosenfelt, manager of remediation services, remediation action corpora-tion (u.s.)

• motoo shiina, president, the policy study Group

• tsuneo tsukatani, professor, kyoto university

• masaaki tamayama, visiting research scientist, tokyo university

• yuji wada, senior fellow, the institute of future technology

Discussionsaksit tridech: this is a very relevant discussion, especially regarding public health in the realm of human security. dr. wu has revealed to us some valuable statistics on the sea, especially in terms of hepatitis a. dr. wu, do you have any specific method you use to treat nutrient levels? we have tried to neutralize the mangrove degradation in thailand and i would like to know what you might have to offer.

alan khee-Jin tan: the two speakers have demonstrated the intimate relationship between health of the oceans and welfare of humankind. this is one of the points that should be highlighted in the conclusions of this conference. speaking of human health, professor wu indicated that there is now less concern for metals but major concern for eutrophication. i hope that what he meant by less concern is not that we are now neglecting concern for metals. as i remember, one of the worlds concerns was the problem here in Japan with mer-cury in the seafood. i hope we are still monitoring the effects of heavy metals in organisms. with regard to pcBs and dvts, unfortunately, what we see now is the return of malaria and pollution particularly, in africa, latin america, and perhaps asia. this means there has been an increase in the use of insecticides. i hope this will be monitored. your charts do not surprise me. the insecticides have been forbidden but not outlawed. they are still prevalent in developing countries.

Gunnar kullenberg: the human health issue is coming out very clearly. this relates back to our pollution of coastal areas. dr. inoue suggested ways we can use bacteriological research. can we combine knowledge on bacterial research to try to address issues such as purifica-tion in relation to waste materials, as well as finding new bacteriological indicators? also,

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how can we develop new technologies? wastewater treatment is a key issue now. we have said that it is too expensive. can we find cheaper technology? can this be launched? can it be done? if we can find cheaper technology, can it actually be put to use in developing countries?

finally, climate change is for sure going to influence human health in the near term. i don’t know the impacts for malaria but if you increase temperature it will certainly have an effect. obviously this is a key issue that should be brought out. i think we could try to do something using this knowledge displayed here today.

rudolf wu: public health data is the answer to mr. saksit’s question. this way we can trace back the history of disease. this can be done cheaply provided we have labor. on climate change, that is in fact one of the major effects of eutrophicaiton. if you warm it up, we can see that the fresh water will increase. that brings more nutrients and makes the problem worse. if you have fresh water on top and salt water on the bottom this is stratification. the bottom uses up all the oxygen and things get worse. on nutrient removal using other technology, there is no problem except cost. there are a number of universities using bioreactors. again, on such large scales, you should get rid of wastewater rather than put it in a tank.

on dr. tan’s question, i don’t mean to say that we should neglect heavy metals. this was a hot topic a while ago.

akio inoue: on discovery of new microbes, several kinds of species have been discovered on the bottom of the seas in Japan. for instance, for the microbes to be used for actual cleanup technology, to be commercialized, condensation and storage are necessary. like baseball, you need many players performing different functions; it is the same with mi-crobes. scientists should become artists. to keep balance, the unity of different kinds of species is necessary. of course there are cultural reasons. Japanese people think technology is something artificial and are skeptical of that. there also has been no new law or revision. Bioremediation costs are one-tenth that of chemical treatment. it is safe, cheap, and clean. we have to learn more from nature’s existence. for instance, in texas, almost all primary schools have aquariums where they pour sugar in oil and then treat it and the fish eat and survive. that kind of education is necessary.

pornthip puncharoen: referring to professor wu, the contamination of the coastal water is an important subject. our department has had a coordination project with a university in Japan.

dini purbani: i would like to ask dr. wu, what kind of satellite to you use to do this re-search?

fakavae taomia: professor wu, you mentioned the destruction of coral reef. what are the impacts of sea level rise or increase in temperature on the growth of coral?

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rudolf wu: i totally agree with what the thai government is doing. a lot of people try to cut corners by not having Qa and Qc but that is not good. with regard to remote sensing, this is important. on the coral reef question, there are two things, increase in temperature will extend the range of the reef if you are an optimist. however, an increase in nutrients can hurt the reef. so, the answer is, i don’t know.

Qamar raza rizvi: you have raised some serious issues and expensive ones too. do you foresee any cheap technology in the future? regarding oil spills, professor inoue, how do you know that the use of microbes will increase?

chua thia-eng: i want to translate these concerns into how you can act on the ground. in east asia alone, there is about 80 billion tons of sewage entering into the sea. the amount is large, very large. there is no way you can really address all these issues, but 50 percent would be great. there must be a way to look to a natural system as a way of doing it. is there a way?

secondly, much of the wastewater actually benefits fisheries. if you stopped it, what will be done about fisheries? these issues have been repeated over and over. dr. wu’s and many other reports have been circulated many times. how many people actually read them? the government agencies themselves are not properly trained to deal with these problems. they build sewage pipes going right into the bay while these studies are going on. informing the agencies as to these problems would be a huge step in solving them.

marcel a. Boisard: on technology, we have talked about it much but we should not forget about changing behaviors. in durban, in preparing for the sustainable development summit, we were talking about cities. the africans were saying, “we have no water in some of our cities,” while in the west we use water to wash our cars. Behavior should be considered.

concerning unitar and responsibility, we have a program on persistent organic pollu-tions (pop) and the stockholm convention. there is a lot of competition among agencies. there are so many international environmental agencies. the same is true at the national level. it is not evident that idea sharing is going on. unitar tries to work on the concept of “national profile.” yesterday we mentioned corporate responsibility. we need to mix nGos, business, government, and so on.

lastly, the history of science shows that between scientific discovery and product launch there is a 30-year lag. rare exceptions have been penicillin and mercurochrome which due to military interest, took only a few months to become publicly available, and the radio, which took 50 years.

rudolf wu: on cheap technology, i don’t have a crystal ball. at the moment there is no cost-effective technology. for mr. chua, we should not only aim at treating the sewage. we can use the carrying capacity of water to remove nutrients, but that water varies from place to place. can nutrients benefit fisheries? in the good water with good nutrients you

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have good fish like trout, but if you increase the nutrients you get lower-grade fish, totally different species. there are simply not enough studies done on this.

akio inoue: on the microbes, how much is necessary to clean the oil spills? their numbers increase as they eat the oil. concerning sewage entering the sea, one village needed eight lorries to carry away sewage but only one cup of microbes to eat up the sewage.

also, only one out of 100 discoveries can be commercialized. we have to use the religions of the east to solve these problems as well.

Sea Transportation IndustryHasjim Djalal

Amassador-at-large, Law of the Sea and Maritime Affairs, Indonesia

Man-made disasters at sea happen for various reasons and take numerous forms. they can take place as a result of exploitation of the minerals of the seabed and its subsoil, either hard or liquid minerals, especially

hydrocarbon/oil and gas. it seems that science and technology in this area has been suf-ficiently well-developed, although accidents do happen from time to time, causing harm to the ocean and the maritime environment.

disasters at sea can also occur as a result of what is now generally regarded as general climatic changes due to the increasing use of fossil fuels by humans. this use has led to the rise of air pollution and the temperature of the world, resulting in the melting of ice in the arctic and antarctic oceans and the consequent sea-level rises that threaten low-lying coastal areas or states.

in addition, even the degradation of land and forests may cause general and environmental modifications on land-based water-catchment areas, such as riverbeds, which subsequently affect coastal areas and the ocean environment, as well as the coastal marine habitats and coral reefs, mangrove systems, seagrass, wetlands, and coastal forests. unbridled development on land could cause degradation and disaster to the maritime environment.

destructive fishing activities, such as the use of cyanide or blasting (bomb-fishing), as well as overfishing and other iuu fishing activities, may also damage marine areas. the destruc-tion of the marine environment and consequent destruction of fishery resources could create security problems for mankind in terms of food and environmental degradation.

even large-scale development of coastal zones for purposes of land reclamation could alter the marine environment and cause marine disasters, possibly as the result of exten-sive dredging and destruction of coral reefs and the seabed, in order to obtain materials for landfill in the reclaimed areas. the modification and destruction of the marine envi-ronment and the sea floor could cause serious damage to marine habitats and fisheries resources, resulting in a loss of income to the coastal fishermen and the people who live in the coastal areas.

finally, a man-made disaster at sea could also be the result of improper management or various factors in sea transportation. sea transportation is one of the oldest human uses of the sea, aside from fishing. since time immemorial transportation on the sea has been an important component of human life and migration and, in some cases, of humankind’s daily and routine activities. disasters at sea have occurred in the past, are still occurring today, and will probably occur in the future, despite efforts by individuals and states to eliminate, or at least reduce, such disasters in the future. at one time i believe i came across a study by unesco that indicated there may be about 3 million wrecks scattered on the

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seabed around the world. the difference between the past and the present, however, is that in olden times the sea disasters in ocean shipping were generally caused by the rough nature of the oceans; in modern times, factors are more varied. another difference may be that man-made disasters at sea in ancient times may have caused fewer environmental impacts than they do today.

various factors can cause sea transportation disasters. a large proportion of accidents at sea now are caused by human error. some people estimate that about 80 percent of accidents at sea have been caused by human error. this factor calls for better education and training of mariners. in fact, the imo has devoted a lot of attention to this matter and has formulated and redrafted the standards of training, certification and watchkeeping for seafarers conven-tion (stcw) in 1995 that required certain education and training for mariners, following an internationally agreed-upon standard, in order for them to obtain certification of competence. unfortunately, however, many states, especially the developing countries, are still left behind in the ratification and the implementation of the stcw convention. a lot of effort needs to be devoted to improving the education and training of mariners.

the south china sea countries have, through the south china sea workshop process, devoted considerable attention to this matter. in a may 1997 meeting in singapore on the matter of education and training of mariners, the need for information exchange was recom-mended with regard to certification practices as well as the exchange of expertise, technical cooperation, and mutual assistance in training and certification, including expanding the existing asean association of marine education and training institutions (aameti) to cover the south china sea region as a whole.

it was also agreed that singapore should develop a regional program among the south china sea littoral countries to promote the education and training of mariners in the area, and that the countries in the region should make a serious effort to implement the stcw convention in order to avoid disasters at sea. it is my hope that, subject to agreement in and with the south china sea workshop process, unitar and Japan could support that process to promote such education and training.

another cause of transportation disasters at sea is in the development in technology and the construction of vessels. more and more, and bigger and larger vessels are built, some of them of hundreds of thousands of tonnage, some intended to carry hazardous cargos, some for the purposes of carrying hundreds of thousands of tons of oil or gas. cargoes transported by sea are becoming more dangerous every day, and include radioactive and poisonous materials. the management of such transportation requires new rules and regulations commensurate with the new developments in the technology and the danger of those cargos. in fact, the imo has produced a number of international rules and conven-tions dealing with this matter. much effort needs to be exerted, however, to ensure that states, shipping companies, and shippers abide by the conventions. the anxieties of coastal countries concerning these ships sailing routes need to be taken into consideration.

at the same time, more and more ships are getting older, and therefore their seawor-thiness is becoming a problem that needs constant attention. in fact, many disasters are caused by the unseaworthiness of these vessels, which are not properly or regularly checked.

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Sea Transportation Industry

the problems of substandard vessels, particularly in developing countries, need special attention and support.

the natural conditions of the waterways are also important for the safety of navigation. the studies of currents, tides, hydrographic data, and even oceanographic conditions need to be continuously updated. the problems of sea-level, tide, and climatic change have prompted the need for more studies of these natural conditions. in fact, in some areas of the ocean, particularly in areas that are and narrow and shallow and are heavily traveled by sea transportation, such hydrographic surveys and more detailed mapping are required in order to ensure safe navigation, especially in and around dangerous grounds in the south china sea and in the waterways which are heavily used for transit or for entering or leaving ports. in addition, the installment and improvement of navigational aids in some areas also require serious attention, particularly in crowded areas like the confined body of waters in a strait.

due to increasing traffic in certain waterways, such as in the straits of malacca and sin-gapore, the provision of vessel monitoring systems (vms), traffic separation schemes (tss) and pilotage have also become the subject of intensive discussions about avoiding disaster at sea. in fact, tss has already been operating in the straits of malacca and singapore for many years, and the under-keel clearance (ukc) rule of 3.5 meters has also been applied in the straits for many years for deep-draft vessels navigating those waters.

lately, the problems of piracy, armed robbery, illegal traffic in drugs and arms, and the illegal smuggling of refugees and immigrants have become major issues in some parts of the world, and in some instances have also caused disasters, either due to the crimes themselves, or the unseaworthiness of the vessels, or human misery. there are a number of efforts at this moment being exerted on this matter, particularly by the countries seriously affected or concerned with these problems.

the problems of piracy and armed robbery, as well as illegal traffic in drugs, arms, and slaves, have been dealt with in a number of international conventions, including the law of the sea convention (unclos 1982). most of the increasing piracy in recent years, par-ticularly in southeast asia, has arisen primarily due to reasons of economic and financial difficulties in the area, and the consequent lack of funds and resources devoted to combat them. it is obvious that local law enforcement agencies, particularly in developing countries such as indonesia, need plenty of help and assistance. i would hope that unitar and Japan would be in a position to help the law enforcement agencies at sea in those countries to meet their needs, not only for maintaining law and order in the area, but also for the sake of the shipping and transportation interests.

the problems of disaster at sea whether man-made or not, require the development of effective contingency plans and search-and-rescue (sar) mechanisms to help cope with them. the contingency planning in some areas of the sea, particularly at the national level in big maritime countries like indonesia, still needs a lot of thought, human effort, and organization, as well as funds and resources to support them. considerable national and regional efforts must be exerted in this area. at the same time, sar activities, whether na-tional or regional, particularly at sea, could and should also be strengthened, because many

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disasters at sea also take place on the high seas outside countries’ national jurisdictions. cooperative efforts on this matter need to be focused, particularly in crowded areas such as the south china sea, the malacca straits and singapore, and in the archipelagic waters in southeast asia. again, unitar and the Japanese shipping and marine transportation interests could support the development of efforts to promote national as well as regional contingency planning against maritime disasters as well as to promote sar activities, either nationally or regionally.

finally, maritime disasters could also be the result of conflicts, including those in time of war, either at sea or in the air space above the sea. But this issue of armed conflicts and their relationship to man-made disasters at sea should be the subject of another discussion in which political and diplomatic matters should be the main concern, particularly in terms of preventing conflict or managing potential conflicts within the context of preventive diplomacy, confidence-building measures, and dispute-settlement mechanisms.

in southeast asia, the problems of man-made disasters at sea have generally been dealt with in three areas, namely the straits of malacca and singapore, the south china sea, and in the archipelagic waters. with regard to the straits of malacca and singapore, the three coastal states (indonesia, malaysia, and singapore) have been concerned with the problems of safety of navigation and the protection of the marine environment, as well as the safety of international navigation, for many decades, especially since the late 1960s, as a result of the torrey canyon accident in the strait of dover in 1967 which caused massive pollution of the marine environment in france and the united kingdom. in september 1971, the three coastal countries in fact agreed to treat the two straits as one for purposes of safety of navigation. they agreed to cooperate with Japan in this context, and after many years of efforts, they have substantially improved the safety of navigation in the area by jointly conducting hydrographic surveys and producing more detailed navigational charts, install-ing the necessary navigational aids where and as required, establishing traffic separation schemes, agreeing on a ukc of 3.5 meters for deep-draft vessels, applying pilotage in certain areas, particularly when entering ports, regulating traffic monitoring system and reporting, and establishing a small revolving fund to assist the three coastal countries in exercising immediate responses to dangers of pollution from ship accidents.

it is to be regretted, however, that not much was being done to protect and redress the problems of the marine environment in the straits caused by pollution from ships. moreover, practically no attention or support is being given by other users of the straits, except Japan, to help the coastal countries, particularly indonesia, to protect and reclaim its marine environment damaged by pollution caused by ship accidents, despite the fact that the unclos 1982 in article 43 requires the user states to cooperate with the straits states to promote safety of navigation, protect the marine environment, and support other efforts to improve international navigation. even though the imo organized a couple of meetings on this topic in singapore, there has not been much progress achieved in this area. it is to be hoped that unitar and Japan, either its government or shipping and transportation interests, will do something to help coastal countries in this area and encourage other user states to fulfill their obligations under article 43 of unclos.

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since its inception in 1990, the south china sea workshop has been aware of the need to promote safety of navigation, shipping, and communication in the south china sea. in fact, in 1995 it established a special technical working group on this matter, which has met several times, particularly in Jakarta (1995), Brunei darussalam (1996), and singapore (1998). it has also established a group of experts on sar and illegal acts at sea which met in kota kinabalu in 1999, a group of experts on hydrographic data and information ex-change which met in kuching (1997) and singapore (1998), as well as a group of experts on education and training of mariners which met in singapore in 1997. all these efforts have emphasized the need to promote safety of navigation, shipping and communication. the exchange of views and the various studies have produced a number of cooperative propos-als which have been discussed in principle and approved by the workshop process itself. the implementation of those cooperative proposals, such as sar, anti-piracy measures, a program of joint hydrographic surveys in certain areas, data and information exchange, and a program for education and training of mariners, have met with some difficulties mainly due to lack of funding and in some cases due to existing territorial disputes in the south china sea. it is to be hoped also that unitar, as well as the Japanese shipping and transportation interests, could support the activities of the workshop process in this area, particularly since canada’s 10-year support through the university of British columbia in vancouver has now terminated.

with regard to the promotion of safety of navigation in archipelagic waters in indonesia which also are important for Japanese shipping and transportation interests, as a party to unclos 1982 indonesia has worked closely with imo, on the basis of article 53 of un-clos, in drafting the establishment of three north-south archipelagic sea-lanes through indonesian waters. the proposals were adopted by the imo in 1998, but indonesia has yet to legislate them. the establishment of the three archipelagic sea-lanes will also be ac-companied by rules and regulations derived mainly from unclos 1982. it is to be hoped that once the sea-lanes are established and their rules enacted, they would promote safety of navigation in the indonesian archipelagic waters, and hopefully, on the basis of article 43 of unclos, the states using the sea-lanes also would help indonesia in promoting this safety of navigation and protecting the marine environment from disasters at sea, particu-larly from ship-based pollution.

Discussion chua thia-eng: i agree 100 percent with both speakers. the question is how to move for-ward. how do we get the various agencies to work together? i have been involved in this for the last 15 years. when you go around talking to national agencies, the attitude is that if this is an international project then agencies do not want to participate. in most instances, even the international agencies are not cooperating. one thing we have done is to move the level down to the provincial or local level and then slowly bring it back to the national level. we have to simply keep trying.

one more thing, you need a framework for all these agencies to work together. regard-ing whether international agencies can influence national policy decisions, it depends on

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how you help. imo conventions take three to four years to get the agencies to agree. in the philippines, different agencies claim the same responsibilities. you recommend increasing the ability of national agencies to propose legislation. this is also a timely project. we must help them to understand the legal issues first. the process in the philippines sometimes takes more than five years from start to finish. another idea is to get international agencies to work together.

fakavae taomia: in the south pacific, we don’t have the capacity for legal drafting, and so on. we have problems especially with the transport of nuclear waste. if there were ever a disaster, if a ship were to sink in tuvalu’s waters, there would be a profound impact. we depend on marine life and tourism. unclos does not address this situation. there is a need for agencies, through asean and pacific forums, to address this issue. what are the options available? how can small states move ahead in trying to address the compensation issue and the issue of transport of nuclear waste?

hasjim djalal: dr. chua’s comments on agency cooperation are very pertinent. i once read that some 30 agencies in indonesia have jurisdiction over the sea. it is a hell of a job to get them to cooperate. it’s a very real problem. who is dealing with piracy? the navy, the police, the ports? everyone is confused. each of these has its own legislation. agencies that could really make a difference have no real power to act. By the time they do the pirates have got-ten away. there are clear alternatives for jurisdiction and the distribution of power among industries. another option would be to assign just one authority.

ing try: article 43 of unclos is interesting. how do countries with different technologies cooperate in implementing this? capacity building is most important. i would request unitar to help cambodia in more training on this issue.

haiwen Zhang: in china in the 1990s we had very serious pollution of shellfish. people today are still scared to eat shellfish. there were not only physical damages but also eco-nomic ones. marine pollution is a common problem for all. we need more cooperation and technology sharing. this last lecture has given us some ideas about cooperation at many different levels. dr. chua’s ideas are great. do you have any examples of cooperation between states and actors?

mustikorini indrijatiningrum: it is sometimes very difficult to claim for accidents. what do we do about this?

hasjim djalal: article 43 is dealing with the straits and article 53 is dealing with sea-lanes. this does not prevent the countries of the Gulf of thailand from receiving training. regional cooperation is slower than the increase in marine pollution. that is regrettable. creating and managing revolving funds are not easy. the process often can go on for years and years. we have been working in the south china sea project to create a revolving fund but have not

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been successful. we have created focal points. i have seen this a lot. there are turf conflicts, and often when there is no focal point the whole system collapses.

The Sea Transport Industry and the Challenges of State Regulation

Alan Khee-Jin TanAssociate Professor, Faculty of Law, National University of Singapore

In many developinG countries, includinG those in the southeast asian region, one of the biggest challenges to effective environmental management is the uncertainty over the legal, administrative, and regulatory competence of the

respective agencies responsible for environmental protection. for instance, there is often confusion concerning to the extent to which authority over particular environmental issues is divided and shared between central governmental agencies and provincial authorities. this often hampers the effectiveness of overall state regulation of both terrestrial and marine environmental matters.

apart from this vertical-level problem, there is often doubt at the horizontal-level as well. within a given central or provincial government apparatus, for instance, there may exist uncertainty over the extent to which sectoral agencies responsible for agriculture, mining, forestry, fisheries, industry, or shipping should exercise concurrent authority with the agency directly responsible for environmental protection. typically, the latter agency is a fledgling body established only in recent years following the global surge of interest in environmental protection. such agencies thus must come up against more established and powerful sectoral agencies in carving out their regulatory jurisdiction over environmental matters.

when the powers of different units of government have not been adequately clarified among themselves this often has led to suboptimal allocation of resources and uneven results in environmental regulation and management. in many cases, a wrong or less-than-optimal ministry, department, or agency may be charged with responsibility for a particular environ-mental issue. when this happens, such bodies may have insufficient financial and manpower resources to conduct effective oversight over environmental matters. they may be less influ-ential in terms of political prestige and patronage, resulting in their efforts being frustrated, particularly as against more powerful agencies. conversely, the sectoral agencies may enjoy competence over environmental matters, but also be in a conflict-of-interest situation when it comes to balancing resource-extraction and conservation goals.

consequently, it is imperative for multilateral aid agencies, bilateral donors, and non-governmental organizations engaged in financial and technical assistance efforts to identify and empower the appropriate recipient agency at the appropriate level. this will ensure that resources are optimally directed to the agency best situated to effect regulatory change. in most cases, overlapping jurisdiction between central and provincial authorities, and hori-zontally between different agencies at the central and provincial levels, is unavoidable. in such situations, care should be taken not only to empower the agency directly responsible for environmental protection efforts, but also to incorporate ecological sensibilities into

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the decision-making processes of the resource-extraction agencies. in addition, the need for cooperation among the different agencies, both vertically and horizontally, and for the coordination of their activities, must be emphasised.

The Regulation of the Sea Transport Industrythe phenomena described above can be amply illustrated by state regulation over the ship-ping industry. to begin with, there is often uncertainty in many states as to which govern-mental agency, and at what level, should be responsible for implementing the international treaties/conventions relevant to shipping. even before the issues of implementation and enforcement arise, it is often a challenge for developing countries to fully understand the ramifications of conventions to which they have become party and to legislate laws incor-porating convention commitments faithfully into the domestic legal system. in states such as vietnam, myanmar, Brunei, cambodia, and thailand, for instance, there often are few legal experts in the ministries or agencies responsible for drafting and legislating laws who are able to give full attention to the imo conventions and to maritime matters in general. often, the staffs of these agencies are overworked and must concentrate on nonmaritime priority issues.

in many southeast asian states, responsibility for implementing the treaties adopted by the imo often rests with the agency tasked with transport and communications matters. yet, when such treaties involve pollution from ships—for instance, imo’s 1973 international convention for the prevention of pollution from ships, as amended by its 1978 protocol (marpol 73/78)—port authorities, local governments, environmental protection agen-cies, the coast guard, and indeed the naval forces, may also have jurisdiction. moreover, the ministries responsible for foreign affairs and law in some states may retain competence, as for instance when prosecution is contemplated against a foreign-flagged ship polluting a state’s territorial sea or exclusive economic zone.

in relation to ship disaster management (i.e., search-and-rescue operations, as well as oil and chemical spill response and clean-up activities), a whole host of agencies may again be involved. thus, search-and-rescue and spill response operations may be severely hampered if there is inadequate advance planning and coordination of response action. there have been many occurrences in the past whereby precious time was lost, with severe pollution being caused, simply because the relevant authorities could not decide among themselves who was to take what course of action.

in addition, issues impacting on the transboundary carriage by ships of hazardous industrial wastes and the dumping of land-generated wastes by ships (regulated by the 1989 Basel convention on hazardous wastes (Basel convention) and 1972 london con-vention on dumping from ships, as amended by its 1996 protocol (london convention) respectively) may also invite the involvement of agencies responsible for environmental protection or heavy industries. in recent times, imo regulation has extended far beyond the traditional issues of oil and chemical pollution by ships. the transfer of alien marine organisms by ships carrying ballast water and the biological effects of tributyltin (tBt) paints used on ship hulls have introduced problems going far beyond the competence of

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agencies tasked with traditional sea transport and pollution matters. thus, the port and maritime authorities who traditionally have regulated shipping matters may now find that they need to become better acquainted with modern environmental concerns. this poses a big problem for the resource-stretched regulators of the developing countries.

the examples of countries such as vietnam, the philippines, indonesia, and malaysia may be instructive. in all these countries, the primary responsibility for maritime issues (including disaster response, pollution, and environmental matters), rests not with the environmental agencies but with the maritime-related agencies and the port authorities. in the philippines, for instance, responsibility for implementing the imo conventions lies with a host of maritime agencies, primarily the philippine coast Guard, the philippine port authority, and the maritime industry authority (marina). there is limited scope for the involvement of the department of environment and natural resources (denr), which otherwise enjoys broad competence over all terrestrial environmental matters.

in malaysia, responsibility for the imo conventions lies with the marine department of the ministry of transport. yet, where enforcement and prosecution efforts against pol-luting ships are contemplated, there is scope for the involvement of the department of environment as well as the attorney-General’s chambers. any issue relating to regulation of ships in the straits of malacca (a strait used for international navigation as defined in the un convention on the law of the sea) would necessarily involve the ministry of foreign affairs. in indonesia, a new ministry for marine affairs and fisheries was recently created. its precise jurisdiction and competence are as yet unsettled, however. in the meantime, it would appear that the indonesian port authorities, the provincial governments, the ministry of communications, the ministry of foreign affairs, the state ministry for the environment, and the environmental management agency (Bapedal) would all hold concurrent (and as yet unclarified) jurisdiction in relation to marine matters. in vietnam, imo conventions fall within the purview of the vietnam national maritime Bureau (vinamarine) of the ministry of transportation. responsibility over the 1989 Basel convention lies with the ministry of science, technology, and environment, however, whose jurisdiction in maritime matters remains unclarified.

in many states worldwide, including those in southeast asia, port authorities are increasingly being vested with enforcement powers over the activities of polluting ships. these authorities may not necessarily come under the direction of a central governmental agency—often, they are constituted within the structure of the local provincial or municipal governments. in many cases, the ports may be fully or partially privatized. this throws up the issue of how the concurrent and possibly overlapping jurisdictions of the different authorities can be reconciled and harmonized so as to present minimum impediments to the shipping community and maximum benefits for the marine pollution control effort.

this issue has become especially pertinent in recent times due to the proliferation of the port state control mechanism, whereby port officials are allowed to conduct inspections on visiting ships and detain them where there is evidence of a transgression of imo rules and regulations pertaining to safety and pollution control. in this regard, complaints have frequently arisen from shipowners, such as those belonging to the international association

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of tanker owners, headquartered in oslo, norway (intertanko), relating to the poor training of port state control officers and the arbitrariness of their decisions.

Recommendations for Facilitating the Regulation of the Sea Transport Industryin light of the above, there exist opportunities for international agencies such as the unitar-hiroshima programmes to help facilitate the learning, training and capacity-building processes in developing countries as these relate to the sea transport industry and ocean security. to begin with, developing states can be assisted in building up their legal capacity to fully understand and implement the myriad and often complex international conventions relevant to maritime shipping. in this regard, cooperation with the imo and other specialized bodies such as partnerships in environmental management for the seas of east asia (pemsea) may foster program synergy and help increase awareness of imo conventions such as marpol 73/78, the safety of life at sea (solas) convention, the hazardous and noxious substances (hns) convention, the oil pollution preparedness, response and cooperation (oprc) convention, the civil liability (clc) and the interna-tional convention on the establishment of an international fund for compensation for oil pollution damage (fund). the oprc convention deals with oil spills. a protocol to the convention (which was adopted in 2000) deals with hazardous noxious substances.

thus, training seminars can be provided by international experts to help developing country officers analyze the desirability of accepting a convention, draft legislation once a convention is ratified, identify suitable implementing agencies and train officials at both national and local levels to implement the law, conduct monitoring activities, enforce penal-ties, and collate data for pollution claims. an appreciation of related, non-imo conventions, such as the Basel and london conventions, is also needed to help plug the gaps and clarify the complex overlaps which exist among the various conventions. in relation to oil spill response and search-and-rescue operations, developing countries should be encouraged to ratify the oprc and search and rescue (sar) conventions and to enlist the help of imo to develop contingency plans and equipment in order to be prepared for oil and chemical spills from ships. to this end, regional cooperation among neighboring states should be emphasized, particularly because pollution from ship accidents may invariably affect the waters of several states.

throughout the process, the international funding agencies should be aware of the domestic political and administrative inefficiencies pointed out earlier, so as to maximize the chances of training the most well-placed and appropriate local agencies). where overlapping jurisdiction among agencies is encountered (as is inevitably the case), funding agencies can seek to ameliorate the systemic difficulties by making inter-agency cooperation and coordination a condition for the receipt of training aid. thus, the funding agencies can conduct research (as many already do) to identify all relevant agencies, whether at the central or provincial levels, whose activities may impinge on environmental protection. as far as possible, nongovernmental domestic agencies, whole communities, and even individuals should be involved if they are able to play a role. it is only when effective, coordinated, and nonarbitrary state regulation can be ensured that

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the subject of such regulation—the sea transport industry—can be engaged as a partner in maintaining security over the oceans.

for instance, in relation to managing safety and pollution issues at sea, training can be provided to increase awareness of ocean issues among officials from the port authorities, environmental agencies, coast guard forces and maritime disaster response units, justice ministries, transport and communications agencies, land-based industries seeking to dispose of wastes in the sea, and seamen’s associations. fishermen and individuals with an interest in the sea should also be involved, for instance, in monitoring oil slicks and in reporting pollution incidents. the shipping industry should also be encouraged to con-tribute to marine pollution control efforts, as has been done in countries such as Greece through its hellenic marine environmental protection association (helmepa) project, an initiative started by Greek shipowners. developing countries should be apprised of the latest developments at the imo, including the development of the marine electronic high-way (meh) and proposals by states for the establishment of a Quality shipping movement involving a network of so-called quality registers or flag states.

to come down to the specific level of implementation and practical realities, unitar and other funding agencies could begin by sponsoring national and regional training programs for oil and chemical spill preparedness. the assistance of the imo and the spill response agencies of other countries should be sought under the aegis of the oprc con-vention. the major oil and chemical multinationals and the international tanker owners pollution federation (itopf) should also be involved, given their very extensive experience in combating pollution from oil and chemical tankers.

training programs could also be instituted for port state control inspectors. to this end, the assistance of the tokyo-based secretariat of the asia-pacific memorandum of understanding on port state control can be sought. assistance may also be requested of the leading port state control administrators in the world, such as the u.s. coast Guard, the parties to the paris-based european memorandum of understanding on port state control, as well as national ports with bilateral assistance programs such as the maritime and port authority of singapore. proper training programs for port state control officers are critical in ensuring that inspections and detentions of offending ships are carried out in a fair, effective, and noncapricious manner. as port state control procedures become more sophisticated, ports can be trained to develop targeting profiles or matrices which direct regulatory attention toward the truly substandard ships while leaving the quality ships unharassed.

another specific area of financial and manpower assistance could lie in the provision of reception facilities in ports. Quality shipowners have long lamented the lack or inadequacy of such facilities in ports, since any responsible ship operator who abstains from discharging operational wastes at sea must necessarily find a way of disposing of wastes on shore. regret-tably, many states still persist in ignoring their obligations under marpol 73/78 to provide adequate reception facilities. even if such facilities are provided, they are often exorbitantly priced. in this regard, developing port states can be assisted in providing reception facilities, not necessarily only of the expensive, state-of-the-art types, but also elementary types such

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as vehicle/truck-based carting systems, depending on the size and resources of the port and the demands made upon it. again, agencies like unitar can work in cooperation with the imo and donor governments to mutually reinforce one another’s programs.

Conclusionample opportunities exist for funding and training agencies to assist developing states in the asia-pacific region improve their capacity to regulate the sea transport industry and enhance security on the oceans. the regulatory areas which stand in greatest need of strengthening are

• the identification and empowerment of optimal agencies, both at central and provin-cial levels, to exercise administrative, legal and regulatory competence over the sea transport industry;

• the training of officers to better understand, incorporate into local laws and imple-ment the commitments enshrined in international conventions, particularly those adopted by the international maritime organisation (imo);

• the enhancement of cooperation and coordination among state agencies so as to ameliorate the effects of overlapping jurisdiction;

• the training of and provision of equipment to officers responsible for planning and conducting oil/chemical spill response operations;

• the training of port state control officers to conduct inspections on and detentions of offending ships in an effective and nonarbitrary manner which poses the least impediment to maritime navigation;

• the training of port/maritime authorities to better understand new environmental concerns relevant to shipping, e.g., ballast water and alien marine organisms, and tBt pollution; and

• the provision of adequate and reasonably-priced reception facilities in ports.

overall, improved regulatory efforts must start with a systemic rectification of the structural, fundamental problems identified above pertaining to domestic institutions and their often concurrent and overlapping jurisdiction. the improved regulation that would follow can only bring about benefits, not only for the coastal states in terms of enhanced maritime safety and marine pollution control, but also greater transparency, certainty and ease of navigation for maritime interests such as shipowners, the owners of cargo, and the sea transport industry in general. it is to be hoped that these efforts will then contribute, in no small measure, toward the security of the oceans and world order in general.

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Discussionmarcel a. Boisard: these have been very interesting statements. it is indeed important to explain to developing countries what their rights are under the various international conventions. takamatsu university in Japan is trying to develop a compliance program for the law of the sea.

moritaka hayashi: professor tan, i agree with you on many points. one is your emphasis on port state control. two years ago i was on the international shipping commission. we studied substandard ships. many more things could be done on this through port state control. i have some concern about asian countries. the port state control system in western countries has been tightened and substandard ships excluded. these ships cannot risk even going to those ports. the result is that they come to our countries and our ports in the east. so, something more should be done in asia. do you have any concrete ideas on how to do this?

alan khee-Jin tan: professor hayashi, i agree. it is a question of resources. we can already see the trend. ships are being turned away from europe since the erika legislation. my concrete suggestion is to train local officers. in many countries the port state inspectors have never been out to sea. they go on the ship and can be deceived by the captain. the most successful port states should come together and establish training directly targeting the people who go onto the ships. there is simply no way to inspect every single ship that comes to port. it is not practical. we have to rely a lot on information to identify a matrix that will enable suspects to be profiled. you have to develop target profiles for known substandard ships.

for dr. chua, i would, of course, recommend the cooperation of agencies. pemsea and imo should be consulted and worked with. a united states coast guard officer once told me that the united states coast Guard simply cannot cope with imo conventions. if this is the case for the u.s., how can developing countries cope?

esmaeil rajabi: three points: international monitoring, implementation of international instruments, and a comprehensive compensation system, should be used to combat pollution. safe navigation and control of pollution from ships are important, but, as you mentioned, land-based pollution is 80 percent of the problem. this too should be regulated. there is no convention for this. on implementation, i would like to say that international and regional arrangements for combating pollution exist, but combining these instruments would be better and would also help control pollution. there are big pollution problems in the persian Gulf. during the war, 800 million barrels of oil were spilled and there was never any compensation. how can we compensate this?

marcel a. Boisard: we should be careful when coordinating with national authorities, of the new idea of appointing focal points. this started with the london Guidelines on chemicals. sometimes different focal points are in different ministries. actually, in their well-meaning

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negotiations, member states create these monsters, the multiplication of focal points. Be very careful before designating focal points.

alan khee-Jin tan: unfortunately, there is not much success in the region. if there is any-where, it is in the philippines. there is some harmony between agencies. i agree that port state control is a problem. But open registries are not going to go away. we must move the responsibility to ship owners. charterers are also to blame. economics makes you choose the cheapest available ships. the rogue operators in developing regions are the ones get-ting away with it. charterers should be persuaded. lets track the histories and charters of particular ships.

to mr. rajabi, there are developments. the washington action plan on land-Based pollution, while not a convention, is a forum talking about land-based pollution. in the meantime, we should attack the problem regionally. the caspian or Black sea states should get together without waiting for anyone else.

Closing Remarks

Fumuo KonoTreasurer and Vice-Governor, Hiroshima Prefecture

Excellencies, distinGuished Guests, ladies and Gentlemen. thank you very much for your kind introduction. as you have just heard, i am fumuo kono, treasurer and vice-Governor of hiroshima prefecture. Governor fujita,

whom you met two days ago, is currently involved in other pressing matters. allow me to make the concluding remarks of the unitar hiroshima programmes conference on his behalf.

first of all, i would like to applaud the efforts and intelligence demonstrated by all the participants during these three days. i hope your experience in hiroshima was enjoyable. this international conference was attended by 37 participants from 21 countries, during which active discussions regarding the management of coastal areas, utilization of marine resources, and issues of marine pollution, among many others, abounded. i have been informed that substantial progress was made.

the negative influence of human activities on the marine environment has gained prominent attention globally. oceans and coastal areas are indeed common assets to mankind. appropriate conservation tactics and utilization of the sea has become a global challenge.

in this context, it has been a great pleasure, as well as being truly meaningful, for hiro-shima to host this international conference, which was attended by renowned researchers and experts from throughout the world, and particularly from asia-pacific areas.

i would like to take this opportunity to particularly express my gratitude to dr. Boisard from unitar, who has been so essential in hosting this international conference. i truly hope that this meaningful and constructive collaboration with unitar may be instrumental for hiroshima in contributing to worldwide peace. i humbly ask for your cooperation in this regard. lastly, i sincerely hope the knowledge and experience gained here will be utilized fully, and i also wish all of the participants success in their ventures back home.

Marcel A. BoisardAssistant Secretary-General of the United Nations and Executive Director of UNITAR

the links between men and the sea are strong and as old as humanity itself. there is certainly no need to list them here, to such an audience of specialists. such a linkage should not be confined to a historical vision, but also generate a dynamic and prospective approach that can help shape the international system of the future.

for a while, the end of the cold war was falsely seen as the end of history. But the con-trary was true. a new historical phase is beginning, with its sometimes harsh debate on

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globalization and reflection on a new and more comprehensive aspiration to security. in reading the documents and listening to the presentations and discussions of the last

days, i was struck by the relevance of the chosen topic, the “sea and human security.” it comprises, in a holistic and quite synthetic view, three of the main issues being discussed at the international level: human security, globalization, and governance. allow me to present some reflections on these three concepts.

let us begin with human security. human beings, like any other living species on earth, need security if they are to survive and be followed by their progeny. the establishment and maintenance of this security has taken several different paths over the centuries. in the recent past, the concept was enlarged to become fully comprehensive, and the term “human security” has come to be used.

human security is a new and challenging concept in international relations, as it shifts the emphasis from traditional state security to focus on that of all people. the challenges to human security are numerous. they include violence, nonrespect of fundamental rights, epidemic disease and natural catastrophes, poverty and social upheavals, depletion of basic natural resources or environmental changes and disasters. none of these threats is totally new. humanity has had to face all kinds of difficulties in various forms since the begin-ning of its existence, and each civilization has contributed its own solutions. what is new, however, is the fact that the clear distinction between national and international security has now become meaningless. human security is an action-oriented concept, or, rather, it imposes new directions for reflection and action.

let us now turn to the concept of globalization. the rather ancient idea of “heritage common to mankind” is close to the modern concept of globalization, in its best sense. it should not be taken simply as a more internationalized economic and financial system, but, rather, as an intellectual challenge to consider human society as a whole, through a fully interdisciplinary perspective. every event in the world has an impact on every other event. there is a rich diversity within a general unity. world events are reflected through the prism of national or regional structures.

what could be more “globalized” than the sea that covers approximately three-quarters of our earth? as has been proven so many times, every major marine activity has an impact on every other one. these are so closely interrelated that they need to be considered as a whole, from an integrated and holistic perspective. understood from the marine perspec-tive, many of the rules and concepts on which contemporary international society is based lose some of their relevance—national sovereignty, private property, security, pollution, and development, just to cite the most obvious ones. the seas are the unique and common heritage of mankind. the coastal landscape represents the manifestation of the interaction between mankind and the environment. this landscape is diversified, reflecting particular cultural traditions or specific techniques of coastal zone management. on the whole, how-ever, there appears to be unity in the water space, which embraces simultaneously a great diversity of customs and a spiritual connection with its users.

the sovereignty of nation states will remain but become more flexible. those with power must regulate this process and, in particular, protect the most vulnerable, be they

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Closing Remarks

countries or individuals. there must, moreover, be new actors besides the states to regulate the system and guarantee the supremacy of law and ethics. we touched here upon the new concept of governance, which is much larger than government.

allow me, then, a few words on governance. public governance embraces the usual activities of state institutions, but also of other actors which contribute to the formulation of public policies: private transnational corporations, intergovernmental organizations, civil society, and spiritual, scientific or cultural pressure groups. looking on globalization as humankind’s common heritage, and viewing human security as man’s protection against fears for himself, his family, and his group, and looking on governance as a mechanism to regulate the whole system and to ensure its continuity, one realizes how much an under-standing of mankind’s multiple relations with the sea can help in the shaping of the world. man, the seas, and the marine landscape are an integral part of nature, given to us by our ancestors. we have a mandate to transmit it to our children. mankind does not own nature, but enjoys a trusteeship of it, and now has an urgent obligation to protect it.

due to their size, their actual and potential richness, their immediate utility, and their strong image in the popular mind, the seas have become a laboratory of reflection for the future. such a use should include both an in-depth analysis of ways to avoid destroying the seas any further, and a consideration of how the good practices gained in this marine context can eventually be adapted to the governance of our planet.

we have already noted several tools for international marine governance. the united nations convention on the law of the sea has been mentioned in particular. indeed, it is the most comprehensive legal instrument in the field, a sort of constitution for the sea. regional treaties and other legal instruments dealing with specific issues complete it. Bilateral agreements and national regulations also have an important role, as have various professional associations with their rules or customs in dealing with fisheries, daily protec-tion of coastal zones, tourism, urbanization, and waste management.

i wanted to bring these basic reflections to your attention. they may appear too vague and all-embracing to be scientifically acceptable. they do not fundamentally contradict the substance of the diverse and interesting discussions we have had over the past two days, however, about—to quote the most relevant—sea and global change (in particular climate change), degradation of coastal zones and the environment, fish stocks and food security, man-made disasters, large scale and persistent pollution, and the seas and transportation industry, placed within the perspective of sustainable development and human security.

i sincerely hope that this conference will have concrete impacts, both an immediate impact in your daily tasks in your countries, and a midterm and broader impact, perhaps by identifying where there are gaps in information gathering, training, and capacity build-ing for a sustainable management of the seas and related resources. we are confident that this conference, held in hiroshima, with its great experience in coastal zone and marine management, and in the protection of world heritage sites, will reach its objectives. the diversity and high quality of the conference resource persons and participants is certainly a guarantee for success.

the participants in the conference have identified some urgent needs which could be

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met through research, training, and concrete cooperation at the regional level in asia and the pacific. within its competence and means, unitar will certainly consider making its contribution. we will need the collective assistance of international and regional organiza-tions, states, the private sector, and civil society, as well as the partnership of the principal stakeholders who are committed to assuming their corporate responsibilities. the road remains long so let us commence the voyage as soon as possible.

i certainly cannot conclude my short statement without reiterating, in the name of uni-tar and on behalf of all participants, our very sincere gratitude to his excellency Governor fujita, to the members of the prefectural assembly and to the staff of the prefecture for their kind hospitality and efficient cooperation. it is always a great pleasure to be in hiroshima and to benefit from the experience and wisdom of our Japanese colleagues.

Hiroyuki NakaharaManaging Director, Research Institute for Ocean Economics, Japan

Training and Education on Marine Environment: A Key Function of UNITAR distinguished guests, ladies and gentlemen. it’s my great honor and great pleasure to be here this morning at the unitar hiroshima programmes conference on sea and human security. Before starting my talk, let me join all of you, to extend a tribute to dr. elisabeth mann Borgese, who passed away just a month ago. i saw her recently at the Global confer-ence on the oceans and coasts at rio+10, which was held at the unesco headquarters at paris last december. she was really a great person in building up a regime on the law of the sea in the history of the world.

Human Security, a Part of Environmental Securityit seems to me that human security is a component of environmental security from the global to the regional, national, and local scales. i shall focus my presentation on the conservation, utilization, and management of the oceans and coasts, particularly paying attention to the Japanese situation and the seto inland sea area, including kure city. i believe you had a very good discussion yesterday afternoon after your inspection tour of the model basin of the seto inland sea.

needless to say, coastal regions, particularly in their intertidal areas, are unique areas. despite our different social and political approaches to land and sea areas, we must treat all coastal areas as one single ecosystem, which is the interface zone of land and sea. the coastal zone is one single, very important global ecosystem and is very vulnerable and eas-ily polluted. on the other hand, it is also a very productive area for living resources. it is important for human beings to develop economic activities, and to have ports and harbors, power plants, fishing grounds, and urban accommodation areas. we must discuss how to manage such complicated coastal zone systems.

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Closing Remarks

Background of ICZMicZm (integrated coastal Zone management) means integration of the management schemes of coastal zones. you have already heard some presentations over the last two days on coastal zones and the many potential activities in these areas. sometimes agricultural development activities along river basins are directly connected to the ecosystem of the coastal zone areas. that is why coastal zone management should include hinterland areas that influence the coastal zone, in order to prevent land-based pollution. ship-borne pol-lution and self-contamination of aquaculture and fisheries development activities are, of course, not exceptional issues for icZm.

there is some background to support icZm. first of all, we have to learn from the united nations conference on environment and development (unced) held in rio de Janeiro in 1992. we got the very common concept of “sustainable development” from that conference. we should maintain, and build on, this concept in this new century.

two years later, in 1994, the united nations law of the sea convention entered into force. coastal states have the right to extend their sovereignty and jurisdiction up to 200 miles in the exclusive economic Zone (eeZ). this means not only the right to explore and use the ocean areas from the coastal zone to the 200-mile eeZ, but also the responsibility to manage the ocean in a sound and healthy manner while simultaneously promoting rational and reasonable use of the environment, which relates to environmental security.

with respect to the global marine and atmospheric issues, we can’t forget the kyoto protocol, as you recognize. Global warming may bring about a serious sea-level rise problem that threatens human security, typically that of small island states in the pacific and some asian coastal states.

to examine the question of conflict solution among the multi-use problems of the oceans and coasts, a very important conference was held in 1992 in mexico. that was the fao’s cancun conference which became the starting point of the code of conduct for responsible fisheries. “responsible fisheries” means that while fishermen and fishing communities are producing food for human societies, they are also environmental watchers. their role is indispensable to the icZm scheme, and fishermen’s cooperatives in Japan have particular responsibilities to join the decision-making process of the coastal zone.

Characteristics of Japanese EEZ and Semi-Closed Seaslet us examine the Japanese situation. the Japanese government ratified the united nations law of the sea convention in 1996, and we now have the new 200-mile eeZ, which must take into account the unique characteristics of many of Japan’s sea areas. in the northern area, there is the sea of okhotsk, covered by ice in the winter season. the sea of Japan, a multinational semi-closed sea, is very deep, more than 3,000 meters at its deepest point. that means mount fuji could be sunk in the sea of Japan, while the entrance and exits of the kuroshio current at the tsushima channel separating the korean peninsula from Japan, and the tsugaru strait and the soya straits, south and north of hokkaido, are much more shallow. the depth of these channels is less than 200 meters; they form a deep bowl with rich fisheries resources.

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on the other hand, the east china sea, another international semi-closed sea, has a large continental shelf which covers its major part, and also it has the very deep okinawa trough. again, this area is very rich in fishing resources, and its geological features indicate some possibility of oil and gas reserves. there also exist rich coral reef zones along the okinawa archipelago, where it is said that the underwater landscape is as abundant and beautiful as the Great Barrier reef in australia. on the ocean side open to the pacific, the full 200-mile eeZ belongs to Japan and contains very remote and scattered islands.

near the coast, we have tokyo Bay, ise Bay, osaka Bay, the seto inland sea, and other semi-closed sea areas. so ocean management is quite a vital issue for Japan.

the Japanese 200-mile eeZ is about 4.47 million square kilometers wide, which is the sixth biggest in the world. the length of the coastline is about 35,000 kilometers, and there are many industrial ports and harbors, fishing ports, national park areas, and sandy coasts suffering from erosion. it means there are different jurisdictional and institutional struc-tures. in the seto inland sea, multiuse conflicts occur everywhere and every time because of dense utilization of sea areas and coasts. it is a trunk domestic sea-lane with many ports where reclamation for industrial plants has been done. it is very rich fishing ground with good aquaculture. hiroshima is one of the top oyster aquaculture areas in Japan.

Marine Environment Industrythe seto inland sea is a typical semi-closed sea area. how does it compare to the rest of the world? the average depth of the seto inland sea is 37 meters and its area is 22,000 square kilometers. the persian Gulf is more than 10 times the size of the seto inland sea, the Baltic sea area is more than 15 times larger, and the mediterranean sea areas covers more than 130 times its area. on the other hand, the san francisco and chesapeake Bays in the united states are smaller than the seto inland sea.

although we still have natural coastline in the seto inland sea area, we have had intensive reclamation activities. in the 1960s, we had more than 20,000 hectares of seaweed forest, but now only a quarter of that is left. in the case of tidal flats, and intertidal zones, we have less than half the area compared to one hundred years ago. in addition, some artificial tidal flats for water and seabed quality improvement have been created, and other marine environmental purification efforts have been tried and executed, backed up by the marine-related advanced industries.

there is a concentration of marine-dependent industries in the seto inland sea, including shipbuilding, shipping, fisheries, civil engineering, dredging, and related tools and equip-ments supply and support industries. why do we not then make use of the capabilities of these marine-related industries to improve the natural environment of the sea? we are currently discussing the possibility of a marine environment industry to be created as a new type, a new sector, of the industry.

how about the waste disposal problem? waste control or recycling movements are two important sectors of environmental industries. and hydrographic control with simulation technologies is also a component of these industries.

there is also the severe red tide problem. red tide is decisive and critical for the develop-

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Closing Remarks

ment of fisheries, and for aquaculture in particular. oyster aquaculture has suffered from red tide. how do we monitor, predict, and prevent red tide? oceanographic technologies are very important in coping with these issues, and they are directly related to the electric instrumentation and environment industries.

i’d like to focus on a certain local area, which you visited yesterday, kure city. there is an advisory council to the mayor of kure city, the kure area marine council. i am a member, and my institute has been the secretariat of this council for more than six years. the council supports three workshops or subcommittees. the environment improvement workshop has been examining ways to improve environmental quality. the floating plant workshop has been developing mobile, floating plants for waste treatment. the support workshop inside the city government is working to make activities smoother. this council has proposed the idea of creating a new marine environment industry, to execute waste treatment and environmental quality improvement on the sea, and we expect to get backup and support from the prefectural and/or national government.

Sustainable Development in the Oceans and Coastsi’d like to touch upon the rio+10-related conference, which was held in paris at the unesco headquarters last december. it found very significant conclusions regarding environmental protection on the globe, as it relates to oceans and coasts. the concluding statement by the cochairs of the conference declared that the goals of the world summit for sustainable development (wssd) which will be held in Johannesburg this summer, can only be met if effective action to protect the ocean and coastal areas is implemented soon. sustainable development and poverty reduction cannot be achieved without healthy oceans and coasts.

Ocean and Coastal Training and Education Center to Be in Hiroshima among seven items pointed out in the concluding remarks of the conference, capacity building for the good governance of coastal and ocean use must be spotlighted. we need training, fieldwork experience, education, and an information exchange center as a pivotal facility for capacity building. this means that we need such a facility here in hiroshima, making use of the characteristics of a typical semi-closed sea, the seto inland sea, with its marine environmental industries, to contribute to environmental security on the local, national, regional, and global level.

unitar will cover every sphere of peace, common heritage, and economic recovery, but the ocean and coastal management program should be plugged into the whole design as one of the very important functions.

Mohamed TangiAmbassador, Representative of the Kingdom of Morocco to Japan

the mission with which i have been entrusted seemed at the beginning an extremely difficult

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one, first because of the nature of the subject and the high qualifications and outstanding experience of the participants in oceans governance, be it scientific knowledge, manage-rial performance, legal instruments, and institutional mechanisms development, not to mention the diplomatic skills of some of the participants of ambassadorial rank who have negotiated regional and global cooperative schemes for oceans management on behalf of their governments.

my mission became almost impossible after i listened to the highly documented and inno-vative presentations made at this conference, followed by rich comments and discussions.

accordingly, the draft concluding remarks and follow-up proposals which i am about to present to you do not necessarily reflect all the wealth of the ideas which have emerged from the conference. therefore, i ask for your kind indulgence for any omissions and shortcomings.

the conference reconfirmed through comprehensive and sectoral presentations the importance of oceans and coastal areas as major sources of food, energy, and minerals. the oceans and coastal areas are also spheres for numerous specific socioeconomic activities necessary to humankind’s welfare and prosperity.

the awareness of and importance of the state of the oceans to human well-being and welfare mobilized the attention of the scientific, economic, and legal communities, as well as that of governments at the national, regional and global levels.

despite the deep concern of these communities, governments, and international institu-tions, and the consequent reparatory measures adopted, the state of the oceans continues in many instances to deteriorate. perhaps the most striking aspect of this deterioration in terms of irrational exploitation of the oceans is illustrated by the way we use, or abuse, marine living resources. furthermore, besides fisheries being greatly exploited, the ocean’s ecosystem is suffering from various kinds of pollution from land-based activities, coastal areas degradation, and an increasing exploitation of the seabed. last but not least, climate change has also been recognized as having an effect on the state of the oceans in terms of, among other consequences, marine ecosystems, marine living resources and rising sea levels.

finally, the attention of the conference has been drawn to the new risks to the oceans that may arise from accidents involving the so-called mega ships and substandard ships carrying dangerous and toxic cargos. increased concern about the effects of the eutrophication of large areas of the oceans, water-borne pathogens and the consequences of the presence of synthetic and organic compounds in the marine environment was also highlighted.

it is quite clear from the work of our conference that the alarming and continued dete-rioration of the health of the oceans and its subsequent negative effects on human security is not due to a lack of concern or the absence of action.

to achieve the desired results it is important that we review our approaches. it is also important that we pursue our actions to their logical ends. in accordance with this vision the following actions could be envisaged.

marine pollution research, assessment, and monitoring must be continued. data gener-ated must, however, serve as a basis for comprehensive rational ecosystem management,

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Closing Remarks

including the management of resources. countries might require technical assistance in terms of training at the individual or regional levels in the development of policies, manage-ment tools, and regulations. unitar could provide such training.

countries have adopted comprehensive legal instruments for the protection and sustain-able development of the marine environment and its resources. the most comprehensive of these international legal instruments is undoubtedly the 1982 united nations convention on the law of the sea (unclos). subsequently, the world community has agreed to additional legal and political commitments that supplement the unclos provisions, such as the rio declaration on environment and development and agenda 21, chapter 17. furthermore, within six months’ time, at the Johannesburg summit, the leaders of the planet will commit themselves, and us with them, to the concept of sustainable development for the satisfaction of the security not only of the present human community but also for future generations. to live up to these commitments we must adopt interdisciplinary and intersectoral ap-proaches to coastal areas, the marine environment and resources management. the good governance of the oceans for human security will require upgrading skills and building capacity, and the redefinition of concerned institutional powers or the creation of new and all-encompassing structures. it is, therefore, necessary to foresee and design the required training programs and undertake the necessary research on the appropriate institutional frameworks for sustainable development of the oceans and their resources.

the lack of political will, the temptation of short-term and easy gains, and sometimes mere ignorance are among the stumbling blocks for good ocean governance. in an increas-ingly democratic world public opinion and, most of all, knowledgeable opinion will carry an increasing weight in political decision making. it would fit with unitar’s mandate to contribute to increasing the awareness of the public and the opinion-makers of the intricate relationships between the state of the oceans and human security. this could be achieved through specific training seminars but also through the opening of a web site on oceans and humankind.

concern has been expressed worldwide about the effects of climate change on oceans. participants in this conference from east asian and pacific island states, because of the geographic nature of their countries, have expressed this concern in a most dramatic way by pleading strongly for the adoption by all countries of the kyoto protocol on climate change.

the international community has adopted numerous legal instruments that provide for assistance and compensation in cases of accidental marine pollution damage. countries must be encouraged to adhere to such conventions, as their benefits outweigh their obliga-tions. relevant government decision makers should be trained to implement the provisions of such international agreements.

the heavy maritime traffic in the east asian seas calls for regional cooperative arrange-ments for the safety of navigation, but also for the security of vessels at sea. these coopera-tive regional arrangements for the safety of navigation and the security of vessels must be backed up by appropriate training for mariners as well as port personnel, administrative staff, and rescue and enforcement officers.

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the need for training in contingency planning for marine and coastal pollution emer-gencies has also been stressed.

special attention was paid by participants to coastal areas. all over the world, coastal zones are limited spaces with high value. Because of their geostrategic locations and the multiple possibilities of uses that the sea-land interface offers, these spaces are coveted by conflicting users, with detrimental effects on the health of humankind and the well-being of the marine environment and resources. accordingly, training must be provided for the sustainable development of coastal zones to achieve their harmonious use.

last but not least, it has been suggested that to better safeguard oceans for the benefit of present and future generations we should also refer to different societal, philosophical, cultural and religious values. as we are currently striving for peaceful dialogue among civilizations and religions, a comparative study of the teachings of different beliefs and regarding the safeguard of the oceans and their resources would be a positive contribution. i am not familiar with the teachings of all the religions. But i am convinced that in all of them we would find guidance similar to the one in the holy Book of the muslims, the koran, which states that God has created the oceans so that man can extract from it resources to feed himself, and other products for his well-being. “vessels will travel peacefully over its waves.” the koran adds that God does not like people who make wasteful use of resources. these verses of the koran have been reproduced on a tapestry that you will find on the wall of the international maritime organization in london.

i would like to conclude by stating that i left ocean management practice years ago to assume ambassadorial duties. my participation in this conference was truly an updating training and learning experience. in that sense, unitar has accomplished part of its mandate. most of all, i conclude that we are making progress. our awareness is higher and our understanding more profound. one indication of this progress is the gradual change in our approach to environmental protection, since even institutions representing particular sectors are now adopting integrated approaches to ocean management, as is the case, for instance, in the adoption of the ecosystem approach to fisheries management. i wish us all a safe journey on the road to more progress. i am quite sure that, wherever she is, the late professor elisabeth mann Borgese feels that we are heading in the right direction. thank you for your very kind attention.

Appendixes

Appendix A. Conference Participants

UNITAR Hiroshima Programmes International Conference on Sea and Human Security

Hiroshima, Japan, March 6-8, 2002

country or organization representative

azerbaijan amir aliev, director, marine meteorology center Bangladesh shamsul alam, professor, department of cooperation and marketing,

Bangladesh agricultural university cambodia nareth heng, director, department of pollution, ministry of environ-

ment cambodia ing try, deputy director, department of fisheries, ministry of agri-

culture, forestry and fisheries china haiwen Zhang, deputy director-General, china institute for marine

affairs england John caddy, imperial college, university of london and cinestav,

mérida, mexico Gef/undp/imo chua thia-eng, regional program director, regional program on

marine pollution prevention hong kong rudolf s. wu, chair professor, department of Biology and chemistry,

city university of hong kong india a. senthil vel, Joint director, coastal management Zone division,

ministry of environment and forests indonesia hasjim djalal, ambassador/special advisor to the minister, depart-

ment of ocean affairs and fisheries

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indonesia mustikorini indrijatiningrum, head, subdivision for the united nations institutions, state ministry of environment

indonesia dini purbani, Geography scientist, ministry of marine affairs and

fisheries iran esmaeil rajabi, diplomatic and legal counsellor in environmental

issues, department of foreign affairs, law section Japan moritaka hayashi, professor, waseda university school of law Japan akio inoue, director and professor, oyasato institute, tenri university,

nara Japan haruhito kubota, assistant manager, research planning section,

technical research center, chugoku electric power company, inc. Japan rabinder malik , director, tata energy research institute (teri),

tokyo Japan hiroyuki nakahara, managing director, research institute for ocean

economics, tokyo Japan masato nose, senior researcher, chugoku economic federation Japan toru seiki, hiroshima prefectural Government

malaysia B. a. hamzah, director-General, maritime consultancy enterprise malaysia mohd idrus shaari, assistance principal director, marine department

of sarawak malta Gunnar kullenberg, executive director, international ocean insti-

tute morocco mohamed tangi, ambassador, moroccan embassy in Japan myanmar myint myint khaing, lecturer, head of the department of remote sens-

ing and Gis data management, remote sensing and data processing center, ministry of science and technology

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Appendix A: Conference Participants

pakistan Qamar raza rizvi, director General, marine fisheries department philippines amado emaguin, manager, marine products division department of

trade and industry philippines sheila marie m. encabo, officer-in-charge, livestock and fisheries

division, agriculture staff, national economic and development authority

singapore alan khee-Jin tan, professor, apcel, faculty of law, national university

of singapore sri lanka hiran w. Jayewardene, secretary General, indian ocean marine affairs

cooperation (iomac) secretariat thailand pornsook chongprasith, chief, marine pollution section, acting chief

of coastal water section, pollution control department thailand pornthip puncharoen, deputy director-General, department of envi-

ronmental Quality promotion thailand saksit tridech, deputy permanent secretary, ministry of science,

technology, and the environment tuvalu fakavae taomia, permanent secretary, ministry of home affairs and

rural development tuvalu otinielu tauteleimalae tausi, deputy prime minister, minister for

home affairs and rural development unitar nassrine azimi, senior coordinator unitar marcel a. Boisard, executive director of unitar, assistant secretary-

General of the united nations unitar matthew fuller, special fellow unitar hiroko nakayama, associate programme officer vietnam ha xuan thong, director of institute of economics and planning,

fisheries ministry

Appendix B. Conference Agenda

Tuesday, March 5 6:00–8:00 p.m. arrival of participants and conference registration

Wednesday, March 6(session open to public)

9:00 a.m. welcome remarks by conference cochairs: speakers: yuzan fujita, Governor, hiroshima prefectural Government marcel Boisard, united nations assistant secretary-General, ex-

ecutive director, unitar yuji ikeda, special assistant to the minister for foreign affairs, to-

kyo

9:20 a.m. keynote address: integrating sustainable development and security speaker: Gunnar kullenberg, executive director, international ocean insti-

tute, malta

9:50 a.m. objectives of the conference and the unitar hiroshima pro-grammes

speaker: nassrine azimi, senior coordinator, unitar

10:00 a.m. session i: sea and Global change (open session) speaker: otinielu tauteleimalae tausi, deputy prime minister and minister

for home affairs and rural development, tuvalu

10:30 a.m. tea Break

11:00 a.m. session i continued (closed session) speaker: rabinder malik, tata energy research institute (teri)

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12:30 p.m. lunch Break

2:00 p.m. session ii: the sea and Global change: interrelationship between degradation of coastal Zones and the environment (closed ses-sion)

speakers: chua thia-eng, Gef/undp/imo regional program on ma-

rine pollution prevention and management in east asian seas region, philippines

saksit tridech, deputy permanent secretary, ministry of sci-ence, technology and the environment, Bangkok, thailand

3:00 p.m. Q & a

3:45 p.m. tea Break

4:00 p.m. session iii: the sea and Global change: impact on fish stocks and the issue of food and economic security (closed session)

speakers: John caddy, former chief, marine resources service, fao B. a. hamzah, maritime consultancy enterprise, malaysia moritaka hayashi, waseda university school of law

5:10 p.m. Q & a

6:00 p.m. end of day i

6:30 p.m. welcome reception hosted by the local supporting committee of unitar hiroshima programmes

Thursday, March 7(closed session)

9:00 a.m. session iv: the sea and man-made disasters (closed session) speakers: rudolf s. wu, chair professor, department of Biology and

chemistry, the city university of hong kong akio inoue, unitar senior special fellow and professor,

tenri university, Japan

9:50 a.m. Q & a

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Appendix B: Conference Agenda

10:30 a.m. tea Break

10:50 a.m. session iv—continued speakers: hasjim djalal, ambassador-at-large, law of the sea and mari-

time affairs, indonesia alan khee-Jin tan, associate professor, faculty of law, nation-

al university of singapore

11:40 a.m. Q & a

12:30 p.m. lunch Break

2:00 p.m. study tour

6:30 p.m. arrival at ana hotel / end of day ii

Friday, March 8(session open to public)

9:00 a.m. conference participants’ comments and recommendations

10:00 a.m. keynote address: the sea and security: use of the resources of the sea—prudent action or an overreaction?

speakers: hiroyuki nakahara, managing director, research institute for

ocean economics, tokyo mohamed tangi, ambassador, representative of his majesty

the king of morocco to Japan

11:00 a.m. concluding remarks by cochairs marcel Boisard, united nations assistant secretary-General, ex-

ecutive director, unitar fumuo kono, treasurer and vice-Governor, hiroshima prefectur-

al Government

11:30 a.m. end of conference

12:00 p.m. press Briefing

2:00 p.m. visit to itsukushima shrine on miyajima island

Appendix C.Background on UNITAR Hiroshima Programmes

H iroshima: no other name Better represents the wish of a people for peace. and it is in such a place that the united nations institute for training and research and the hiroshima prefecture have established their

partnership and initiated the unitar hiroshima programmes. the objective of the unitar hiroshima programmes is to explore, through a series of

concrete activities, the range and scope of a possible unitar hiroshima center, dedicated to training and research for government officials, scholars and members of civil societies in the asia-pacific region.

the partnership between hiroshima prefecture and unitar has begun with a pilot phase. the concrete objective of this pilot phase will be to provide an opportunity to study the usefulness and feasibility of a unitar hiroshima center, and the impact that such a center can have in the asia-pacific region.

during the pilot phase, the senior coordinator of unitar hiroshima programmes works closely with the prefecture, with partners in hiroshima and across Japan, as well as with the various unitar staff and programs, to ensure the effective implementation of the projects. lecturers from related organizations or specialist groups around the world will be invited to attend and advise the partners in the design of the programs. unitar will thus be able to rely on the expertise and outreach of a wide network of partner organizations, including national institutions and other united nations programs and agencies based in Japan and in the asia-pacific region.

during the first year of the pilot phase, two projects were conducted in hiroshima, em-phasizing the particular strengths, accumulated knowledge, and the symbolic importance of hiroshima. these activities were designed and conducted by unitar, with support from partner institutions in hiroshima and from unitar’s own network of cooperating agencies within and outside the united nations.

Based on these criteria, the first event of the pilot phase was a workshop on the “management and conservation of world heritage sites,” held from october 1-6, 2001. the second event was an “international conference on sea and human security,” held from march 6-8, 2002.

upon completion of the first year, the hiroshima prefectural Government and uni-tar agreed on a second year pilot phase, in which a large-scale international conference, informed by the findings of an operational research/study mission to selected post-conflict sites (afghanistan/east timor) is scheduled.

unitar and the hiroshima prefectural Government conducted a midterm evaluation at the closing of the first year of the pilot phase, according to which the following points were confirmed:

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• relevance of the selected topics was confirmed (world heritage, management of ocean and sea, post-disaster management with reference to human security).

• modalities for cooperative work between unitar and institutions in hiroshima became increasingly easier. logistical arrangements were remarkably upgraded on the local side for the second event.

• new partners were acquired (institutions in the asia-pacific region, unesco world heritage centre, international ocean institute, etc.).

the web address for unitar hiroshima programmes is: http://www.unitar.org/hiroshima

for more information, please write to: [email protected]

Appendix D.Panel of Experts Press Conference

ANA Hotel Hiroshima, March 9, 2002

marcel a. Boisard: Gives overview of unitar hiroshima programmes and seeks input from panel members present.

Gunnar kullenberg: i came here as a stand-in for elisabeth mann Borgese. the linkage of unlcos and subsequent agreements from 1992 onwards was a main theme of discussion. the outcome identifies the need for emphasizing implementation and enforcement and building capacity to address agreements. the need for a focus on regional cooperation is clear. the need for scientific and technological development is clear. the need for quality data is clear. these were all brought out here with great competence.

there are indeed opportunities for developing and managing institutions which can actually enforce agreements. focusing on the intersectoral elements is key. this conference has been illuminating. the topic of human security is new. sustainable development and the common heritage of mankind absolutely must have peace and security as necessary elements. this century will depend very much upon ocean services in the new type of economy.

i hope this conference leads to cooperation with unitar and additional international development.

hasjim djalal: the southeast asian perspective leads us to look toward Japan as an advanced country which has been able to make use of sea resources not only around Japan but globally. Japan has also been able to use ocean spaces for national interests such as communication. Japan has been able to somehow manage its surrounding marine environment. we have seen how it manages the seto inland waters. i go to tokyo all the time and i see a much cleaner sea than in southeast asia. in this context there may be a lot of things we can pursue mutually, through cooperation.

we in indonesia also like our people to benefit as much as possible from sea resources. we should like to learn from Japan’s experience, both positive and negative. we want to use ocean space for the transportation of our people. also, like Japan, we want to promote national unity. i was interested to find out that the sea in Japan somehow unites the Japanese people. we would also like to see this in our country rather than separation and conflict between the islands.

on a global scale, however, we also see the destruction of the oceans. the resources of the ocean are not generally well managed. the environment could be better protected from pollution. the impact of global climactic change may influence sea levels and cause damage to coastal zones and low-lying areas. this we should view as a common problem rather than as national or regional problems. in this context, the unitar conference has been very

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useful, very helpful, and very timely in bringing people together from various regional seas and from various disciplines such as science, law, economics, diplomacy, and politics. how can we act together despite our different states, regions, and professions to protect, manage, and utilize the sea sustainably for all of us? that is our vision in indonesia.

marcel a. Boisard: water as a link is a historic concept, and we hope that water can help unify your people.

B.a. hamzah: congratulations to unitar and hiroshima. when i was invited to partici-pate, the mission i was given was to examine the security implications of fish production. in my research it has become clear that there is a crisis at sea. the world is running out of fish. production began leveling off in 1989. my goal was to share these findings. what is important is to recognize the reasons we are running out of fish. this is important for Japan, too. we are talking about the scarcity of resources at sea and human security.

the message of this meeting is the significance that unitar and hiroshima are giving to human security and development. what should we do as far as reducing the politics of scarcity of resources? the signs are clear. fish production has declined. subsidies have increased. the fortunate thing is that there are new technologies, and people are talking and getting together.

second, this conference has emphasized the need for international cooperation in manag-ing this transnational need to work together. third, there is only one sea in the world. we are dependent on the sea. seventy-one percent of the globe is the sea. we cannot manage the sea by ourselves; we have to work together. human beings are the cause of all destruc-tion at sea. we have to work together to manage the sea to support future generations. if we don’t do anything today we will run out of resources.

rudolf wu: my role was to provide a scientific overview. marine pollution is multifaceted. scientists, engineers, lawyers, politicians, and others cannot solve marine pollution alone. it is good to hear that unitar is bringing along a truly multidisciplinary group to discuss this issue. oceans are being discussed globally, not locally.

eutrophication, water-borne pathogens, and chemicals all have implications for pol-lution. this covers a large area of thousands of kilometers. this problem is not only for developing countries. water-borne pathogens affect people in europe and the united states too. it is everybody’s business. hepatitis a and shellfish problems are prevalent in those places too. i am pleased to hear that unitar is taking the initiative to put the solutions to these problems into action. unitar is carrying out trainings and this is important. port inspectors should also be trained. to this end Japan has lots of experience to share with partners in the region. as partners we can strive for the betterment of the marine environ-ment in the future.

akio inoue: this sort of symposium is very necessary. the delegates have mentioned that they will take the lessons learned here and go back to their countries. the very place of hiroshima

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Appendix D: Panel of Experts Press Conference

has left a very lasting impression on their minds. the vietnamese delegate talked about coastal areas and how to give livelihood to the people living in those areas. he would like to pursue legal frameworks. the cambodian delegate talked about not much being done due to the civil war. from now on he would like to pursue the development of resources. upon returning he wants to utilize what he learned here. on both a regional and local basis this conference has met its objectives by selecting individuals involved at local levels. this has been made possible by the human network of unitar. last october, the logistical experts such as ms. azimi made this happen. participants expressed appreciation for the government of hiroshima. there is a high expectation for the future activities of unitar.

mr. nakahara made the keynote address. he was very easy to understand. the model of kure city was good. we have looked at the sea by examining practical cases, not just on paper. this environment was very helpful. there was significance in holding this confer-ence in hiroshima. this is also a part of the synchronicity that we are talking about. the observations were synchronized and symbolized by the significance of hiroshima. after kyoto and nara, hiroshima has become significant. whether disasters come naturally or not, the very existence of hiroshima is a source of inspiration for the whole world. past and present hiroshima are synchronized as well. how can we synchronize the past with future generations? i think that in a ripple effect way we are disseminating the results of the conference from the participants to all.

marcel a. Boisard: yes, hiroshima is utterly symbolic. it is a symbol both of manmade disaster and of hope. that is why i appreciate hiroshima.

chugoku shimbun: you said that after the two-year pilot phase you would decide whether you would locate to hiroshima. according to the comments today, it was very significant that this conference was held in hiroshima. when will the decision come?

marcel a. Boisard: the decision is not up to unitar alone. the prefectural and national governments are also involved. you will be the host and we will be the guests. in light of the first year, we are very pleased. we have an understanding with the prefecture. we at unitar are very satisfied so far. we have all the reason to believe that the second year will be as good as the first. unitar will be very happy indeed to have an office in this wonderful city.

if there are no more questions, i would like to pay tribute to the government of Japan. Japan is one of the strongest supporters of unitar both diplomatically and financially. in Geneva we have a very young and energetic Japanese staff as well. we have very good con-nections with the government of Japan. we are also grateful to the hiroshima prefectural Government for conducting programs open to the developing countries of the region. we are convinced that Japan can help these developing countries by sharing experiences and also by learning from those countries. as has been mentioned by all resource persons, unitar will be very happy to facilitate strengthening the cooperation between a financially leading country and its neighbors in the region.

thank you very much.

Edited by Nassrine Azimi • Matt Fuller • Hiroko Nakayama

Proceedings of an International Conference

Hiroshima, March 2002

Sea and H

um

an Secu

rity LBJ School U

T Austin

Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs

The University of Texas at Austin

Sea and Human SecuritySea and Human SecuritySea and Human Security

Published in cooperation with theUnited Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR)


Institute and Seminar Proceedings SeriesISBN: 0-89940-118-X

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