scientists of public health2003

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Scientists contribution to Public Health

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Plan of presentation

• Public health - definition

• History of public health

• Scientists and their contribution to public health

• Conclusion

• References

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Public health - definition • WHO Expert committee on Public Health Administration

defines “public health” as“the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life, and

promoting health and efficiency through organized community efforts for the sanitation of the environment, the control of communicable infections, the education of the individual in personal hygiene, the organization of medical and nursing services for early diagnosis and preventive treatment of disease, and the development of social machinery to ensure for every individual a standard of living adequate for the maintenance of health, so organizing these benefits as to enable every citizen to realize his birthright of health and longevity”.

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Leviticus• Leviticus is believed to be the first written health code in

world. The book dealt with personal and community responsibilities and included guidance regarding the cleanliness of body, sexual health behaviors, protection against contagious diseases and the Isolation of lepers.

History of public health

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Code of Hammurabi (1790 B.C.)

• The Code of Hammurabi, created by the King of Babylon was

one of the earliest sets of laws found.

• The document was a code of conduct for physicians and

health practices.

• There was also evidence of bathrooms and drains in homes as

well as written medical prescriptions.

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Code of Hammurabi (1790 B.C.)

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Hippocrates (460 – 370 B.C.)• Hippocrates is called as “the father of medicine” & pioneer in

epidemiology.• He studied & classified disease on the basis of observations.• He wrote about disciplines in medical profession “Hippocratic

oath” which is having important place in medical ethics.• He studied climate, water, diet & its effects on disease

and wrote a book by name “Air, water & places”• The lectures and writings of Hippocrates was compiled as a

book and named as “Corpus Hippocrates”.

Scientists contributing to public health

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Hippocrates (460 – 370 B.C.)

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Claude Galen (131 – 201 A.D.)

• Galen was a Roman medical teacher.

• Important contribution in the field of comparative anatomy & elemental physiology.

• Disease is due to 3 important factors:

- Predisposing

- Exciting

- Environmental factors

• Romans had keen sense of sanitation.

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Claude Galen (131 – 201 A.D.)

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Rhazes (9th century)

• Rhazes or Razi was an Persian physician.• He gave the first authentic account on literature on smallpox

and measles.• His book ‘al judari wa al-hasbah’ was the first book to

differentiate between small and measles.• Razi is also known for having discovered "allergic asthma," and

was the first physician ever to write articles on allergy and

immunology. • In his ethics of medicine-commented that in the case of

advanced cases of cancer and leprosy the physician should not

be blamed when he could not cure them.

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Rhazes (9th century)

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Fracastorius (1483 – 1553)

• Girolamo Fracastoro (Fracastorius) was a venetian physician.

• He was ‘the founder of epidemiology’.

• He came out with theory called Theory of contagion – according to this theory minute, invisible particles are cause of diseases and epidemics.

• In 1546 he proposed that epidemic diseases are caused by transferable tiny particles or "spores" that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact or even without contact over long distances.

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Fracastorius (1483 – 1553)

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Van Leeuwenhoek (1632 – 1723)

• Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch scientist.

• He is commonly known as "the Father of Microbiology", and considered to be the first microbiologist.

• He is best known for his work on the improvement of the microscope and for his contributions towards the establishment of microbiology.

• Using his handcrafted microscopes he was the first to observe and describe single celled organisms, which he originally referred to as animalcules, and which we now refer to as microorganisms.

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Van Leeuwenhoek (1632 – 1723)

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Bernardino Ramazzini (1633 - 1714)

• Ramazzini was an Italian physician. • His book on occupational diseases (Diseases of Workers)

outlined the health hazards of occupational medicine and

played a substantial role in its development.• He is often called "the father of occupational medicine“. • In regards to malaria, Ramazzini was one of the first to

support the use of the quinine-rich bark cinchona.

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Bernardino Ramazzini (1633 - 1714)

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Dennis Diderot (1713-1784)

• He was a French philosopher.• In his article on Man, emphasized the importance of infant

mortality on the growth or decline of a population. • In his article The Hospital, Diderot outlined a public assistance

scheme including old age insurance and medical care.

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James Lind (1716 – 1794)

• He was the pioneer in the clinical trial that his experiment on human beings was the first ever clinical trial.

• In 1747 he conducted a study on scurvy, involved 12 soldiers.• James Lind was a pioneer of naval hygiene in the Royal Navy. • He developed the theory that citrus fruits cured scurvy, but

believed that acid cured the disease. • He argued for the health benefits of better ventilation aboard

naval ships, including improved clothing and cleanliness of sailors and below-deck fumigation with sulphur and arsenic.

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• He also proposed that fresh water could be obtained by distilling sea water.

• By his work he also influenced practices of preventive medicine and good nutrition among Scottish soldiers.

• Gilbert blane was the one to establish citrus fruits cure scurvy.

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James Lind (1716 – 1794)

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Edward Jenner (1749 – 1823)

• Jenner was an English physician from a village in Gloucestershire.

• He was considered as a pioneer in the field of vaccination.• He discovered vaccination against smallpox.• Telltale story – milkmaids never get small pox.• E Jenner took material (pus) from cowpox lesion in a milkmaid

Sarah Nelmes who milked a cow called Blossom. • He injected it to a 8 year old boy James Phipps on may 1796,

after which lesions appeared but subsided in a milder form.

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• In July he injected material from smallpox lesions in the boy and waited for the results.

• Nothing was happened. • Thus small pox vaccine was discovered but was not

recognized by others initially.• The word vaccination came from the Latin word ‘vacca’ which

means cow – in honour of the part played by Blossom and Sarah in Jenner’s research.

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Lemuel shattuck (1793 - 1859)

• Shattuck was an American book seller and publisher.• He introduced the registration of births, marriages & deaths

(hatches, matches and dispatches) in Massachusetts in 1841 & published his work called ‘Report on sanitary commission of Massachusetts’.

• This report is considered as a milestone in American public health and Massachusetts legislation became the model for other states.

• His public health measures like improvements in clean water, construction of underground sewage systems, and inspection of food products has reduced the incidence of water and food born diseases.

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Lemuel shattuck (1793 - 1859)

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Jacques Quételet (1796 –1874)• Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quételet was a Belgian sociologist.

• Quetelet was among the first who attempted to apply the science of probability and statistics to social science, planning, what he called as "social physics".

• Principal among his contributions, in terms of public health, was Quetelet's establishment of a simple measure for classifying people's weight relative to an ideal weight for their height, the body mass index (or Quetelet index).

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Jacques Quételet (1796 –1874)

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Edwin Chadwick (1800 – 1890)• Industrial revolutions in England caused many problems in

18th century like– Creation of slums in towns and overcrowding.– Reduced life expectancy of workers.– Increased communicable diseases and social problems.

• In 1842 Edwin Chadwick, a civil servant, written and published a report called Report on the sanitary condition of laboring population of Great Britain, the report proved that life expectancy was much lower in them than in countryside and need for improvement of public health.

• His work made the govt. to pass 1st public health bill in 1848.

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Edwin Chadwick (1800 – 1890)

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John Snow (1813 – 1858)• John Snow was an English anaesthetist.• He is considered as ‘the father of epidemiology’. • Dr John Snow was known for his investigation of cholera epidemic

in 1854 in the Broad street of Golden square district of London.• He discovered that cholera is a water born disease. He observed

that 2 populations alike in all the aspects except in the source of water (spot maps were used).

• Death rate was less in houses supplied by Lambeth company (river Thames) and death rate was more in Southwark & Vauxhall company (sewage polluted sections of Thames).

• The difference in the occurrence of cholera among these population gave clear idea that cholera is a water born disease.

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John Snow (1813 – 1858)

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Sir John Simon (1816 – 1904)

• Sir John Simon was an English surgeon and sanitary reformer.• He was the first medical officer of health in the City of

London.• He stimulated and guided the development of sanitary

science. • He built a public health system

– “disease control phase” • Cleanliness, garbage and refuse

disposal.

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Ignac Semmelweis (1818 – 1865)

• Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis , also called Ignac Semmelweis, was an Austrian-Hungarian physician, called the "savior of mothers“, who discovered, by 1847, that the incidence of puerperal fever or child bed fever could be drastically cut by use of hand washing standards in obstetrical clinics.

• Discovery of cadaverous poisoning – in Vienna hospital.• Difference in maternal mortality rate between first obstetric

clinic and second obstetric clinic.• Semmelweis introduced hand washing with chlorinated lime

solutions for interns who had performed autopsies.

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Ignac Semmelweis (1818 – 1865)

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Pettenkofer (1819 – 1901)

• Max Joseph Von Pettenkofer was from Munich, Germany.• He was the first person to propose the multifactorial

causation theory (means the disease is caused by multiple factors).

• He believed that the fermentation of organic matter in the subsoil released the cholera germ into the air which then infected the most susceptible (those with poor diet, poor

health, etc). • His name was most familiar in connection with his work in

practical hygiene, as good water, fresh air and proper sewage disposal.

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Pettenkofer (1819 – 1901)

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Louis Pasteur (1822 – 1895)

• Pasteur was an French chemist and microbiologist.• He worked on the process of fermentation which led to the

discovery of Pasteurization of milk.• A alcohol manufacturer named Bigo approached Pasteur and

he wanted a remedy for his alcohol becoming sour and being thrown away.

• Pasteur found many microorganisms in the alcohol which caused its putrefaction and explained the same in milk.

• Further experiments brought the concept of Pasteurization.

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• In 1873, he advanced the Germ Theory of Disease and proved microbes are responsible for causation of disease. Thus he disproved the theory of spontaneous generation.

• He discovered the term vaccine.• He discovered vaccines against Anthrax & rabies.• He got opportunity to treat & vaccinate 8 year old boy named

Joseph Meister bitten by a rabid dog on 6t July 1885 and boy was saved.

• He founded a special institute in Paris for the treatment of rabies called Institute of Pasteur.

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Joseph Lister (1827 – 1912)

• He is known as the ‘Father of Antiseptic Surgery’.• He was aware that many people survived the trauma of an

operation but died afterwards of what was known as ‘ward fever’.

• In addition to Semmelweis hand washing concept, Lister decided that the wound itself had to be thoroughly cleaned. He then covered the wound with a piece of lint covered in carbolic acid.

• He introduced antiseptics in treatment of wounds and in operations.

• He also invented many surgical instruments.

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Robert Koch (1843 – 1910)

• Heinrich Herman Robert Koch was a German physician.• He isolated and demonstrated the life cycle of Bacillus

anthracis.• Discovered, developed staining and experimented with

Tuberculosis bacilli.• 1883 – Isolation and histological study of Vibrio cholera. He

developed hanging drop procedure.• Developed the concept of ‘Microbe hunters’. • Robert Koch was given Nobel prize in 1905.

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Robert Koch (1843 – 1910)

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Walter Reed (1851 - 1902)

• Major Walter Reed, M.D., was a U.S. Army physician.• Reed in 1900 led the team which postulated and confirmed

the theory that yellow fever is transmitted by mosquitoes, rather than by direct contact

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David Bruce (1855 – 1931)

• Bruce was a Scottish pathologist and microbiologist.• He discovered African sleeping sickness is transmitted by

Tsetse fly.• He also investigated Malta fever or Brucellosis and found that

goat milk transmitted the disease.• The causative organism Brucella mellitensis was named after

him.

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David Bruce (1855 – 1931)

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Paul Ehrlich (1854 – 1915)

• He was a German scientist.• Research in autoimmunity – “horror autotoxicus”.• He coined the term ‘chemotherapy’ and the concept of

‘magic bullet’.• He developed the first antimicrobial drugs of modern

medicine.• Developed the precursor to gram stain.• He did studies on blood and was able to differentiate the

elements of blood by colour analysis.• He received nobel prize in 1908 for research in

chemotherapy.

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Paul Ehrlich (1854 – 1915)

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Sir Ronald Ross (1857 – 1932)

• Sir Ronald Ross was a British physician.• He noticed the possibility of controlling mosquitoes by

controlling their access to water.• In 1897 – Ronald discovered the presence of the malarial

parasite within a specific species of mosquito, the Anopheles. • He discovered the life cycle of malarial parasite Plasmodium

and made many contributions in epidemiology of malaria. • He received Noble prize in 1902.• Sir Ronald Ross Institute of Tropical and Communicable

Diseases is located at Hyderabad.

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Sir Ronald Ross (1857 – 1932)

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Giovanni Grassi (1854 -1925)

• Giovanni Battista Grassi was an Italian zoologist, known for work demonstrating that mosquitoes carry the malaria plasmodium in their digestive tract.

• He worked on parasitic worms of medical importance especially the hookworm.

• In 1902, began work on the sand fly responsible for Leishmaniasis (Phlebotomus papatasii).

• Camillo Golgi studied the life cycle of Plasmodium falciparum and related the timing of fevers seen in malaria with the life cycle of this organism

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Giovanni Grassi Camillo Golgi

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Haffkine ( 1860 – 1930)

• Waldemar Mordecai Wolff Haffkine was the first microbiologist who developed and used vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague.

• He tested the vaccines on himself. Lord Joseph Lister named him "a saviour of humanity".

• In 1892, he developed vaccine against cholera in Calcutta that decreased 70% mortality in India during epidemic of cholera.

• He developed vaccine against plague in India (Bombay) during 1896.

• He was the Director of the Plague laboratory, now called Haffkine’s institute in Mumbai.

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Haffkine ( 1860 – 1930)

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Alfred Grotjahn (1869 – 1931)

• He was from Berlin, Germany.

• He was a social scientist who proposed the role of social

factors in the etiology of diseases and coined the term Social

pathology.

• His theory shows that the social environment of the patient

influence the course of disease as well as on their healing.

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Alfred Grotjahn (1869 – 1931)

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Joseph Goldberger (1874 – 1925)

• Dr. Joseph Goldberger was a Jewish physician and epidemiologist in the United States Public Health Service (PHS).

• He was an advocate for scientific and social recognition of the

links between poverty and disease. • Goldberger was able to demonstrate that Vitamin B

deficiency was the cause of pellagra in 1926. • Conrad Elvehjehm discovered the specific mechanism -- that

pellagra is caused by a dietary lack of the B vitamin niacin along with reduced levels of the essential amino acid Tryptophan—in 1937.

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Pellagra patient

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Margaret Sanger (1879-1966)

• Sanger’s main contribution was towards Family Planning.• She was a tireless pioneer for birth control.• In her article, What Every Girl Should Know , she provided

basic information about such topics as menstruation, and acknowledged the reality of sexual feelings in adolescents.

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Alexander Fleming (1881 – 1955)

• Fleming was a Scottish biologist and a pharmacologist

• He discovered what was to be one of the most powerful of all antibiotics – penicillin.

• One of the most important medical advances in history began

by accident. • On the morning of September 3rd, 1928, Fleming noted a

mould on the culture plate of Staphylococcus. Area around the mould was free of staphylococcus bacteria. The mould was Penicillium notatum.

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• It was ten years later that Howard Florey and Ernst Chain, isolated the bacteria-killing substance found in the mould – Penicillin.

• In 1941, a doctor, Charles Fletcher first used in a patient with wound infection and noted a spectacular recovery.

• However the patient died, as enough drug was not available

• Penicillin was nick named “the wonder drug” and the three scientists were awarded the nobel prize.

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Rachel Louise Carson (1907 –1964)

• She was an American marine biologist and nature writer. • Her writings are credited with the global environmental

movement.• Carson turned her attention to conservation and the

environmental problems caused by synthetic pesticides (DDT) overuse.

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Jonas Salk (1914 – 1995)

• Salk was an American medical researcher and virologist, best known

for his discovery and development of the first safe and effective

injectable polio vaccine.

• Until 1955, when the Salk vaccine was introduced, polio was

considered the most frightening public health problem of the postwar

era.

• President Franklin D. Roosevelt was the world's most recognized victim

of the disease and founded the institute to fund and create a vaccine.

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Jonas Salk (1914 – 1995)

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Albert Bruce Sabin (1906 -1993)

• Sabin was an American medical researcher best known for having developed an oral polio vaccine.

• Salk's "killed" vaccine did not prevent the initial, intestinal infection. In addition, those who received the Salk vaccine could pass on the polio virus.

• The Sabin vaccine worked in the intestines to block the poliovirus from entering the bloodstream. It was in the intestines, Sabin discovered, the poliovirus multiplied and attacked. Thus, the oral vaccine broke the chain of

transmission of the virus.

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Albert Bruce Sabin (1906 -1993)

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Luther L. Terry (1911 – 1985)

• He was an American physician.

• On January 11, 1964, Luther Terry, Surgeon General of the U.S. Public Health Service, released the report of the Surgeon General's Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health.

• That landmark document, now referred to as the first Surgeon General's Report on Smoking and Health, was America's first widely publicized official recognition that cigarette smoking is a cause of cancer and other serious diseases.

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Luther L. Terry (1911 – 1985)

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HIV discoverers

• Luc Antoine Montagnier is a French virologist

• Co-discoverer of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

• He is a joint recipient with Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and

Harald zur Hausen of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or

Medicine

• Brought a new dimension to the mysterious syndrome AIDS

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Conclusion

• Public health in its present form, is a combination of scientific disciplines (e.g., epidemiology, biostatistics) and skills and strategies (e.g., planning and management, interventions) that are directed to the maintenance and improvement of the health of the people.

• Public health is not only a discipline but has become a ‘social institution’ created and maintained by society to do something about the death rate and sanitary conditions and many other matters relating to life and death.

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References

• Scientists [Online]. Available from: URL:http://www.Wikipedia.Org/wiki/scientists.htm

• Park K. Textbook of preventive and social medicine. 20th ed. Jabalpur, India: Bhanot; 2009. p.8,43.

• History of public health [Online]. Available from: URL:http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/history_of_medicine.htm

http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/scientists.htm

http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/history_of_medicine.htm

http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/history_of_medicine.htm

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