scientificamerican0753-50

7/30/2019 scientificamerican0753-50

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WheatThe grass tat bers our aily read is synonymou

wit Eropea cvzatio. Wha the ass f itsuselness, and what s t origin o mder wheat?

WEAT s the wrs most we cutte pnt. The whetants growng n the erth

m een outnumber thse n therseeberng n speces w or o-

mestcate. Eery month o the er acrop o whet s mturng somewhere nthe wor. It s the major crop theU. S. n Cana an s grown on substant creges n most eer countrof tn Amerc Euroe n Asa

Aarenty ths grn ws one o theerest pants cutte b mn. Carbonze kernes o whet were oun re-centy by the Unersty of Chcgo r-cheoogst Robert rawoo at the6700yearo ste o Jrmo n esternr the oest age et scoerea age whch may hae been one o

he brthcs o mn's grcuturehrough the courtesy o Dr. rwoo hae h an oortunty to stuy someo these ancent kernes n comrehem wth moern kernes crbonzeto smute the archaeoogc secmens. The resembnce between the ncent n moern grans s remrkbehere were two tyes of kernes n theJarmo ste; one turne out to be amostentc wth w whet st growngn the Ner Est n the other amostexcty ke resent cutte wheato the e ce enkorn. Eenthere has been no recbe chnge nthese whets n the 7000 yers snceJarmo

When he omestcate whet man the ountons o western czton. No czton worthy of the namehas eer been oune on ny agrcuur bss other thn he cereas. Theancent cutures o byon n Egtof Rome n Greece n ter those northern n western Euroe were base uon the growng whet br-e rye n ots. Those In Chnn Jaan h rce or ther basc cropThe reCoumbn eoes o Amerc

Inc aya an Aztecooke to cornfor ther ay bre.

What re the reasons or ths ntmtereaton beween the ceres n cz

by nd

tn? It ma be prmar a ueston onutn The grn cerea grsses nutke structure wt thin she coer-n te see cntns not n the embryo new pnt bu so oo su

p to noursh t Cerea grns ke eggsn mk re stus esgne b na-ture r the nutrton the young o thespeces. The represent a enoneoo supp whch cntns crboh-rte protes s mners n t-mns. A when cerea ts ooues re not estre b the oerrenement o moern prcessng ethoscomes coser thn n ther pnt pro-uct o rong n aeute et. Manong ago scoere ths ct n earneto expot t. Guatemn nns mnage to subsst ir we n a et whch

s 85 per cent corn. In In eope some-tes e on most nothng but rce.Such es o not meet the aroa omoern nutrtonists but the re better thn thse me up too argey ostrch rot crps such as ottessweet ottoes or cssa or o r-tenceous egumes such as beans esn ents.

erhas the retonsh betweenceres n czaton s so proucto the scpne whch cereas moseuon ther grwers The ceres aregrown on rm see n must beante an hreste n ther roerseason. In ths respect the er romthe root cros whch n m cmtescan be pnte n hreste at amostn tme o the er Rootcrop grcu-ture cn be rctice by semnomceoes who st ther pntatons onyerocy. The grwng of ceres haswas been ccompne by stbemoe o e Moreer t orce men tobecome mre cnscous the sesonsn the moements o the sun moon nstars. In both the O Wor an theNew the scnce stronomy was nente by cere grwrs an wth t

cenr n a sstm arthmetcCere grcuture i pring stbefoo suppy crete eisure an esuren turn ostere the rts crfts n

scences. It has been sa ta cregrcuture aone mong the rms oo proucton txes recompenses anstmutes bor n ngenut n neu egree.

Fo ain.wing o Ba

Toa wheat s the cere j' excel-ence or bremang an t s use amost excuse or tht purpose. ut ts ute unke ht breamkng acopex n sohistcte rt cme suen nto u ower wth the mest-caton o whet. Man ma hae begunby mere archng or ong the grnto make t ebe. rmte whets keoher ceres were rmy encos nhusks cae gumes. Hetng mkes the

gumes easy to rub o n aows thekerne tse to be more es chewe orgroun nto me The scorchng narchng o grans s st prctc onunrene cereas n rts o the NearEst. In Scon unt recenty bregumes were sometmes remoe by settng re to the unthreshe hes. TheChew Inans st repare rceby hetng the unhuske kernes antrmng on them n a hoow og.

Hrtexture cere grns wth certn mosture content exoe n escae from ther gumes when hete.n Amerca he rs use o corn ws unoubtey by opng The erestknown corn h sma treous kernesn rchaeoogc remns o popecorn hae been oun n er stes nboth North n South Amerc. In Inacertan aretes of rce are e bystrrng the kernes n hot san nages n In he age poerwho erorms ths serce for hs neghbors an roes hmse wth oo bytakng hs to o he rouct.

The botanc s we s rchaoogc eence though meger ncestht whet ws rst use as prche

cere The wengs at Jrmo contnoens whch roe tht th prmteeconomy knew the controe use o het.A the ery ncent rehstorc kernes

1953 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC


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s n cbnz s ta bn c In ts ts nc s nt tng, snc n cabnz gans wu b s nnt, but t s mn wt tnc Fna, t mst ncnwats a spcs ws kns wunt b m m t usks mlb tsng T smpst mt

uskng tm t mak tm bwu bn pcngbab t scn stag n gss

was t gn t c gns n skt cs m n wat t mk gul t ttss, bt an ung,ts must a bn a sg nntn Gul pg s w knwn as pmt m A gul r m pc ba ws t pn-c t cmmn ancnt Gc Amrcan Inans p-a a kn g m crn,

c

as s m! cuntprt n

mush n nta

A grul aw t stan a wds n a warm wng wuld bcmnct wth wl asts Frmntngth sma amunts suga n cal tyasts wu ha uc m alchc brg Ths wu hant th wa t n bra It sustnab whch art dl rstbrwng r brdmakng Sm stuntsb that brwng s r n tangrcutur but th s n surtngrchagca r hstrca dnc Onth cntrar th rst Egtn rcs r br scrb a rcss n whch

th grn was rst ma nt abaks whc tn bcm th rw ma-tra bmakng Thr s n dubttht brwng an t makng ln

b ls t ts, bt -nng up mnttn st

n amkng, w t wt t ppn nw ts wat It s s muc uct t utn wt s t s n umnngnut

From Wild Grass to Wheat

Wt s m mst cuttnts n t cmxt ts tnsTu, t t majr cas, c ncn, ac ntt nt tusns ats, but ths m cn-tnuus spctum atn n nca cass s a sng btncl spcsWat s spaat nt stnct gupswc rm n nt n mnws n a trr cass ssrt scs un th sng OW gnus Titicm. T mst-ct whts n th w atsha bn stu m ntnsl tan

n th gru ants cutat rw, an rm ts stus, trul ntr-nna n sc, ctur s bgnnngt mrg t utn wtun mstcatn

Authrts r n th numbr stnct scs what Ts rtclws th classcatn ka Va, th Russan gntcst an btnsth wth hs clgus brught t-gthr r stu mr than 1,000sms what rm arts thr a rcgnzd 1 scs;thr btansts ha cgnz wr r

mr Al authrts agr, wr,tht th what scs, what thrnumbr, al nt tr stnct grus,trmn by th numbr crm

Weat e an fa bg

sms n t cs T crmsmnumbs n t uct cs) t t tps , spct, , 1n 1 Ty w sc b TSakamu n Jpan n 191 n sgtt, but npnnt, b Kl Sax nt . S T numbs a cs s-sct wt ncs n antm,mrg, sstnc t sas,

utnss n mlng n baknguts It s ntstng t nt ttAugust Sculz, a Gman btanst, ng t wats nt ts tgrups n 1913, w b t cmsm numbs w knwn

T 1 n 1crmsm watsa sn rm cmsmwt n lat gsss tug -bztn lw by cmsmdubng T cutat wats a thmst cnspcuus xamp ths cataclsmc utn, scb b GLa Stbbns, J, n s artc n Apl 1951 It

s th n knwn mchnsm b whchnw trubrng scs can bcrat mst rnght

Snc dnt w grasss ha bnn n what's lutn, thspcs dr nt n n th numbr buts n th natur thr chrmsmsRatnshs drnt sts chrmms ar dtmn by stuyng thdgr chrmsm rng n thrpruct cs hybrs I th parng s cmt, r mst s th chrmsm sts gnms) th parntsar rgard as ntcal r csl r

at I thr s n parng th arntagnms ar cnsr t b stnctFu rnt gnms ac cmrsngs crmsms, sgnatd A, D



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F C F W are shwn acualsze Frm lef rgh they ar Triticum aeglopodes

wld enkr T. monococcu nkrn, T dcoc-

co ides wld emmer, T dcocw emmer, durumacarn whea, pesicw ersan wheat, T tur

idw rve whea, T oloncum lsh wha, and G, are recgnized in wild and cutivated weats

Anter imprtant dierence inweats is i teir eads Primitive cerealsand many wild grasses ave eads wsecentral stem is brittle and ragile, break-ing apart wen mature and prviding anatural mecanism r seed disersal.Wen suc cereals are tresed, teeads break up int individual spikelets(clusters ne r mre individual grasswers in wic te kernels remainrmly enclsed in teir usks. nde

dmesticatin tis caracteristic, s essntial t perpetuatin te species ine wild, as been lst New rms aveevlved, nt nly in weat but in te

cereals, in wic te stems are tugand te eads remain intact wen mature n suc cereals tresing alne remves te kernels rm teir glumes.Te cereals wit reetresing, nakedgrains are muc mre useul t man,esecially r milling and baking, tantse tat cling stubbrnly t teirusks n weats, terere, te nakedvarieties ave almst cmpletely superseded te imitive rms

Ancestrs

Te crmsme weats, prbablyte mst ancient cnsist tw species: aegilopoides nd oOCCCU1J,

knwn as wild einkrn and einkrn Car-bnized kernels bt were und atarm, but weter tey are te nlweats ccurring in tis ancient villagesite remains t be seen. Bt species feinkrn ave ragile stems and rm-ulled seeds Teir spikelets cntain buta single seed, ence teir name. acas te ame set crmsmes, genmA, and tey ybridize easily tgeter trduce igly ertile spring Cultivated einkrn as sligtly larger kernelstan te wld rm and a sligtly

uger stem ts eads d nt all apartuite s easily wen ripe. xcept tse sligt dierences te tw speciese essentially identical and einkrn is



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ti10hvi whch has n cmn name, aetivwcmmn whea, haeococcu1 sh whea,

c01actU club whea elta spel and

1acha acha whea. The rs w speces have hrmsmes; he fwng seven, 14 chrses; he s

ve, 21 chrmsmes (ee tabl on next to pages)undubedly e dmeied uner-r e wild ecie Arenly li-le ignin ge been wruin em ver e cenurie

Wild einkrn i ener diri-buin in Armni nd Gergi evie Unin, nd in Turkey I ccur in e ern Cuu nd inweern Irn Wewrd rm Aiainr i i cmmn gr n e ide lw ill in Greece nd Bulgri nd weed in e welldrined vineyrd uern Yuglvi Culived einkrn

rigined, ccrding Vvilv, in emunin nreaern Turke nde uweern Cucu Hwever, imy ideniin e kernel rm

i crre, nd i rm rereen eeginning griculure, einkrn myve been dmeiced r liglyrer u in eern Irq Cerinli i n ncien cerel Crbnized grin i ve been und in neliic de-i e lkedweller nd in mnyer ie in enrl nd nreernEure Imrein einkrn vebeen idenied in neliic ery inBriin nd Irelnd Ter are n recrd i preiric currence in Indi,Cin r Ari

Einkrn i il grwn in me r Eurpe nd e Middle E, uull inill regin wi in il I yieldre lw, uully n mre n 8 15

buel er re A red drk brown ilr bu gd vr, n be mrm i i i i uked, bu i i mre cm-mnly ued wle grin, ike brleyr eeding le and re Einkrn imrne li n in i preen ue buin i rgeny i e ancer ller culived we, wi e -ible exein e ye clled emmerEinkrn' deendn ll e n cmmn e e even rme lledgenm A

Scon Stag

n e nex ge evluin re 14rmme ie, f wi Vv

3



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v ecgnized seven All tese aveme m te ybidizatin and c

sme dubling a 7 cmsmeweat wit a 7 cmse elated wldgass Te weat paent in eac casewas undubtedly einkn, pssibly in

ne instance its wild elative, since ale species pssess te genm A But te

wildgass paent emains t tis day undentied and is te cie btanical ys

ey in te igin cutivated weatsTis paent ntibuted a genm B t aln te gup except ne species dga

McFadden and nest eas te SDepatment Agicultue ave sug

ested tat genm B may ave been de-ived m a species f Agroyro a

genus weedy gasses wic incudese penicius cuc gass te nt-asten Only ne te 1 4cmme weats is und wild Tis species,

wic is called wild emme, is indigenus suten Amenia, nteasten Tu

key, westen an, yia and nten

PalestineClsely esembling wild emme, andpssibly deived diecty m it by d-mesticatin, is emme, te ldest f 14cmsme cultivated weats and ncee mst widely gwn weat al An

altenative pssibiity, weve, is tatmme is te pduct ybidizatin

between einkn and a 7 cmsmewild eative Te act tat csses wid and cultivated emme ae smeimes paty steile indicates tat te twms may nt be clsely elated andat ne may be te pduct an an-

cient ybidizatin and te te f a

me ecent ne Tee is at least ndubt abut te antiquity emmeWelpeseved spikelets scacey die-ent fm tse mden emme avebeen und in gyptian tmbs eFift Dynasty mme may well avebeen te cie ceea te Na astm vey ealy times t te Gec

Rman peid, until te am ndt was te nly weat und acae-gically in ealy sites tat egin Re

mains impessins it ave als beencmmn in nelitic sites in cntinentaEupe, Bitain and eand

Emme, like einkn, as a agetem and cinging ull Gd bead andne cake and pasty can be made mt, but mst emme tday is ed t livestck Sme vaieties ae quite esistant stem and ea ust, te pincipal dis

eases f weat, and ave been useul inpant beeding

Te 14cmsme weats wee test t pduce species wit tug stemsand wit kenels tat tes e fmei gumes Fu suc species ae

knwn durum (macani), ersicmPesian), trgidm ivet) and olo-icum (Plis) Al ave a me ecentisty tan einkn emme Teldest, duum, st appeaed in teGecRman peid abut te st cen-uy BC One te mst ecent, Pis

5

weat, unique its massive eads andlng, ad kenels, did nt appea utilte 17t centuy Nne tse weatsexcept duum is geat cmmecial im-ptance tday Duum weat, te bestvaiety te manuactue macani,spagetti and te edible paste pducts, is gwn aily extensiel in tay,Spain and pats te Rivet weats sme inteest because it is te tallest-

gwing (u t six eet ig) and undedeal cnditins ne te mst pduc-tive Hweve, its gains ae st, yeld-ing a weak u unsuitable beadaking unless mixed wit stngeweats One vaiety f ivet called miacle mummy weat, wit massivebanced eads, as been pesistentyexplited as a ae and valuable weatclaimed t ave been ppagated mpeistic gains discveed ancientgyptian tmbs usually in e wappings a mummy e sy n all its vesins is a cmplete aicatin

Weat kenels, like seeds te plants,ae living metablic sstems wit a maximum life expectancy abt yeasFuteme, tee is n evidence ativet weat was eve kn n acientgypt

One adtinal 4cmseweat,T toheevi wic as 10 cmmnname, deseves mentin Tis specieswas discveed n tis centu by Russian tanists and is knwn in westen Gegia, wee t s gwn n a etusand aces Te species s btani-cal inteest ecause its secnd set seven cmsmes, desgate gem

G, is dieent m tat a e

LATIN NAM COMMON NAME

, EGILOPOIDES WILD INKOR

.NOCOCCM EINKOR

COCCOID WILD EMMER

DCOCCUM EMMER

.URUM MACARON HE

RSICU PERSIAN WHE

RGDU RVET WHEAT

LOICUM PLISH WHE

TMOPHEEV

ESTIVUM COMMON WHEA

T.SPHAEROCOCCUM SO WHEA

COMPACT CLUB WHEAT

SPlTA SPLT

.MCH MACH WHE

te 4cmsme weats t s asf geat pactical inteest because t sesistant t vitally all diseases attack-ing te cultivated weats, includingusts, smuts and mildews n te ands skiled weat eedes it may becmete ancest f impved weats f tenext centuy

Thi S

Te 21cmsme weats, wictee ae ve, ae as a gup te mst ecently evlved and te mst useul tday All ae cultivated nne as evebeen knwn in te wild All ae pductsf te ybidizatin 4cmsmeweats cntaining te genms A and Bwit a wild 7cmsme elative weat almst cetainly a gass speciesf te genus Aegilos) cntaining tegenm D All ae believed t ave aisenm suc ybidizatin ate man,speading te evlutinay at agi

cultue, expsed is ealie cultivatedweats t ybidizatin wit nativegasses

Tw f te 21cmsme weats,T selta (spet) and macha ae, lkeeinkn and emme, adtesing species T acha lke T timoheei scnned t westen Gegia, wee it isgwn n nt me tan a few tusandaces Spet was nce te pincipalweat cental Eupe N acaeg-ical emains it ave been fund ine Nea ast any pat Asia Teeis n dubt abut te ybid igin selt, it as nw been syntesized

by McFadden ad eas and independ

CHROMOSOMES

NUMBER GENOMS GROWTH

A WILD:

A CULTIVAED

B WILD

A ULIVATED

AB CULTVATED

B LIVAED

AB CULTIVAED

AB CULTIVATED

A CULTIVATED

ABD LIVAED

ABD CULIVAED

ABD CULIVAD

ABD CLIVAED

2 BD CULTIVAED

CCC f th 14 peces, as well as ther dstrutnand anqu, re gven n ths tale The genms re sets f nherted chrc-

GRINS

HLLED

LL

HULLED

HLLED

NAKD

NAKED

I NAKEDNAKED

I HULLEDNAKED

I NAKEDNAKED

LLD

HULLED



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enty y aa n apan n tcass sas nclue a anal css su t unnn 7s paen spl pssss y egilops squar-sa a pltly uslss ld grassc s as a n at elsfr t Balans Aanistan Btrsaces yz tis l gassit l can and Sas

dul cs nu ytreatnt clcicn aa asftunat in iscein a cas nauraldung T y as gl fetlan siilar in caacstcs t culta spl As a nal stp n a lliantpic inuc asnin an geniexperinatn, caden an Sascrsse syntsz spl t naural spelt and tand ully ftl yrds T suls leae n dut tatt il gass us in ts xpen sn paents f cultiate spel,and tey suggst strngly that te ther

fur 21 cs ats are likwis yris n ic t gn D asen deried f t sa grass r ascies cs t i

Ths experints suggest that cultiated spelt riginatd n e reginwere t species wid gass and wilder lap But t priiie hudfr spl as nt en und trn alnat pssiility is that the wildass yizd not wit wld emrbut wit t cultivatd spcies, whicha hd a uc wider distriutin Vavi cncluded that huled splt rigiaed in suthern Gerany Earier

Esat Scia, Granys lead

ing student cereals, a plac t nStzlan an suts GeranyB ns a n a astn liits aa in c culvate e an l ass aknn a ccu tt Tusth ancal and iscal n an a apat in incatn a cnal urpan n

T anng e speces o 21

crs eats are T aesvm(cn, sphaeococcum (st andcompactm (lu Tey ar the tuerea ats, accunting r aut 9pr cnt all eat grwn in rl day T te are clsey lated and asily intecrss Wtrty a e prduct tree irentyrizatns eteen 1chrsewas and il gasss, tr vegg lins f descent r a singlyrdizatin, is nt knwn lu ans weat dier r cn eatn a nue f details hse netanc

is grned y a relatiely sall nuer of genes t is pssil, therer, tatthe tre speces are descendd r singe hyrd ancestr Cn wheatr stn ey lie it as rcntyeen rduced y Kihara y cssingchrms Psian wheat wt hewild grass used synthsiz spt tshrs nur as n yt endoued, u its tanical caracteristicsare ths con wheat

her and en te dern radwhat rst ccurred are sti attrs rconjectre Since Persian heat isnwn nly in a lited ara i nrth

astrn Turkey and the adining states

GEOGRAICAL DISRIBUION

ERN RAN ASIA MINOR GREECE SOUERN YUGOSLAVIA

ERN CAUCASUS ASIA MNOR GREECE CENRAL EUROE

ERN IRAN SYRIA NORERN ALESINE NOREASERN URKEY ARMENIA

of th S nn, cn what vpaly nat t nls fs a a n un a t stancnt sie n Ina, na,date au 2 B A a undn nl scas n unayas een ent as clu a Ipressins f gans ad a, trcn clu, av een un n nlt len ped, dat ten

3 and 23 BC Te earlis arcalgical at in apan, dated in tetird cntuy, is gadd y Kiaa asa rad weat And since the 1cms weats vidently are ecnt ntrductins n hina, it is pssile att wheat descried in te inescasscs fr t u pid (aut1 B is a 21chrs readwea All se tes, nne in tselcnclus, indcat that th eadweats rginated ef t te Chst u later tan inrn r eerA cnseratie guess wuld put heir

orgin at apprxiately 25 BCA Histoi Exposio

Whthr the ad whats originatearier than this or later, and eterty ad ne hyrid rigin r thre, teyrepresnt today the mst rapid incrasen ggraphical range and nus any secies f seedplant n stryThey are now grown in al parts f theword fro the Euatr t t ActicCircle Originating roaly nt orehan 5, yars ag in t genra region of Asia Minor, th new spcies

a incrasd at a avrag rate of

EARLEST IDENCE

RE-AGRICULTURA

4750 B C

REAGRICULURAL

A CENRAL ASIA NORERN IRAN GEORGIA ARMENIA EUE MDRRAA ARA, ABYA 4000 B C

RAL ASIA IRAN MESOOAMA URKEY ABYSSINA THAR RP, 100 B C

ESAN GERGIA ARMENIA NOREASERN URKEY

SINIA SOUERN EUROE

SINIA DTRRAA AREA

ERN GEORGIA

lD WIDE

RAL AD NORHWESERN NDA

HWESERN ASA SOUEASTERN EUROPE

RA EUROPE

TERN GEORGA

trisics, r cmbnans f ss T crmsm nmbr s a c vn wa T scs wh

NO PREISORIC REMAINS

.

NO REISORIC REMAINS

17 CENURY

20H CENURY

NEOLIC PERIOD

2500 B C

NEOLHIC PERIOD

BRONZE AGE_

20TH CENURY

argr crs nbrs dscndd fr s wsmar b bridizain and crsm dbng



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f cmmn weat ect t w te rac oer right wcbear te pkelet. Enclng eac rn a b glume. In me arete te bear abent At lwr ft a ng pklt f pelt wcdurn tren eman ntact an attace t a jnt f e rac

aot 7000 ce e yea ti theow occy mot 400 miio ceThei evtio ad die have eenexplive heomea i which maicipal at ha ee to ecgizethei uefue ad to oe ew aicta aea f thei cute

The aticua vale f the eawheat ie t nly in thei pductivee a i thei feethehing nake

kee ut i the pecuia uality thei gte the tei compoet Oall the cee oly the ead wheat aecaae of odcig the ight uyleaveed ed we kow tday

All kow ecie f ctivated wheatexcept eikn and piy emmecae int exitence otaneoly Manplaye n pat in thei igin except ahe ea thei cutue ad thei optuitie f natual hyidizatio vethe eath Thee n evidence that ancient ma gave uch attetin t electi f upei fm if he d nevidece that he ucceede The cutivated einkon f tday i cacey difeent fm the einkon of mileia agad it in tun i n geat impovemenove wi einkn Eentially the acan e a aut emme neuentyt peak pimitive ma a planeede i t attite moe puefue t hi activitie than e evidencwaat

Within he pat centuy eeciallyice the eicvey f Mende awf inheitance in 1 900 vat pgam wheat impvemet have ee unetaken in amt all the wheatgwin

egion f the wl Thee have eenepecialy uccefu in the U S anaada whee a cntat ucceio ew vaietie ha een intducedScacey any tate f the Unin taygw exteively the pincipal vaietieof wheat gwn 0 yea ag

Eay in the cetuy the cmon meth f wheat eedig waeie eectio a invete yWihem hae a Danih tanitd geeticit ohae ha ccudedfom expeimet o gade ea thateffetiized at uch a ean pead ceea ae acial mixtue f maye ie dieig fom ne athe imany chaacteitic ut each geetica-y uifm ntinuu eectin canhave n eect i changing the chaacte f a geeticay pue line ut a mixte o ie ca e epaate int itcomoet pat ad impvement ef-fected y popagatig the ueio lie

pactice the wheat eede eecthded f idividual head fm a vaiety thehe each e epaatey adgow the pogey f each in a ht wcae a hea w n ucceeding geeati me an lnge w ae

gw an the pue ine each igiating fm a inge hea ae cmpaedi pductivee a the chaacte-itic Amog heat eede in the



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U. S s sandard rcedure thissge use rws 16 eet lng nd e part Rws ths length nd sacin simpliy cputatin since the yield grain in grms can be cverted abushel yield er cre by simply pining ne decimal lace. The re prmisig lnes are increased still urther neld ls nd evenually ne is chseas the best is named and s dstrbuted

t armers.The w utstanding . S. vrietiesrduced by ureline selectin are bthKansas rducts. The rst Kanred(Kasas Red) was selected by HerbertRberts the Kansas Agricultural Ex-erime Statin rm Criean a hardred wnterye whea ntrduced rmRussia by Mark Crlen. The rs hedselectns were made in 196, ad themrved pure line rs dsrbuted cmmercal grwng n 191 By 192Kanred wea e prduc singlehead ly 19 ears earle was wnn nearly ve lln acres ansasNebraska Clrad Oklama andexas. Te secnd Kansas whea Blckull s he prc a sngle eadselecn made 1912 r a eld Turkey whea y arl Clark areand plan breeder Blackhull lke Kanred was rst dstriued 191 By1929 t ccued alms six mlln acresrncially i ansas and Oklahm.

he Hybi Wheats

Pureline selecti merely srts urm variety the superr lines alredy

here i cretes n new enec cmbinatins. T rm a new vriey hereeder emplys hybrdzai. He se-lects as rens w vareties with hecharcersics he seeks t cmne. Frxamle ne pren my be chsen rs suerir mllng and kng qulitieste ther r s ressance disese. Tcrss hese w he eee rs emsculates ne e y remvng he an-hers the mle llecnanng rganswith delcate rceps when ese rgnsre ullgrwn bu n ye re. The hecvers he emasculaed head wth a

small glassne bag t prevent uncrlled llnatin. A ew dys laterwhen its emale rgas he stigmashave becme receptive he peratrllintes tem wih rpe ahers kerm the secnd aren.

Such pllnins prduce seeds agrw nt rstgenerain hybrd las.These re uite unirm and nthing saccmplised y ractcg selectmng them. But in the secd and subsequent generats genetic segregaincreates new cmbinans s numerusnd diverse as he hands a shueddeck cards. The pprtunites r cre

ve selecin are enrmus I s n earl genertins llwing a css hahe la breeder shws his skill r aths stge he must select r ragain

L f cmmn eat phgraphed n crss sectn at the NrternRegna Research Labratry f the S epartment f Agrculturehe nterr f te kerne s te endsperm frm ch ur s ade.

r uter ayer f te kerne, s swn n ths ptmcrgraph madeat the rthern Regnal Reseach Labratry At the bttm f the phtmcrgraph, ch enarges these sructures 600 tmes, s the endsperm

thse cmbintis which prchms clsely the del wheat he has nmind ad discard hse whic d ntmee his speccans. ventuall genec serega rces pure nes.

Oe e eales ad greaeschievemens in hybrid wet was he

develpment the Mrquis strin Tisvarey a hybrid earlygrwi HrdRed Clcu rm Inda and Red Fie

rm Pland as rduced in Cnadaby Charles Saunders cerealis r eDminn 193 t 1922 The crssrm which ruis whet s derived



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WLD EINKO A)

EINKORN (A) -

/RSIA

WHT B

>- GIOPSSQURROS (

V of commn wheat is outlined. Wild einkorn (7 crmosomes, genm A) evled ino enkorn,whch, sed wh a wd gass (genm B, gave rise

8

/

COMMO WHA (AB

t Pesan whea (1 chromsmes, genm AB). henths wea ws crossed w anher grass (genm D),cmmn wea (21 chrmsmes, genm ABD resuled



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h bee e 8 b boterArthur under the iection

of hi fthe

Willim Sde o h been hy-ridizing het ince 1888 The ewhybrid w roiing fro the begin-nin t w fe dy erier th teiglted vietie then comonlyo in d thu often voiingthe rt fot The in yieed

cemcooe toly eltic ohith tro le d excelet bkiutie ri et te t ewtndd fo bi lity y 07four ye fte the iitil he elec-tio thee ee o of eed itibtio to fe ben i the iof 0 e of te ew t ediftly fro te rie rovice onito ou own het et y ui eed bein iote itoieot d te ot t te teof 00000 be e ye 8ore th 0 io be ee odced nd te eioty of th viety

ove thoe evio ow w fctin eeti te food ot of WoldWr jut ye te ybi co imil fcto i Wold W

For 0 e \ui te kiof het" i d d the S ddurin thi eiod it eved tndrboth in the ed te ii ndbking lbotoy rui loued extenively et ew hy-bid nd i the ceto of ioved whet icludi e de-veloed i b oh Pker;ere roduced i ot ot by

L R ldro d Thtche d ew-thtch bred by Hebet Hye dhi ocite i ieot

Tody mot ew whet vetie reroduced b contolle yiitionther th by ureline election wici little ued The moden et beederh mny objective uy i rinci-l one i ouctivene bt vovedin thi re my fctor incldin re-itnce to die d toece of u-fvoble eviometl coditio Totet ne het for tee chcteiticbeeder hve iveted device ndethod fo bjecti et to ticiloht cold d eideic of iee

eeer v.

eed f iee etce i eecilly ott bece het effertiize t whic excet fortl hybidito cciolttio ted to e eeticllyifo A eld of et of ie v-ety eecily oe oiiti fo inle hed oti million f ltich re eeticy ideticl f theiety he to be ucetibe to

iee it eve itic culteedim for the otio of te diee orm uully fuu Ththe oi of e vrietie ove lecee ice the hz fom

toe diee to ch te e cetible The reult i eeedbttle betee the het breee nthe funi

The beedi o het for reitnceto tem rut devtti diee i ime exmle Thee e mny kiof tem rut Ptholoit led by lvinStkn of the Univeity of ieot

ve evie ieniou method of identifyi them by ioction of ieethot The het beeer the evelo e viety which i eitnt to theredoiti rce of tem rut Thi itibted to fme t ceecee rdly t whie the hetbeede i hybiii whet te iybidii ut The eoctivete of tem t occu ot on hetbut o n ltete hot te coonbrey thi lt ew rce oft e cotnty cete Athohot of the robbly die ot oe ttn cetible het vietie y

tiy oiioly nd in fe yebecoe te edomiti rce Thehet beee then eche te oldfo whet eitt to the ew hzrd i oe toh ll the te ofdi e hybid viety Thecoetitio betee d the fifor the het co of the orld i abioloicl col wr" hich ever ed

A het beeer mut eek not olyiee reitnce oductivenebt lo ilin nd bin qulity nmoe rocto bkerie ithiee mixing mciey douh

eoe tee nd tri hich itw neve clle o to edue wheede by hn in the hoe A relt het breede hve bee coelled to bject thei ew ouctioto elbote milling bki tetich mlte the ocee of co-mecil berie A e het thtove ueior the ed y be rejected the lbortoy

ite of the ictie ivolvedthe eveoen of oe odctve vietie of whe i oe of the et yof cei the food ly nd ri-i ivi tndr he uoliniined the Pontine w in tly thetli whet beede Alzreo Str-eli odced e vrietie of hethch oihed i the fetile oil newlyoee to cultivtio An imortt tof the ellublicied Etw Villeovement Pogrm in ndi i therowi of imroved vietie of heteveloed by rtih nd ndin eeticit exico' ricltrl roonoed y the Rockefeler Foundto i cooetion ith the exicnGoveret oe much of it cceto ew utreitnt vietie of het

oin the old vietie of exicwhet ith rutreitt whet fomthe S Soth Ameic Atr dew Ze the U S beede oml d hi ocite ori

loely with exic tecoloit hvebed new vietie o reitt to ruttht they c be gow in exico ume riy eon ell i the intedy eo heetofore it only eonfor gowi whet The bulk of exicowhet cee i now devoted to newhybrid develoed ince 14 whilecee odction hve expnded

bttillyHybiiztio mo whet i uly ce to vietie of oe eciebut iterecic hybid lo re em-loyed nd oetie e ucceful Aotbe exe i the develomet ofHoe wet by cFden fom coof ri with Yrov emmer 4choooe whet extemely eittto tem t lef rut d everl otherdiee Fom ti hybi which wtly terie cFdde cceeded indeveloi 2choooe whetwhich h hih degee of reitnce tomy ce of tem d ef rut Un-

fotutely Hoe whet h rioewht lcking in mili bkinulitie d the vriety never be-come iortnt commercilly hhowever been the ret of mny mode vietie of het which re com-mecilly grow incluin ewthtch inneot Ati in Tex nd everl of the new vietie develoed iexico

e Cras

A ftre oibility in het beei

the cretion of whol ew tye ofceel b ecie ybiitio folowed by rtici chrooome oublin de cotert ofwhet erlie evotion in nture the SSR nd the S het hbee coed with ye to poduce fetile tuebeedi ybid ceelwhich cobie the chomoome ofboth he hybrid neithe whet nor ye oe eitt to cod thn wheti but le efl beki ce-el t h not become olr Wheth bee croed ith erennil wild to oduce new erennil cerefor which Ruin onomit hvemde fnttic clim A eld of thiwhet oce lted wil ccordin tothe Rui yield cro of gin yefter yer with little or no futher ttentio excet to ther the nulhrvet t tun out tht thi erenilhet" my hve ome omie fore g fo livetock but o fr littlebed h been mde fom it nd feweole hve been fed y it

The ide of roducig new cee e-cie by ybridiztio d chrooomedoubling i hoever uite ound nd

he oibilitie inheet i it e frfom exhute Some dy ew whetecie cocioy ceted by m myelce thoe hic oe oteolyin ntue

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