N a m e _______________________

6th Grade Science

Units CoveredScientific Investigation Skills

Our Solar SystemMatterEnergy

WeatherUnique Properties of Water

WatershedsProtecting our Environment

Slominski Classroom Procedures

Bathroom/Drink 1. Ask permission (when the teacher is not teaching).

1

2. Open up your agenda to the correct monthly calendar. Mrs. Slominski will sign the calendar. You will have 3 opportunities per month to get a drink and/or go to the restroom.

3. Sign out in the sign out book by the door.4. Sign back in when you return.

Sharpening your pencil:

1. Ask permission if the teacher is teaching.2. There is a pencil sharpener by the door, on the

sink, and on the counter by the windows.3. Do NOT get out of your seat and sharpen your

pencil while Mrs. Slominski is teaching.4. If you are working at your seat you may sharpen

your pencil without asking permission.5. Sharpen your pencil and return to your seat in a

non-disruptive way.

Throwing trash away/recycling:

1. Save all trash/recycling to be thrown away until the teacher is not teaching.

2. There is a trash can under the front table and by the door.

3. If you are working in your seat you may throw items away without asking permission.

4. Only place items in the recycle bin that can be recycled. NO gum, candy wrappers, or anything that contained food.

5. Leave and return to your seat in a non-disruptive way.

Entering the room @ the beginning of the period:

1. Get your binder off your class period’s shelf.2. Make sure you have a pencil sharpened.3. Open up to your do now section of your binder

and complete the daily do now from the active board.

4. While completing do now please do not talk.5. When done with do now check out “today’s

plan” and make sure you have written homework in your agenda.

Leaving the room at the end of the period:

1. Wait to be dismissed by Mrs. Slominski.2. Stand up and push your chair in.3. Make sure to take all of your belongings-

binders, trash, and clothing.4. Place your binder upright and neatly on the

correct class period shelf.5. Quietly leave the classroom and move to your

next period class.

Getting a tissue, lotion, Vaseline or wipe:

1. Wait until the teacher is not teaching. Do NOT get out of your seat while Mrs. Slominski is teaching.

2. Go to the sink at the front of the room to get a tissue, lotion, Vaseline or wipe. Use quietly.

3. Throw any trash away.

Placing Work in the bin:

1. When instructed place work to be graded in the black bin on Mrs. Slominski’s desk.

2. Place work on top of the pile. DO NOT lift other student’s work and place yours underneath.

3. Place your work face up with your name facing the top of the pile.

4. DO NOT place work on Mrs. Slominski’s desk. It is considered a blackhole and will pull your work into another dimension where it won’t be found.

NO NAME Grade papers:

1. If you think you have a NO NAME paper check the NO NAME bin on the counter by the windows.

2. Put your name on the assignment and turn into black bin on.

Clock Partners

2

3

6th Grade Science Test Tracking Chart

Name of test Grade Received Effort level(5-great, 4, 3, 3, 1- I did not study)

How will I prepare for the next test?

4

Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Test 5 Test 6 Test 7 Test 8 Test 9 Test 10 Test 11 Test 1250

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

6th Grade Science Grades

6th Grade Science Tests

6th

Grad

e Sc

ienc

e Te

st S

core

s

Notebook Grade:

#1 ___________

#2 ____________

#3 ____________

#4 ____________

#5 ____________

#6 ____________

#7 ____________

#8 ____________

5

Notebook Grading Rubric

4 3 2 1Organization

Pages are in numbered order Graphics ( pictures, organizer.

acronym) Supporting skills And Activities

Notebook is very organized with all pages and activities in sequence and neat in appearance

Notebook is organized with all pages and activities in sequence.

Notebook is organized but not all pages are in sequence or is missing no more than one activity.

Notebook is disorganized with missing pages or activities.

Learning strategies Activates prior knowledge Box new vocabulary Box main ideas Underline key ideas/ words Draw and label graphics

Student uses all applicable learning strategies to aid in his/her understanding of essential knowledge.

Student uses most (75%) applicable learning strategies to aid in his/her understanding of essential knowledge.

Student has attempted to use learning strategies to aid in his/her understanding of essential knowledge.

Student used no learning strategies to aid in his/her understanding of essential knowledge.

Relates graphics to text Draws and labels graphic

All graphics have been completed and show a relationship between graphics and text.

Most graphics have been completed and show a relationship between graphics and text.

Some graphics attempt to show a relationship between graphics and text.

No graphics completed

Overall Appearance neatness Teacher generated materials

neatly attached Notebook is neat, accurate and adds to learning

Notebook is accurate and adds to learning

Notebook lacks neatness, accuracy and may interfere with learning

Notebook lacks neatness, accuracy and interferes with learning

6

Science Anchor ActivitiesSensational

ScienceComputer Investigate Explore kNow Connect Examine

Choose a “picture puzzle” & complete.

Create a powerpoint, inspiration, prezi, or other presentation on a topic of your

choosing covered in science class.

Choose a science card activity from the

science card box. Complete.

Use tinker toys or legos to create an

object that has a use. Draw a diagram and

provide and explanation of your

object.

Read ASK or Muse. Choose and article to write a summary and

a review on the magazine.

Choose a topic that interests you.

Research & create a presentation on the

topic. Shoe Box 1

Choose a science card activity from the

science card box. Complete.

Choose a website from the Science Anchor Activities

folder on the desktop of the

student computer. Explore and use the

website of your choice.

Vocabulary Practice. Pick a vocabulary

practice activity from the vocabulary box.

Complete

Pick a scientist from the scientist list

board. Research that scientist and create a

poster about the scientist’s life and importance to the study of science.

Read a science newspaper/journal article (either one

provided or one you find). Write a

summary and review on the article.

Pick a “brain station” activity to complete.

Shoe Box 2

Play a game of scrabble with

another student or with Mrs. Slominski

that only uses science words.

(Game may be on going).

Go to Mrs. Slominski’s Blog site. Choose the “Sticky

Notes” page. On the page create 5-10 about a science

topic. Research & provide the answers on the sticky notes

page.

Pick a “brain station” activity to complete.

Choose a science card activity from the

science card box. Complete.

Read a science book on our current

science topic. Create a presentation of

your choice on the book.

Pick a “brain station” activity to complete. Shoe Box 3

All Science Anchor activities are to be quietly completed independently unless noted or permission granted by Mrs. Slominski. Please turn in all work to the anchor activities bin on the counter. After completing an activity please see

Mrs. Slominski so your anchor activity bingo card can be marked off.7

Choose Your Study Strategy

8

Write 10 to 15 questions you think the teacher would ask on the test. Answer the questions without looking at your notes.

Create a mind map.

Use a blank piece of paper and place the main idea in the

center. Write other vocabulary and important ideas on the

page. Try to make connections between ideas and write down how the ideas are connected.

Go back to your notes and edit your work.

Create a T chartOn one side of the chart place vocabulary and key ideas. On

the other side, write the definition or explanation. Quiz

yourself.

Flashcard PickupMake flashcards for key ideas and concepts. Put the cards

with the key word facing up on the floor in random places.

Pick up the cards saying the explanation or definition on the back. Any cards you don’t say correctly stay on the floor until

you can say them all.

PneumonicA pneumonic is a silly saying

you make up to help you remember a list of words. For example “Please excuse my dear Aunt Sally” helps you

remember the order of operations in math. Make up

your own pneumonic to remember

concepts on the test. The sillier the

better!

Picture PlacementDraw a picture of something very familiar to you. Imagine putting things you need to

remember in the picture, for example a meter stick on a mountain. Put your

finger on the place in your picture while you say important information about the

object.

How to…

Make a request-

1. Look at the person.2. Use a pleasant voice tone.3. State the request specifically.4. Say “please”.5. Say “Thank you” after the request is granted.6. If request is not granted, politely ask for a reason why

but comply with what is requested of you politely.

To Disagree-

1. Look at the person.2. Use a pleasant voice tone.3. Make an empathy/concern statement.4. State disagreement specifically.5. Give a rationale.6. Say “Thank you”.

Respond when asked to do something-

1. Look at the person.2. Say “ok”3. Do the task immediately.4. Check back.

To apologize-1. Look at the person.2. Use a pleasant voice tone.3. Make a specific statement of remorse.4. State a plan for future appropriate behavior.5. As the person to accept the apology.

Accept a compliment-1. Look at the person.2. Smile.3. Use a pleasant voice tone.4. Say “thank you”.5. Do not disagree with the compliment.

Report peer behavior- 1. Look at the person.2. Use a calm voice tone.3. Request to speak to the adult privately.4. Give a brief description of peer’s inappropriate behavior.5. State a rationale for the report.6. Suggest a possible solution.7. Thank the adult for listening.

Volunteer-1. Look at the person.2. Use a pleasant voice tone.3. Ask the person if could volunteer to help.4. State specifically the task you are volunteering to do.5. Give a rationale/benefit.

Engage in a conversation-1. Look at the person.2. Use a pleasant voice tone.3. Ask the person questions.4. Don’t interrupt.5. Follow up their answers with a comment without changing the subject.

Pay attention-1. Eyes on the person who is speaking.2. End all other tasks/hands free.3. Sit quietly.4. Listen.

9

Lab Expectations and Safety Rules

(1) During 6th grade science we will complete many activities. Each person will be assigned a group and a station to work at. Sometimes your group will stay at that station to complete the activity, while other times your group will rotate from station to station completing a variety of activities.

(2) Participating in a lab is a privilege not a right.. Individuals who choose not to follow lab rules will be removed from the group and given an assignment to complete independently.

Lab Expectations#1 Enter the room quietly, get your science notebook off the shelf, and sit in your assigned seat. Please complete the daily do now in the correct section of your notebook.

#2 Listen quietly to all directions. Ask questions!!

#3 Stay in your seat unless you are directed to get up. Stay with your lab group when you are in groups-no wandering from group to group. No throwing trash/sharpening pencil while teacher is teaching.

#4 Follow the directions on your lab sheet or those written on the board. Ask your teacher before you try a new idea. (I usually say YES!)

#5 Never eat or drink in the lab. You never know what was in a container before you used it.

#6 Clean up all messes immediately. I keep towels and paper towels in a variety of places.

#7 Wear goggles when necessary to protect you eyes.

#8 Use the equipment and materials with care so that students after you have the same opportunity to learn.

#9 Clean your area before you leave. All trash should be in a trash can and all materials should be left neatly for the next class.

Previous learning: School & classroom expectations, location of materials.

Current Unit: Scientific Investigation Skills – measurement, observation, inference, scientific method

Future learning: Our Solar System

10

Unit VocabularyVocabular

yHeard Kno

wNo clue

VolumeMeniscusMassLengthGraduated cylinderTriple Beam BalanceRuler, meter stickProblemResearchHypothesisExperimentObservation/ DataConclusionObservationInference

Unit questions

1. Which tool and unit do I use to correctly measure different objects?

2. How do I correctly use those tools to measure length, mass, and volume?

3. What can I do to make precise observations and how can I use those observations to make logical inferences?

4. What are the steps to the scientific method and what is the role of each step in the scientific method?

Unit verbsMeasureObserveHypothesizeExperimentConcludeInfer

Examples of Different Units of Measurement Chart

Unit of Length Measurement

Example#1

Example#2

Example#3

Picture of Example #3

Millimeter (mm)

11

Scientific Investigation

Skills

measurement

observationsinferences

Scientific Method

Centimeter (cm)

Meter (m)

Kilometer (km)

Unit of Mass Measurement

Example#1

Example#2

Example#3

Picture of Example #3

Gram (g)

Kilogram (kg)

Unit of Volume

Measurement

Example#1

Example#2

Example#3

Picture of Example #3

Milliliter (mL)

Liter (L)

Kiloliter (kL)

12

Length Measurement Notes

(1)Measurements are important to science because they provide important specific information and help observers avoid bias. Measuring is comparing an object or process to standard length. Scientists use a common set of standards, called the International System of Units (SI).

(2)To measure length, or the distance between two points, the metric unit of measure is the meter. One meter (m) is about the distance of the floor to a doorknob. Long distances, such as the distance between two cities are measured in kilometers (k). Small lengths are measured in centimeters (cm) or millimeters (mm)

(3)The instruments used to measure length distances are rulers, measuring tapes,

meter sticks, odometers, and trundle wheels. All metric length measuring tools are broken into millimeters, centimeters, and meters. Odometers measures in kilometers.

Ruler:

Trundle wheel:

13

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

__________________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

_________________________________

Measuring Mass Notes

1. Mass is the amount of matter in an object. Sometimes mass is confused with weight. Weight is the measure of the force of gravity on objects. Gravity differs from planet to planet. Your weight may change on different planet but your mass will always remain the same.

2. Balances are used to measure mass. Some balances use cups to balance two similar objects. Other balances uses small weights to balance the object put on the balance. The most commonly used balance is a triple beam balance.

3. There are several steps you must follow to measure mass on a triple beam balance. First, place the object on the balance pan. Next, you move the heaviest middle, weight to try to balance the object. Move the heavy, middle weight lower or higher if needed. Third, move the weight in the back to try to balance the object more precisely. Finally, move the small weight to balance the object precisely. To find the mass of the object add all 3 measurements together.

4. What do you think you should do when you need to measure the mass of a liquid or an object in a container? If you said measure the container empty you’re almost right. But then you need to measure the container with object in it and subtract the empty from the full to get the mass of the object by itself.

Summary:14

Measuring Volume Notes

1) The volume of an object is the amount of space it takes up. To measure the volume of a liquid you will use unit of measure known as the liter (L) One liter is about the volume of a medium sized carton of milk. Smaller volumes are measured in milliliters. Drinks bottles and the amount of liquid in small containers are measured in milliliters. Gasolines in car or large barrels of liquids are measured in kiloliters.

2) You will often measure the volume of liquids in a graduated cylinder. To read a graduated cylinder you need to follow several steps. First, check the marks on the graduated cylinder to se how many sections there are and what they measure. Second, look at the level of the liquid at eye level. You should look for the MENISCUS. A meniscus is how the water looks curved in the cylinder. Third, look at the bottom of the meniscus to measure the amount of liquid in the cylinder.

3) Things to remember. You must look at the bottom of the meniscus. Also, different graduated cylinders use different markings so be aware of what each line’s measurement is. Finally, you might have to estimate if the liquid measurement is between two lines.

15

Observation Chart

Use the charts below to improve your observations of pictures, objects, events, and interactions between people, organisms, things, or experiments. Notice the following:

SEE HEAR TASTE SMELL FEELColor Volume Sweet Sweet TextureSize Tone Sour Sharp Density

Shape Pitch Bitter Rotting CushionPosition Rhythm Salty Burned How is it made?

Real16

What is the reference point?(What are you comparing

something to?)

Name what is being observed.

(Include all parts)1.Patterns 12.What is happening?2.Markings 13.Behavior Pattern3.Location 14.Expressions or gestures4.Health 15.Movement5.How is it being used? 16.Speed6.Wet or dry 17.Sequence in time7.Temperature 18.Time of day8.Lighting/Reflections 19.Quantity9.Shadows 20.Measurement (including

mass, volume, length, height, depth, width)

10.Luster (shiny or dull) 21.Geometrical Shapes11.Age 22. Order or chaos (neat or

messy)

Pumpkin

The Word PUMPKIN

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________17

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

______________________________

Observation and Inference Notes

1) Would you like to think like a scientist? As you study Science, now and in the future, this is a skill you will need. You probably have used some kinds of scientific thinking already. Here is an example: when you get up in the morning you may look outside and OBSERVE that the sky is dark and cloudy. Then you may make an INFERENCE. You infer that rain is likely. Observation and inference are

two very important skills that scientists use.

2) Observation involves using some of all of the senses. You may use sight, hearing, smell, touch, and sometimes taste. You are using your various senses to gather information about the world. This may mean that you smell or see smoke, hear a dog barking, or see trees bending and moving outside.

3) An observation must be an accurate report of what your senses detect. In science, it is important to keep careful records of what you observe by writing them or drawing them. The evidence that you observe and collect is called DATA.

1.Observation________________________

___________________________________

Inference ___________________________

___________________________________

2.Observation ________________________

____________________________________

Inference ___________________________

___________________________________

3. Observation _______________________

____________________________________

Inference ___________________________

18

___________________________________

4. Observation _______________________

___________________________________

Inference ___________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

Look at the pictures below and record what you observe.

4) When you interpret what you have observed, you are inferring, or making an inference. For example, when you hear (observe) a dog barking, you may infer that someone is at your front door. To make that inference, you are using the evidence, a barking dog, with your experience or prior knowledge-dogs bark when strangers approach-to reach a logical conclusion.

5) An inference is NOT A FACT! It is one of many possible explanations from your observations. For example, the dog may be barking at another dog he sees walking by outside. Even if you have an accurate observation, your inference may be wrong. The only way we can find out for sure is to investigate further.

Summary:

19

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

Scientific Method Notes

The scientific method is a process used to search for answers to questions about the world around us. Scientific methods generally include posing questions, developing and testing hypothesis, and drawing conclusions.

(1) The problem is the first step of the scientific method. It is a testable question, and should be written in question form.

(2) The 2nd step is to research the problem. This is to gather data and information to help form the hypothesis. Research can be done through reading of books and other resource material including the internet.

(3) A hypothesis is an educated guess based on research or general knowledge and is the 3rd step. It is developed before the experiment is conducted. A hypothesis is a possible explanation for a problem. Hypothesis should be written in If…then format.

20

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

(4) The 4th step of the scientific method is the experiment step. This step is broken into 2 parts. Part A is the materials list. The materials list should be written in list form with each item numbered. All materials or substances, their amounts, and any needed equipment must be included. The procedure is part B of the experiment step. The procedure should be written in list form, with each step numbered. This makes it much easier to follow. Clear, precise, detailed directions should be given for each step.

(5) Data collection and observation are the 5th step. Collecting data requires observations. Scientific observations should include all 5 of your senses when appropriate. Data can be recorded on a chart of by listing observations.

(6) The final, 6th step of the scientific method is the conclusion. The conclusion must be written in paragraph form. Students should tell if their hypothesis was supported or not supported. Tell why it was supported/not supported. Students must tell the independent, and dependent variable. Lastly students must tell at least 1 thing they learned from the experiment.

21

Summary:__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

Scientific Method Variable Notes

(1) When conducting or developing an experiment scientists need to decide on the variables they are going to test, what their control is going to be, what their constants will be, and how many trials they will conduct. All of these factors contribute to the outcome of the experiment.

(2) In a controlled experiment the scientist determines the variable that they will test. A variable is the things in the experiment that change or could be changed.

(3) One type of variable is the independent variable. The independent variable is the variable that you change on purpose. In an experiment you may change only one variable at a time so that you know which variable affected the outcome of the experiment.

(4) Another type of variable is the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the variable that responds to a change in the independent variable. You cannot control this variable.

(5) The constants are the variables that are kept the same in all the trials.

(6) Repeated trials are the number of times an experiment is repeated for each type of independent variable. This is so the scientists can check and compare their results to make sure they are fair and consistent

(7) Sometime experiments use controls. Controls are a separate test group that is compared to the test group. Everything is the same except the control group is not subject included in the experiment.

Summary: 22

Solar System UnitPrevious learning:Scientific Investigation Skills

Current Unit: Our Solar System Future learning: Matter

Vocabulary Know… Heard...

NoClue…

Planets

AsteroidsMoons

Dwarf PlanetsMeteors, meteorites, & meteoroids

Gravity

RotationRevolution

Tilt

Mercury ProgGemini Prog.Apollo ProgramPhases

Seasons

Tides

Unit questions

1. What would happen if the Earth stopped spinning?2. What causes us to change from winter, to spring, to summer, and to fall?3. Why does the moon look different on different days?4. What would it take for astronauts to travel to other planets and what would they

find when they get there?5. How do people know what is out in space?6. Why would a person visiting a beach see the water higher on the shore during one

part of the day and lower on the shore at another part of the day?7. Why can people live on Earth but not on other objects in our solar system?

Unit verbsRevolveRotateExplore

Our Solar System

Gravity

Motions of Objects in SpaceSpace Exploraton

Planets & other space bodies

_____________________20___ – Moon Phases

MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY SATURDAY SUNDAY

24

Parts of Our Solar System NotesOur Solar System consists of many objects including the Sun, planets, Moons, dwarf planets, comets,

asteroids, meteors, meteoroids, & meteorites. All of these objects revolve around our sun due to gravity. T Everything in our solar system revolves around the Sun because it has the most gravitational pull in our solar system due to its immense size.

MoonsMoons are natural satellites that revolve around something larger like a planets and asteroids. Most moons are usually made of rock. In our solar system every planet has moons except for Mercury and Venus. The Earth’s moon causes the Earth to experience tides. Finally, because of the Earth’s moon is tidally “locked” to the Earth only one side of the moon is visible to the Earth. The moon undergoes moon phases as it revolves around the sun.

PlanetsPlanets are celestial bodies that revolve around the sun in an elliptical shape. They are grouped into inner and outer, based on distance from the sun and common characteristics. The 4 inner planets are considered rocky planets and are smaller than the outer planets. The outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) are much larger in comparison and are considered “gas giants” because of their size and their primary make up of gases. Planets are big enough to other some smaller objects to revolve around them (moons) and to clear other larger objects from near their orbit. The Earth is the only planet/space object in our solar system known to have life.

Asteroids

Asteroids are metallic, rocky bodies without atmospheres that orbit the Sun but are too small to be classified as planets. Known as "minor planets," tens of thousands of asteroids orbit in the main belt: a vast, doughnut-shaped ring located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. One scientific theory is that many asteroids are leftover pieces that did not form into planets with the solar system formed.

Meteors, Meteoroids, & Meteorites1. Meteorites = A stony or metallic object from interplanetary space that impacts a planetary surface like

Earth.2. Meteor = A small rock in space that orbits the sun.3. Meteoroids - when a space rock enters the atmosphere, commonly known as a shooting star.

Meteoroids glow because of pressure from the Earth’s atmosphere heating and melting the gases on the meteoroid.

Our SunOur Sun is much larger than a planet and is composed of hot, glowing gases (mostly hydrogen & helium) that are continually undergoing nuclear fusion. The Sun does not have a solid surface. The sun is currently about 5 billion years old and has enough helium to “burn” for another 5 billion years. Because of the sun’s immense size it has enough gravitational pull to cause everything in our solar system to revolve around it.

CometsA small celestial body composed at least partially of ices and rock. Comets either orbit the Sun or pass through the Solar System on hyperbolic orbital paths sometimes taking 50-1000+ years to travel around the sun. Comets have sometimes have tails that trail behind them. Comets also have temporary atmosphere called a coma.

25

Unique Properties of Earth The Earth has several unique properties that that make it different from other celestial bodies within our solar system. First of all, Earth sustains life while no other celestial body has been found to sustain life. The Earth is unique and can sustain life for the following reasons. Because of the Earth’s distance from the sun we have a temperate climate allowing the atmosphere to not be too hot or too cold in most locations for life to exist. The Earth receives just the right amount of energy from the sun. Secondly, the Earth is the only known planet to contain free oxygen (not bonded with other elements) which allows the Earth’s atmosphere to be breathable. Additionally, because the Earth’s atmosphere is able to trap the correct amount of energy the Earth also heats and cools through the Greenhouse Effect. The greenhouse effect also allows the Earth to remain the correct temperature to sustain life. The Earth also has the right mix of gases to make our atmosphere breathable. Thirdly, the Earth has a surface containing liquid ocean water. All living organisms require water to live.

List 3 unique properties of Earth below:

1.

2.

3.

26

Our 9 planets notes

Planet Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto

Relative size° .

Named for Roman winged

God messenger

Roman Goddess of Love

Greek Meaning:

“to the ground”

Roman God of

War

Chief Roman

God

Roman God of

agriculture

Greek sky God Roman sea God

Greek God of the

underworld

Max. distance from sun

36 million miles

67 million miles

93 million miles

142 million miles

484 million miles

890 million miles

1780 million miles

2790 million miles

3660 million miles

Diameter 3030 miles 7520 miles

7920 miles

4220 miles

88,750 miles

74,560 miles

31,570 miles 30,200 miles

1430 miles

Average Temp. 872° Fto

-289° F

900 ° F 136 ° Fto

-130 °F

80° Fto

-190° F

-148 ° Fto

-238 ° F

-249 ° Fto

-292 ° F

-330 ° F -306 °F -351 ° F

Day length (rotation)

58 days 243 days 1 day 1 day 10 hours 10 hours 16 hours 18 hours 6.4 days

Year length (revolution)

88 days 225 days 365 days 687 days

12 years 30 years 84 years 165 years 248 years

Rings No No No No Yes Yes yes yes no

Number of Satellites/moons

0 0 1 2 63 60 27 13 1

Interesting facts

Clo

sest

to th

e su

n. A

tmos

pher

e th

in a

nd

mad

e of

hel

ium

.

Brig

htes

t obj

ect i

n th

e sk

y. T

he o

nly

plan

et to

rota

te in

clo

ckw

ise

dire

ctio

n.

Onl

y pl

anet

with

kno

wn

life,

eve

nly

heat

ed b

y th

e su

n, h

as re

adily

ava

ilabl

e w

ater

.

Has

2 p

olar

ice

caps

and

als

o ha

s sea

sons

.

Larg

est p

lane

t in

our s

olar

sys

tem

. Has

G

reat

Red

Spo

t whi

ch is

bel

ieve

d to

be

a st

orm

. Mad

e of

gas

.

Has

man

y rin

gs a

roun

d it

is m

ostly

mad

of

gas.

Its la

rges

t moo

n is

big

ger t

hen

mer

cury

.

It ha

s rin

gs. I

t lie

s on

its

side

as i

t orb

its

the

sun.

Far

thes

t pla

nt se

en w

ith a

te

lesc

ope.

Mad

e of

met

hane

gas

.

Mad

e of

mos

tly g

as w

ith so

me

stor

m

activ

ity. S

omet

imes

the

farth

est p

lane

t.

Muc

h lik

e th

e ro

cky

inne

r pla

nets

. So

met

imes

its

orbi

t goe

s in

side

of

Nep

tune

’s. N

ow c

onsi

dere

d a

dwar

f pl

anet

.

Motions of Space Objects Idea Organizers

27

Illustration:

Movement in Space

28

Rotation: Revolution:

Examples: Examples:

Illustration:

Causes: Causes:

Motions within Our Solar System

Cause of Day & NightDay and Night occur on Earth because of the rotation of the Earth on its axis. 1 Earth day lasts 24 hours. The length of daylight and dark vary depending on the season and a person’s location on Earth.

Cause of SeasonsSeasons on Earth are cause by the tilt of the Earth on its axis. In the Northern hemisphere the Earth is tilted more towards the sun during the summer and receives more direct energy from the sun. In the Northern hemisphere the Earth tilts more away from the sun in the winter and receives less direct energy from the sun.

Cause of TidesTides are the rising and falling of water in large bodies of water like oceans and large lakes. The gravitational pull of the moon on large bodies of water cause the water levels to rise and fall creating high and low tides twice a day. Tides are also affected by the gravitational pull of the sun. The gravitational attraction of the moon causes the oceans to bulge out in the direction of the moon. Another bulge occurs on the opposite side, since the Earth is also being pulled toward the moon (and away from the water on the far side. Since the earth is rotating while this is happening, two tides occur each day.

Cause of Moon PhasesThe lunar phases are created by changing angles (relative positions) of the earth, the moon and the sun, as the moon orbits the earth. At certain angles more or less of the sun’s light is reflected off the moon down to the Earth’s surface. During a full moon the entire sunlight moon is facing the Earth. During the new moon the other side of the moon receives the sun’s light and we cannot see it.

Highlights of Solar System Exploration

29

First Launches (rockets and satellites)

Space Exploration, quest to use space travel to discover the nature of the universe beyond Earth. Since ancient times, people have dreamed of leaving their home planet and exploring other worlds. In the latter half of the 20th century, that dream became reality. The space age began with the development and launch of the first rockets. After the rockets were developed the first artificial satellites were launched in 1957. The first artificial satellite to orbit Earth was Sputnik 1. Built by the Soviet Union and launched on October 4, 1957, Sputnik had an elliptical orbit, ranging in altitude from 225 to 950 km (140 to 590 mi). Sputnik broadcast a steady signal of beeps for 21 days and burned up in Earth’s atmosphere upon reentry on January 4, 1958. The Soviet Union also launched the first living creature, a dog named Laika, into space on November 3, 1957. Laika flew inside a pressurized chamber aboard the satellite Sputnik 2. She died from overheating and panic after a few hours in orbit. The United States launched its first satellite, Explorer 1, on January 31, 1958. Explorer 1 had a highly elliptical orbit, ranging in altitude from 360 to 2,500 km (220 to 1,600 mi). Scientists discovered the Van Allen radiation belts using data transmitted back to Earth from Explorer 1. On August 10, 1960, the United States launched a surveillance satellite, Discoverer 13 that carried the first artificial object ever retrieved from space. While Discoverer 13 remained in orbit it ejected a capsule earthward, which was then recovered by a team from the U.S. Navy.

1st Americans in Space-Mercury Program,

The Mercury Program was the first United States manned space program, conducted from 1961 to 1963. During the program's two-year span, six astronauts were launched into space and safely returned to Earth. The program employed more than 2 million people from government agencies and the aerospace industry. The Mercury program marked the entry of the United States into the “space race” with the former Soviet Union to send a person to the Moon. On May 5, 1961, 23 days after the Russian cosmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin became the first human being to be launched into space, Alan B. Shepard, Jr., a lieutenant commander in the U.S. Navy, became the first American astronaut to fly in space Virgil I. Grissom, a U.S. Air Force captain, was the second American to fly in space. The role of these 1st flights was to learn how to send people into orbit and return them safely to Earth.

Learning to Fly to the Moon – Gemini Missions

Gemini Program was a series of American piloted spacecraft launched to develop the techniques necessary to send humans to the moon. Gemini’s specific objectives were to rendezvous and dock with a second orbiting vehicle; and to learn how to keep astronauts and equipment in space for up to two weeks. The first Gemini mission was launched April 8, 1964, and the last mission was launched on November 11, 1966. During this 31-month period, 12 missions were launched, with the 10 piloted missions averaging a launch every 60 days. The Gemini program accomplished all of the goals NASA had set for it.

To the Moon – Apollo Missions

30

Apollo Program was an American piloted lunar-space program designed to land an astronaut on the Moon and return him safely to Earth, as well as to overtake the former Soviet Union in the race to dominate space exploration. Conducted between May 1961 and December 1972 by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the program successfully landed Neil Armstrong—the first person to walk on the Moon—and 11 other astronauts on the Moon.

Apollo 1 – January 27, 1967. This mission was never completed, because the command module caught on fire on the launch pad. 3 astronauts were killed.

Apollo 7 –October 11-12, 1968. This was the first manned module operations in the lunar program. It was the 1st live TV transmission from a spacecraft.

Apollo 8 – First manned orbit of the moon.

Apollo 10 – Dress rehearsal for the moon landing.

Apollo 11 – July, 16-24. 1969 First manned moon (lunar) landing. Neil Armstrong was the first person to set foot on the moon and said “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind”.

Apollo 13 April 11-17, 1970 Attempted to fly to the moon but had to abort mission due to oxygen tank rupture. Crew safely returned to the Earth.

Apollo 17 – December 7th – 19th. Last Lunar Mission.

Later Manned Space Flight – Shuttle Missions

NASA developed the shuttle in the 1970s to serve as a reusable rocket and spacecraft. After ten years of preparation, the first space shuttle, Columbia, was launched on April 12, 1981. Today NASA has three space shuttles: Discovery, acquired in 1983; Atlantis, which arrived in 1985; and Endeavour, which joined the fleet in 1991. Space Shuttle 1 flew during April 1981 and was the first reusable spacecraft. Sally Ride became the 1st women in space on the June 1983 flight. Sadly January of 1986 Space Shuttle No. 51-Challenger exploded during lift off killing all on board and on February 1, 2003, disaster struck again. The shuttle Columbia disintegrated and burned up while reentering Earth’s atmosphere after successfully completing a series of scientific experiments. The seven crewmembers, including the first Israeli astronaut, all died. Fortunately, there have been over 100 successful Shuttle missions through 2009.

31

Famous Astronomers Throughout History32

Aristotle, a famous Greek scientist, was born about 384 B.C. While a students with Plato he began to observe nature, record what he found and form theories about how nature worked. Aristotle agreed with the geocentric theory of Pythagoras and Eudoxus, believing that the planets revolved around the Earth. However he did not believe that the planets move in large circles. His observations led him to believe that the planets move in elliptical orbits. Aristotle was much respected and his theories were accepted as fact for hundreds of years until other scientists finally questioned his theories.

Nicalous Copernicus was born in Poland on February 19, 1473. He loved many sciences but especially astronomy. In 1514 at the age of 40, Copernicus wrote a paper challenging Aristotle’s theory that the sun revolved around the planets. He was the first state that the planets revolved around the sun though he though they moved in circles not elliptical orbits. His theory was called the heliocentric (sun centered) theory.

Italian Galileo Galilee was born on February 15, 1564. At first he hated science because he did not believe what was taught. He felt theories needed to be proven before they could be believed. Galileo used math to prove/disprove scientific theories. Galileo was responsible for inventing a large telescope to study the sky with (based on a toy someone else invented). Using his telescope Galileo notices that Venus had phases just like the moon. The observation gave him proof the planets revolved around the sun which proved Copernicus’ theory.

Johannes Kepler, was born December 27, 1571 in Germany. He supported the theories proposed by Copernicus and was the first person to accurately planetary orbit and determined the positions of the planets and how they orbit. He also stated the planets move in elliptical orbits.

Englishman Sir Isaac Newton was born on January 4, 1643. He is considered a scientific genius because he contributed to almost every branch of science. Newton was the first to accurately explain gravity and gravitational pull. This theory helped to explain the motions of objects on Earth and also around the solar system.

Astronomer Timeline

33

5.4.3.2. 1.

Astronomer Name:Year Born:Theories:

Current Unit: Potential/kinetic energy, sources of energy, & energy transformations.

Future learning: Heating of the Earth’s Atmosphere

Unit vocabulary: Know it…

Heard it…

No clue!

PotentialKineticFossil FuelsCoalOilNatural GasNuclearUraniumWind EnergyHydropower

HydroelectricSolar energyGeothermal

energyBiomass/BiofuelElectricityDisadvantageAdvantageTurbineElectrical energyTransformationLight energySound EnergyThermal/heat energyMechanical energy

Unit questions:

1. What is the difference between potential & kinetic energy? What are some examples?

2. What are 8 sources of energy and how do they provide energy?3. What is the difference between renewable & non-renewable

energy?4. How can energy transform into other forms of energy? What is

an example?

Unit verbsTransformGenerate

34

Ener

gyTypes of Energy

Sources of Energy

Renewable & Non-Renewable Energy

Energy Transformations

Energy =

2 Types =

Potential energy =

Kinetic Energy =

Potential and Kinetic Energy Notes

(1) Energy is the ability to do work. There are 2 kinds of energy: potential and kinetic.

(2) Potential energy is stored energy or energy of position. It is energy that is not in use and it is available to do work. Potential energy can increase or decrease based on the position or structure of an object. For example the height of a ramp or the size of an object affects potential energy. Another example is a lump of coal which stores potential energy until it is burned. The chemical energy in fossil fuels is also considered potential energy until it is released.

(3) Kinetic energy is energy of motion. It is energy that is in use, or the energy a moving objects has due to its motion. For example, moving water and wind have kinetic energy.

(4) One true constant of energy is change. Energy can change back and forth between potential and kinetic energy. Additionally, certain things can increase or decrease potential and kinetic energy. Things that change potential energy are the position of the object, its shape and its weight/mass. Things that affect kinetic energy are its speed and its weight/mass.

35

36

37

38

Energy =

8 sources =

Fossil Fuels =

3 types =

+ -

Nuclear energy =

+ -

Sources of Energy Notes

1)Energy is something that we, and all living things around us, use every day. The ultimate source of every energy form is the sun. There are many sources of energy. These include fossil fuels, nuclear energy, wind, water, solar, geothermal energies, and biomass energy.

2) Fossil fuels are made from the remains of plants and animals exposed to heat and pressure over very long periods of time. Coal, oil, and natural gas removed from underground are the primary fossil fuels. Coal is used as a heating fuel. Oil is refined into gas, oil, and lubricants. Natural gas is used as a heating and cooking fuel. Solar energy from the ancient past is stored in fossil fuels. These fuels are rich in hydrogen and carbon. Fossil fuels take a very long time to form and once gone are basically impossible to replace.

3. Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to produce electricity. In nuclear fission atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing energy. The fuel most widely used is uranium because it easily breaks apart. Uranium can commonly be found in rocks but once used up cannot be replaced.

39

Hydropower =

+ -

Solar Energy =

+ -

Geothermal Energy =

+ -

4) Energy gathered from moving water is called hydropower. Water moving from a higher level to a lower level turns turbines that create electricity. Sources of hydropower include dams, waterfalls, wave movement, and tidal movement. Water is considered free but in order for it to work the power plant must be near a water source.

5) Solar energy is radiation from the sun. The energy travels through space and strikes the Earth. Equipment is used to convert solar energy into electricity. It can be very expensive. Solar energy does not cause pollution and will not run out for billions of years.

6) Geothermal energy comes from intense heat within the Earth, which also produces springs, geysers, and volcanoes. Steam is piped to the surface of the Earth and then turns a turbine in an electric power plant. It does not produce pollution but can cause damage to the environment.

40

Biomass energy & biofuels =

+ -

Wind energy =

+ -

7) Biomass energy & biofuels are energy that comes from the burning or use of natural, organic materials. Examples of biomass material include garbage, trees, left over crops, animal waste, and paper products. Biomass materials are burned. The heat from the burning is used to boil water, create steam, and then turn a turbine which creates electricity.

8) Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the Earth’s surface. The wind’s energy can be gathered through the use of windmills. Although wind is free it is not constant. Windmills must be placed where there is a constant and strong wind flow. The energy from the wind turns turbines that create electricity.

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

Hydrogen as an “Energy Carrier”

Energy carriers move energy in a useable form from one place to another. (Electricity is the most well-known energy carrier. We use electricity to move the energy in coal, uranium, and other energy sources from power plants to homes and businesses. We also use electricity to move the energy in flowing water from hydropower dams to consumers. For many energy needs, it is much easier to use electricity than the energy sources themselves.)

Like electricity, hydrogen is an energy carrier and must be produced from another substance. Hydrogen is not currently widely used, but it has potential as an energy carrier in the future. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of resources (water, fossil fuels, or biomass) and is a byproduct of other chemical processes.

How Is Hydrogen Made?

Because hydrogen doesn't exist on Earth as a gas, it must be separated from other elements. Hydrogen atoms can be separated from water, biomass, or natural gas molecules. The two most common methods for producing hydrogen are steam reforming and electrolysis (water splitting).

Steam Reforming Is a Widely-Used Method of Hydrogen Production

Steam reforming is currently the least expensive method of producing hydrogen and accounts for about 95% of the hydrogen produced in the United States. This method is used in industries to separate hydrogen atoms from carbon atoms in methane (CH4). But the steam reforming process results in greenhouse gas emissions that are linked with global warming.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells Produce Electricity

Hydrogen fuel cells make electricity. They are very efficient, but expensive to build. Small fuel cells can power electric cars. Large fuel cells can provide electricity in remote places with no power lines.

Because of the high cost to build fuel cells, large hydrogen power plants won't be built for a while. However, fuel cells are being used in some places as a source of emergency power, from hospitals to wilderness locations.

Portable fuel cells are being sold to provide longer power for laptop computers, cell phones, and military applications.

55

Electrolysis Creates No Emissions but Is Costly

Electrolysis is a process that splits hydrogen from water. It results in no emissions, but it is currently an expensive process.

Hydrogen Use in Vehicles

Today, there are more than 300 hydrogen-fueled vehicles in the United States. Most of these vehicles are buses and automobiles powered by electric motors. They store hydrogen gas or liquid on board and convert the hydrogen into electricity for the motor using a fuel cell. Only a few of these vehicles burn the hydrogen directly (producing almost no pollution).

The present cost of fuel cell vehicles greatly exceeds that of regular vehicles in large part due to the expense of producing fuel cells.

The Refueling Challenge

Currently, there are 68 hydrogen refueling stations in the United States, nearly a third of which are located in California. There are so-called “chicken and egg” questions that hydrogen developers are working hard to solve, including: who will buy hydrogen cars if there are no refueling stations? And who will pay to build a refueling station if there are no cars and customers?

56

Word BankHydrogen IN Oxygen INWater OUT Energy OUT

Advantages and Disadvantage of Different Energy Sources57

Main Idea:

Positives:

How it works… Uses…

Negatives…

Other info…

Property: Advantage: Disadvantage:

58

Solar EnergyIt can be converted directly to electricity.It’s renewable.It takes a great deal of land for the solar cells.Building solar cells is expensive.It’s free and doesn’t cause pollution.

Wind EnergyNeeds a great deal of land for windmills.Equipment is easily damaged.It’s renewable.It’s free and doesn’t cause pollution.Few places have enough steady wind.

HydropowerIt’s renewable.It doesn’t create air pollution.Most good rivers have dams on them already.The dams can harm the surrounding land.Water levels go down during a drought.

GeothermalIt’s costly to build deep wells.

It causes less pollution then fossil fuels.It’s an unlimited renewable resource.

There are only a few places where magma is close enough to the surface of the Earth to use

it.Biomass

It’s renewable.It takes time for trees and biomass to be produced.Collecting and using gases produced by biomass can be expensive.Garbage and other products are produced often and in large quantities.

Fossil FuelsIt is not renewable.Fossil fuels will eventually run out.We know how to mine and use fossil fuels.When burned, fossil fuels cause pollution.

NuclearNuclear energy produces no air pollution.Waste has to be stored for a long period of time.Nuclear melt downs could spread radioactive energy.The U.S. has enough Uranium to produce electricity for 300 years.

Energy Transformation Notes

1) Energy transformation or conversion is the change of energy from one form to another. One of the most common energy conversions involves the changing of potential energy to kinetic energy or vice versa, kinetic energy to potential energy. However, other forms of energy can also be converted.

2) For example, the light energy from the sun can be converted directly into electrical energy. Additionally, plants use the light energy from the sun and convert it to stored chemical energy.

3) Chemical energy is when bonds holding atoms together are broken. Energy is released as the bonds break. For example, when you burn a fuel (like coal) the chemical energy is release to create heat, light and

59

mechanical energy. Other examples of chemical energy include a nuclear energy, a battery, wood, energy stored in your body.

4) Mechanical energy is energy of matter in motion. Some examples of mechanical energy include water falling, wind blowing, sound, and the blood flowing through your veins.

5) All matter is made up of atoms that are constantly moving. The internal motion of the atoms is called heat or thermal energy. The faster the particles move, the more heat energy is produced. When you rub your hands together (mechanical energy) heat energy is produced. Thermal energy changes the state of matter of substances. Heat moves in waves.

6) Electrical energy is caused by moving electric charges. Electrical energy causes there to be sound energy from your CD player, heat energy from your hair dryer and light energy from your lamps. Often a whole series of energy conversions is needed to do a particular job.

7) Sound energy is a vibration or wave of air molecules caused by the motion of an object. Sound waves require some kind of material to travel through. They can't move through a vacuum. Sound waves move much slower than light. Sound waves are like heat conduction. No particles actually travel.

Energy Transformation =

Conversion =

Most common =

Light sources =

Example:

Chemical energy =

Sources =

Example =

Mechanical energy =

Sources =

Example =

Heat/thermal energy =

Sources =

Example =

Electrical energy =

Sources =

Example =

Sound energy =

Sources =

Example =

60

Turbines, Generators, and Power Plants

Where does electricity come from? (1) Electricity is used by all people. Electricity flows through wires to

light our lamps, run TVs, computers and all other electrical appliances. But where does the electricity come from? Electricity is generated in a power plant. Various resources are used to produce electricity. Electricity is moved from power plants to homes, schools, and businesses.

Boilers heat water.(2) For step 1, thermal (heat) power plants have big boilers or

furnaces that burn a fuel to make heat. A boiler is like a teapot on a stove. When the water boils, the steam comes through a tiny hole on top of the spout. The moving steam makes a whistle that tells you the water has boiled. In a power plant, the water is brought to a boil inside the boiler, and then during step 2 steam is piped to the turbine through very thick pipes.

What happens to the steam & water?

(3) During step 3 the steam goes through the turbine and causes the blades of the turbine to turn. After the steam turns the turbine it usually

61

goes to a cooling tower outside where the steam cools off. It cools off and becomes water again. When the hot pipes come into contact with the cool air, some water vapor in the air is heated and steam is given off above the cooling towers. That’s why you see huge white clouds sometimes being given off by the cooling towers.

How a Generator Works

(4) The turbine is attached by a shaft to the turbo-generator. The generator has a giant magnet inside a stationary ring wrapped with long wire. You can see the inside of the generator coil with all its wires in the picture below.

The shaft that comes out of the turbine is connected to the generator. During step 4 when the turbine turns, the shaft and rotor is turned. As the magnet inside the generators turns, an electric current is produced in the wire. The electric generator converts mechanical, moving energy into electrical energy. Finally during step 5 the electricity produced by the generator moves through huge wires that link to power plant to our homes, schools, and businesses. All power plants have turbines and generators. Some turbines are turned by wind, some by water, and some by steam.

62

Unit Organizer Heating of the Earth’s Atmosphere SOL 6.3

63

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Make Up and Characteristics of Atmosphere Notes1) Earth is covered by a layer of air called the atmosphere. The atmosphere extends outward for many miles towards outer space. Gravity holds our atmosphere to the earth. Our atmosphere protects the Earth from falling space objects, helps keep the Earth the right temperature, and is weather takes place.

2) Air is a mixture of certain gases. It is made of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Water vapor is water in a gas form. There is only a tiny amount of water vapor in the air. Nitrogen makes up the largest portion of air, while oxygen makes up the 2nd largest portion. The two gases in the air that living things mainly use are carbon dioxide (plants) and oxygen (other living organisms).

3) Our atmosphere has a couple of specific characteristics. First, as you rise through the layers of the atmosphere the air pressure decreases. There is simply less air pressing down the higher you go. A person at the bottom of the mountain has more air pressure while a person at the top of the mountain has less pressure. This is the most basic change that happens in the atmosphere.

4) Secondly, as you rise through the atmosphere there are several temperature changes. Label the graph below hot and cold in the different layers. In the lowest layer, troposphere, temperature decreases as altitude increases.

64

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Layers of Atmosphere Notes

1)Our atmosphere is the blanket of air or layer of air around our Earth. There are 4 main layer which are classified according to temperature. The 4 main layers are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, and the thermosphere.

The thermosphere is the outermost layer of our atmosphere. This layer is special for several reasons. First, it is the hottest layer. The molecules of air are very far apart and are not very dense at all. This is because radiation from the sun hits this layer first. The nitrogen and oxygen in the layer change the radiation to heat. Radio waves travel through the lower parts of this layer, while satellites orbit at the tops of this level. The level can extend up to 300 km above sea level but there is no definite end. The molecules of air gradually thin out until there is nothing left.

The mesosphere reaches from 50 km to 80km above the Earth's surface. It's air is less dense then the two lower layers. It is the coldest layer-more the -100 F. This is the layer where most meteors burn up.

The stratosphere rises from the troposphere to about 50 km above the Earth's surface. This layer is unique because the temperature starts out very cold but then gets warmer near the top because the healthy layer of ozone lies here. The ozone layer absorbs radiation from the sun and protects us from harmful ultraviolet radiation. The stratosphere is less dense then the troposphere.

The layer closest to the Earth's surface is the troposphere. This layer is the thinnest-9-12 km thick. This layer is the most dense and were all the Earth's weather takes place. As you rise into the troposphere several things happen. First, the temperature gets colder. Second, the air becomes less dense and it is harder to breathe. Finally, there is less air pressure because there is not as much air pressing down from higher levels as there would be at sea level.

65

66

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Electromagnetic Spectrum Notes

1) Our atmosphere receives most of its energy from the sun. This energy travels in wave from the sun called electromagnetic waves, a form of energy that can travel through space. The direct transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves is called radiation.

2) A wave has several parts. A single rise or depression in a series of waves is a pulse. Any two consecutive pulses, one a rise and the other a depression, make up a wave. The high point of a wave is the crest and the low point is the trough. Wavelength is the distance between two waves and can be measured in crest to crest or trough to trough.

Electromagnetic Spectrum Parts include:

3) Visible Light is a mixture of all the colors that you see in the rainbow. The different colors are the results of different wavelengths of visible light. Red and orange light have the longest wavelengths. Blue and violet have shorter wavelengths.

4) Infrared radiation is a form of energy with wavelengths that are longer then red light. Infrared radiation is not visible, but can be felt as HEAT. It is emitted as heat and absorbed by cool bodies. Heat lamps used to keep food warm in restaurants give off both visible red light and invisible infrared radiation.

5) The sun also gives off ultraviolet radiation, which has wavelengths shorter then violet light. Ultraviolet radiation can’t be seen but our skin is very sensitive to it. It can cause sunburn, eye damage, and skin cancers.

6) Electromagnetic energy from the sun can be either absorbed or reflected. Clouds, the ground, water, and gasses absorb or soak up energy from the sun. Clouds, the ground, water and gasses also reflect or throw back the suns energy.

67

68

69

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

Radiation, Convection, and Conduction Notes

1) Energy transferred through empty space by electromagnetic waves is called radiation. When you feel the sun’s rays on your face or the heat from a campfire that is radiation. The Earth’s surface is heated by radiation.

2) Conduction is the transfer of heat from a warmer object to a cooler object through direct contact. This is why just the tip of a fire poker becomes hot when just the tip is left in the fire or why ice held in your hand will melt. Within the atmosphere, conduction is only important in a very thin layer of air that is touching the surface of the Earth.

3) Convection, on the other hand is the process of heat distribution within a fluid or gas. This happens through the movement of the fluid or gas. Convection is an important process in our atmosphere. First air near the ground is warmed through conduction and becomes less dense and rises. Next, convection moves that warm air upward. Finally, it rises it becomes cooler and more dense and sinks back towards the ground. The movement of heat in our atmosphere causes temperatures to change, winds to blow, and rain to fall.

70

71

72

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

Convection Currents Notes

1. Radiation, conduction, and convection work together to heat the bottom layer of the atmosphere (troposphere).

2. The first step to warm the Earth’s atmosphere is that some of the sun’s electromagnetic energy moves from the sun is absorbed by the surface of the Earth (ground & water) through radiation.

3. The 2nd step in the atmosphere’s convection current process is that the now warmed surface of the Earth heats the first few feet of air above the Earth’s surface through conduction. The air is directly touching the surface of the Earth. The air closest to the ground is usually the warmest.

4. Next, because warm air is less dense it begins to rise and move the heated air molecules with them. The molecules have more energy so they begin to move and bump into each other and transferring there heat through convection. Convection causes most of the heating of the bottom of our atmosphere.

5. As the air moves farther apart it begins to cool higher in the atmosphere and become denser. Cooler, denser air sinks back down to the surface of the Earth. The convection current cycle then starts again with the air being warmed near the surface of the Earth.

73

74

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

_________________________________________

Earth’s Energy Budget Notes

(1) The Earth’s energy budget is a measure of how the Earth uses the incoming solar energy. Of all the solar energy that reaches the out layers of the Earth’s atmosphere, only about half of it reaches the Earth’s surface. Once the sun’s energy enters the atmosphere, it can be absorbed, reflected, or scattered.

(2) Some of the energy is reflected. The clouds, the ground, water, dust, and water vapor reflect solar energy coming into the Earth’s atmosphere. About 4% of the sun’s energy is reflected right back into space. Sometimes energy can be reflected but then absorbed by the clouds etc. the 2nd time around.

(3) Some energy is absorbed-soaked up- by the ozone layer, water vapor and dust. Clouds can also absorb the energy. Some of the energy is scattered, or spread out in all directions. That is why the sky appears blue because that part of the electromagnetic spectrum is scattered more then the other colors. Energy that is absorbed into the ground then helps to heat air closest to the ground. The light energy returns to the atmosphere as heat energy and escapes from the Earth’s atmosphere. When that happens the energy budget is a balanced budget.

(4)

75

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

Greenhouse Effect Notes1) Incoming solar radiation from the sun is in close balance with the energy that leaves the atmosphere; otherwise the Earth would heat up or cool down. Some gases in our atmosphere trap heat which is called the greenhouse effect. They work like the glass roof of a greenhouse, trapping heat near the Earth’s surface. Without them the Earth would be too cold. With too much of them, Earth would be too hot.2) Water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane are all greenhouse gases. These gases come from several places. Humans burning fossil fuels, the car emissions, and the burning of wood all cause greenhouse gases. Another cause of an increase in carbon dioxide is the cutting down of rainforests. Tree and plants use CO2 to make food. They replace it with oxygen. With fewer trees, more carbon dioxide remains in the air.3) If the air heats up too much, Earth’s climate will change. Polar ice might melt and sea levels rise. Coastal areas would flood. Areas that grow many crops might become to dry. Global warming, a gradual increase in the Earth’s temperature, could also be a possible result. Our weather would also be affected because there would be warmer bodies of water, which would increase the number of hurricanes.

4) Global warming has been neither proven nor disproven. Some scientists say that the gradual increase in temperature in a normal fluctuation in the Earth’s climate that has always occurred. Other scientists say that the increase is too rapid and is a result of human activity.

76

77

Sun → _________________

_________ = pattern of temperature and precipitation over time

Sun’s affect on oceans/climate:

Water _________ heat from sun Waters ______ slowly in _____ ________ release heat all winter Places near oceans stay_______b/c of heat released by oceans.

Answer the following questions:

1. Which region is warmest in January?

2. Which region is warmest in July?

3. Which region is closest to the Atlantic Ocean?

4. Which region is coldest in January?

5. Which region is coldest in July?

6. Which region is farthest from the Atlantic Ocean?

7. What conclusion can we draw?The regions _________ to the ocean stay the warmest in the _________.

Climate, the sun, and our oceans

1. The sun has yet another affect on our Earth. By heating the oceans the sun is partly responsible for the climate on Earth. Climate is the pattern of temperature and precipitation typical of an area over a long period of time.

2. Water is able to absorb heat energy without showing relatively large changes in temperature. The oceans and other large bodies of water act to moderate the Earth’s climate of areas nearby to oceans by absorbing heat from the sun in the summer and then slowly releasing that heat in the winter. For this reason, the climate near large bodies of water is slightly milder (warmer) then areas without large bodies of water.

The chart below shows the average temperature of regions of VA both close to the ocean and more inland, away from the ocean.

78

RegionJanuary Average

TemperatureJuly Average Temperature

Tidewater Climate Region: includes Virginia's Tidewater & Hampton Roads, the southern Chesapeake Bay and Eastern Shore Regions

35-48 (F) 71-85 (F)

Piedmont Climate Region: includes Central Virginia Region

27-47 (F) 68-88 (F)

Northern Virginia Climate Region: includes Northern Virginia and northern Chesapeake Bay Regions

19-42 (F) 61-86 (F)

Western Mountain Climate Region: includes Virginia's Shenandoah Valley Region

27-45 (F) 65-87 (F)

Southwestern Mountain Climate Region: includes Virginia's Southwest Blue Ridge Highlands and Heart of Appalachia

24-44 (F) 60-85 (F)

79

Heating of our

Current Unit: Unique Properties of Water

Future learning:Watersheds

Unit vocabulary:

Adhesion

Cohesion

Polar

Universal Solvent

Density

Ice

Unit questions:

What makes water unique?Explain the difference between adhesion & cohesion and give examples of each.Explain why water is called the universal

What are the special characteristics of water when it is frozen?How does water help living organisms?

Unit verbsDissolveAdhereCohere

80

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Unique Properties of Water

Water has many properties that make it unique and different from all other substances especially liquids. Because of these unique properties water has unique effects on our environment.Among water’s unique properties is that one side of each water molecule is slightly negative and the other is slightly positive. Individual water molecules therefore attract other water molecules. In this way water molecules stick together. Water molecules sticking to each other is called cohesion. Water also bonds to other substances-adhesion. Adhesion allows water to form strong holds on other objects and also act in a capillary fashion. Adhesion allows for a “skin” called surface tension to keep some things out of water.

Water is called the universal solvent. A large number of substances will “dissolve” in water. Water bonds easily with things like sugar because sugar is magnetically charged. Because water is the universal our bodies are able to absorb and use substances like sugar.

Water is the only compound to commonly exist in 3 states (solid, liquid, and gas) This ability allows several things to happen. Water cools as it evaporates. This allows our bodies to stay at an even temperature. It also helps to cool bodies of water. Water is able to absorb heat energy without showing large changes in temperature. Large bodies of water act to moderate the climate of surrounding areas by absorbing heat in the summer and slowly releasing it in the winter. Evaporation releases this heat. Another characteristic unique to water is that it expands when it freezes. When water freezes the molecules actually move farther apart and become less dense the liquid water. The expanding of water as it freezes causes weathering on many substances.

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

_______________________________

____________________________

Adhesion and Cohesion Property of Water

1) The nature of the water molecule causes it to be attracted to other water molecules as well as to other substances. The structure of a water molecule (H20) causes it to have a positive end (or pole) and a negative end. Because it has opposite charges on either end, the water molecules is said to be polar; that means they are like magnets. The positive end of one molecule is attracted to the negative end of another molecule. This forms a bond between molecules.

2) The attraction between water molecules is called cohesion. The surface of water acts like a skin that keeps some things out. The skin is actually a layer of water molecules held tightly together by hydrogen bonds. This is why water forms drops and why some insects can “skate” on the surface of water. This phenomenon is called surface tension.

3) The attraction of water molecules to other substances is called adhesion. The molecules of water are attracted to substances that have negative and positive charges. Waters’ ability to stick to other materials allows water to move in small spaces like soil or be absorbed by paper towels.

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

_____________

Water as a Universal Solvent Notes

1) A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two materials. In a solution the following conditions must exist: 1) the 2 materials must be evenly spread out among each other; 2) the solution is transparent; 3) it is not possible to tell one material from the other; 4) one material will not settle out when left standing. Water is found in many solutions because the structure of the water molecule enables it to dissolve many materials.

2) The structure of the water molecules causes it to have a positive end (or pole) and a negative end. Because it has opposite charges at either end, the water molecule is said to be polar. Polar molecules act like magnets: opposites attract. The positive end of one molecule is attracted to the negative end of another molecule. This quality allows water to dissolve other substances.

3) 3) Water is often called the universal solvent-it can dissolve many substances. The individual molecules of the substance being dissolved (solute) are dispersed evenly throughout the solvent (the material dissolving the solute). During the dissolving process, the process the positive end of the water molecule (hydrogen) seeks out the negative charge of the solute. Additionally, the negative end of a water molecule (oxygen) will be attracted to the negative end of the solutes molecule. The magnetic attractions between water molecules and the molecules of another substance keep the mixture in solution.

4) 4) Solids, liquids, and gases can dissolve in water. Solid examples include sugar and salt. Alcohol is a liquid example. Gasses that dissolve in water include sulfur or chlorine.

83

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

__________

3 states of water within the Water Cycle

(1) Water is found all over our planet in one of three states: solid, liquid or gas. It is the only substance on Earth that is naturally able to exist in all of these forms. Additionally, water moves in these three states within the water cycle. Water moves continuously through the water cycle with no beginning or end. The water cycle is driven by energy from the sun.

(2) Water exists in a liquid form in many places-oceans, lakes, rivers, groundwater, underground water (aquifers), runoff, and others. Water also exists in liquid form in clouds. Additionally, water exists in liquid form in some forms of precipitation-rain.

(3) Water exists in its gaseous state in our atmosphere. The sun causes water to heat up, change state and evaporate. Water vapor (gas) is also released by plants into the air – transpiration. Water vapor returns to its liquid state high in the atmosphere when it cools and changes state back into a liquid. When a liquid changes from a gas to a liquid that is called condensation.

(4) Water exists in its solid form in glaciers and frozen bodies of water. Additionally, some forms of precipitation are solid like snow or hail.

(5) Water changes state because of temperature and pressure. The pressure around an object changes the temperature an object will change states at. Less pressure = high temperature need. Ex: to boil water at very high altitudes takes a higher temperature.

Label the picture below with solid, liquid, or gas.

85

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Water Density Notes

1) Water is one of the few substances on Earth that can be naturally found in all three states: solid, liquid, and gas. One difference between all of these states is density: how close water molecules are to each other. The amount of particles (mass) with in a certain space (volume) decides the density of a substance. Water vapor is the least dense because the molecules are the furthest apart from each other. Liquid water is most dense of the three states of water because its molecules are closest together.

2) Heating and cooling water affect the density of water. Heating water speeds up the movement of water molecules. As they move faster, the molecules bounce off of each other more and move farther apart. This lowers the density. Therefore, warm water is less dense then cold water. As water cools molecules lose heat energy and slow down. The water becomes denser. Warm water rises and cooler water sinks.

3) A unique property of water is that in its solid state-ice-it is less dense then water. Additionally, water when frozen

expands rather than shrinking like most liquids. The molecules in ice move very slowly and are far apart from each other. This is because when water freezes, the molecules spread out and are arranged in a lattice like pattern (think crystals). This formation increases the distance between water molecules, making ice less dense then liquid water.

88

Solid -ice liquid Gas-

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

____________

Origin of Water/Location of Water Notes

1. Scientific Evidence indicates that the Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago from the dust and debris orbiting the sun. Due to gravity this debris became compacted and grew quite hot, creating hot gases including water vapor and carbon dioxide. Over millions of years, the Earth and its gases cooled and seas are believed to have formed when the Earth cooled enough for water vapor in the air to condense.

2. Water that today exists in several locations as a liquid: oceans, rivers, lakes, ponds, and in aquifers underground. Much of the Earth’s water is frozen in glaciers and the ice caps. Some water also exists in its gaseous state in our atmosphere as water vapor.

3. Planet Earth is covered by almost 71% with water. Of that percentage 97% exists as saltwater in our oceans and seas. This means that 97% of the water found on Earth is undrinkable.

4. The remaining 3% of water is fresh water. However, most of that fresh water is frozen in the ice caps and in glaciers. Because of this it is unusable.

5. Most of the remaining fresh water is located underground in aquifers. There is only about 1% usable freshwater available to humans to use for drinking, crop irrigation, and use in our day to day life. Based on those facts it is very important to protect our fresh water supply. Once that supply is polluted or unusable it cannot be replaced.

89

Previous learning:

Properties ofWater

Current Unit: Watersheds

Future learning: Weather

Unit VocabularyHeardBefore…

NeverHeard…

Watershed

Tributary

Topographic

Divide

EcosystemAbiotic

Biotic

Wetland

EstuaryErosionWeathering

Runoff

Unit questions:

1. What happens to water in a watershed? What are the parts of a watershed?

2. What is a wetland and what is the job of a wetland?

3. What is weathering and what are a couple of examples?

4. What is erosion and what are a couple of examples?

Unit verbsWeatheringEroderunoff

90

Wat

ersh

eds

Ecosystems

Characteristics of Watersheds

Characteristics of Wetlands & Estuaries

Protecting our water systems

Ecosystems-We’re all in this together(1) Everything in the natural world is connected. An ecosystem is a community of living and non-living things that work together. The nonliving, physical features of the environment are the abiotic factors. Abiotic factors include water quality, distribution of plants and animals, usage of land by people, topography, landforms, soils, sunlight and air quality/oxygen availability, all of these things work together to help make an ecosystem healthy. The health of an ecosystem is directly tied to its water quality. The living organisms in an ecosystem-plants, animals, and insects-are called the biotic factors. An ecosystem can be as large as a desert or a lake or as small as a puddle. All the parts of the system have to work together to make a healthy system. If something is missing or hurt the whole ecosystem is damaged.(2) Soil is an important part of an ecosystem. It provides important nutrients for the plants in an ecosystem. It helps hold the plants in the soil. Soil absorbs and holds water for plants and lots of living organisms.(3) The atmosphere and air provides oxygen and carbon dioxide for the plants and animals in an ecosystem. The atmosphere is also part of the water cycle helping to provide water to all living things. (4) Heat and light from the sun are critical parts of an ecosystem. The sun’s heat helps water evaporate and return to the atmosphere where it is cycled back into water. The heat from the sun also keeps plants and animals warm. Without light from the sun there would be no photosynthesis and plants would have the energy they need to make food. (5) Ecosystems have many different living organisms that interact with each other. The living organisms in an ecosystem can be divided into three categories: producers, consumers, and decomposers. Producers are the green plants. The make their own food. Consumers are animals and they get their energy from the producers or organisms that eat the producers. Decomposers are plants and animals that break down dead plants and animals into organic materials that go back into the soil.(6) Without water there would be no life. Water is a large percentage of the cells that make up living things. Without water all life would die. In addition to being an important part of cells, water is also used by plants to carry and pass around the nutrients they need to survive. Water is also a key part of the water cycle. (7) It is important for humans to protect our natural ecosystems. We can do this by limiting pollution, restricting the development of land, and protecting our air, land, and water resources.

91

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Watershed Characteristics

1) A watershed is the land that water flows across or through on its way to a stream, lake, river, or wetland. Areas of higher elevations, such as ridgelines or divides separate watersheds. When there is precipitation, runoff from higher elevations to lower elevations helps to create streams, creeks, ponds, rivers, and bays. In Virginia there is a long divide called the “Fall Line” that runs through Richmond, Fredericksburg, and Arlington. It divides the Tidewater region from the Piedmont region.

2) River systems are made up of tributaries – smaller streams that join along their courses. Rivers and streams generally have wide flat, border areas called flood plains, onto which water spills out at times of high flow. Things that affect the amount of water that runs into a watershed include land use, geology, climate, and soil type. Flooding is made worse by building roads, buildings, and parking lots near bodies of water. Also changing the course of the stream and making it run straight instead of winding.

3) Water quality of a watershed must be protected. Some of the pollutants of watersheds come from runoff from a variety of sources. Those sources include roads, farms, factories, developments, business centers, parking lots, and housing developments. Other pollutants may come from the ground, acid rain. One problem that occurs is when organic matter from human or animal waste gets into water and decomposes. When the waste matter decomposes it uses up all the oxygen. It is important to limit the amount of pollutants that flow into the watershed. Laws and personal conservation help to improve and keep watersheds healthy.

4) The biggest source of water pollution is sediment. Sediment is dirt and other soils that get washed into the watershed. Erosion is the biggest cause of sediment being washed into a watershed. Erosion occurs when there are not plants or trees to hold the soil in place when it rains.

5) The three major regional watershed systems in Virginia lead to the Chesapeake Bay, the North Carolina sounds, and the Gulf of Mexico. Fredericksburg lies in the lower Rappahannock Watershed. Hazel Run and other local streams flow into the Rappahannock River, then the Chesapeake Bay, and eventually the Atlantic Ocean. In Virginia rivers generally flow southeast.

92

Virginia River Watersheds

93

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

Indicators of a Healthy Watershed Notes1) Water systems within a watershed can be analyzed to decide if a

water system is healthy. A healthy water system will have water that is clean and able to provide a safe ecosystem for the animals and plants that live within that ecosystem. Water quality is the measurement of several factors to determine the health of the environment.

2) 2) Dissolved oxygen in the water is an indicator of water quality. The higher the percentage of dissolved oxygen the better. 8.0 to 10.o indicates excellent water quality. Most animals need 4.0 or higher; fish need 5.0 or higher. Anything below 4. is unhealthy and below 1.0 is deadly. The dissolved oxygen level can be raised in several ways. Rapids, cool water temperature, plants, and a lack of pollution. Things that lower dissolved oxygen levels include calm water, warm water temperature, bacteria from pollution that consume oxygen, fertilizers that cause algae blooms (the blooms use up oxygen) and sediment (it blocks sunlight from oxygen producing plants)

3) 3) The pH (pH means percentage of hydrogen) level of the water also affects water quality. On an acidity scale from 0-14; below 7 is acidic; above 7 is a base; 7 is neutral. Living organisms are adapted to a specific pH level. If pH levels change then the types of organisms in the environment change. 6.5 to 7.5 is the BEST pH for the greatest variety of life.

4) 4) Another factor affecting water quality is water temperature. Temperature affects the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water and also photosynthesis of plants and algae. Temperature can be changed by warm water run off from streets. Erosion also affects water temperature because it causes the water to be cloudy and absorb more energy from the sun.

5) 5) The presence of macroinvertebrates are another good indicator of clean water. These are organisms that lack an internal skeleton and are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. They spend all or part of their life in the water. The type and amounts of macroinvertebrates help to indicate oxygen, pollution, and ph levels. Stoneflies, mayflies, and water pennies indicate high levels of DO. Aquatic worms and leeches indicate low DO levels or polluted water.

6) 6) Finally, how water looks and smells can give clues to the quality of water. Some examples of unhealthy water include muddy water from erosion (#1 water polluter) and green water from algae. Also white foam in large areas (from detergents) or an orange color on the bottom (from erosion or pollution). A rotten egg smell indicates the presence of sewage!

94

95

pH

Indicators of a Healthy watershed

Healthy water =Water quality =

Temperature

Macroinvertebrates

Dissolved oxygen

Look and Smell

Wetlands Notes

(1) Wetlands form the transition zone between dry land and bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, or bays. The most common types of wetlands are swamps, bogs, and marshes. All wetlands have 3 things in common: water, special soil, and specialized plants called hydrophytes. How these three things interact determine the type of wetland.

(2) Wetlands differ from one type to another. In all wetlands water is present at or near the ground surface for all or part of the time. Depth, duration, and frequency of flooding vary from wetland to wetland. Wetlands may be tidal or non-tidal and may contain fresh, salt, or brackish water. Wetlands may be any size or shape, from a low spot in a field that covers a few hundred feet to a large marsh that covers several hundred square miles. Wetlands are found everywhere but Antarctica and can be man made.

(3)Wetlands have many functions and benefits. They help to regulate runoff by storing flood waters; they reduce erosion by slowing runoff down; maintain water quality by filtering sediments, trapping nutrients and breaking down pollutants; they also provide food and shelter for wildlife and fish and nesting and resting areas for migratory birds. One of their main benefits is storing water. When water flows through a wetland nutrients and pollutants are removed by the plants in the wetland.

96

EstuariesCharacteristics of estuaries

An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water along the coastlines where freshwater from rivers and streams meet and mix with saltwater from the ocean. Water in estuaries is partly salty or brackish. Estuaries are places of transition from land to sea, and though influenced by tides, they are protected from ocean waves, winds, and storms by islands or peninsulas.

Types of estuaries and parts of estuariesEstuaries are often known as bays, lagoons, harbors, inlets, or sounds. (Though not everything

with those names is an estuary.) They are considered coastal wetlands. Another type of estuary is a salt marsh. The Chesapeake Bay between Virginia and Maryland is the largest estuary in the United States. Salt marshes are found mainly on the East Coast of the United States. Mangrove forests are another type found in tropical waters along Florida and the Gulf of Mexico. Estuaries have many plants and animals that are specially adapted to estuaries.

Job of Estuaries Estuaries have many roles. One is to provide habitats for many birds, mammals, fish, and other

wildlife. The estuaries provide a place to live, feed, and reproduce. Many species of fish lay their eggs in estuaries for protection. Wetlands around estuaries help drain sediments, carry nutrients, and filter pollutants. Estuaries also help produce cleaner water through the filter process. Additionally, estuaries help prevent flood damage especially during storms. Estuaries also provide recreation, like boating, fishing, and bird watching. Scientists use estuaries to

study biology, chemistry, geology and many more things. Estuaries also help some people earn a living, by providing areas for fishing, shipping, transportation, and industry.

Humans’ Effect on EstuariesMore and more of the human population has become concentrated around estuaries which is upsetting the natural balance of the ecosystem. People have dredged channels for ships to be able to pass through estuaries. Marshes and tidal flats have been filled in to provide housing and shopping developments. Estuaries have been overfished. The Chesapeake Bay has seen a sharp reduction in the number of crabs and oysters due to overfishing. Pollution for pesticides and fertilizers has run into estuaries. This causes unsafe drinking water, harmful algal blooms, fish kills, and loss of habitat. The beauty of estuaries is also affected by all of these human activities.

Protection of EstuariesProtecting estuaries can start with individuals. 1st, make an effort to conserve water. Additionally, limit your use of toxic fertilizers and pesticides. Toxic material can make its way into an estuary. Take hazardous waste products to an approved local drop-off site. Do not pour hazardous products down the drain. Any hazardous materials, such as gasoline or paint can get into an estuary via the drain. Avoid littering. Litter can travel into an estuary via the water supply or the wind and can harm animals and fish that live in the estuary. In addition, trash detracts for the natural beauty of an estuary, and encourages more littering. Minimize erosion and runoff by limiting the amount of paved surfaces (like sidewalks) that you have on your property. You can also dig small ditches and pathways to help collect storm runoff. Home owners can landscape with native plants that are already well adapted to your local environment and weather conditions, and so they will need less water and fertilizer.

97

Water Pollution-What causes it?

(1) Water can be polluted in any form. Pollution can be caused by nature or by human carelessness. Water pollution is any substance that has a negative effect on water or the living things that depend on water. Water pollution can affect surface water, ground water, and even rain.

(2) Pollutants can come from point source pollution or non-point source pollution. Point source pollution is when a specific source of pollution can be identified. Non-point source pollution is pollution that can’t be tied to an exact source. Sources of pollution include human and animal waste (sewage), chemicals, heated water, and strong acids, left over wastes, smoke, and exhaust from vehicles. Some pollution like pesticides and fertilizers run off of fields and roads into water sources. Human and animal waste can cause people to become sick. Other wastes become part of clouds and cause acid rain. One of the biggest problems with nuclear energy is the warm water created when water is used to cool off the nuclear reactors.

(3) Some types of pollution can be cleaned up. Some pollutants can be removed from water by the water cycle (evaporation, condensation, precipitation). Pollutants can also be removed by filtering through the soil. Wetlands are very good at filtering pollutants. The plants in wetlands absorb metals and chemicals. Also as water flows through a lake or stream pollutants will settle out and fall to the bottom of the lake or stream. Human have created water treatment plants to clean water. The best way of dealing with water pollution is preventing it in the first place. Laws have been passed to prevent pollution and programs created to help clean up wastes. Individuals should dispose of chemicals and other hazardous materials safely. Unfortunately not all pollutants can be removed and even if they are the pollutants can sometimes re-enter the water cycle.

98

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

Weathering and Erosion Notes

1) Weathering is the process that breaks down rock and other substances at the Earth’s surface. Factors that affect weathering are heat, cold, water and ice, as well as oxygen and carbon dioxide.

2) There are two types of weathering mechanical weathering and chemical weathering.

-Mechanical weathering breaks rocks and other substances into pieces by freezing and thawing, ice wedging, release of pressure, growth of plants, actions of animals, and the grinding away of rock by other rock particles. Mechanical weathering is very slow.

-Chemical weathering is the process that breaks down rock through chemical changes. Chemicals that can cause weathering are water, oxygen (rust), carbon dioxide (carbonic acid), living organisms, and acid rain. Chemical weathering creates soft spots or holes so the rock breaks apart more easily. Weathering happens over type and is affected by type of rock and climate.

3) Erosion is the movement of rock particles by wind, water, ice, or gravity. Erosion works together with weathering to wear down and carry away rock.

99

Previous learning: Watersheds

Current Unit: Weather Future learning: Protecting Our Environment

Vocabulary

Air pressure

Humidity

Temperature

Barometer

Hygrometer

Thermometer

Hurricane

Tornadoes

Thunderstorms

Cold Front

Warm Front

Weather

Map

Air Mass

Water Cycle

High Pressure

Low Pressure

Stratus Cloud

Cumulus

Cloud

Cirrus Cloud

Cumulonimbus Cloud

Heard Not Heard

Unit questions:

1. What are the layers of the atmosphere and what role do they play in our Earth’s atmosphere?

2. What 3 main factors affect weather and how do we measure those factors?

3. How do the main factors create different types of storms and what are those storms?

4. How can we use weather maps to predict weather and how do you read a weather map?

100

Wea

ther

Layers of the atmosphere

Factors affecting Weather

Weather Instruments

Storms

Reading a Weather map

A. B. C.

D. E.

Water Cycle Notes

1. The water cycle is the continuous process by which water moves through the living and nonliving parts of the environment. Water moves from bodies of water, land, and living things on the Earth’s surface to the atmosphere and back to the Earth’s surface. The sun is the source of energy that drives the water cycle.

2. The sun causes water to evaporate by warming the liquid water molecules causing them to change to water vapor. Because the water vapor is less dense it to rise through the atmosphere. Large amounts of water constantly evaporate from oceans, rivers, ponds, lakes, plants and even people. Plants give off water in a process called transpiration.

3. Warm water vapor molecules rise into the atmosphere until they reach a height were the air is colder. The colder air causes the water vapor to condense because cold air holds less water vapor then warm air. As the water vapor condenses back to liquid water the water molecules clump together around tiny dust particles in the air forming clouds.

4. As more water vapor condenses into the cloud the cloud becomes heavy. Eventually the cloud becomes so heavy that the liquid water falls from the cloud in the form of precipitation. Precipitation types include rain, snow, sleet, hail, freezing rain, and drizzle.

5. After the precipitation falls it accumulates or collects on the surface of the Earth. Water can accumulate in oceans, river, ponds, the soil, and other bodies of water.

101

3 ____________ that affect weather are:

1. temperature2. _______________3. air pressure

_______________ = amount of heat energy

Hotter air:1. _________ in all directions2. moves __________/carries energy3. rises ______ ↑

_______________= measures temperature

_______________: amount of water vapor in the air

** Only a little in air BUT affects weather and traps _________!!

_______________: measures humidity

________ ________ = less dense and lower _________

Air pressure dropping = ______, ________ _______ air

Air pressure rising= _________, ___________ air

Water vapor _____________ __________ as it cools and condenses.

________ ________ = less dense, less pressureBAD WEATHER (RAINY)

_______= more dense, more pressureGOOD WEATHER (CLEAR SKIES)

________ and ______ pressure are used to predict weather using a barometer.

Factors Determining Weather Conditions

1) Weather conditions are determined by 3 factors. The amount of heat energy in the atmosphere (temperature), the amount of water vapor (humidity) and the amount of air pressure at a given spot.

2) Heat energy can be measured in the form of temperature. Temperature is the measure of energy in air particles. Air moves around in different directions all the time. The hotter the air, the faster the air particles move. The faster the air particles move the more energy they carry with them.

3) The amount of water vapor in the air is called humidity. Air usually only contains about 0% to 4% water vapor. This tiny amount plays a major role in our daily weather. Water vapor helps make clouds and rain. Additionally, water vapor also is a heat trapping greenhouse gas.

4) As water travels through the water cycle several things happen. Once water vapor molecules enter the air, they replace an equal amount of air particles. Water vapor particles weigh less then air particles. So humid air is less dense and a lower pressure then dry air. In general, when air pressure drops, it usually means that warmer and more humid air is moving in. When air pressure rises, it means cooler, drier air is on the way.

5) Finally, water vapor releases heat energy as it cools and condenses. This heat energy helps to form clouds. This heat energy makes the moist air in the cloud warmer than the drier air outside the cloud. Thus, the moist air keeps rising upward, producing round, puffy tops.

6) Air pressure in a area will change on a daily basis. Warm air is less dense and in general, has a lower air pressure then cooler air. Cooler air is denser and there for has a higher pressure. In general low-pressure areas bring rainy weather, while high-pressure areas bring clear skies. By measuring air pressure each day and using weather maps, meteorologists can try to predict what the weather will be in our area.

102

____________________ measures _______________

____________________________________________

A __________________ measures temperature.

__________________ measures the __________

A ____________________ measures the -

____________________ measures the ________

________________________________________

A _____________________ measures the -

Instruments Used to Measure Weather

1) A thermometer is the instrument used to measure temperature or the amount of heat energy. Thermometers work when either mercury or alcohol absorbs heat from the air; expands and moves up the tube. Temperature can be measured on two scales-Fahrenheit (°F) or Celsius (°C).

2) A barometer is an instrument used to measure air pressure which is the weight of air on a given area. On a barometer 29in or below usually indicates bad weather. Air with lower pressure is usually warmer. 30 inches or above usually indicates good weather. Air with high pressure is usually cooler.

3) A hygrometer is an instrument used to measure humidity or the amount of invisible water vapor in the air. When water evaporates it replaces an equal amount of air molecules. Water vapor molecules weigh less then air particles. Because of this warm, humid air is less dense and has a lower pressure usually meaning rainy, bad weather.

103

Steps to cloud formation:1) Sun heats up ____________________2) Water vapor ___________________/rises up.3) Water vapor cool/condenses & becomes a liquid. → a ____________________.4) When the cloud is saturated precipitation falls

3 main types of clouds are:

___________________ (low) ___________________ (high) ____________________ (in the middle)

____________ ___________= gray, smooth, cover whole sky, layered.

Type of weather =

_____________ __________ = white, fluffy, flat bottomedType of weather =

_____________________ = storm clouds (thunderstorms, hurricanes, tornados) towering, very dark_______________ means - __________Type of weather =

___________ ____________ = High up, thin, feathery, made of ice

Type of weather =

Types of Clouds Notes

1) Before a cloud forms many things happen. First, the sun’s energy heats up a body of water. Then, some of the water evaporates, and because it is less dense rises into the air as water vapor. But, as it rises, the air becomes cooler causing the water vapor to condense back into droplets of water. The cloud actually forms when the water vapor condenses around particles of dust in the air. All these particles collect and form a cloud. There are 3 main types of clouds, stratus, cumulus, and cirrus.

2) Stratus clouds are gray, smooth sheets of clouds. They tend to be low in the atmosphere about 1.5 miles above the ground. They often cover the whole sky in long, blanket like layers. Stratus clouds usually bring no rain or a steady drizzle or snow.

3) Cumulus clouds look like white, flat-bottomed, puffy pillows. They can be found anywhere from 1.5 miles to 8 miles in altitude. Cumulus clouds usually indicated fair weather. Sometimes they bring showers also. Most cumulus clouds appear during fair weather.

4) One kind of cumulus cloud, the cumulonimbus, could produce thunderstorms. These clouds are dark towering clouds that reach almost to the stratosphere. Quickly rising warm air combined with sinking cool air creates cumulonimbus clouds. Thunder, lightning, and sometimes tornadoes and hurricanes occur in cumulonimbus clouds.

5) Cirrus clouds are the highest clouds. These thin, wispy clouds form 4-8 miles above the earth’s surface, where the air is very cold. Cirrus clouds look feathery because they are made of ice crystals. Cirrus clouds may appear during long periods of mostly clear skies; however the often indicate a change in weather, meaning rain or snow may be on the way.

104

105

Precipitation Notes1) Water evaporates into the air from every water surface on the Earth

and from living things. This water eventually returns to the surface as precipitation. Precipitation is any form of water that falls from clouds and reaches the Earth’s surface. Common types of precipitation include rain, sleet, freezing rain, hail, and snow.

2) The most common type of precipitation is rain. Drops of liquid water that are at least .5 mm in diameter. One raindrop is made up of about 1 million tiny cloud droplets. As the tiny droplets get bigger and hit against each other and join together. The droplets grow so large that finally they fall out of the cloud. Drizzle drops are smaller then raindrops..

3) Sleet starts off as rain. If the rain falls through a layer of cold air (below freezing), the raindrops freeze into hard pellets of ice. Sleet will fall when the air near the ground is below freezing, but the air in clouds is warmer.

4) Freezing rain is different from sleet. Rain that falls to the ground and instantly freezes is called freezing rain. A layer of ice builds up on trees and wire. A thick coating of ice can cause damage.

5) Hail starts off as tiny ice crystals in a cloud. These crystals fall through the cloud, but get caught in strong updrafts. Each time a crystal passes through the cloud, it gets another coating of ice. This can happen more than a dozen times. Hailstones can be the size of a pebble or as big as a baseball. Hail only forms within cumulonimbus clouds during a thunderstorm.

6) Snow forms when water vapor is converted directly into ice crystals called snowflakes. If the air on the way down stays below freezing then the precipitation will remain snow. The colder the air, the smaller the flakes. Warmer air can make snowflakes clump together into large wet clusters.

106

Precipitation =

Rain =

Sleet =

Freezing Rain =

Hail =

Snow =

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

Air masses and fronts1) Weather changes day by day. One of the

ways includes air masses and fronts. An air mass is a body of air hundreds of miles across. The temperature and humidity inside an air mass is about the same throughout. Air masses from in polar areas and in tropical areas.

2) For an air mass to form, it must stay in the same place for several weeks. For places like the United States, the weather changes often as different air masses move in . There are 4 different kinds of air masses. Moist tropical, dry tropical, moist polar ,and dry polar.

3) Interesting weather develops when a polar air mass meets a tropical air mass. The edges where the air masses meet are called fronts. When fronts move through an area, the weather changes. Usually there is precipitation.

4) Warm fronts form when a warm air mass pushes into a cold air mass. The warm air rises up and over the cold air. A warm front moves slowly through an area. Stratus clouds form along the front, and a gentle rain falls.

5) Cold fronts form when a cold air mass pushes into a warm air mass. A cold front has a steep slope. The warm air is pushed up suddenly by the cold air moving in and warm air condensing quickly. Storms and strong winds develop. Temperature and humidity drop after a cold front passes.

107

Thunderstorm Formation-

1. In cumulonimbus clouds2.3. Cold front4.

Damage-

Flooding, ____________, lightning

Thunder & lightning

Caused by ___________________rubbing together (static electricity)

Tornadoes Formation –

1.2. Warm air pushes through cold.

Fast Facts- Small area Short – 8-25 minutes Damage from – flying debris, strong winds

Hurricane Formation –

1. Must form over water

2.Fast facts -

Cover a large area

Winds 75-140 mph

Damage from

Storm Notes

1. Thunderstorms are one type of storm. Thunderstorms always form within in large cumulonimbus clouds or thunderheads. These clouds form when warm air is forced upwards along a cold front. Cumulonimbus clouds can form over land or water. They often form on hot, humid afternoons in the spring and summer. For the storm to form, the warm, moist air rises rapidly. As the air rises it cools forming towering, dark clouds. Rain from thunderstorms brings heavy rain, strong winds, lightening, thunder, and sometimes hail. They also can cause flash flooding. Lightening can cause fires, property damage, and injure people. Lightening is created when winds rub against water particles in the clouds and cause static electricity.

2. Tornadoes develop in cumulonimbus or thunderstorm clouds. Tornadoes always form over land when cold heavy air is pushed over quickly rising warm moist air. The warm moist air pushes through the cold air causing a spiral to form. Strong winds form around a low pressure center creating a funnel shape. Winds in a tornado can be up 500 m.p.h. and usually are accompanied by heavy rain, lightening, and thunder. They usually last 8 minutes. The strong winds destroy almost everything in its path. Tornadoes can suck up cars, houses, people, and animals. Much of the damage comes from debris.

3. Hurricanes form over warm ocean water in the tropics usually between the months of June and November. Hurricanes change from thunderstorms, to tropical storms (several thunderstorms added together) and finally into a hurricane. Hurricanes can have winds between 74-150 m.p.h. They are huge storms that can cover over 350 miles and last for days. Hurricanes are a huge swirling storm around a low pressure center called the “eye”. Damage from a hurricane can be tremendous because of strong winds, heavy rains, floods, and giant waves that crash onto the beach. Hurricanes die out once they reach land or move over cold ocean water because there is no longer warm, moist air to create the storm.

Natural and Human Effects on Weather, Atmosphere, and Climate

108

(1) There are several natural processes that affect the Earth’s atmosphere, weather, and climate. One natural process that has an effect on these 3 things is volcanic eruptions. When volcanoes erupt, they give off a great deal of gases like sulfur dioxide into the air. A great deal of ash and dust also erupts from volcanoes. One of the problems with volcanic ash and dust is that it can cause short term global cooling. This happens because the dust/ash gets thrown into the stratosphere and while it floats there it reflects incoming energy from the sun. This cools down the climate slightly. Cooling of the whole climate affects the weather because it changes the amount of heat coming to the earth and the amount of water vapor evaporating. Additionally, near an erupting volcano there is often a lot of rain, lightning, and thunder. This is because all the ash and dust particles that are thrown up into the atmosphere are good a attracting water droplets which creates clouds and causes precipitation.

(2) A second natural process that affects the Earth’s atmosphere, weather, and climate is forest fires. Burning fires add more carbon dioxide into the air increasing the greenhouse effect. Fires can also have the reverse effect of cooling the climate on a short term basis because the smoke reflects back some of the sun’s radiation.

(3) Human activities have a great deal of effect on the Earth’s atmosphere, weather, and climate. Some human activities that affect these three things are the burning of fossil fuels, vehicle exhaust, industry and factories, power plants, chlorofluorocarbons, and cutting down of trees.

(4) Fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas are burned to provide humans with certain things. Vehicles burn fossil fuels and give off carbon dioxide when we use our cars and trucks. Power plants primarily burn fossil fuels to create electricity. Other types of factories pollute the air with a variety of unhealthy chemicals. Chlorofluorocarbons come from refrigerators and air conditioners. CFCs break down the protective ozone layer in the stratosphere allowing dangerous radiation to enter the Earth’s atmosphere. Finally, by cutting down trees more carbon dioxide remains in the air leading to an increased greenhouse effect. Trees use carbon dioxide so when there are fewer trees there is automatically more carbon dioxide.

(5) All of these human activities cause several things to happen. Because of the additional carbon dioxide and CFCs in the air, the ozone layer has a hole in it and the global air temperature is rising (commonly called Global Warming). Additionally, when fossil fuels are burned (coal, oil, and natural gas) they mix with rain and fall to the ground as acid rain. This harms plants, sources of water, and objects outside all the time. Finally, pollution does not just stay where it happens. Air pollution moves from the west to east and move pollution from one place to another. For example, air pollution that affects the United States can be blown across the Atlantic Ocean and affect Europe as well.

(6) Air pollution affects our weather and climate. Increased temperatures from emissions of carbon dioxide cause more water to evaporate affecting the amount of rain and storms. Droughts may also occur where they have never occurred or last longer than before because of a lack of rain. Melting glaciers and ice caps due to global warming can change the amount of water in the oceans which also affects our weather and climate.

(7) Human can change their behaviors to help prevent climate changing. Reducing our need for fossil fuels and electricity made by fossil fuels are 2 ways. Using other sources of energy can replace fossil fuels. Cutting down less trees and/or replacing with new trees also helps to limit the amount of carbon dioxide. Limiting the amount of chemicals released by factories would also help. Laws have been passed (Clean Air Act) to improve this type of pollution. People can help by not polluting, carpooling, using less electricity, and using not polluting products in their homes.

109

Previous learning: Weather

Current Unit: Protecting our environment, pollution, conservation, waste management.

Future learning:Review for end of year test!!

Unit vocabulary: Heard No

clue-Conservation

Pollution

Reuse

Recycle

Reduce

Cost/benefit

Natural resourceRenewable

Non-renewable

Sustainability.

Unit questions:

1. How do people use natural resources and what are the best ways to use those resources to protect our environment?

Unit verbsConserve reducePolluteProtectReuserecycle

110

Prot

ectin

g ou

r Env

ironm

ent

Uses/pollution involving renewable & non-renewable

resources

Role of local, state, & federal governement in protecting

our environment.

Waste Management

Cost/benefit issues involved with renewable & non-renewable resources.

111

(1) ______________= anything made in nature or from nature. (Air, _______, plants, trees, animals, minerals, _______ _________.

________ is any material thrown away.

Most ends up in_________.

Some gets dumped or is litter.

Each person creates _______pounds of waste each day!

Not throwing away products made from natural resources ___________those resources.

(2) ___________ = creating less waste

Problems with waste:

Landfills may _________ Landfills take up ________ Landfills will ______ ____ of space

Examples: bag lunch, don’t use plastic bags, little packaging, reuse items like clothes, buy and use less stuff.

(3) ___________ = find another use for objects; don’t throw out stuff.

*This helps because less stuff ends up taking up space in_________, use less resources.

Examples: rewash items, donate clothes, toys, books.

(4) ____________ = breaking materials back down to raw materials and then making into new materials.

*helps because it reduces waste, use less new resources.*Examples:

Waste Management Notes

1) Most of the products used in the United States are made from natural resources like wood, oil (used to make anything plastic), glass, and water. Many of those products that come from natural resources become waste when we are through with them. Waste comes from homes, schools, businesses, factories, and other places. In the United States, we generate over 160 million tons of waste each year. That equals 3-5 pounds per person, per day. Waste management takes several forms, including, reducing waste, reusing, and recycling.

(2) Reducing waste means creating less waste in the first place. By doing this, less garbage goes into the landfills. Some of the problems with landfills include is that they can sometimes pollute the soil and groundwater. Landfills cannot be developed for housing or farms after they are filled up. Also as landfills fill up that means new ones must be created. Some ways of reducing waste include: carrying your lunch in a reusable bag, use a glass instead of a paper cup, pick products with little packaging, by products in bottles you can refill, and store left over food in reusable containers instead of foil or plastic wrap.

(3) Reusing means finding another use for an object rather than throwing it away. By using things more than once, you can cut down on how much goes in to the garbage. Reusing also helps save resources that come out of the earth to make new products. Some examples of reusing include: wash and reuse plastic sandwich bags, trade, sell, or give away old clothes, toys, and books; and turn old cans into pencil holders or planters.

(4) Recycling is taking the raw materials from already used items (cans, paper, foil, glass, and cardboard) and making it into something else. Recycling reduces the amount of solid waste. It also saves energy needed to get and process new raw materials from our natural resources.

112

113

114

Role of Local, State, and Federal Governments in Conservation

1) Conservation is the process of using a resource wisely so it will not be used up or harmed. The federal, state, local governments and individual citizens help to conserve our natural resources (water, air, soil, wildlife, forests, minerals, and fossil fuels). All of our natural resources can be harmed by pollution or over use.

2) The role of the Federal (national government) is to make laws that help protect and conserve our air, water, soil, forests, wildlife and to help manage waste. Some to the laws passed by Congress include:

A. Clean Water Act – passed in 1972 because bodies of water were becoming very polluted. Stops pollutants, keeps water quality safe, and protects wetlands.

B. Clean Air Act – Passed in 1966 because the air was being highly polluted and travels from state to state. Limits the amount of hazardous gases released from business and motor vehicles.

C. Superfund Act – Passed in 1980 because their were many hazardous waste sites where chemical and other wastes had been dumped. Provides money to clean up sites.

D. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act – passed in 1976. It regulates all solid waste disposal. Dumps became landfills and had to be managed.

3) The role of state and local governments is to enforce the laws that the Federal government passes. State/local governments can also make local laws to protect the area. Some of the ways state/local governments help conserve and protect our environment are the following departments and acts:

A. Department of Game and Inland fisheries: manage and plan tree harvesting. Also manage the up keep of forests and state parks. Also manages hunting and fishing.

B. Department of Forestry: plants trees, protects land from forest fires, manages park areas, protect and conserve Virginia land.

C. Department of Environmental Quality: manages solid waste disposal and requires that all areas have a plan for managing solid waste. Helps to improve water quality in Virginia water ways, especially the Chesapeake bay.

3. Individual citizens also play a role in properly maintaining and conserving our natural resources. Recycling, reusing, and reducing waste are three ways. Other ways to conserve and protect natural resources include:

A. Air- limit your use of motor vehicles, carpool, walk to places, turn off electrical appliances when not in use, raise or lower the temperature in your house, limit the amount of things you spray into the air, use energy efficient light bulbs.B. Water- don’t use pesticides and fertilizers, plant trees and other plants to prevent erosion, don’t litter, take care of cars so they don’t leak, properly dispose of waste, don’t let the water run when brushing your teeth, collect rain water to water plants with.C. Forests/Land/soil – don’t litter, prevent erosion by planting trees and plants, properly throw away waste, manage development of land, plant crops properly, selective cut trees, replant cut trees.D. Wildlife – don’t litter, manage development so habitats aren’t destroyed, properly dispose of waste, hunt and fish correctly.

E. Waste & sewage – limit the amount of waste you create, recycle any thing that can be recycled, reuse anything that can be used again, don’t litter, make sure to dispose of hazardous wastes properly, receive less junk mail, don’t use plastic bags.

115

116