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Scientific Writing
Galen GislerPhysics of Geological Processes
University of Oslo
Why learn scientific writing?
n It is a scientist’s duty to write papers and share his/her knowledge.You haven’t done the work unless you’ve written it up!
n You will have to write a master thesis.
n You will want to write scientific articles.
You will be judged by what you write and how well you write it.
Writing is learned by writing.
n Practice, practice, practice.
n Choose good role models.
n Study good examples.
n But there are also techniques and rules to learn.
Source:Michael Alley
The Craft of Scientific WritingSpringer 1996, ISBN 0387-94766-3
http://www.writing.eng.vt.edu/
n Introduction to Scientific Writing
n Formatting Scientific Documents
n Structure
n Illustrations
n Word Choices
n Grammar
Scientific Writing:An Introduction
Writing Guidelines for Studentshttp://writing.eng.vt.edu/
The Craft of Scientific Writing3rd edition (Springer-Verlag, 1996)
This presentation discusses the importance of scientific writing and introduces key principles
Importance of Scientific Writing
[Report, 1986]
This presentation discusses the importance of scientific writing and introduces key principles
Importance of Scientific Writing Key Principles
audience
purpose
occasion
[Report, 1986]
How well you communicate affects your career
Survey (Richard M. Davis) Successful engineers spent 25% of work week writing
Survey (Virginia Tech) Recruiters claim that engineers need more work on their writing
Survey (Wisconsin) Professional engineers found writing their most useful subject in college
How well you communicate affects the well-being of others
Space Shuttle Challenger(January 28, 1986)
[Report, 1986]
How well you communicate affects the well-being of others
Space Shuttle Challenger(January 28, 1986)
Explosion was caused by failure of O-rings in the solid rocket boosters
Engineers knew of O-ring problems well before fatal launch
Engineers failed to communicate seriousness of problem
[Report, 1986]
Scientists and engineers are called upon to communicate in many different situations
ReportsArticlesProposalsWeb Pages
ConferencesLecturesMeetingsPosters
Scientists and engineers are called upon to communicate in many different situations
specifictechnical
audiencesnon-technical
audiences
generaltechnical
audiences
ReportsArticlesProposalsWeb Pages
ConferencesLecturesMeetingsPosters
This presentation discusses the importance of scientific writing and introduces key principles
Importance of Scientific Writing Key Principles
audience
purpose
occasion
[Report, 1986]
Scientific writing differs from other kinds of writing
Subject Matter
[Franklin, 1952]
Scientific writing differs from other kinds of writing
Subject Matter Writing Constraints
audience
purpose
occasion
[Franklin, 1952]
Scientific writing differs from other kinds of writing
Subject Matter Writing Constraints
audience
purpose
occasion
Purpose of Writing
To inform
To persuade
[Franklin, 1952]
Scientific writing differs from other kinds of writing
Subject Matter Writing Constraints
audience
purpose
occasion
Purpose of Writing
To inform
To persuade
[Franklin, 1952]
Writing Style
[Peterson, 1987]
You should begin the writing process by analyzing your constraints
Purpose
Audience
Occasion
You should begin the writing process by analyzing your constraints
Purpose
Audience
Occasion
Who they areWhat they knowWhy they will readHow they will read
You should begin the writing process by analyzing your constraints
Purpose
Audience
Occasion
You should begin the writing process by analyzing your constraints
Purpose
Audience
Occasion
To informTo persuade
You should begin the writing process by analyzing your constraints
Purpose
Audience
Occasion
You should begin the writing process by analyzing your constraints
Purpose
Audience
Occasion
FormatFormalityPolitics and ethicsProcess and deadline
Three aspects of writing affect the way that readers assess your documents
Content
Style
Form
Style is the way you communicate the content to the audience
Structure
wordswordswordswordswordswordswordswordswordswordswordswords
wordswordswords
wordswordswordswordswordswordswords
Languagestyle
Illustration
[Peterson, 1987]
Form embodies the format and mechanics of the writing
format
typography
layout
mechanics
grammar
usage
punctuation
spelling
We can split the writing process into stages
Getting in the Mood
We can split the writing process into stages
Writing the First DraftGetting in the Mood
We can split the writing process into stages
Writing the First DraftGetting in the Mood
Revising, Revising, Revising
We can split the writing process into stages
Writing the First DraftGetting in the Mood
Revising, Revising, Revising
Finishing
An excellent way to improve your writing is to choose good models
Maria Goeppert Mayer
AIP
Linus Pauling
Cal-Tech
Formatting Scientific Documents
In scientific writing, formats vary considerably to serve different situations
FormalReports
In scientific writing, formats vary considerably to serve different situations
FormalReports
JournalArticles
In scientific writing, formats vary considerably to serve different situations
FormalReports
JournalArticles
PresentationSlides
Not all rules of format are constant
ReportsSandia Laboratories
Figure 1
Table 1
equation 1
Not all rules of format are constant
ReportsSandia Laboratories
Figure 1
Table 1
equation 1
TextbooksPrentice-Hall
Fig. 1
Table 1
equation (1)
Not all rules of format are constant
ReportsSandia Laboratories
Figure 1
Table 1
equation 1
TextbooksPrentice-Hall
Fig. 1
Table 1
equation (1)
JournalsASME
fig. 1
table 1
Eq. 1
Format is the arrangement of type on the page
typography
layout
Each typestyle has its own personality and power
Serif Sans Serif
Times New Romanabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz1234567890
Garamondabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz1234567890
Courierabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz1234567890
Each typestyle has its own personality and power
Serif Sans Serif
Arial BCGRSZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuwxyz1234567890
Helvetica BCGRSZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuwxyz1234567890
Comic Sans BCGRSZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuwxyz1234567890
Times New Romanabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz1234567890
Garamondabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz1234567890
Courierabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz1234567890
Each typestyle has its own personality and power
Serif Sans Serif
Avoid large blocks of capital letters
TYPE IS TO READ
Type is to read
Avoid large blocks of capital letters
TYPE IS TO READ
Type is to read
Avoid large blocks of capital letters
WORDS SET IN ALL CAPS USE MORE SPACE THAN TEXT SET IN LOWERCASE.
Words set in all caps use more space than words set in lowercase.
TYPE IS TO READ
Type is to read
Avoid large blocks of capital letters
WORDS SET IN ALL CAPS USE MORE SPACE THAN TEXT SET IN LOWERCASE.
Words set in all caps use more space than words set in lowercase.
TYPE IS TO READ
Type is to read
Morton-Thiokol’s presentation to NASA suffered because of all capital letters on the slides
Morton-Thiokol Presentation to NASAJanuary 27, 1986
PRIMARY CONCERNS -
FIELD JOINT - HIGHEST CONCERN
• EROSION PENETRATION OF PRIMARY SEAL REQUIRES RELIABLE SECONDARY SEAL FOR PRESSURE INTEGRITY
• IGNITION TRANSIENT - (0-600 MS) • (0-170 MS) HIGH PROBABILITY OF RELIABLE SECONDARY SEAL • (170-330 MS) REDUCED PROBABILITY OF RELIABLE SECONDARY SEAL • (330-600 MS) HIGH PROBABILITY OF NO SECONDARY SEAL CAPABILITY
• STEADY STATE - (600 MS - 2 MINUTES) • IF EROSION PENETRATES PRIMARY O-RING SEAL - HIGH PROBABILITY OF NO
SECONDARY SEAL CAPABILITY • BENCH TESTING SHOWED O-RING NOT CAPABLE OF MAINTAINING CONTACT WITH METAL PARTS GAP OPERATING TO MEOP • BENCH TESTING SHOWED CAPABILITY TO MAINTAIN O-RING CONTACT DURING INITIAL PHASE (0 - 170 MS) OF TRANSIENT
Morton-Thiokol’s presentation to NASA suffered because of all capital letters on the slides
Morton-Thiokol Presentation to NASAJanuary 27, 1986
PRIMARY CONCERNS -
FIELD JOINT - HIGHEST CONCERN
• EROSION PENETRATION OF PRIMARY SEAL REQUIRES RELIABLE SECONDARY SEAL FOR PRESSURE INTEGRITY
• IGNITION TRANSIENT - (0-600 MS) • (0-170 MS) HIGH PROBABILITY OF RELIABLE SECONDARY SEAL • (170-330 MS) REDUCED PROBABILITY OF RELIABLE SECONDARY SEAL • (330-600 MS) HIGH PROBABILITY OF NO SECONDARY SEAL CAPABILITY
• STEADY STATE - (600 MS - 2 MINUTES) • IF EROSION PENETRATES PRIMARY O-RING SEAL - HIGH PROBABILITY OF NO
SECONDARY SEAL CAPABILITY • BENCH TESTING SHOWED O-RING NOT CAPABLE OF MAINTAINING CONTACT WITH METAL PARTS GAP OPERATING TO MEOP • BENCH TESTING SHOWED CAPABILITY TO MAINTAIN O-RING CONTACT DURING INITIAL PHASE (0 - 170 MS) OF TRANSIENT
Choose a type size that is easy to read
48 point
36 point
24 point
18 point
14 point
12 point
10 point
8 point
posters
presentation slides
titles
text
footnotes
In your layouts, use white space for association, emphasis, and hierarchy
spaceformargins
space forillustrations
space forheadings
Follow the format that is expected or required for the situation
Structure: the Strategy of Style
Beginning
Ending
Middle
If a man can group his ideas, then he is a writer. Robert Louis Stevenson
Beginning
Ending
Middle
The organization of a scientific document can be viewed as a beginning, middle, and ending
TitleSummaryIntroduction
Beginning
Ending
Middle
The organization of a scientific document can be viewed as a beginning, middle, and ending
TitleSummaryIntroduction
Middle Sections
Beginning
Ending
Middle
The organization of a scientific document can be viewed as a beginning, middle, and ending
TitleSummaryIntroduction
Middle Sections
ConclusionsBack Matter
Beginnings prepare readers for understanding the work
Summary tells readers whathappens in document
Introduction prepares readersfor the middle
Title orients readers todocument
A strong title orients readers toyour area of work
Effects of Humidityon the Growth of Avalanches
A strong title orients readers toyour area of work
Effects of Humidityon the Growth of Avalanches
Effects of Humidityon the Growth
of Electron Avalanchesin Electrical Gas Discharges
A strong title also separates yourwork from everyone else's work
Studies on the Electrodeposition of Lead on Copper
A strong title also separates yourwork from everyone else's work
Studies on the Electrodeposition of Lead on Copper
Effects of Rhodamine-Bon the Electrodeposition
of Lead on Copper
Several names for summaries exist
Summary
Abstract
TechnicalAbstract
ExecutiveSummary
DescriptiveAbstract
InformativeAbstract
Although several names exist for summaries, there are essentially two approaches
This paper describes a new inertial navigation system for mapping oil and gas wells. In this paper, we will compare the mapping accuracy and speed for this new system against the accuracy and speed for conventional systems.
Descriptive
This paper describes a new inertial navigation system that will increase the mapping accuracy of oil wells by a factor of ten. The new system uses three-axis navigation that protects sensors from high-spin rates. The system also processes its information by Kalman filtering (a statistical sampling technique) in an on-site computer. Test results show the three-dimensional location accuracy is within 0.1 meters for every 100 meters of well depth, an accuracy ten times greater than conventional systems.
Informative
A document's introduction prepares readers for the discussion
Topic?
Introduction
A document's introduction prepares readers for the discussion
Topic?Importance?
Introduction
A document's introduction prepares readers for the discussion
Topic?Importance?
Introduction
Background?
A document's introduction prepares readers for the discussion
Topic?Importance?
Introduction
Arrangement?Background?
The introduction defines the scopeand limitations of the work
Proposed Study on Effects of Alcohol
on Life Expectancy
Three classes of drinkers: non-drinkers moderate drinkers heavy drinkers
Ten-year study
Men surveyed
scope
The introduction defines the scopeand limitations of the work
Proposed Study on Effects of Alcohol
on Life Expectancy
Three classes of drinkers: non-drinkers moderate drinkers heavy drinkers
Ten-year study
Men surveyed
scope
limitations
The introduction defines the scopeand limitations of the work
Proposed Study on Effects of Alcohol
on Life Expectancy
Three classes of drinkers: non-drinkers moderate drinkers heavy drinkers
Ten-year study
Other effects,such as exercise,not considered
Medical historiesnot considered
Women may notexperience thesame effects
Men surveyed
scope
limitations
A strong introduction tells readerswhy the research is important
This paper presents a design for a platinum catalytic igniter in hydrogen-air mixtures. This igniter has application in nuclear reactors. One danger at a nuclear reactor is a loss-of-coolant accident. Such an accident can produce large quantities of hydrogen gas when hot water and steam react with zirconium fuel rods. In a serious accident, the evolution of hydrogen may be so rapid that it produces an explosive hydrogen-air mixture in the reactor containment building. This mixture could breach the containment walls and allow radiation to escape. Our method to eliminate this danger is to intentionally ignite the hydrogen-air mixture at concentrations below those for which any serious damage might result.
importance
In the middle of a report, you present your work
Choose a logicalstrategy
Make sectionsand subsections
Heading Subheading SubheadingHeading Subheading Subheading SubheadingHeading
[Sandia, 1985]
Common strategies exist for the middles of scientific reports
Chronological
[Maizels, 2001]
Spatial
[Pratt & Whitney, 2000]
Common strategies exist for the middles of scientific reports
Parallel Parts
Corel Corporation
Flow
[Sandia, 1985]
Section headings should be descriptive and parallel
IntroductionBackgroundMarx GeneratorsLine PulseBeam GenerationTransporting BeamPelletsResultsConclusions
ParallelDescriptive
Introduction
Past Designs for Particle Beam Fusion
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion Charging Marx Generators Forming Line Pulse Generating Particle Beam Transporting Particle Beam Irradiating Deuterium-Tritium Pellets
Results of New Design
Conclusions and Recommendations
Section headings should be descriptive and parallel
Non-ParallelNon-Descriptive
IntroductionBackgroundMarx GeneratorsLine PulseBeam GenerationTransporting BeamPelletsResultsConclusions
ParallelDescriptive
Introduction
Past Designs for Particle Beam Fusion
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion Charging Marx Generators Forming Line Pulse Generating Particle Beam Transporting Particle Beam Irradiating Deuterium-Tritium Pellets
Results of New Design
Conclusions and Recommendations
When you divide a section into subsections, all the pieces should be of the same pie
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Pellets
When you divide a section into subsections, all the pieces should be of the same pie
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Pellets
When you divide a section into subsections, all the pieces should be of the same pie
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Pellets
When you divide a section into subsections, all the pieces should be of the same pie
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Pellets
When you divide a section into subsections, all the pieces should be of the same pie
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Pellets
When you divide a section into subsections, all the pieces should be of the same pie
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Pellets
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Irradiating Deuterium-Tritium Pellets
When you divide a section into subsections, all the pieces should be of the same pie
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Irradiating Deuterium-Tritium Pellets
When you divide a section into subsections, all the pieces should be of the same pie
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Irradiating Deuterium-Tritium Pellets
Organization is hidden when headings occur in a long list without secondary headings
Performance ofthe Solar One Receiver
IntroductionSteady State EfficiencyAverage EfficiencyStart-Up TimeOperation TimeOperation During Cloud TransientsPanel Mechanical SupportsTube LeaksConclusion
Organization is hidden when headings occur in a long list without secondary headings
Performance ofthe Solar One Receiver
IntroductionSteady State EfficiencyAverage EfficiencyStart-Up TimeOperation TimeOperation During Cloud TransientsPanel Mechanical SupportsTube LeaksConclusion
Performance ofthe Solar One Receiver
IntroductionReceiver’s Efficiency Steady State Efficiency Average EfficiencyReceiver’s Operation Cycle Start-Up Time Operation Time Operation During Cloud TransientsReceiver’s Mechanical Wear Panel Mechanical Supports Tube LeaksConclusion
Many journal articles follow a set organization named IMRaD
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
Introduction
In a strong ending, you analyze resultsand give a future perspective
ConclusionsAnalysis of Results
Future Perspective
In a strong ending, you analyze resultsand give a future perspective
Analyze results from overall perspective
ConclusionsAnalysis of Results
Future Perspective
In a strong ending, you analyze resultsand give a future perspective
Analyze results from overall perspective
ConclusionsAnalysis of Results
Several options:Make recommendationsDiscuss future workRepeat limitations
Future Perspective
Use appendices to supply backgroundfor secondary audiences
Appendix AConcern About the Greenhouse Effect
For almost a hundred years, experts have been concerned with the increasing concentrations of gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen oxides in the earth's lower atmosphere. These gases are natural by-products of combustion. Figure A-1 illustrates the correlation between global temperature and carbon dioxide concentrations...
Use appendices to supply secondary or tangential information to primary readers
Appendix BProject Stormfury
In 1961, the United States Weather Bureau and the Department of Defense (Navy) began a project to reduce the strength of hurricanes. The project, called Project Stormfury, uses cloud seeding, a process used to produce rainfall and reduce hail in thunderstorms. In Project Stormfury, silver iodide crystals, similar in structure to ice, are dispersed by airplanes in the upper reaches of cloud formations just outside the hurricane's eye where the winds are highest. Initial results showed that wind speeds decreased between 15–30% after seedings...
Glossary
burst point: the exact point in space where an atomic bomb is detonated.
clear visibility: a viewing range of twenty miles.
fallout: the descent to the Earth's surface of radioactive particles from a cloud contaminated with the fission products of a nuclear explosion.
hypocenter: the point on the earth's surface directly below the burst point; also called ground zero.
For secondary readers, use a glossaryto define unfamiliar terms
Failing to cite the contribution of others can be a fatal flaw in your career
James Watson surreptitiously looked at Rosalind Franklin’s work
[Franklin, 1952]
Failing to cite the contribution of others can be a fatal flaw in your career
James Watson surreptitiously looked at Rosalind Franklin’s work
[Franklin, 1952]
Watson did not give enough credit to Franklin
[Luzzati, 1950]
Keep it as simple as possible, yet no simpler. Albert Einstein
Illustration:The Meshing of Words With Images
X-ray photograph of DNA [Rosalind Franklin, 1952]
Table 1. Reactor power levels in Chernobyl accident [Wolfson, 1991].
Date Time Power Level
4/25 1:00 am 3200 MW
4/25 2:00 pm 1600 MW
4/25 11:10 pm 1600 MW
4/26 1:00 am 30 MW
4/26 1:19 am 200 MW
4/26 1:23 am 2,000,000 MW
Two types of illustrations exist: tables and figures
Table 1. Reactor power levels in Chernobyl accident [Wolfson, 1991].
Date Time Power Level
4/25 1:00 am 3200 MW
4/25 2:00 pm 1600 MW
4/25 11:10 pm 1600 MW
4/26 1:00 am 30 MW
4/26 1:19 am 200 MW
4/26 1:23 am 2,000,000 MWFigure 1. Simplified diagram of nuclear reactor [Wolfson, 1991].
CoolantLoss Reactor
Vessel
Core
Pressurizer
SteamGenerator
Two types of illustrations exist: tables and figures
Table 2. Sequence of events in the Chernobyl accident [Wolfson, 1991].
April 25
April 25
April 25
April 26
April 26
April 26
Date Time Power Level Event
1:00 a.m.
2:00 p.m.
11:10 p.m.
1:00 a.m.
1:19 a.m.
1:23 a.m.
3200 MW
1600 MW
1600 MW
30 MW
200 MW
2,000,000 MW
Operators begin power descent
Power descent delayed for 9 hoursEmergency core-cooling system disconnected
Operators switch off automatic controlPower descent resumed
Power minimum reached
Operators pull rods beyond allowable limitsOperators start two additional coolant pumpsOperators violate coolant flow limits
Power surges by factor of 10,000 in 5 seconds
Tables can present words as well as numbers
When presenting numerical data, youchoose between tables and graphs
Time(hour)
midnight2:004:006:008:00
10:00noon2:004:006:008:00
10:00
Normal(mg/dl*)
100.393.688.2
100.5138.6102.4
93.8132.3103.8
93.6127.8109.2
Diabetic(mg/dl)
175.8165.7159.4
72.1271.0224.6161.8242.7219.4152.6227.1221.3
Table 2. Blood glucose levels [Carlson, 1982].
* decaliters/milligram
When presenting numerical data, youchoose between tables and graphs
Time(hour)
midnight2:004:006:008:00
10:00noon2:004:006:008:00
10:00
Normal(mg/dl*)
100.393.688.2
100.5138.6102.4
93.8132.3103.8
93.6127.8109.2
Diabetic(mg/dl)
175.8165.7159.4
72.1271.0224.6161.8242.7219.4152.6227.1221.3
Table 2. Blood glucose levels [Carlson, 1982].
* decaliters/milligram Hour
Figure 11. Blood glucose levels for normal individual and diabetic [Carlson, 1982].
12:00 6:00 am 12:00 6:00 pm 12:00
BloodGlucoseLevel(mg/dl)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
BreakfastLunch Dinner
Normal
Diabetic
Temperature(K)
Distance From Burner (mm)
Figure 3. Computational and experimental temperatures for laminar diffusion flames [Sandia, 1987].
ExperimentSimulation
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 2 4 6
Line graphs are common in engineering and science
Figure 4. Response of T-cells in cosmonauts after short-term and long-term flights [Konstantinova, 1991].
Cells%
Flight Duration (Days)
10
20
30
7-10
112–175 211–366
Normal range
Bar graphs compare wholes
Figure 5. Schedule for the construction, evaluation, and production phases of the Solar One Power Plant.
Task 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989
Construction
Test and Evaluation
Power Production
Gantt charts are a type of bar charts
Industrial wastes(28%)
Medical and research wastes(16%)
Power reactor wastes(64%)
Power React orI ndustri alMedicalGover nmentGovernment wastes
(2%)
Figure 5. Volume of low-level nuclear wastes from various sources [League, 1985].
Pie graphs compare parts of a whole
Figure 6. Estimated annual dose of radiation in the United States [GPU Nuclear, 1985].
Average dose: 160 mrem
NaturalSources
MedicalSources
85 mrem
70 mrem
{Fallout: < 3mremOccupational: < 1mremNuclear power: < 1mrem
Graphs come in many forms
When presenting images, you choose between photographs, drawings, and diagrams
When presenting images, you choose between photographs, drawings, and diagrams
When presenting images, you choose between photographs, drawings, and diagrams
Compressor
Combustor1
2 3
4
Turbine
The main advantage of photographs is realism
Figure 2. Space Shuttle Challenger, from about 59 seconds to 60 seconds into launch (January 28, 1986). On the right rocket, flame first becomes visible and then impinges on tank.
59 seconds
59.5 seconds
60 seconds
One advantage of drawings is control of detail
Figure 5. Wind tunnel experiment at Virginia Tech for evaluating film-cooling designs for the blades of gas turbine engines [Thole and others, 2000].
SecondaryFlow
PrimaryFlow
SecondaryFlow
One advantage of drawings is control of detail
Figure 5. Wind tunnel experiment at Virginia Tech for evaluating film-cooling designs for the blades of gas turbine engines [Thole and others, 2000].
SecondaryFlow
PrimaryFlow
SecondaryFlow
Turbine Vanes
Combustor Simulator
One advantage of drawings is control of detail
Figure 5. Wind tunnel experiment at Virginia Tech for evaluating film-cooling designs for the blades of gas turbine engines [Thole and others, 2000].
SecondaryFlow
PrimaryFlow
SecondaryFlow
Turbine Vanes
Combustor Simulator
Dilution Jet
Film-Cooling Holes
The main advantage of a diagram is the ability to show flow of a variable through a system
Figure 8. Schematic of test stand for evaluating components of an air conditioner design.
Figure 5. Schematic of thermalstorage system.
The thermal storage system stores heat in a huge, steel-walled tank. Steam from the solar receiver passes through heat exchangersto heat the thermal oil, which is pumped into the tank. The tank then provides energy to run a steam generator to produce electricity. A schematic of this system is shown in Figure 5.
Scientists and engineers often use illustrationsthat are too complex for the text
RECEIVER
FLASHTANK
HPHTR
DEAR-ATOR
HOTWELL
TSSG
TURBINE
TSU
DSPH
TSH
FT
The thermal storage system, shown in Figure 6, stores heat in a huge, steel-walled tank. Steam from the solar receiver heats a thermal oil, which is pumped into the tank. The tank then provides energy to run a steam generator to produce electricity.
Figure 6. Schematic of thermal storage system for the solar power plant.
steamgenerator
650°F 580°F
425°F435°F
solarreceiver
575°F
425°F
530°F
250°F
ThermalTank
HeatExchanger
HeatExchanger
The precision of the illustrationsshould reflect the precision of the text
Figure 7. Title of figure. Some formats allow you extra sentences to explain unusual details.
..., as shown in Figure 7.
For clarity, you should introduce andexplain illustrations in the text
The testing hardware of the rocket shown in Figure 8 has five main components: camera, digitizer, computer, I/O interface, and mechanical interface. Commands are generated by the computer, then passed through the I/O interface to the mechanized interface where the keyboard of the ICU is operated. The display of the ICU is read with a television camera and then digitized. This information is then manipulated by the computer to direct the next command.
Inconsistencies between text andimages disrupt fluidity
The testing hardware of the rocket shown in Figure 8 has five main components: camera, digitizer, computer, I/O interface, and mechanical interface. Commands are generated by the computer, then passed through the I/O interface to the mechanized interface where the keyboard of the ICU is operated. The display of the ICU is read with a television camera and then digitized. This information is then manipulated by the computer to direct the next command.
PRINTERCONTROLTERMINAL
COMPUTERDIGITIZER
CAMERA
ELECTRO-MECHANICALINTERFACE
ROCKET
Figure 8. Testing hardware.
Inconsistencies between text andimages disrupt fluidity
Our system for testing the launch controls of the rocket consists of four main parts: computer, electro-mechanical interface, camera, and digitizer. In this system (shown in Figure 9), the computer generates test commands to the rocket through the electro-mechanical interface. The test results are read with a television camera, and then digitized. The computer receives the information from the digitizer, and then directs the next test command.
Figure 9. System to test launch controls for rocket.
CameraDigitizer
ComputerElectro-MechanicalInterface
1 2
34
Rocket
Illustration is the meshing of words with images
Language:the Way We Use Words
Short words are the best, and short words when old are best of all. Winston Churchill
Concise
Familiar
Clear
Fluid
Precise
Forthright
wordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordword
wordword
word
word wordwordwordwordwordwordword
word
wordword
word word
Generalities that are not anchored with specifics are soon forgotten
After recognizing some problems with the solar mirrors, we took subsequent corrective measures.
Generalities that are not anchored with specifics are soon forgotten
After recognizing some problems with the solar mirrors, we took subsequent corrective measures.
Trash
Generalities that are not anchored with specifics are soon forgotten
After recognizing some problems with the solar mirrors, we took subsequent corrective measures.
Trash
After finding that high winds (and not hail) had cracked the ten solar mirrors, we began stowing all mirrors in a horizontal position during thunderstorms.
For precise language, you should avoid over-specifying details
The number of particular hydrocarbon combinations in our study is enormous. For example, the number of possible C20H42 is 366,319 and the number for C40H82 is 62,491,178,805,831.
For precise language, you should avoid over-specifying details
The number of particular hydrocarbon combinations in our study is enormous. For example, the number of possible C20H42 is 366,319 and the number for C40H82 is 62,491,178,805,831.
The number of hydrocarbon combinations in our study is enormous. For example, the number of possible C40H82 is more than 62 trillion.
For precision, you must choose theappropriate level of detail
Operations at the plant stopped momentarilybecause the thermal storage charging systemdesuperheater attemperator valve was replaced.
For precision, you must choose theappropriate level of detail
Operations at the plant stopped momentarilybecause the thermal storage charging systemdesuperheater attemperator valve was replaced.
Operations at the plant stopped for 1.5 hoursso that a valve in the thermal storage systemcould be replaced.
Complex wording buries ideas
The goal of this study is to develop a commerciali-zation strategy for solar energy systems by analyzingfactors impeding early commercial projects (i.e., SOLAR ONE) and by identifying the potential actionsthat can facilitate the viability of the projects.
R.I.P
Complex wording buries ideas
The goal of this study is to develop a commerciali-zation strategy for solar energy systems by analyzingfactors impeding early commercial projects (i.e., SOLAR ONE) and by identifying the potential actionsthat can facilitate the viability of the projects.
R.I.P
Complex wording buries ideas
This study will consider why current solar energysystems, such as Solar One, have not reached thecommercial stage and will find out what steps we can take to make these systems commercial.
The goal of this study is to develop a commerciali-zation strategy for solar energy systems by analyzingfactors impeding early commercial projects (i.e., SOLAR ONE) and by identifying the potential actionsthat can facilitate the viability of the projects.
Stacking adjectives before nouns swallows the ideas
Solar One is a 10 megawatt solar thermal electric central receiver Barstow power pilot plant.
Stacking adjectives before nouns swallows the ideas
Solar One is a 10 megawatt solar thermal electric central receiver Barstow power pilot plant.
Stacking adjectives before nouns swallows the ideas
Solar One is a solar-powered pilot plant located near Barstow, California. Solar One produces 10 megawatts of electricity by capturing solar energy in a central receiver design.
Solar One is a 10 megawatt solar thermal electric central receiver Barstow power pilot plant.
Complex sentences misdirect readers
The goal of the work was to confirm the nature of electrical breakdown of nitrogen in uniform fields at high pressures and electrode gaps which approach those obtained in engineering practice, prior to the deter-mination of the processes which set the criterion for breakdown in the above-mentioned gas in uniform and non-uniform fields of engineering significance.
Complex sentences misdirect readers
The goal of the work was to confirm the nature of electrical breakdown of nitrogen in uniform fields at high pressures and electrode gaps which approach those obtained in engineering practice, prior to the deter-mination of the processes which set the criterion for breakdown in the above-mentioned gas in uniform and non-uniform fields of engineering significance.
Complex sentences misdirect readers
The goal of the work was to confirm the nature of electrical breakdown of nitrogen in uniform fields at high pressures and electrode gaps which approach those obtained in engineering practice, prior to the deter-mination of the processes which set the criterion for breakdown in the above-mentioned gas in uniform and non-uniform fields of engineering significance.
At high pressures (760 torr) and typical electrode gapdistances (1 mm), the electrical breakdown of nitrogen was studied inuniform fields.
The more muddled the original, the more revisions are needed to streamline it
At high pressures (760 torr) and typical electrode gapdistances (1 mm), the electrical breakdown of nitrogen was studied inuniform fields.
The more muddled the original, the more revisions are needed to streamline it
At high pressures (760 torr) and typical electrode gapdistances (1 mm), the electrical breakdown of nitrogen was studied inuniform fields.
In our study, we examined the electrical breakdown of nitrogen in uniform fields. For these experiments, the electrode gap distances were typical (1 mm), while the pressures were relatively high (760 torr).
One measure for the complexity of the writing is the Gunning Fog Index
In the index, the complexity of the writing depends on(1) the lengths of sentences(2) the lengths of words
Desired index values forscientific writing are 10-12:New York Times (11)Scientific American (12)
Fi = 0.4 ((Nw / Ns )+ Plw ) Nw = number of words in a typical paragraph Ns = number of sentences in the paragraph Plw = percentage of long words in the paragraph
An ambiguity is a group of words that can have more than one meaning
We examined neat methanol and ethanol and methanol and ethanol with 10% water.
An ambiguity is a group of words that can have more than one meaning
We examined neat methanol and ethanol and methanol and ethanol with 10% water.
We examined four fuels: neat methanol, neat ethanol, methanol with 10% water, and ethanol with 10% water.
Ambiguities occur for many reasons
?????????The proposed schedule is discussed below for the next four years.
Ambiguities occur for many reasons
?????????
???????As light hydrocarbons evaporate the oil vapor pressure falls.
The proposed schedule is discussed below for the next four years.
Ambiguities occur for many reasons
?????????
???????As light hydrocarbons evaporate the oil vapor pressure falls.
Although engineers realized the design flaws in the Titanic soon after its sinking in 1912, the reasons for the severe damage inflicted by the iceberg remained a mystery until its discovery in 1985.
???
The proposed schedule is discussed below for the next four years.
Pretentious diction often causesproblems with tone
approximately
facilitate
implement
individualized
operationability
utilization
about
Pretentious diction often causesproblems with tone
approximately
facilitate
implement
individualized
operationability
utilization
about
cause; bring about
Pretentious diction often causesproblems with tone
approximately
facilitate
implement
individualized
operationability
utilization
about
cause; bring about
carry out
Pretentious diction often causesproblems with tone
approximately
facilitate
implement
individualized
operationability
utilization
about
cause; bring about
carry out
individual
Pretentious diction often causesproblems with tone
approximately
facilitate
implement
individualized
operationability
utilization
about
cause; bring about
carry out
individual
can operate
Pretentious diction often causesproblems with tone
approximately
facilitate
implement
individualized
operationability
utilization
about
cause; bring about
carry out
individual
can operate
use
Pretentious diction often causesproblems with tone
approximately
facilitate
implement
individualized
operationability
utilization
Weak verbs hide the energy of your work
A new process for eliminating nitrogen oxides from diesel exhaust engines is presented. Flow tube experiments to test this process are discussed. The percentage decrease in nitrogen oxide emissions is revealed.
Weak verbs hide the energy of your work
A new process for eliminating nitrogen oxides from diesel exhaust engines is presented. Flow tube experiments to test this process are discussed. The percentage decrease in nitrogen oxide emissions is revealed.
This paper presents a new process for eliminating nitrogen oxides from the exhaust of diesel engines. To test this process, we performed experiments in flow tubes. These experiments revealed a 99 percent decrease in nitrogen oxide emissions.
A formal definition has a specific form
nounterm +noun naming class
to which noun term belongs
information to separate noun term from other terms in class
noun term noun
term
noun term noun
termnoun termnoun
term
noun term
A formal definition has a specific form
Bremsstrahlung: the radiation emitted by a charged particle that is accelerated in the Coulomb force field of a nucleus.
nounterm +noun naming class
to which noun term belongs
information to separate noun term from other terms in class
noun term noun
term
noun term noun
termnoun termnoun
term
noun term
To tighten your writing, eliminate redundancies and writing zeroes
Vibration measurements made in the course of the Titan flight test program were complicated by the presence of intense high-frequency excitation of the vehicle shell structure during the re-entry phaseof the flight.
To tighten your writing, eliminate redundancies and writing zeroes
Vibration measurements made in the course of the Titan flight test program were complicated by the presence of intense high-frequency excitation of the vehicle shell structure during the re-entry phaseof the flight.
Vibration measurements made in the Titan flight were complicated by intense high-frequency excitation of the vehicle shell during re-entry.
Examples anchor abstract generalities
By the late Middle Ages, cities throughout Europe were building Gothic cathedrals. The only way, however, that architects could test a new design was to build the cathedral, a process that took more than forty years. Unfortunately, many cathedrals caved in during or after construction. What took forty years to test in the Middle Ages could have been done in minutes on a supercomputer.
William Wilson
Mount St. Helens erupted on May 18, 1980. A cloud of hot rock and gas surged northward from its collapsing slope. The cloud devastated more than 500 square kilometers of forests and lakes. The effects of Mount St. Helens were well documented with geophysical instruments. The origin of the eruption is not well understood. Volcanic explosions are driven by a rapid expansion of steam. Some scientists believe the steam comes from groundwater heated by the magma. Other scientists believe the steam comes from water originally dissolved in the magma. We need to understand the source of steam in volcanic eruptions. We need to determine how much water the magma contains.
When sentence openers do not vary, the sentences do not seem to connect Z
ZZ
Varying sentence openers allows for more kinds of transitions between sentences
Sentence Sentence Sentence
Varying sentence openers allows for more kinds of transitions between sentences
Sentence Sentence Sentence
Topic of Sentence SubjectTime of action Prepositional PhraseLocation of action Prepositional PhraseManner of action AdverbSubordinate action Dependent ClauseReason for action Infinitive Phrase
Vary sentence openers to vary rhythm
Mount St. Helens erupted on May…
subject-verb
prepositional phrase
adverb
dependent clause
infinitive phrase
Vary sentence openers to vary rhythm
Mount St. Helens erupted on May…
subject-verb
In minutes, the mountain emitted…
prepositional phrase
adverb
dependent clause
infinitive phrase
Vary sentence openers to vary rhythm
Mount St. Helens erupted on May…
subject-verb
In minutes, the mountain emitted…
prepositional phrase
Recently, debate has arisen... adverb
dependent clause
infinitive phrase
Vary sentence openers to vary rhythm
Mount St. Helens erupted on May…
subject-verb
In minutes, the mountain emitted…
prepositional phrase
Recently, debate has arisen... adverb
Although the exact time of the eruption surprised scientists, evidence had been collected...
dependent clause
infinitive phrase
Vary sentence openers to vary rhythm
Mount St. Helens erupted on May…
subject-verb
In minutes, the mountain emitted…
prepositional phrase
Recently, debate has arisen... adverb
Although the exact time of the eruption surprised scientists, evidence had been collected...
dependent clause
To understand the eruption, we have to...
infinitive phrase
Varying sentence openers enlivens the writing and allows connections
Mount St. Helens erupted on May 18, 1980. Its slope collapsing, the mountain emitted a cloud of hot rock and gas. In minutes, the cloud devastated more than 500 square kilometers of forests and lakes. Although the effects of the eruption were well documented, the origin is not well understood. Volcanic explosions are driven by a rapid expansion of steam. Recently, debate has arisen over the source for the steam. Is it groundwater heated by magma or water originally dissolved in the magma itself? To understand the source of steam in volcanic eruptions, we need to determine how much water the magma contains.
Avoiding Common Errors of Grammar
One of the most important skills a writer can have is the ability to compose clear, complete sentences. The sentence is the basic unit of communication in all forms of English.
Funk, McMahan, and Day Elements of Grammar
Not all mechanical errors bother readers in the same way
Errors thatdisturb
run-on sentenceits/it’sspell checker ignored
Not all mechanical errors bother readers in the same way
Errors thatdisturb
run-on sentenceits/it’sspell checker ignored
Errors thatdistract
missing intro commafaulty parallelismunclear pronoun ref
Not all mechanical errors bother readers in the same way
Errors thatdisturb
run-on sentenceits/it’sspell checker ignored
Errors thatdistract
missing intro commafaulty parallelismunclear pronoun ref
Errors that few even notice
different from/thancontractionsplit infinitive
The most important aspect of grammaris understanding what a sentence is
Sentence: A sentence is group of words with a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought.
The most important aspect of grammaris understanding what a sentence is
Sentence: A sentence is group of words with a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought.
Fragment: A fragment being a group of words that either is missing a subject or a verb or does not express a complete thought.
The most important aspect of grammaris understanding what a sentence is
Sentence: A sentence is group of words with a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought.
Fragment: A fragment being a group of words that either is missing a subject or a verb or does not express a complete thought.
Run-on: A run-on is two or more independent clauses that are not joined properly, for instance, a common mistake is to have a comma between the clauses.
Which are sentences (S), fragments (F), or run-ons (RO)?
Rubidium has no major uses, however, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has dramatically increased its concentration this past century.
Several systems can detect plastic explosives. For example, thermal neutron activation systems, nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray systems.
Which are sentences (S), fragments (F), or run-ons (RO)?
Rubidium has no major uses, however, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has dramatically increased its concentration this past century.
Several systems can detect plastic explosives. For example, thermal neutron activation systems, nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray systems.
RO
Which are sentences (S), fragments (F), or run-ons (RO)?
Rubidium has no major uses, however, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has dramatically increased its concentration this past century.
Several systems can detect plastic explosives. For example, thermal neutron activation systems, nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray systems.
RO
S
Which are sentences (S), fragments (F), or run-ons (RO)?
Rubidium has no major uses, however, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has dramatically increased its concentration this past century.
Several systems can detect plastic explosives. For example, thermal neutron activation systems, nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray systems.
RO
S
S / F
Shown in yellow are corrections to the errors from the previous slide
Although rubidium has no major uses, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has dramatically increased its concentration this past century.
Several systems can detect plastic explosives. Examples include thermal neutron activation systems, nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray systems.
Note that there are several ways to correct each of these errors
Rubidium has no major uses; however, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Rubidium has no major uses, but it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Rubidium has no major uses. This metal, however, is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Making lists parallel is another important aspect of grammar
Printed circuit board relays are limited to small coil voltages, contact ratings, and lack multi-pole configurations.
Making lists parallel is another important aspect of grammar
Printed circuit board relays are limited to small coil voltages, contact ratings, and lack multi-pole configurations.
Printed circuit board relays are limited to small coil voltages and contact ratings, and lack multi-pole configurations.
Making lists parallel is another important aspect of grammar
Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes, sores, and may leave the area.
Making lists parallel is another important aspect of grammar
Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes, sores, and may leave the area.
Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes, sores, and wandering tendencies.
Making lists parallel is another important aspect of grammar
Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes, sores, and may leave the area.
Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes and sores, and may leave the area.
Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes, sores, and wandering tendencies.
Placing a modifier in its appropriate place is also important in grammar
These proteins indicate to the body what hormones should be given off among other things.
Placing a modifier in its appropriate place is also important in grammar
These proteins indicate to the body what hormones should be given off among other things.
These proteins indicate, among other things, to the body what hormones should be given off.
Placing a modifier in its appropriate place is also important in grammar
These proteins indicate to the body what hormones should be given off among other things.
These proteins indicate, among other things, to the body what hormones should be given off.
In meeting the staff of the Parks Department, the greatest problem was that of water leakage.
Placing a modifier in its appropriate place is also important in grammar
These proteins indicate to the body what hormones should be given off among other things.
These proteins indicate, among other things, to the body what hormones should be given off.
In meeting the staff of the Parks Department, the greatest problem was that of water leakage.
From the staff of the Parks Department, we learned that the greatest problem was that of water leakage.
Unclear pronoun references cause ambiguities
Because the receiver presented the radiometer with a high flux environment, it was mounted in a silver-plated stainless steel container.
If you receive an e-mail titled "Win A Holiday," do not open it. It will erase everything on your hard drive. Forward this e-mail out to as many people as you can. This is a very malicious virus and not many people know about it.
Unclear pronoun references cause ambiguities
it???Because the receiver presented the radiometer with a high flux environment, it was mounted in a silver-plated stainless steel container.
If you receive an e-mail titled "Win A Holiday," do not open it. It will erase everything on your hard drive. Forward this e-mail out to as many people as you can. This is a very malicious virus and not many people know about it.
Unclear pronoun references cause ambiguities
it???Because the receiver presented the radiometer with a high flux environment, it was mounted in a silver-plated stainless steel container.
If you receive an e-mail titled "Win A Holiday," do not open it. It will erase everything on your hard drive. Forward this e-mail out to as many people as you can. This is a very malicious virus and not many people know about it.
This???
Unclear pronoun references cause ambiguities
it???Because the receiver presented the radiometer with a high flux environment, it was mounted in a silver-plated stainless steel container.
If you receive an e-mail titled "Win A Holiday," do not open it. It will erase everything on your hard drive. Forward this e-mail out to as many people as you can. This is a very malicious virus and not many people know about it.
This???this???
Avoiding Common Errors of Punctuation
Punctuation marks are the traffic signs and signals placed along the reader’s road. They tell him when to slow down and when to stop, and sometimes they warn him of the nature of the road ahead. Traffic engineers do not always agree on what signs should be used and where they should be placed, and neither do writers or editors. Theodore M. Bernstein The Careful Writer
,
Punctuation rules are designed to have sentences be read one way
Colon: a colon introduces a formal list, long quotation, equation, or definition.
Semi-Colon: a semi-colon either joins two independent clauses (closely linked in thought) or separates complex items in a list.
Dash: a dash acts as a parenthesis to separate items that cannot be separated by commas.
Comma: a comma separates details in a sentence.
A colon introduces a formal list, long quotation, equation, or definition
We studied five types of marsupials: opossums, bandicoots, koalas, wombats, and kangaroos.
The laboratory growth of this crystal made possible a new astronomical tool: a gamma-ray detector with high-energy resolution.
A colon introduces a formal list, long quotation, equation, or definition
We studied five types of marsupials: opossums, bandicoots, koalas, wombats, and kangaroos.
The laboratory growth of this crystal made possible a new astronomical tool: a gamma-ray detector with high-energy resolution.
In formal writing, what is on the left side of the colon should stand alone as a separate sentence.
Once the list ends, the sentence ends.
Although equations are separated by white space, they should be treated as part of the sentence
To calculate the strain, ε, we used equation 1:
where σ is the stress estimated by FEPC and E is the modulus of elasticity of aluminum.
ε =σE
(1,
Em-dashes act as parentheses to separate items that commas cannot
Because two isotopes of hydrogen—deuterium and tritium—are lightweight, can be produced easily, and require little energy, they are prime candidates to begin the fusion process.
After one year, we measured mirror reflectivity at 96 percent—a high percentage, but not as high as originally expected.
Em-dashes act as parentheses to separate items that commas cannot
Because two isotopes of hydrogen—deuterium and tritium—are lightweight, can be produced easily, and require little energy, they are prime candidates to begin the fusion process.
After one year, we measured mirror reflectivity at 96 percent—a high percentage, but not as high as originally expected.
Because two isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium) are lightweight, can be produced easily, and require little energy, they are prime candidates to begin the fusion process.
After one year, we measured mirror reflectivity at 96 percent (a high percentage, but not as high as originally expected).
Commas separate introductory phrases and clauses
After cooling the exhaust gases continue to expand.
Commas separate introductory phrases and clauses
After cooling the exhaust gases continue to expand.
After cooling, the exhaust gases continue to expand.
Commas separate parenthetical details
X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive require the operator’s attention.
Commas separate parenthetical details
X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive require the operator’s attention.
X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive, require the operator’s attention.
Commas separate items in a list
Discharges of these hazardous substances occurred through spills when loading vehicles, spills and over-spills when filling the tanks, leaks from supply pipes and corroded welds, rust holes and cracks in the seams of the tanks themselves.
Commas separate items in a list
Discharges of these hazardous substances occurred through spills when loading vehicles, spills and over-spills when filling the tanks, leaks from supply pipes and corroded welds, rust holes and cracks in the seams of the tanks themselves.
Discharges of these hazardous substances occurred through the following: spills when loading vehicles; spills and over-spills when filling the tanks; leaks from supply pipes; and corroded welds, rust holes, and cracks in the seams of the tanks themselves.
Avoiding Common Errors of Usage
Choose the right word, not its second cousin. The difference between the right word and the almost right word is the difference between “lightning” and “lightning-bug.”
Mark Twain
right word
word word
wordword
word
word
word
Not all usage rules are constant with respect to time
1700s: “an historical...”1900s: “a historical...”
Not all usage rules are constant with respect to time
1700s: “an historical...”1900s: “a historical...”
1900: X rays1950: X-rays1995: x-rays
Not all usage rules are constant with respect to time
C & E News (1985): the 1980’s (plural)C & E News (1995): the 1980s (plural)
1700s: “an historical...”1900s: “a historical...”
1900: X rays1950: X-rays1995: x-rays
Not all usage rules are constant with respect to position
William Strunk and E. B. White,The Elements of Style: Data: A plural, like phenomena and strata.
Merriam-Webster Dictionary of English Usage: In its current use, data occurs in two constructions:
as a plural noun (like earnings) taking a plural verb…and as an abstract mass noun (like information) taking a singular verb…
Not all usage errors bother readers in the same way
Errors thatdisturb
Errors thatdistract
Errors that few even notice
affect/effectits/it’s
verb disagreementverb tensecomprise/composepossessive
different from/thancompare with/to
The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of acid rain (are / is) given in the next section.
So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has / have) remained constant.
The goggles protect a (persons / person’s) eyes from any damaging effects that a laser could cause.
In accordance with my (boss’ / boss’s) schedule, the first series of computers was replaced.
Two common usage errors are possessives and subject-verb disagreements
The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of acid rain (are / is) given in the next section.
So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has / have) remained constant.
The goggles protect a (persons / person’s) eyes from any damaging effects that a laser could cause.
In accordance with my (boss’ / boss’s) schedule, the first series of computers was replaced.
are
Two common usage errors are possessives and subject-verb disagreements
The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of acid rain (are / is) given in the next section.
So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has / have) remained constant.
The goggles protect a (persons / person’s) eyes from any damaging effects that a laser could cause.
In accordance with my (boss’ / boss’s) schedule, the first series of computers was replaced.
are
Two common usage errors are possessives and subject-verb disagreements
has
The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of acid rain (are / is) given in the next section.
So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has / have) remained constant.
The goggles protect a (persons / person’s) eyes from any damaging effects that a laser could cause.
In accordance with my (boss’ / boss’s) schedule, the first series of computers was replaced.
are
Two common usage errors are possessives and subject-verb disagreements
has
person’s
The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of acid rain (are / is) given in the next section.
So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has / have) remained constant.
The goggles protect a (persons / person’s) eyes from any damaging effects that a laser could cause.
In accordance with my (boss’ / boss’s) schedule, the first series of computers was replaced.
are
Two common usage errors are possessives and subject-verb disagreements
has
person’s
boss’s
To decide upon the verb tense in a document, you first plant a reference flag for t=0
Past Tense:Events that have already occurred
Present Tense:Timeless details or details at time of reading
Future Tense:Events that will occur after project
t = 0
t
To decide upon the verb tense in a document, you first plant a reference flag for t=0
Past Tense:Events that have already occurred
The pressure was...For the experiment, we
assumed…As was shown back in
Figure 1...
Present Tense:Timeless details or details at time of reading
Future Tense:Events that will occur after project
t = 0
t
To decide upon the verb tense in a document, you first plant a reference flag for t=0
Past Tense:Events that have already occurred
The pressure was...For the experiment, we
assumed…As was shown back in
Figure 1...
Air is 79 percent nitrogen.Figure 1 shows…The computer code in
Appendix B includes...
Present Tense:Timeless details or details at time of reading
Future Tense:Events that will occur after project
t = 0
t
To decide upon the verb tense in a document, you first plant a reference flag for t=0
Past Tense:Events that have already occurred
The pressure was...For the experiment, we
assumed…As was shown back in
Figure 1...
Air is 79 percent nitrogen.Figure 1 shows…The computer code in
Appendix B includes...
Present Tense:Timeless details or details at time of reading
Future Tense:Events that will occur after project
Future work will focus on....
t = 0
t
The verb tenses of sentences that refer to the document depend upon position
Introduction This report presents a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller.
The verb tenses of sentences that refer to the document depend upon position
Introduction This report presents a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller.
Results and Discussion...Figure 1 shows the circuit that connects the light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller.
The verb tenses of sentences that refer to the document depend upon position
Introduction This report presents a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller.
Results and Discussion...Figure 1 shows the circuit that connects the light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller.
Conclusions This report has presented a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller. As was shown in Figure 1, the circuit...
Use numerals when referring to measurements
When to use numerals
Specific measurements 3 volts, 2 seconds, 1 m/s
Percentages 15 percent
Monetary figures $3000
Large numerals 5 million
Use numerals when referring to measurements
When to write out numbers
Counting (one or two words) twenty-three gages
Informal measurements two hours
First word of sentence Thirty-three...
When to use numerals
Specific measurements 3 volts, 2 seconds, 1 m/s
Percentages 15 percent
Monetary figures $3000
Large numerals 5 million
We produced a small (amount, number) of autos this year, even (fewer, less) than last year.
A company’s success depends on (its / it's) employees.
The new material is (composed / comprised) of plastic and iodine.
It appears (as if, like) the Department of Energy will choose the third option.
Certain words are commonly misused
We produced a small (amount, number) of autos this year, even (fewer, less) than last year.
A company’s success depends on (its / it's) employees.
The new material is (composed / comprised) of plastic and iodine.
It appears (as if, like) the Department of Energy will choose the third option.
numberfewer
Certain words are commonly misused
We produced a small (amount, number) of autos this year, even (fewer, less) than last year.
A company’s success depends on (its / it's) employees.
The new material is (composed / comprised) of plastic and iodine.
It appears (as if, like) the Department of Energy will choose the third option.
numberfewer
Certain words are commonly misused
its
We produced a small (amount, number) of autos this year, even (fewer, less) than last year.
A company’s success depends on (its / it's) employees.
The new material is (composed / comprised) of plastic and iodine.
It appears (as if, like) the Department of Energy will choose the third option.
numberfewer
Certain words are commonly misused
its
composed
We produced a small (amount, number) of autos this year, even (fewer, less) than last year.
A company’s success depends on (its / it's) employees.
The new material is (composed / comprised) of plastic and iodine.
It appears (as if, like) the Department of Energy will choose the third option.
numberfewer
Certain words are commonly misused
its
composed
as if
Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for choosing aluminum.
The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle) of virtual work.
(Regrettably / Regretfully), the launch was delayed because of thunderstorms.
You need not proceed any (farther / further) on your test.
The serum had serious side (affects / effects).
Certain words are commonly misused
Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for choosing aluminum.
The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle) of virtual work.
(Regrettably / Regretfully), the launch was delayed because of thunderstorms.
You need not proceed any (farther / further) on your test.
The serum had serious side (affects / effects).
principal
Certain words are commonly misused
Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for choosing aluminum.
The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle) of virtual work.
(Regrettably / Regretfully), the launch was delayed because of thunderstorms.
You need not proceed any (farther / further) on your test.
The serum had serious side (affects / effects).
principal
Certain words are commonly misused
onprinciple
Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for choosing aluminum.
The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle) of virtual work.
(Regrettably / Regretfully), the launch was delayed because of thunderstorms.
You need not proceed any (farther / further) on your test.
The serum had serious side (affects / effects).
principal
Certain words are commonly misused
onprinciple
Regrettably
Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for choosing aluminum.
The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle) of virtual work.
(Regrettably / Regretfully), the launch was delayed because of thunderstorms.
You need not proceed any (farther / further) on your test.
The serum had serious side (affects / effects).
principal
Certain words are commonly misused
onprinciple
Regrettably
further
Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for choosing aluminum.
The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle) of virtual work.
(Regrettably / Regretfully), the launch was delayed because of thunderstorms.
You need not proceed any (farther / further) on your test.
The serum had serious side (affects / effects).
principal
Certain words are commonly misused
onprinciple
Regrettably
further
effects
Non-words and nonsensical groupingsof words also cause problems
Whichever design you choose is (alright / all right) with me.
(Irregardless / Regardless) of the shipping delay, the work will stop because of the strike.
Applying that set of constraints is a (most unique / unique / very unique) way to approach the problem.
The serum had (alot / a lot) of side effects.
Non-words and nonsensical groupingsof words also cause problems
Whichever design you choose is (alright / all right) with me.
(Irregardless / Regardless) of the shipping delay, the work will stop because of the strike.
Applying that set of constraints is a (most unique / unique / very unique) way to approach the problem.
The serum had (alot / a lot) of side effects.
all right
Non-words and nonsensical groupingsof words also cause problems
Whichever design you choose is (alright / all right) with me.
(Irregardless / Regardless) of the shipping delay, the work will stop because of the strike.
Applying that set of constraints is a (most unique / unique / very unique) way to approach the problem.
The serum had (alot / a lot) of side effects.
all right
Regardless
Non-words and nonsensical groupingsof words also cause problems
Whichever design you choose is (alright / all right) with me.
(Irregardless / Regardless) of the shipping delay, the work will stop because of the strike.
Applying that set of constraints is a (most unique / unique / very unique) way to approach the problem.
The serum had (alot / a lot) of side effects.
all right
Regardless
unique
Non-words and nonsensical groupingsof words also cause problems
Whichever design you choose is (alright / all right) with me.
(Irregardless / Regardless) of the shipping delay, the work will stop because of the strike.
Applying that set of constraints is a (most unique / unique / very unique) way to approach the problem.
The serum had (alot / a lot) of side effects.
all right
Regardless
unique
a lot