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SCIENCE

Grade Six

Term 1

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TOPIC: The Environment

SUB-TOPIC: Living and Non-Living Things

We can find many things around us, from mountains and oceans to plants and animals. The earth

in which we live is made up of several things. These “things” can be categorized into two different

types – Living and Non-living.

All living things breathe, eat, grow, move, reproduce and have senses.

Plants and animals are living things.

Non-living things do not eat, grow, breathe, move and reproduce. They do not have

senses.

Non-living things include things that do not need food, water, shelter nor air.

Some non-living things in the world include pencils, rocks, footballs, toys, hats, and many

others.

All living things: Plants and animals have the following characteristics.

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TOPIC: The Plant Kingdom

SUB-TOPIC: Non-Flowering and Flowering Plants Today we are going to learn about non-flowering and flowering plants. Non flowering plants do not

have flowers. Examples include conifers, ferns and cycads. They reproduce by producing spores.

Cycads Ferns

Flowering plants have flowers. Examples include many ornamental plants such as daisy, hyacinth,

sunflower, lily, and many fruit plants such as mango, apples, etc. They reproduce by producing

seeds.

Hyacinth Daisy

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SUB-TOPIC: Parts of Plant and Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledonous

Plants Flowering plants have many parts.

Each part has a special function;

Part Function

Leaf: Organ of photosynthesis

Flower: Organ of reproduction

Stem: Transport food and water around the plant

Fruit: Covers the seed

Root: Holds the plant in the ground and takes in nutrients

Flowering plants may either be Monocotyledonous or Dicotyledonous. Monocotyledonous and

Dicotyledonous Plants have special characteristics.

Monocotyledonous Plants Dicotyledonous Plants

Parallel vein leaf Net vein leaf

Fibrous root Tap root

One cotyledon present Two cotyledons present

Leaf

Stem

Flower

Fruit

Root

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SUB-TOPIC: Parts of the Flower and Incomplete and Complete Flowers

Today we‟re going to learn about the flower. The flower has many parts.

Each part has a special function:

Part Function

Petal: Attracts insects for pollination

Anther: Makes pollen grains

Filament: Holds up the anther

Stigma: Collects pollen grain

Style: Transports the pollen grain to ovary

Ovary: Grows into the fruit

Ovules: Grow into seed

Sepals: Protect the flower

Stalk: Main stem of the flower

A flower may be perfect or imperfect. A flower that has both male and female parts is a perfect

flower. A flower that has only male or female is an imperfect flower.

Anther

Filament

Petal

Sepal

Ovule

Stalk

Stigma

Style

Ovary

Receptacle

Stamen Pistil

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SUB-TOPIC: Pollination and Fertilization Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of the flower to the stigma. There are

two types of pollination

Self-Pollination: occurs when pollen grains from one flower is transferred to the stigma of another

flower on the same plant.

Cross-Pollination: occurs when pollen grains from one flower is transferred to the stigma of

another flower on a different plant

Some flowers are either pollinated by insects or by wind. Insect and wind are agents of pollination.

Insect and wind pollinated flowers have different characteristics.

Insect Pollinated Flowers Wind Pollinated Flower

Brightly coloured Dull coloured

Large Small

Stamen is short Stamen is long

Heavy Pollen grains Light Pollen grains

After pollination occurs, fertilization begins. Fertilization is the joining together of pollen grains

with ovules. The ovary becomes the fruit and ovules, the seed.

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SUB-TOPIC: The Seed Today we‟re going to learn about the seed. The seed has many parts

Each part has a special function:

Part Function

Plumule: Grows into the shoot

Radicle: Grows into the root

Cotyledon: Stores food for the plant

Seed Coat: Protects the seed

Before seeds can grow into new plants, they must first be dispersed. Animals, water and wind are

agents of seed dispersal.

Agent Seeds Dispersed by the Agent

Animal Mango, Apple, Orange, Tangerine, Soursop

Water Coconut, Water Lilly

Wind Dandelion, Maple

Once seeds are dispersed, they grow into new plants. Germination is the process by which a seed

grows into a new plant. For successful germination to occur, plants need air, warmth and water.

Germination has several stages;

Seed Coat

Cotyledon

Plumule

Radicle

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Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

Stage Description

1: The seed coat splits

2: The radicle emerges

3: The plumule emerges

4: The plant leaves begin to make food by the process of photosynthesis

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SUB-TOPIC: Plant Propagation and Plant Life Processes

Other than using a seed, we could use plant parts inclusive of roots, stems and leaves to make new

plants. This practice is called asexual propagation. There are many different types of asexual

propagation processes.

The first propagation process is the use of leaf, stem or root cuttings. In this process, leaves, stems

or roots are cut from a plant and then placed in the soil to grow into a new plant. Examples of

plants that can be propagated by leaf-petiole cuttings include African violet, and sedum. Examples

of plants that can be propagated by stem cuttings include Hibiscus, wild Roses, and Bougainvillea.

Examples of plants that can be propagated from root cuttings include raspberry, blackberry, and

rose.

Another propagation process is grafting. In grafting, a stem (called the scion) and root (called the

stock) of the same type of plant are joined together. Once joined together, healing is allowed to

take place. Once healing is successful, a new plant will be formed. Examples of plants propagated

by grafting include cherry and witch hazel.

As plants grow, they carry out several life processes inclusive of photosynthesis, respiration and

transpiration. The leaf is the main organ of photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration.

Midrib

Margin

Tip

Vein

Venules

Leaf Blade

Leaf Base

Axil

Stem

Petiole

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Photosynthesis is the process whereby plants make their own food. In photosynthesis, chlorophyll

in plants traps the sun‟s energy to take in carbon dioxide and water in order to make food (glucose)

and oxygen.

Sunlight

Chlorophyll

Respiration is another important life process that occurs in plants. It is important because it is the

process that helps plants to get energy to do work. During respiration, the plants use oxygen and

glucose to produce energy and carbon dioxide and water.

𝐶𝑂

𝑂

𝑂

𝐶𝑂

Carbon

Dioxide

Water Glucose Oxygen

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Transpiration is the process by which excess water is lost from the surface of the

leaves. Water exits through tiny holes on the leaves called the stomata. Transpiration

is important because it helps water to flow through the plant, which helps in

transport of nutrients. It also helps in the cooling of the plant.

𝐻 𝑂

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TOPIC: Adaptation

SUB-TOPIC: Plant Adaptation

What is adaptation?

-Adaptations are special features that allow a plant or animal to live in a particular place or habitat.

-Living things are adapted to the habitat they live in.

-This is because they have special features that help them to survive.

-The development of these special features is the result of evolution due to gene mutation.

-These mutations aid in the survival and reproduction and passes on from one generation to the

other.

Plant Adaptation

-Plants have adaptations to help them survive (live and grow) in a specific area.

-These adaptations might make it very difficult for the plant to survive in a different place. This

explains why certain plants are found in one area, but not in another. For example, you wouldn't

see a cactus living in the Arctic nor would you see lots of really tall trees living in grasslands.

The Desert

Did you ever visit a desert? A desert is very dry and it is also mostly hot. There is little rainfall. The

soil is often sandy or rocky and unable to hold much water. Plants are exposed to extreme

temperatures and drought conditions. Plants must cope with extensive water loss.

Desert Plant Adaptations

Some plants store water in their stems or leaves;

Some plants have no leaves or small seasonal leaves that only grow after it rains. This helps to

reduce water loss during photosynthesis. The process of photosynthesis occurs in the green stems

of the leafless plants.

Plants have long root systems that go deep into the ground to absorb water or they spread out

wide.

Leaves with hair help shade the plant, reducing water loss. Other plants have leaves that turn

throughout the day to expose a minimum surface area to the heat.

Plants have spines on them which discourage animals from eating them for water.

The stems and leaves have a waxy coating which helps to reduce water loss.

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Flowers that open at night lure pollinators who are more likely to be active during the cooler

night.

Slower growing requires less energy. The plants don't have to make as much food and therefore

do not lose as much water.

The cactus is an example of a plant that lives in the desert.

The Tropical Rainforest

The tropical rainforest is hot and it rains a lot. The water can cause problems such as promoting

the growth of bacteria and fungi which could be harmful to plants. The heavy rainfall can cause

flooding and soil erosion. The plants in the tropical rainforest grow quickly using up organic

material left from decomposing plants and animals. Little sunlight is able to penetrate the forest

floor in the tropical rainforest. There is a great amount of diversity in plant species in the tropical

rainforest.

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Tropical Rainforest Plant Adaptations

The plants have waxy surfaces and drip tips which allow water to run off. This discourages the

growth of bacteria and fungi.

Plants are held in the shallow soil by buttresses, prop and stilt roots.

To reach sunlight, some plants grow on other plants.

To aid pollination, the flowers on the forest floor are designed to lure animal pollinators.

Plants have shallow roots which enable them to absorb nutrients from the top level of the soil.

Plant Adaptations in Water

Air spaces are present in the leaves of some plants which help to hold the plant in the water.

Water, nutrients and dissolved gases are absorbed through the leaves directly in submerged

plants.

The roots are only needed to anchor the plant, not for absorption. As such roots and root hairs

are reduced or absent.

Some plants have leaves that float on the surface of the water which exposes them to sunlight.

In order to move with water currents, underwater leaves and stems are flexible.

Animals and Plants of the Rainforest

Rainforests have an abundance of plants and animals for the following reasons:

Climate: Rainforests are located in the tropical regions. As such, they receive much sunlight.

Sunlight is required by plants for the process of photosynthesis. As there is much sunlight, there is

much energy in the rainforest. The abundance or energy supports an abundance of plant and

animal species.

Canopy: Rainforests have a canopy structure which provides many places for plants and animals

to live and grow. It offers many sources of food and shelter.

Layers of the Rainforest

The rainforest is divided into several layers.

Emergent Layer

The tallest tees are the emergent. They can grow as high as 200 feet above the forest floor and

some have trunks that measure up to 16 feet around. Most of the emergent are broad-leaved,

hardwood evergreens.

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Canopy Layer

The canopy layer is the primary layer of the forest. It forms a roof over the two underlying layers.

Most of the canopy trees have smooth, oval leaves that come to a point.

Understory Layer

This layer is located under the canopy layer and as consequence, it receives little sunlight. As

such the plants have to grow larger leaves to reach sunlight.

Forest Floor

Sunlight is scarce in this layer restricting plant life to low growing species such as moss.

Diagram showing layers of the Rain Forest

Forest Preservation

Forests are hugely important for life on earth. This is because it serves as an ecosystem, and

sustains life for millions of animals, birds and animals that live in the rivers and streams that

through these forests. It also does a lot of good to the atmosphere in terms of climate control, as

well as supplying oxygen for human sustenance.

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Importance of Forests

Trees are important to all animals. Without them no animal would exist. Tribes of people live in

the Amazon and Congo forests. Everything they use comes from the forest. The food they eat, the

clothing they wear and the materials to make their houses all come from the forest. These people

do not usually live there for very long. Forests are cold, dark and damp under the trees.

-The forest helps to reduce the effects of

weather and climate. Global warming

is the increase in the earth‟s temperature.

-It is caused when greenhouse gases like

carbon dioxide traps the sun‟s heat by

preventing sunlight from leaving the earth.

-The forest helps to combat global warming because trees can absorb greenhouse gases.

-Forests are also important in preventing floods.

-The tops of the many trees together make a good cover. This cover allows only a small amount of

rain to reach the ground.

-When it rains the water runs off in steady streams thus preventing flooding.

-Forests also help in preventing erosion. When it rains the drops of water do not hit the ground

with great force. This prevents the soil from being washed away. At the same time, the water that

falls is soaked up on the soft, spongy ground. This water is stored and takes a while to flow away.

In this way the forest helps to save water.

Humans and the rainforest

Uses of trees to human

The trees in a forest are used in many ways.

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-We get logs to make boards which in turn are used for building houses, bridges, railway carriages,

furniture and wood to make pencils. The eraser or any rubber material is made using latex that can

be extracted from a tree called bullet wood.

-We get fire wood and charcoal for fuel in homes and in industries.

-We get bee wax for candles, medicines and shoe making.

-Trees from the forest give us baskets, mats, chairs, ropes, walking stick and umbrella handles.

-we get sandal wood for carved boxes and small domestic articles.

-Many people in hot countries like to wear cotton clothes. We get cotton from the cotton plant.

- Paper is made from the pulp of some trees.

-Parts of some trees, too, are used as medicines. Many of our herbs and medicine come directly

from the forest.

Effects of human on rainforest

-When the trees in a forest are cut down both humans and other animals are affected.

-Since the trees in a forest are so useful to us, we must be careful in the way we use them.

Controlling the Destruction of Forests

-Deforestation is the act of cutting down trees without the intent of replanting.

-Deforestation occurs when forests are converted to non-forest uses, such as agriculture and road

construction. Forest fires can also destroy our forest.

-If we encourage such practices, all of the trees of the forest would be destroyed.

-We can also help to control the destruction of the forests by using materials other than those that

are products of the forest.

-When we cut trees, we must practice reforestation; the act of replanting trees in the forest.

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Diagram showing forest destruction

Diagram showing reforestation

TOPIC: Animal Kingdom

SUB-TOPIC: Classification of living things

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS

The placing of animals into groups is known as „classification of animals.

Animals can be classified based on similarities and differences e.g. structure, life cycle,

behavior and development.

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Animals can be classified into two groups, namely:

a. Vertebrates

b. Invertebrates

Animals

Vertebrates Invertebrates

Fish Arthropods

Amphibians Insects

Reptiles Arachnids

Mammals Crustaceans

Birds Myriapods

Molluscs

Annelids

Round Worm

Flat Worm

Segmented Worm

TOPIC: Animal Kingdom

SUB-TOPIC: Vertebrates

VERTEBRATES

Vertebrates are animals with backbone or internal skeleton. They are also referred to as

endoskeletal animals. The internal skeleton helps support the body of the vertebrates.

Vertebrates are placed into five main groups. These are:

Fishes

Amphibians

Reptiles

Mammals

Birds

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Fishes

- Covered with scales which provide protection

- Breathe through gills

- All fishes have fins for swimming

- All fishes are cold blooded animals

- Most fishes reproduce by laying. The males spray their sperms on them for

fertilization. This is called external fertilization

- Some fishes are live breeders e.g. guppies

- A layer of slime covers the scales for further protection

- Fishes have seven fins altogether. They are classed as paired and unpaired fins. The

paired fins are the pectoral and pelvic fins. The unpaired fins are the dorsal fin,

anal (ventral fin) and the caudal fin.

- The lateral line enables the fish to pick up vibrations in the water, thus enabling

them to detect danger.

Diagram showing External Parts of a Fish

Diagram showing Internal Parts of a Fish

Functions of the Parts of a Fish

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• Fins - To allow the fish to stay upright, move, and maneuver in the water.

• Rays - Soft cartilage structure that supports the fins of the fish.

• Spine - Hard structure that supports the fins and is used for defense

• Pectoral Fin - Allows the fish to dive and also allows the fish to stay in one spot.

• Pelvic Fin – Balances and positions the fish.

• Tail Fin – helps to propel the fish.

• Lateral Line - Helps the fish to detect vibration, sensors, helps the fish to find food and to

navigate to avoid predators.

• Gills - Supply the fish with oxygen that they need from water. Gills are the most

important parts of a fish.

• Barbels - Bottom feeders, they only taste and feel.

• Scales - Protective cover on fish that prevents injury or disease also indicates age.

• Mucos Covering - Protection from infections and diseases, also helps in swimming,

lowering friction in the water.

• Nostrils – are for smelling

Amphibians

All amphibians: -

- Are covered with moist and shiny skin.

- Lay eggs in water (spawn) where the young are hatched.

- Breathe by gills when young and by lungs as adults

- Are cold blooded

- Some examples are frogs, toads, newts and salamander

- Amphibians undergo metamorphosis and can be clearly seen in the frogs or toads.

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Stage 1: Egg

* Many species tend to lay their eggs in

calm water among the vegetation,

where the eggs can develop safely.

* The female frog lays numerous eggs

in masses that tend to clump

together.

* This clumping is known as spawn.

* As she deposits the eggs, the male

releases sperm onto the eggs and

fertilizes them.

Stage 2: Tadpole (Larva)

* Tadpoles, frogs‟ larvae, have rudimentary

(immature) gills, a mouth, and a long tail.

* For the first week or two after the tadpole

hatches, it moves very little.

* During this time, the tadpole absorbs the

remaining yolk left over from the egg,

which provides much-needed nourishment.

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* After absorbing the yolk, the tadpole is strong enough to swim on its own.

Stages 3: Froglet

* As the tadpole continues to grow, it

begins to develop hind limbs.

* Its body elongates and its‟ diet grows

more robust, shifting to larger plant matter and

even insects.

* Later in development, front limbs grow

and tails shrink.

* Skin forms over the gills.

Stage 4: Adult

* At approximately 12 weeks of age, the

tadpole's gills and tail have been fully absorbed

into the body, meaning that the frog has reached

the adult stage of its life cycle.

* It is now ready to venture out onto dry

land and, in time, repeat the life cycle.

Reptiles

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All reptiles:

- breathe with lungs; they cannot breathe under water

- are cold blooded

- have dry, scaly skin

- scaly skin helps them to retain moisture

- live on land and in water

- have teeth

- have four or no legs.

- Some examples are snakes, lizard, iguana, crocodiles, alligators, tortoises and turtles

- Most reptiles lay egg.

- Most of their young are hatched.

*Rattlesnakes give birth to live young.

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Mammals

All mammals:

- Have hairs on their bodies

- Give birth to their young alive and feed them with milk from the mother‟s breast or

mammary glands. The exceptions are the duck-billed platypus and spiny anteater which lay

eggs. However, their young are also fed with milk from the mammary glands of the mother

- Breathe by lungs

- Have teeth which differs in size and shape as well as function

- Are warm blooded

- Have highly developed brains

- Most mammals have external ears.

- Most mammals live on land, some live in the ground e.g. rabbits, moles; some live in trees

e.g. koala, monkeys; bats have wings and can fly while whales, walruses, seals and dolphins

live in the sea.

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Birds

All birds:

- are covered with feather

- re warm blooded

- breathe by lungs

- lay their eggs on land and their young are hatched

- have wings instead of fore limbs

- have beaks but no teeth

Not all birds can fly. Kiwis and penguins cannot fly; hens, turkeys and cocks can only fly short

distances while seagulls, sparrows, pigeons and eagles are powerful flyers.

Fill in the vertebrates‟ chart below.

.

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TOPIC: Animal Kingdom

SUB-TOPIC: Invertebrates

INVERTEBRATES

* Invertebrates are animals without backbones.

* About 95% of all animals are invertebrates.

* They are also considered exoskeletal animals.

* There are many more invertebrates in the world than vertebrates and are found

everywhere.

* Invertebrates are grouped using common structures.

* The main groups of invertebrates are:

- Arthropods

- Molluscs

- Annelids or Worms

Arthropods

Arthropods are invertebrates with jointed legs and segmented bodies. They also have a hard

covering outside their bodies. This covering is an external skeleton.

Arthropods are a large group of animals which are found almost everywhere.

Arthropods may be grouped according to the number of legs that they have. There are four groups

of arthropods. These are:

- Insects have 3 pairs of legs

- Arachnids have 4 pairs of legs

- Crustaceans have 5 to 10 pairs of jointed legs

- Myriapods have more than 5 pairs of legs

All arthropods are alike in the following ways.

- Have segmented bodies which are divided into parts

- Their bodies are enclosed in tough external skeleton

- Have pairs of jointed appendages fixed to certain segments of their bodies

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Insects Insects are the largest group of arthropods.

They may be found in the soil, in plants, animals and even in your homes.

They have six walking legs or three pairs of walking legs and one pair of feelers or

antennae.

Many insects live as parasites on

plants and other animals and some as

parasites on other insects.

The body of an insect is divided into

three parts.

They have three pairs of walking legs,

some insects have one pair of wings e.g.

mosquito and housefly, others have two pairs

e.g. cockroach, grasshopper and some none

at all e.g. flea and silver fish.

Insects have tiny holes on their

bodies called spiracles.

Spiracles allow air to get into

breathing tubes called trachea. Insects

breathe by trachea.

Insects begin their lives as eggs.

The growth and development of an insect from an egg to an adult is known as

metamorphosis.

Some insects pass through more stages than others.

The housefly, butterfly and the mosquito undergo four stages in their development. These

stages are egg, larva, pupa and imago (adult)

These insects undergo a complete metamorphosis.

Metamorphosis

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There are basically two

types of Metamorphosis

INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS

- has THREE stages - has FOUR stages

1. EGG – The Females lay eggs

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2. LARVA - Larva hatch from the eggs. They do not look like

adult insects. They usually have a worm-like shape.

Caterpillars, maggots, and grubs are all just the larval

stages of insects. Larvae molt their skin several times

and they grow slightly larger.

3. PUPA / CHRYSALIS - Larva make cocoons around

themselves.

Larva don't eat while they're inside their cocoons.

Their bodies develop into an adult shape with wings,

legs, internal organs, etc.

This change takes anywhere from 4 days to as many as

months.

4. ADULT - Inside the cocoon, the larvae change into adults.

After a period of time, the adult breaks out of the cocoon.

Insects like bees, beetles, wasps, ants, fleas, butterflies and flies

undergo four states of development ( complete metamorphosis).

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1. EGG - A female insect lays eggs. These eggs are often covered by

an egg case which protects the eggs and holds them together.

2. NYMPH - The eggs hatch into nymphs.

Nymphs looks like small adults, but usually don't have wings.

Insect nymphs eat the same food that the adult insect eats.

Nymphs shed or molt their exoskeletons (outer casings made

up of a hard substance called chitin) and replace them with

larger ones several times as they grow.

Most nymphs molt 4-8 times.

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3. ADULT - The insects stop molting when they reach their

adult size. By this time, they have also grown wings.

Insects like the grasshopper, crickets, lice, termites and cockroaches undergo these three stages in

their development (incomplete metamorphosis).

Arachnids

Arachnids are arthropods which live mainly on land. A few live

in the sea.

They have:

- Eight legs

- Two body part (head and cephalothorax)

- Simple eyes

- No wings. There are tiny hairs by which they

feel

- Spinnerets for web spinning e.g. spiders, scorpions,

ticks, mites

- Trachea from which they breathe

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Crustaceans They have

- Five to ten pairs of jointed legs

- Four antennae

- Compound eyes

- Gills for breathing

- Live in water and have bodies which are

divided into two parts

- Examples of crustaceans are crabs, prawns,

lobsters, barnacles and crayfish

Myriapods

- Myriapods have more than 10 pairs of jointed legs

- They are worm-like arthropods

- They live on land and burrows into the soil

- Examples of Myriapods are millipede and centipede

- Myriapods breathe by trachea

Millipede Centipede

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Molluscs

The molluscs are a group of soft, slimy, unsegmented invertebrates.

Molluscs live on land and in water.

Many molluscs have hard shells which protect their soft bodies.

Some molluscs are univalve e.g. snails, slugs and whelks while others are bivalve e.g.

cockles, oysters, scallops and most shell fish e.g. octopus, squid, cuttlefish

Molluscs breathe by means of special gill-like organs.

Annelids/ Worms

Annelids are alike in the following ways:

- Have long, cylindrical soft bodies

- Have thin, moist skin through which they breathe

- Have bodies which are divided by rings into segments

- Some worms live on land, a few live in water and some live in the bodies of other animals

Worms can be placed into three groups.

These are:

1. The flat worm

2. The round worm

3. The segmented worm

Flat worms are mostly parasites. Parasites

feed on other living things. The tapeworm,

fluke and planarian are flat worms. The

tape worm and fluke are found in the

bodies of other animals. The planarian

feeds on dead animals.

Round worms are long and pointed at both ends. Hookworms and threadworms are round

worms. They are parasites.

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The earthworm, sandworm and leech are segmented worms. The bodies of these worms are

divided into small parts or segments. Leeches are found in damp places. Sandworms may be

found on the seashores.

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TOPIC: Adaptation

SUB-TOPIC: Animals Adaptations

Animals may have body covering or body parts which are adapted for survival in their particular

habitat.k

Let‟s look at some of these adaptations.

BODY COVERINGS

A body covering is an important adaptation. Skin is the outer covering of an animal‟s body. It is

sensitive to change in temperature, and touch. This sensitivity makes the animal aware of changes

in its surroundings. In addition to skin, many animals have another body covering. Look at the

animals below. What other covering does each have?

-This added layer of body covering provides better protection for the animal.

Fur is a coat of soft hair

Some animals that live in very cold environments have thick coats of fur. The fur traps air close to

the animal‟s body which then warms the air. It keeps them warm in winter and can protect specific

areas of the body, like eyelashes protecting the eyes. This warm air helps to keep the body of the

animal at the correct temperature.

Quills

Quills are very stiff hairs. The hedgehog and the porcupine have quills. When the hedgehog

senses danger, the quills stand erect. These sharp points will prick anyone who touches the

hedgehog.

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Feathers

Feathers are found on birds. They are strong and very light. Feathers help birds to fly so that they

find food or get away from their enemies. The feathers keep the bird warm in winter, help it to fly

or swim, and help to fan the bird in hot weather. Some birds like the duck which dives or swims to

get its‟ food, have feathers which are heavily coated with a layer of oil. Oil makes the feathers

waterproof. How does this help to keep the birds warm? Baby birds usually have soft feathers

called down feathers. This helps to keep them warm. Adult birds also have down feathers close to

their bodies.

Scales

Scales serve a purpose different than that of fur and feathers. Scales are mainly a protectant from

the environment for most animals. For instance, anacondas and other snakes have scales to protect

their bodies from the variety of terrain they encounter. In the case of the anaconda, its habitat is

largely made up of water. In the case of other snakes, the climate may be dry and the land sandy

and rocky; so, they cannot afford to lose water from their body. Scales help protect the body of the

animal in an instance where skin, fur, or feathers would become damaged or destroyed. Scales are

found on reptiles and most fish. Scales may be large or small, round or pointed.

Shells

Shells are hard coverings that protect some animals.

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BODY PARTS

-Many animals have developed specific parts of the body adapted for survival in a certain

environment. Among them are webbed feet, sharp claws, whiskers, sharp teeth, large beaks, wings,

and hooves.

Feet

-Animals move about to find food in order to survive in their environment. Feet are used for

movement. The feet of animals are adapted for different movements. Some animals use their feet

for walking, running or jumping. The feet of some animals are used not only for movement but

also for defense. Some animals use their feet to help them to swim or climb.

-Feet with toes joined by skin are called webbed feet. Webbed feet help animals propel themselves

through the water with ease. This can help the animal swim faster to catch prey or escape a

predator. Also, if an animal has to swim long distances, webbed feet can help it save energy so it

can swim farther.

-The frog‟s feet help it to get a good grip on muddy surfaces. They are also used like paddles when

the frog is swimming. Other animals with webbed feet are duck and rockhopper penguin. Other

animals with slightly webbed feet are the polar bear and otter.

Claws

Many land and sea animals alike have developed sharp claws. Sharp claws can be used for many

different purposes. For instance, many herbivores use their sharp claws for digging for berries,

roots, and herbs or burrowing for shelter. Animals that eat meat may use their claws for killing

their prey or tearing meat. Also, claws can be used to increase traction to run faster, as in the case

of the cheetah. Other times, sharp claws have evolved for use in defense. For some animals,

showing of claws is enough warning for their predators or competitors to back off.

Hooves

-Hooves are another body part that are an important adaptation for many large animals. In most

cases, animals with hooves use their specially adapted feet to maneuver in a rocky environment.

Hooves protect the feet of these animals and allow for greater mobility than unprotected feet.

Animals with hooves include horse, camel, zebra, and the Dall sheep.

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Whiskers

-Whiskers serve an important purpose for many animals. In most cases, whiskers around the face,

specifically the mouth area, help the animal feel its way through tight spots. In a way, they serve as

"feelers," telling the animal whether or not it can fit into a specific area. One example is that of the

North American river otter, which can use its whiskers both on land and in water. On land, they

are used to feel their way through narrow channels, with a similar purpose for the whiskers under

water. They are also useful to sense prey.

Wings

Birds use their wings to fly from place to place in search of food. Some birds fly to a warm climate

when their environment becomes cold. Wings may also be used to help birds to escape from their

predators. However, the Humboldt penguin does not use its wings to fly at all. Instead, it uses its

wings as flippers to move through the water.

Beaks

A beak is an adaptation that relates to a bird's diet. Some birds have flat, spoon-like bills which arc

like strainers. These bills grip small, slippery water animals and also strain the muddy water so as

to retain anything that is edible. Some birds eat small seeds. They have short, pointed, conical

beaks. The sharp, curved beaks of some birds help them to kill and tear the meat from the body of

their prey. Birds which spear fish have long, pointed beaks which are very strong.

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Diagram showing birds with different beaks.

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Mouthparts of insects

Some insects have mouthparts adapted for chewing and biting. These type of mouth parts are

found in insects like cockroaches, grasshoppers, crickets, etc. These are also found in silver fish,

termites, earwigs and beetles. Some have mouthparts for chewing and lapping. These type of

mouth parts are modified for collecting the nectar and pollen from flowers and also for molding

the wax, as is found in honeybees, wasps, etc. Others have for piercing and sucking. These types of

mouth parts are adapted for piercing the tissues of animals and plants to suck blood and plant

juice. Mosquitoes and bugs use their mouthpart for piercing and sucking.

Diagram showing mouthparts of Insects

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Tongues

Some animals have long sticky tongues. Long sticky tongues are used for trapping insects. The

lizard, frog and anteater eat insects. Their tongues are long and sticky.

Teeth

One of the most visible adaptations on many animals, the dogs, cats, tigers and lions are meat

eaters or carnivores. They have sharp, pointed teeth to tear the meat they eat. Animals like the

sheep, goat, deer and horse are herbivores. They have sharp, front teeth for biting and flat, back

teeth for chewing and grinding the plants they eat. Man has teeth adapted for eating both plants

and meat. Man is an omnivore. Look at the teeth above. Some animals swallow their food without

chewing. The snake swallows its food. It does not have chewing teeth. The snake has teeth which

are curved inwards. These serve to hold its prey and to prevent it from escaping.