schusler et al developing citizens eer

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This is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form has been published in ENVIRONMENTAL

EDUCATION RESEARCH (2009) Taylor & Francis.

Environmental Education Research

Vol. X, No. X, Month 200X, pp. 000000

Developing citizens and communities through youth environmental action

Tania M. Schusler*

Antioch University New England, New Hampshire, USA

Marianne E. Krasny, Scott J. Peters and Daniel J. Decker

Cornell University, New York, USA

Although several studies have examined learning outcomes of environmental action experiences

for youth, little is known about the aims motivating practitioners to involve youth in actioncreating positive environmental and social change, nor how practitioners perceive success. This

research explored through phenomenological interviews practitioners purposes for using an

environmental action approach. Practitioners in this inquiry, who engaged youth in actionaddressing a range of environmental issues in varied programmatic and community contexts in

the USA, expressed multi-faceted aims motivating their educational practice. Interpretation of

practitioners stories with respect to their purposes and perceptions of success contributed to a

conceptual framework relating environmental action to the development of citizens andsustainable communities. Whereas others have described the stages and learning outcomes of

environmental action, this inquiry illustrates the potential of environmental action for

concurrently realizing individual and community level impacts.

Keywords: Environment, Action, Youth, Citizenship, Participation

*Corresponding author. Antioch University New England, 40 Avon Street, Keene, NH 03431,

USA. Email: [email protected].


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Participation is a central goal of Environmental Education (EE) (UNESCO 1978) and

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) (UNESCO 2005). Despite this espoused

democratic aim, tensions exist within EE and ESD because they include both instrumental and

educational dimensions (Jickling 1992; Jickling & Spork 1998; Schnack 2008). Jensen (2000a)

distinguished between moralistic and democratic paradigms in health education and Schnack

(2008) extended this distinction to EE. Education in the moralistic paradigm is mainly

instrumental, aiming to modify learners lifestyle behaviors, while the democratic paradigm

involves more participatory and action-oriented pedagogical approaches, aiming to enable

students to reflect upon and address as they choose the social determinants of environmental

problems (Jensen 2000a; Schnack 2008). In our opinion, EE practice and research in the USA

are at earlier stages in the transition from a moralistic to democratic paradigm than other

countries (e.g., Denmark, South Africa).

While influencing individual environmental behaviors remains a dominant focus of EE

research and practice in the USA, some teachers, community organizers, and other practitioners

are taking a participatory educational approach involving youth in local environmental action.

Several studies have examined the learning that occurs for youth through such environmental

action experiences (Emmons 1997; Jensen 2002; Melchior & Bailis 2004; Volk & Cheak 2003),

but little is known about what purposes motivate practitioners to involve youth in action creating

positive environmental and social change. In this study, the words of a practitioner facilitating

youth participation in community gardening and urban greening reflect a sentiment expressed by

many others. He said, Weve been able to harvest more than just collard greens 1 out of the

garden, you know. In this research, we explored the harvests of youth participation in

environmental action through the stories of practitioners facilitating it. These practice stories can

enhance understanding of the educational aims of EE in the democratic paradigm and,

correspondingly, what might constitute success. We believe the findings offer insights for

practice and inquiry by those interested in the interactions among environmental education,

youth development, and sustainable community development.


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Literature review: environmental action

Emmons (1997) defined environmental action as a deliberate strategy involving

decisions, planning, implementation, and reflection by an individual or group that intends to

achieve a specific environmental outcome. Environmental action typically requires ecological

and/or social inquiry to inform and evaluate action in an iterative, cyclical process (Stapp, Wals,

& Stankorb 1996; R. Hart 1997; Bishop & Scott 1998; McClaren & Hammond 2005); thus, both

science and civic engagement are central in this educational approach (Schusler & Krasny 2007).

Examples of environmental action include persuading local government officials to implement

erosion control along a stream bank in response to water quality testing revealing high levels of

sediment (Tompkins 2005), or reclaiming a city lot for a vegetable garden and growing produce

for a local community kitchen in response to a community survey documenting limited local

access to fresh produce (Figueroa 2003).

Jensen and Schnack (1997) distinguished environmental action, which clearly falls within

the democratic paradigm, from behavior and activity. Unlike behavior, action is intentional, or

consciously undertaken with reference to motives and reasons. Unlike activity, action is targeted

at solutions to the root causes of a problem. The intentionality of action differentiates it from

other phenomena one might erroneously label action but which are actually non-participatory,

prescribed, or indoctrinating. Environmental action, on the other hand, involves young peoples

genuine participation (Simovska 2008) in the form of shared decision-making with adults (R.

Hart 1997). Gough and Scott (2007) described environmental problems as social constructions

influenced by human meanings. Through genuine participation, youth take part in making

meaning of a particular environmental problem by defining it, analyzing its root causes, and

envisioning and enacting possible solutions. In practice, action does not always fulfill the

theoretical criteria of being intentional and targeted at root causes. Youth have varying degrees


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of influence (intentionality) in selecting and implementing action projects, and projects often

involve both activities and actions.

Environmental action can directly contribute to solving the environmental problem at

hand (people-environment relations) or indirectly influence others to contribute to solving the

problem in question (people-to-people relations) (Jensen & Schnack 1997). At least five forms of

youth environmental action have been documented in educational practice in the U.S.:

physical environmental improvements (e.g., restoring natural habitats);

community education (e.g., organizing community festivals and information fairs;

producing educational media like newsletters, brochures or videos);

inquiry (e.g., community assessments, surveys and mapping; environmental

monitoring; scientific experiments designed to inform or evaluate action);

public issue analysis and advocacy for policy change (e.g., researching and analyzing

the environmental impacts of on-site wastewater treatment regulations and presenting

policy recommendations to a state legislative committee); and

products or services contributing to community development (e.g., sustainably

growing food for sale at a neighborhood farmers market and distribution to a local

food pantry).

Often a teacher or non-formal educator facilitates youth participation in multiple forms of action

in any given project (Schusler 2007).

While definitions often emphasize action toward environmental outcomes, scholars

contend that the educational aim of environmental action is developing learners capabilities to

participate as citizens in democratic society (Emmons 1997; R. Hart 1997; Jensen & Schnack

1997; Bishop & Scott 1998; Driskell 2002; McClaren & Hammond, 2005; Chawla 2007). Jensen

and Schnack provided justification for this view:

The fundamental assumption is that environmental problems are structurally anchored in society and our

ways of living. For this reason it is necessary to find solutions to these problems through changes at both

the societal and individual level. This is why the aim of environmental education must be to make present

and future citizens capable of acting on a societal as well as a personal level (Jensen and Schnack 1997,

164).


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youth programs despite the additional complexity and time required by this approach. How do

practitioners stories of facilitating youth participation in environmental action embody their

theories about what is worthwhile learning and how to best support learning? How do

practitioners articulate their purposes for involving youth in environmental action? How might

their stories enlighten us about the aims of environmental action and what constitutes success?

We explored these questions through interviews with practitioners working in varied settings in

the USA, who engaged youth in action addressing a range of local environmental issues.

Methodology

This paper draws from a broader study inquiring how practitioners engaging youth in

local environmental action in the USA understand and experience that work. We chose a

phenomenological approach because we aspired to understand the practice of facilitating youth

participation in environmental action frompractitioners perspectives. Phenomenology presumes

that through dialogue and reflection one can understand the meaning or essence of an experience

for those experiencing it (Creswell 1998; Tesch 1990; Schram 2003). Central in our approach

was the use of narrative in the form of practice stories. Narrative offers a powerful way for

understanding the meaning and significance of an experience and for illuminating tacit

knowledge and theories-in-use (Forester 1999; P. Hart 2003; Dodge, Ospina, & Foldy 2005).

The lead author encouraged community organizers, teachers, extension educators, and

other professionals guiding youth in environmental action to describe and reflect on their

practice in semi-structured, open-ended interviews. We purposefully selected (Patton 1990)

individuals identified through peer referrals or national award programs whose practice sharedcriteria central to the studys focus environmental action and shared decision-making with

youth and whose experiences we believed could be instructive and illuminating. Thirty-three

professionals working in 28 different organizations2 were interviewed in person or by telephone

with interviews typically lasting one hour. These practitioners worked predominantly with youth


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ages 10-18 in varied community (e.g., rural, suburban, urban; poor, affluent; predominantly

Latino or African-American, predominantly white) and institutional (e.g., schools, community

organizations) settings. Patterns identified among practitioners perspectives in these diverse

cases might be more transferable or adaptable to a wider array of practice settings. Note we say

transferable and notgeneralizable. Our intent was not to produce generalized conclusions but

to provide insights into opportunities and possibilities that might further illuminate the aims of

EE in moving from a moralistic, instrumental paradigm toward a democratic, participatory

paradigm.

We developed a general interview guide outlining issues to be explored (see Schusler

2007), and the primary author adapted questions in wording and sequence to specific respondents

in the context of the actual interview (Patton 1990). Thus, interviews became guided

conversations co-constructed by the interviewer and practitioner. She asked practitioners about

what motivates and inspires them to work with youth on environmental issues and their goals

and hopes for a specific environmental action project. These questions garnered some insights

into practitioners theories and beliefs about the aims of environmental action in the abstract. But

what did these abstract ideas mean? And how did they play out in practical realities? To move

beyond intentions to the actualities of practice, a central component of each interview was the

narrative detailing (Forester 1999; P. Hart 2003; Ospina & Dodge 2005; Dodge, Ospina & Foldy

2005) of a specific environmental action project. Forester explained that in fields of practical

activity like urban planning, community development, or education:

we are likely to learn less from recipes or general rules for all times and places, and more from vivid

examples of real work, exemplars of sensitive and astute practical-contextual judgments in families of

messy and complex cases. Here we need not abstract lists of what worked but specific stories of

reconstructive action not so much experimental results but experimental stories, not so much (or only)

abstract rules (or principles alone) about what to do as emotionally rich, morally entangled, contextuallyspecific stories about how they really did it (Forester 2006, 573).

In this spirit, the lead author asked practitioners to the tell story of a particular action

project, including how it came about and at whose initiative; what youth, the practitioner, and

others involved did; barriers that arose and how they were handled; and surprises along the way


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and what was learned from them. Throughout, she probed for specific examples and details. She

then encouraged practitioners to reflect on ways in which they viewed the project as successful,

what they could point to as evidence of success, how they thought youth benefited or learned

through the experience, and what they personally found most rewarding about the experience.

The findings reported within draw largely on these reflections around success in practitioners

stories. Elsewhere are reported insights from practitioners reflections on challenges, struggles,

and lessons learned (Schusler 2007). Producing rich data grounded in practitioners experiences,

the use of narrative was a primary strategy for addressing validity threats, such as reactivity (the

influence of the interviewer on interviewees responses) or memory recall (Maxwell 2005), and

ensuring that interviews produced trustworthy accounts.

We concluded data collection when it appeared we had reached saturation in the central

concepts of interest around purposes for involving youth in environmental action and perceptions

of success. This is not to say we learned everything possible; rather, our learning through

additional interviews was diminishing. We chose to focus further energy on synthesizing our

interpretations, which in turn could help focus subsequent inquiry. All interviews but one were

audio recorded and transcribed by a professional clerical assistant. The primary author reviewed

transcripts for accuracy with the original recordings, and the transcribed text became the data

used for analysis and interpretation.

The primary author began analysis by reviewing each transcript in its entirety and

recording her coarse interpretation of the purposes discussed in each practice story. She then

focused more finely on practitioners descriptions of motivations, goals, and rewards;

perceptions of success; and observations supporting those. She refined these emerging

interpretations through discussion with the co-authors. To counter the human cognitive bias

toward confirmation (Maxwell 2005), the primary author actively searched transcripts for

evidence that would refute our emerging interpretations. She particularly looked for evidence

that supported purposes of influencing environmental behavior or achieving outcomes of

environmental protection and improvement over human development.


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Findings

Interviewees possessed a strong faith in young peoples abilities coupled with a passion

for the natural environment and/or social justice they enjoyed sharing with youth; yet, they spoke

in their practice stories of different purposes for facilitating youth environmental action. Space

constraints prevent us from relaying those in narrative form here. Instead, we summarize the

varied purposes conveyed in practitioners stories and illustrate with short quotes. We then

identify two common themes across interviews. Finally, we draw on practitioners own powerful

words in brief narrative excerpts to highlight the implications of these themes for what counts as

success.

Purposes

Some practitioners spoke of getting kids outside, encouraging an appreciation for nature,

raising awareness of environmental and social justice issues, and encouraging youth to think

more critically about lifestyle choices.

So I guess a moment of pause in nature that wouldn't be about like just getting it out of your way. And

appreciating or just observing what you're seeing. And it has nothing to do with you at that moment, that

ant is just busy doing its thing, or the bee needs nectar, or whatever. Science teacher, urban high school,

New York

I really want for myself, my own lifestyle, to live thoughtfully and lightly [on the planet], and I've learned

that it's important for me, it's healthier for me to live that way than it is to live in a really consumptive way.

And I believe that stands true for most other people. And I also realize that other people's lifestyle's impact

mine. So I'd like to be a positive impact on their lifestyles. Youth gardening program manager, small

city, New York

Science educators in particular believed that through environmental action science

becomes more relevant and meaningful to students.

[This project] allows me a forum to make their learning meaningful. I firmly believe that. I can teach

bookwork but it doesnt make it real and this has allowed me to create a living laboratory. A place where

kids can experiment, where we can experiment and its teaching science as science. Not just modeling

science but actually doing science. Science teacher, suburban middle school, New York


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All interviewees emphasized goals related to developmental opportunities afforded youth

by participating in environmental action, such as developing confidence and self-esteem, a work

ethic, or critical thinking and problem solving skills.

I'm very passionate about creating opportunities for youth to really look at themselves and identify theirown strengths and then, I mean it's probably twofold, my other passion is food and really getting kids to

look at where their food comes from and the importance of food in their lives and in the lives of the

community as a whole And so I think the rewards of my work come from seeing kids kind of get that

piece but also learn about themselves and learn that they, what their strengths are and seeing them use those

strengths, whether they're gonna garden or not or whether they go on to be farmers or not isn't so important

to me. If they move forward and in a way where they're more confident and they really can see themselves

as leaders then I feel like I've made a [difference]. Director, urban agriculture program, New York

Some observed environmental action creating opportunities for youth of diverse backgrounds

and talents to contribute as well as bringing together and building relationships among youth

who previously had little or no interaction.

The project provides every student a niche. We have students that actually excel that are absolutely

wonderful public speakers. They are able to go and do presentations. We have students that absolutely are

petrified of speaking in public that are learning to speak, learning and accomplishing and they're actually

enjoying it, they're feeling a sense of accomplishment. And we have kids that really like to do the actual

work, go out and put the sweat equity kind of thing into [the wetlands restoration project] to keep the

[environmental education] center looking good, to keep the grounds clean, to keep the paths paved. We

have kids that truly enjoy the paperwork, that have computer skills that love working on the brochures, to

create a new brochure, to keep it updated. But we have kids that are just finding a place where they can fit

in. Science teacher, rural high school, Virginia

Many spoke of preparing youth for future roles as voters who think critically about issues

and as citizens committed to serving their community whether in environmental or other arenas.

These practitioners hoped youth would develop commitment and capabilities for community

participation that would transfer to other parts of their lives.

I think it's very important that they have the opportunity to learn, to have the experience of giving back to

the community because if they have a positive experience as seniors in high school, they'll be more likely to

be lifelong stewards, giving back to the community in some way and my concern is not so much, I mean I

would love for them to be lifelong environmentalists and give back to the community through

environmental ways but as long as they're giving back to the community in some way, I think they

learned something from the situation. Science teacher, urban high school, South Carolina

Some practitioners, especially those working in neighborhoods plagued by poverty and violence,

spoke explicitly of empowering young people to be change agents.

But I think to really understand your own potential is really the most important thing, at least in my

perspective. To really understand that they're able to become agents of social change within their own

community. And that they understand that that's a potential in their life. Coordinator, urban agriculture

program, New York


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Developing young peoples abilities to envision a more just society and create change toward

their vision was an aim most common among practitioners working in poor, urban, African-

American or Latino neighborhoods, although a few working in other contexts also expressed it.

These practitioners more often than others engaged youth in environmental action connected to

broader community development goals, for example by researching models of cooperative home

ownership as part of an anti-displacement campaign in a rapidly gentrifying neighborhood.

While practitioners working in distinctly different programmatic and community contexts

expressed a variety of purposes for involving youth in environmental action, two common

themes emerged across interviews. First, practitioners sought to realize multiple aims. Second,

among these the goal ofyouth development was central. Developing youth through theprocess

of environmental action was more important than the product in terms of tangible environmental

change.

This type of process when youre working with young people takes longer and thats why I say the end is

not the product, its the process. Director, community organization, New York

Theres a whole different dimension to it in terms of how youre helping shape their understanding of the

world and their sense of being able to act in it and I think in some ways that is more important than the

projects that we get out of it at the end. Director, youth action research program, multiple sites

Success

What does success look like when one aspires to realize multiple aims among which

developing youth as citizens or change agents is central? We cannot share here the myriad ways

in which practitioners stories embodied success but have selected excerpts we found especially

illuminating for understanding its dimensions.

We begin with the reflections of a science teacher who told the story of engaging youth in

transforming a misused and abused school courtyard into a working butterfly house and native

plant sanctuary where students raised plants and butterflies for ecosystem restoration at a nearby

nature preserve. This teacher coordinated a summer program in which student volunteers gave

public tours and led an educational camp for younger children in addition to managing the

butterfly house. Reflecting on how he viewed the program as successful, he said the following:


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Well it's our 8th year. We've had over 20,000 people come through our doors. We have tremendous amount

of visitors repeat. We've had people from, not only all over the country but international people come

because they've heard about it. We've had people from the State Entomology Department come and

actually praise us on our care of our caterpillars. We've released hundreds of Monarchs back to Mexico.

We've probably bred many thousands of butterflies and released them into the wild. I think that students

volunteering year after year after year shows that they find it worthwhile. The amount of parent feedback

we get is unbelievable. And it's 99.99% positive. I think that we've grown to include all of the younger

students. We now have an organic garden that we also work with. We also go to a nursing home and

maintain a garden for them at a nursing home And as I often say to people, people think they're coming

here to see the butterflies but what most people comment when they leave is not about the butterflies but is

about the students. The poise that the students show, the knowledge that the students show and

basicallyhow well the students present themselves to the general public. Because kids often get a bad rap

as to being teenagers and I think that's because people don't see this side of the kids. And so we're really not

showing butterflies, we're really showing kids.

It is clear from this teachers words that success is multi-dimensional. In this example,

measures of success include environmental outcomes (releasing butterflies into the wild),

youth enthusiasm (students volunteer year after year), and influencing others in the community

(over 20,000 people through our doors). It is inclusive (weve grown to include all the younger

students) and connects youth with their community through service (maintaining a garden at a

nursing home). Ultimately, however, success is about young peoples growth and development.

What does it mean to show kids instead of butterflies? Later in his story, this

practitioner offered further insights:

When I'm walking around usually I'm smiling and the reason I'm smiling is listening to the students give

the speeches to the other younger students, watching them interact, seeing the products that they create

which is, for example, getting 1000 plants transplanted, cleaning out the garden, reading a book to ayounger child. It's very, very task and product oriented. And I see a lot of that. A lot of self control. A lot of

positive interaction between students. Now again, the knowledge just seems to grow because I mean by the

end of the summer they know the stuff about the [ecosystem] and the butterflies. They know more about it

than I do honestly because I don't review it a hundred times. So I can go to them and say okay, Was this a

male or female? What was the larval food? How has it been going in the metamorphosis room? What are

your statistics this year? And they know more about it than I do. It's a real positive experience for the

students and I get my joy out of that. Out of watching the students and seeing how successful they are and

how they've grown, how positive they are, how, again I think what I constant-, even as an educator for 20

years, I constantly underestimated what students could do if given an opportunity. And this has allowed me

to really let them stretch and watch how far they can go.

In this teachers words, we see the tangible products of young peoples contributions are

undoubtedly valued; however, his joy comes from observing how youth interact and grow

through this experience and from the surprise of discovering what youth are capable of when

given opportunity and guidance. Like this teacher, every practitioner aimed to realize multiple,

although varying goals, with youth development central among them.


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The above account suggests possibilities for integrating multiple aims at a project level.

What does success look like on an individual level? The observations of another teacher whose

students undertook sustainability action initiatives as a major component of a yearlong ecology

course illustrate the possibility for personal transformation and growth through such engagement.

this is a young woman who is as a learner one of those folks that has incredibly high expectations for

herself, works exceedingly hard, when I get a paper from this person, it's like okay, I got to prepare myself

because instead of a page and a half, it's going to be 6-1/2 pages and it warrants close and careful reading

and substantive response because the person puts their heart and soul in everything they do and I was

worried about this person when we shifted to these projects because it wasn't what she was used to, she was

used to book learning, not just book learning but seminar discussions, articles, books, come on let's get our

heads around these concepts and delve and delve and delve and delve as opposed to, you got a lot of time

on your hands right now that's open for you to pick a project and do something. And ultimately she

identified a group home, disabled adults, she visited there, she became part of the community, she is

absolutely not a gardener, she's absolutely not a physical worker and [she] designed a garden with me,

identified the materials necessary, identified help to get the boards cut, built it essentially on the playgroundhere, on this flat piece of pavement out behind the school and then went to the group home and with, first

we went and met with the clients and it was very interesting watching how she had folded herself into that

community already. They knew her by name, they were excited to see her, they came running out in the

backyard to help us and when we put it together, two of the clients worked like crazy helping us build it,

she did, I worked one day, she worked three or four days, it's now full of vegetables and flowers.

She's taken it to the next level where she's contacted, there's a place on Main Street that is a paint your own

pottery kind of facility. She's had the clients design tiles and [is] taking them there this summer and then

the fence will have personalized tiles all around it and she's continuing to go back and it's sort of a cultural

thing as well as an environmental piece. She's really woven herself into it, it's beautiful and it's ongoing so

that to me is a wonderful success story. She's learning that she's incredibly powerful in a new way. She's

connecting to a facet of our culture that frequently is hidden and she's choosing to do it in her own way.

The art piece is something that wouldn't have occurred to me in a million years but she happens to be

incredibly artistic and so she's including that as a component that personalizes it and makes it more

something to the folks that live there and are going to use it and so to me it's very interesting.

As with the butterfly house, success here involves multiple dimensions, including

improving the environment (a garden now full of vegetables and flowers), involving other

community members (clients worked like crazy helping build it), building connections among

people (connecting to a facet of our culture frequently hidden), and continuing involvement

beyond the term of the class. Most compellingly, success is a young person learning that shes

incredibly powerful in a new way, contributing to positive environmental and community

change in her own individual and unique way, and connecting environmental, social, and cultural

aspects of sustainability by enriching environmental action with the arts to enhance qualify of

life with (not for) the people living in this residence. Here, as above, success also involves


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surprise the value added by a young persons unexpected inspiration, ideas, and acts. Many

practitioners cited the unpredictable dimensions of success as especially rewarding.

Let us consider one more account of success shared by the outreach coordinator for a

neighborhood-based program involving youth in transforming vacant lots into urban gardens and

growing food sustainably to increase the neighborhoods food security.

This summer we had a great success. We did a national Eat In Act Out week here and most of the food

based programs in the country, part of the community food security coalition or something like that, they

all engage in this Eat In Act Out week. And our kids for a few weeks before it were doing lots of planning

and lots of, they wrote all their own press releases and media advisories and they contacted lots and lots of

local businesses and asked for donations and participation and they made these bags of fresh fruit or fresh

vegetables and they went to three different locations during the week and handed out food facts about

where food comes from and pesticides, organic food, and they passed them out all over. And they invited

people, we had hundreds of people in the garden and the local hip hop station was here and the kids did a

skit where they were tomatoes, conventional tomatoes and organic tomatoes, and they were sitting on ashelf together and talking to one another in these huge tomato costumes. It was great. So I think that was a

success just in that the kids were so engaged and so activated and they saw like they can rally support and

teach their community and they each, they would meet people out here and take tours through the garden

and talk about what they're growing and what things are used for and how they grow and what challenges

we're having with bugs or whatever and it's just nice to hear them have pride in the place and pride in the

things that they know. So that was probably the highlight of outreach this year.

Here again, success occurs at community and individual levels. In this short story, we

begin to see that interactions between the two are critical to success at both levels. Young

peoples actions (planning, media outreach, requesting donations, distributing food facts)

contributed to community impacts (hundreds of people in the garden gaining information about

sustainable agriculture). At the same time, the process of rallying community support and

educating others developed young peoples pride in their abilities. Success involves neither

solely improving the environment, nor solely developing youth. Success is the synergy arising in

the interactions between youth and community development: the environmental/community

change and personal growth occurring when youth contribute to community development, which

in turn contributes to youth development, which in turn contributes further to community

development in an ongoing cycle of individual and community transformation.

Discussion


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Practitioners stories illustrate the aim of environmental action is not solely the

environmental outcome nor the development of youth as citizens or change agents but rather the

integration of individual and community development through a systems approach. Of particular

interest given the EE fields movement toward sustainability education is the way in which

practitioners frequently connected environmental action with health, economy, equity, and other

issues important to developing sustainable communities. Reflecting on the forces contributing to

the success of a community organization engaging youth in sustainable agriculture, a program

director said:

we have a holistic, integrated, probing, innovative vision that people tend to find pretty intriguing

because we don't describe our work as working on problems or needs we tend to think of ourselves as

charting out a purpose with a diverse community of youth to achieve a lot of healthy outcomes this isabout fitness and nutrition, this is about obesity, this is about economic development, this is about land

preservation, this is about feeding the hungry people in our community, this is about youth development

so we have like 15 different things we're doing in our system we have an exciting multi-pronged vision.

While this particular case was one of the most holistic examples, in every case multiple

initiatives occurred simultaneously.

The restored habitat, reclaimed vacant lot, or educational festival around water quality is

undoubtedly a valued outcome of environmental action. Of greatest value from an educational

perspective, however, are the processes through which youth participate in creating those

outcomes. Drawing on the multi-faceted descriptions of purpose and success in practitioners

stories, we can envision the relationship of young peoples participation in environmental action

to the development of democratic citizens and creation of sustainable communities (Figure 1). In

the near term, young peoples participation in environmental action contributes to positive

environmental and community change. This process of envisioning and co-creating

environmental and community outcomes develops learners understanding and capabilities as

democratic citizens, thereby enabling learners over the long-term to participate further in

processes of envisioning and transforming their communities.

Note that Figure 1 includes a positive feedback loop in that participating in

environmental action enhances learners capabilities for further participation, whether in


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environmental or other spheres of life valued by the learner. This is consistent with the educative

function of participation in participatory democracy. Pateman (1970, 42) concluded,

Participation develops and fosters the very qualities necessary for it; the more individuals

participate the better they become able to do so. Similarly Freire (1973) stated that people learn

democracy through the exercise of democracy.

Whereas others have described the stages (McClaren & Hammond 2005) and learning

outcomes (Emmons 1997; Jensen 2002; Melchior & Bailis 2004; Volk & Cheak 2003) of

environmental action, Figure 1 suggests the potential of environmental action for concurrently

realizing individual and community level impacts. Krasny and Tidball (In review) described a

social-ecological systems approach to EE in cities called Civic Ecology Education. This

approach builds on individual, social, and natural assets present in a community, and it

contributes to community and ecological resilience. They proposed that research should look at

individual, community, and environmental outcomes of EE programs and the feedback loops

between them using a social-ecological systems resilience perspective.

Practice stories collected in this study suggest environmental action, like Civic Ecology

Education, involves multiple goals at individual and community levels. A definition of

environmental action more explicitly encompassing these individual-community interactions

might more accurately depict the phenomenon. Skelton, Boyte, and Leonard (2002, 9) defined

youth civic engagement as young citizens developing civic skills and habits as they actively

shape democratic society in collaboration with others. Adapting this definition, we suggest

environmental action is aprocess of co-creating environmental and social change that builds

individuals capabilities for further participation contributing to personal and community

transformation. Attending to the feedback loops by which individual and community

development reinforce each other in environmental action raises implications and questions for

practice and research. Below we offer some preliminary thoughts on these implications and

questions.


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First, recognizing youth development as a central aim of environmental action suggests

practitioners and researchers could benefit from more intentionally attending to youth

development in EE programs. Although the EE community in the USA often evaluates success

by changes in individuals environmental behaviors, a host of developmental outcomes can also

indicate success. For example, Volk and Cheak (2003) documented that participation in school-

based environmental inquiry and action in a Hawaiian community enhanced students critical

thinking skills; citizenship competence; reading, writing, and oral communication skills;

familiarity with technology; and self-confidence. Luke and colleagues (Luke et al. 2007)

described the utility of the Six Cs3

conceptual framework for positive youth development as a

tool for program design and assessment in non-formal education in museums. This framework

developed by the Search Institute is one of several in the youth development literature describing

assets that promote well-being (Eccles & Gootman 2002), which could similarly be used by the

EE community to guide program design and evaluation appropriate to the democratic educational

paradigm.

Practitioners aims around developing citizens capable of constructive action are

consistent with the educational ideal of action competence described by scholars (Jensen &

Schnack 1997). How does contributing to community impacts through environmental action

develop young peoples competence as citizens? Answers to this question are likely to be as

varied as different conceptions of citizenship(Gibson 2001; Battistoni 2002; Youniss et al.

2002). Battistoni (2002) identified twelve conceptual frameworks of citizenship within the social

sciences and related disciplines. Environmental action, in our view, reflects citizenship traditions

of participatory democracy, public work, and social justice because it includes youth directly in

democratic processes, involves collective action toward some public purpose (e.g., creating a

community garden), and ideally addresses the root causes of problems. Others are likely to

understand developing citizens differently.

Different conceptions of citizenship embody significantly different beliefs regarding the

capacities and commitments that citizens need for democracy to flourish and carry different


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implications for pedagogy (Westheimer & Kahne 2004). How do practitioners conceptions of

citizenship influence their pedagogical approaches and how do these in turn influence

participants learning?For example, Westheimer and Kahne (2004) found that participatory and

justice-oriented approaches to civic education, while both successful, contributed to distinct

learning outcomes. Programs emphasizing civic participation did not necessarily develop

students abilities to critique root causes of social problems and vice versa (Westheimer & Kahne

2004). How do the pedagogical approaches of practitioners who aim to develop youth as citizens

differ from those who aim to develop youth as change agents, and what are the implications for

learning outcomes? Related to the question of what citizen means is what does competence

mean? A primary task here is further developing understanding of action competence and its

dimensions knowledge, commitment, visions, action experiences, and perhaps others (Jensen

& Schnack 1997, 2004; Jensen 2000b, 2002). Furthermore, investigating characteristics of the

educational practices (Schusler 2007) and settings (Chawla & Heft 2002) that support or impede

the development of action competence is another area ripe for reflective practice and research.

What are the implications for practice when the participatory process takes priority over

the environmental product? What can we learn from practitioners stories about different

approaches to young peoples participation and the outcomes, both desirable and undesirable,

they contribute to? What conflicts arise between process and product, and how do practitioners

handle those? A central tension experienced by practitioners in this inquiry was in sharing

decision-making power with youth. The different ways in which practitioners experienced and

managed this tension is explored elsewhere (Schusler 2007). We believe much more can be

learned from the stories of thoughtful practitioners who share and reflect on the messy details

of facilitating youth participation in environmental action, such as power dynamics,

relationships, communication, and transparency. Such practice stories can help us gain a more

nuanced understanding of the potential and limitations of youth participation in environmental

action for personal, environmental, and community transformation.


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Conclusion

In this inquiry, we explored the aims of environmental action through the stories of

practitioners who directly experience on a regular basis the opportunities, struggles, rewards, and

complexities of co-creating with youth positive environmental and social change. Despite

critiques that much EE assumes a deterministic educational aim (Jickling 1992; Jickling & Spork

1998) and neglects to consider the broader historical, economic, social, and political constraints

on environmental improvement (Robottom & Hart 1995), EE in the USA remains predominantly

focused on education as a means to influence individual environmental behaviors. As EE

transitions to a more democratic paradigm, the stories of practitioners facilitating participatory

education through environmental action can help re-construct our understanding of EEs aims.

Practitioners aspiring to realize multiple aims among which youth development was

central described success in multiple dimensions, integrating individual and community

development. Young peoples tangible contributions to positive environmental and community

change were an evident measure of success; however, practitioners cared more about the human

development of participating youth. Success lies not only in the growth of the collard greens but

also in the growth of the young people tending them. Environmental action is a process of co-

creating environmental and social change while building individuals capabilities for further

participation contributing to personal and community transformation. Attending to the feedback

loops by which individual and community development reinforce each other in environmental

action raises implications and questions for practice and research. These include intentionally

attending to youth development in the design and evaluation of EE programs; exploring how

different conceptions of citizenship and competence influence pedagogy and, in turn, young

peoples experiences and learning; and discovering the tensions, contradictions, and challenges

that arise in practice when growing citizens is a central educational aim.


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1

Collards is the common name in the USA forBrassica oleracae var. acephala. This dark green leafy vegetable is

an important ingredient of traditional cooking in the southern USA and increasingly grown in the northern USA as

well.2 In two organizations, the lead author had opportunity to interview multiple staff facilitating different action

projects or different components of the same project with youth.3

The Six Cs refer to competence, confidence, connection, character, caring, and contribution. Each C reflects acollection of related assets. For example, competence includes social, cognitive, academic, and vocational

competence. Confidence refers to an internal sense of self-worth and positive self-efficacy.


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Acknowledgments

Funding for this research was provided by the Cornell University Agricultural

Experiment Station federal formula funds, Project No. NYC-147459, received from the

Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service, U.S. Department of

Agriculture. We thank co-researchers Gretchen Ferenz, Steve Hamilton, Mike Simsik, and

Jamila Simon for valuable contributions to this study, as well as three anonymous reviewers

for improvements to the manuscript. We are greatly indebted to the practitioners who shared

their practical experiences and insightful reflections on facilitating youth environmental

action.


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Figure 1. Relationship of youth participation in environmental action to individual and

community development, including a positive feedback loop between them.

Environmental

Action

NEAR TERM

Developing Youth, Citizens &Change Agents

Positive Environmental &Social Change

LONG TERM

Democratic Participation

Sustainable Communities

schusler et al developing citizens eer

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