school violence paper for criminology conference 11-15-18 for... · schools are safer than the...

Nov 15, 2018

Dewey Cornell, Ph.D. 1

School Violence

School Violence: Using and Enhancing Knowledge to Improve

School SafetyJennifer Maeng, Ph.D., & Dewey Cornell, Ph.D.

Curry School of EducationUniversity of Virginia

434-924-8929Email: [email protected]

Website: youthviolence.edschool.virginia.edu

Department of JusticeOffice of Justice Programs

Comprehensive School Safety Initiative

Student Threat Assessment as a Safe and Supportive Prevention Strategy

This project is supported by Grant #NIJ 2014-CK-BX-0004 awarded by the National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the Department of Justice.

Virginia Youth Violence Project 2018-19 Research Team

Main Points 1. School violence is a small part of the larger

problem of gun violence. Schools are safer than the public perceives.

2. The fear of school violence has stimulated an excessive emphasis on security and zero tolerance discipline.

3. Threat assessment is a useful tool to identify students in need of assistance.

Traumatic Effect of School Shootings

School shootings are so traumatic that they convince the public that schools are unsafe.

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School Violence

Annual Gun Toll- 33,000 deaths- 67,000 injuries100,000 total

275 Shootings per day

APA report is available at http://www.apa.org/pubs/info/reports/gun-violence-prevention.aspxShooting deaths from: National Vital Statistics http://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/dataRestriction_inj.htmlShooting injuries from: http://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/nfirates2001.html

5 yrs x 100,000 =

500,000 outside of schools

For every shooting in a school, there are 1,600+ outside of

schoolsSchools are far safer than

the public perceives.

9847

4455

1209

629

533

492

288

211

49

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

Residence

Street

Parking lot/garage

Outdoors

Restaurant/bar

Store/gas station

Public building/business

Hotel/motel

School

2005‐2010 Homicides in 37 States

Restaurants are 10x more dangerous than schools.

Homes are 200x more dangerous than schools.

Source: FBI National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) database. Selected locations. School includes colleges. See Nekvasil & Cornell (2015) Psychology of Violence, 5, 236-245.

17

135

437

1336

1345

1871

4158

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

School homicide

Flu & pneumonia

Heart disease

Cancer

Homicide out ofschool

Suicide

Accidents

Number of Deaths

Causes of Death Ages 5-18

Selected causes for 2015 from CDC National Center for Health Statistics, 2018

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School Violence

Over-reactions to the fear of school shootings

• Zero tolerance• Excessive security

The Expansion of Zero Tolerance

From No Guns to• No Toy Guns• No Nail clippers• No Plastic utensils• No Finger-pointing• No Jokes• No Drawings• No Rubber band

shootingNo accidental violations

Zero Tolerance SuspensionsAfter the Newtown Shootings

6 year old pointed finger and said “pow!”

http://www.sott.net/article/255552-6-year-old-suspended-for-pretend-gunshot

Zero tolerance is not effective. Suspension associated with

poorer outcomes for students.

Suspension PracticesSuspension is a practice that has more negative than positive effects on students:

• Fall behind in their classes• Feel alienated and rejected• Continue to misbehave

and be suspended• Drop out of school• Juvenile court involvement

The school-to-prison pipeline

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School Violence

Racial Discipline Gap• Disproportionate suspension rates

for some minority groups• Potential discrimination• USDOE Office for Civil Rights

Latest available data April 2018https://ocrdata.ed.gov/StateNationalEstimations/Estimations_2013_14

Excessive School Security

http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-11-14/schools-boosting-security-spending-after-newtown-massacreHigh Security Military Entrances

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School Violence

Students involved in shooter drills. Simulated Injuries

School security measures are expensive and deprive schools of resources that could be allocated to preventive measures such as anti-bullying programs and counseling services.

We should prevent shootings rather than

simply prepare for them.

We need a shift in mindset from security

to prevention.

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School Violence

Photo of gunman

Prevention must start before the gunman is

at your door.


at your door.


at your door.


at your door. We can prevent violence by identifying

and helping at-risk students.

Nov 15, 2018


School Violence

IIIIntensive

Interventions

IIAt-Risk Students

ISchoolwide Prevention

Three Tiers of Prevention in Schools

Prevention begins with a safe and

supportive school climate.

38

31

28

22

16

14

6

0 10 20 30 40

Students in this school are teased or put downabout their sexual orientation

Students in this school are teased or put downbecause of their race or ethnicity.

...sexual comments, jokes, or gestures that madeyou feel uncomfortable?

I have been bullied at school this year.

Have gangs caused trouble at your school thisyear (e.g., fights, sale of drugs?)

...touch, brush up against you, grab, or pull yourclothing, or corner you in a sexual and…

…in a physical fight on school property?

2018 School Climate ProblemsPercent Yes or Agree

N = 85,980 students in 324 Virginia high schoolsThe FBI, Secret Service, and Dept of Education recommended a threat assessment approach nearly 20 years ago.

What is Threat Assessment?

Threat assessment is a problem-solving approach to violence prevention that involves assessment and intervention with students who have threatened violence in some way.

Threat Assessment is a violence prevention strategy.

1. Family members, friends, or others seek help when concerned about someone in distress or who is threatening violence.

2. The threat assessment team evaluates the seriousness of the threat.

3. The team initiates assistance to address the underlying problem, conflict or need. In the most serious cases, protective action is taken.

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School Violence

• Developed 2001 at University of Virginia

• School-based teams gather information

• Follow decision-tree to determine whether threat is transient or substantive

• Take protective action if substantive

• Attempt to resolve the problem underlying the threat

2006 Manual

2018 Manual

Step 1. Evaluate the threat.Obtain a detailed account of the threat, usually by interviewing the person who made the threat, the intended victim, and other witnesses. Write the exact content of the threat and key observations by each party. Consider the circumstances in which the threat was made and the student’s intentions. Is there communication of intent to harm someone or behavior suggesting intent to harm?

No Not a threat. Might be expression of anger that merits attention.

YesStep 2. Attempt to resolve the threat as transient.

Attempt to resolve conflict or threat.Yes Case resolved as transient.

Add services as needed.Is the threat an expression of humor, rhetoric, anger, or frustration that can be resolved so that there is no intent to harm?

No

Step 3. Respond to a substantive threat.For all substantive threats:a. Take immediate precautions to protect potential victims.b. Warn intended victim and parents.c. Look for ways to resolve conflict.d. Discipline student, when time is appropriate.

SeriousCase resolved as serious substantive threat. Add services as needed.

Serious means a threat to hit, fight, or beat up whereas Very serious means a threat to kill, rape, or cause very serious injury with a weapon.

Very Serious

Step 4. Conduct a safety evaluation for a very serious substantive threat.In addition to a-d above, the student may be briefly placed elsewhere or suspended pending completion of the following:e. Screen student for mental health services and counseling; refer as needed. f. Law enforcement investigation.g. Develop safety plan that reduces risk and addresses student needs. Plan should

include review of Individual Educational Plan or “child find” procedures if appropriate.

Step 5. Implement and monitor the safety plan.Document the plan.Maintain contact with the student.Revise plan as needed.

Research on Threat Assessment

1. Cornell, D., Sheras, P. Kaplan, S., McConville, D., Douglass, J., Elkon, A., McKnight, L., Branson, C., & Cole, J. (2004). Guidelines for student threat assessment: Field-test findings. School Psychology Review, 33, 527-546.

2. Kaplan, S., & Cornell, D. (2005). Threats of violence by students in special education. Behavioral Disorders, 31, 107-119.3. Strong, K., & Cornell, D. (2008). Student threat assessment in Memphis City Schools: A descriptive report. Behavioral Disorders,

34, 42-54. 4. Allen, K., Cornell, D., Lorek, E., & Sheras, P. (2008). Response of school personnel to student threat assessment training. School

Effectiveness and School Improvement, 19, 319-332. 5. Cornell, D., Sheras, P., Gregory, A., & Fan, X. (2009). A retrospective study of school safety conditions in high schools using the

Virginia Threat Assessment Guidelines versus alternative approaches. School Psychology Quarterly, 24, 119-129. 6. Cornell, D., Gregory, A., & Fan, X. (2011). Reductions in long-term suspensions following adoption of the Virginia Student

Threat Assessment Guidelines. Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, 95, 175-194.7. Cornell, D., Allen, K., & Fan, X. (2012). A randomized controlled study of the Virginia Student Threat Assessment Guidelines in

grades K-12. School Psychology Review, 41, 100-115.8. Cornell, D. & Lovegrove, P. (2015). Student threat assessment as a method for reducing student suspensions. In D. Losen (Ed.).

Closing the School Discipline Gap: Research for Policymakers. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.9. Nekvasil, E., Cornell, D. (2015). Student threat assessment associated with positive school climate in middle schools. Journal of

Threat Assessment and Management 2, 98-113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tam000003810. Burnette, A. G., Datta, P. & Cornell, D. G. (2017). The distinction between transient and substantive student threats. Journal of

Threat Assessment and Management. http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-56103-00111. Cornell, D., Maeng, J., Burnette, A.G., Jia, Y., Huang, F., Konold, T., Datta, P., Malone, M., Meyer, P. (2017). Student threat

assessment as a standard school safety practice: Results from a statewide implementation study. School Psychology Quarterly. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/spq0000220

12. Cornell, D., Maeng, J., Huang, F., Shukla, K., & Konold, T. (2018). Racial/ethnic parity in disciplinary consequences using student threat assessment. School Psychology Review 47, 183-195.


1.Field-test What happens when you try the model?

2.Controlled studies Cross-sectional, retrospective study:

How do schools using the model compare to other schools?Pre-post study:

How do schools change after adopting the model?Randomized controlled trial:

What happens to students in schools randomly chosen to use the model?

3.Large-scale implementationWhat happens when the whole state adopts the model?


1. 99% of threats not carried out.2. Only 1% expelled, 1% arrested.3. Suspension rates decreased.4. Racial disparities reduced or absent. 5. Counseling used more often.6. More positive school climate.


1. Cornell, D., Sheras, P. Kaplan, S., McConville, D., Douglass, J., Elkon, A., McKnight, L., Branson, C., & Cole, J. (2004). Guidelines for student threat assessment: Field-test findings. School Psychology Review, 33, 527-546.

2. Kaplan, S., & Cornell, D. (2005). Threats of violence by students in special education. Behavioral Disorders, 31, 107-119.3. Strong, K., & Cornell, D. (2008). Student threat assessment in Memphis City Schools: A descriptive report. Behavioral Disorders,

34, 42-54. 4. Allen, K., Cornell, D., Lorek, E., & Sheras, P. (2008). Response of school personnel to student threat assessment training. School

Effectiveness and School Improvement, 19, 319-332. 5. Cornell, D., Sheras, P., Gregory, A., & Fan, X. (2009). A retrospective study of school safety conditions in high schools using the

Virginia Threat Assessment Guidelines versus alternative approaches. School Psychology Quarterly, 24, 119-129. 6. Cornell, D., Gregory, A., & Fan, X. (2011). Reductions in long-term suspensions following adoption of the Virginia Student

Threat Assessment Guidelines. Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, 95, 175-194.7. Cornell, D., Allen, K., & Fan, X. (2012). A randomized controlled study of the Virginia Student Threat Assessment Guidelines in

grades K-12. School Psychology Review, 41, 100-115.8. Cornell, D. & Lovegrove, P. (2015). Student threat assessment as a method for reducing student suspensions. In D. Losen (Ed.).

Closing the School Discipline Gap: Research for Policymakers. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.9. Nekvasil, E., Cornell, D. (2015). Student threat assessment associated with positive school climate in middle schools. Journal of

Threat Assessment and Management 2, 98-113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tam000003810. Burnette, A. G., Datta, P. & Cornell, D. G. (2017). The distinction between transient and substantive student threats. Journal of

Threat Assessment and Management. http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-56103-00111. Cornell, D., Maeng, J., Burnette, A.G., Jia, Y., Huang, F., Konold, T., Datta, P., Malone, M., Meyer, P. (2017). Student threat

assessment as a standard school safety practice: Results from a statewide implementation study. School Psychology Quarterly. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/spq0000220

12. Cornell, D., Maeng, J., Huang, F., Shukla, K., & Konold, T. (in press). Racial/ethnic parity in disciplinary consequences using student threat assessment. School Psychology Review.

Nov 15, 2018


School Violence


1. 99% of threats not carried out.2. Only 1% expelled, 1% arrested.3. Suspension rates decreased.4. Racial disparities reduced or absent. 5. Counseling used more often.6. More positive school climate.

Virginia mandates K-12 threat assessment in 2013

46% 47%

63%68%

2013‐2014 2014‐2015 2015‐2016 2016‐2017

Virginia Schools Conducting at Least One Threat Assessment

Selected sample of 1,865 threat assessment cases reported by 785 Virginia public schools during the 2014-15 school year

Percentages for 1,865 threat cases from 785 schools. One case can involve more than one type of threat.

33

23

21

18

13

5

1

1

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Unspecified

Kill

Use weapon

Hit, beat

Stab, cut

Bomb

Arson

Sexual

Types of Threats (%)n= 1,865

Percentages for 1,865 threat cases from 785 schools. One case can involve more than one victim.

68

15

13

7

4

0 20 40 60

Student

Teacher

Whole school/group

Staff/administrator

Other

Intended Victim (%)n = 1,865

Nov 15, 2018


School Violence

97.7

2.6

0.7

0 20 40 60 80 100

Threat NotAttempted

Attempted andAverted

Threat CarriedOut

Threat Outcomes (%)n = 1,865 cases

84

8

5

1

2

0 20 40 60 80

No Change

Transferred to alternativeschool

Homebound instruction

Transferred to regularschool

Other

School Placement Outcome (%)n = 1,865 cases

Percentages for 1,865 threat cases from 785 schools. One case can involve more than one outcome.

53

44

16

5

3

3

1

1

0 10 20 30 40 50

Reprimand

Suspension out of school

Suspension in school

Expulsion reduced to…

Detention after school

Placed in juvenile detention

Arrested

Expelled

Disciplinary Outcome (%)n= 1,865

No statistically significant differences for White vs Black or White vs Hispanic students

45

15

0.5 0.7 0.8

46

18

1.4 1.2 0.7

43

16

1.5 0.8 00

10

20

30

40

50

Suspension Change inPlacement

Expulsion Arrest Incarceration

Percent of Studen

ts

No Racial Differences in Disciplinary Outcomes for Students Receiving a Threat Assessment

n = 785 schools

White

Black

Hispanic

Research Needs 1. Improve threat assessment training.

2. Improve fidelity of implementation of threat assessment.

3. Show longitudinal impact for students and schools.

4. Demonstrate impact of wider school climate improvement efforts.

We can prevent violence by helping all students to be

successful in school.

Nov 15, 2018


School Violence

http://youthviolence.edschool.virginia.edu

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