3.4.1 Re-school Education 3.4.2 Ten Year Schooling 3.4.3 Higher Secondary Education 3.4.4 University Education

3.5 Physical Infrastructure

School Building Classmoms Library Laboratory The Administrative Block Staff Room School Playgrounds Other Facilities and Equipment

3.6 Hierarchies in School System

3.6.1 Qpes of Hierarchies of Structure

3.7 Manpower Resources

3.7.1 Principal 3.7.2 Supervisors 3.7.3 Teaching Personnel 3.7.4 Librarian 3.7.5 Administrative Staff 3.7.6 Pupils 3.7.7 Community

3.8 Let Us Sum Up

3.9 Unit-end Activities

3.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.11 Suggested Readings

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Human beings are social entities. They live in groups or societies. In their day-to-day life in a society, they have to play a viuiety of roles, perform several tasks and solve many problems. Some of these problems individuals can handle on their own. However, most of the problems they face and tasks they have to perform need group effort. In other words, an individual in a society depends on others for the fulfilment of several of his needs. Take for example, the security of the country. Every nation has to equip itself against external aggression and internal rebellion. No single individual, however strong he might be, can defend the nation all alone. Educating the young ones in the society is yet another example. In the past, the goals of education were limited. Either the father of the family took up the task of educating the young ones or the task was entrusted to one who was specialized in it, namely, the 'guru'. However, as time progressed, the task of education became very complex. An ~ndividual, however scholarly he might be, cannot be expected to provide children with all the knowledge, skills and attitudes expected of the young. These are the days of specialization. In fact, we need a team of specialists or experts specifically trained for different tasks. The society has to bring together

a number of such experts in a formal relationship to carry out the task of educating the young. This group of experts and the multitude of pupils who assemble together in a particular place for the purpose of education we call school organization.

In this unit, let us learn about the school as a formal organization, its structure, its various physical infrastructure, the hierarchies present within the school system as well as the various manpower resources present within school as an organization.

OBJECTIVES

After having studied the unit, you should be in a position to:

define what an organization is and to spell out the various characteristics that mark the school as a formal organization;

state the main functions of school as an organization;

name and explain the structure or different layers that underlie school as an organization;

describe various aspects of the physical infrastructure associated with school;

explain different types of hierarchies the school organization usually has and state their functions; and

spell out various manpower resources available within school as an organization and explain their roles.

3.3 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION

In the introduction to this unit, we have noted that certain needs of a society like protecting the society from external attack or educating the young, etc. cannot be carried out by single individuals. For such purposes collective effort on the part of members of the society is required. When a group of people bound together in a formal relationship to achieve such goals as we have seen, organizations come into existence. The army, the school, the nearby Municipality, etc. are examples of such organizations. Each of these organizations has specific goals or purposes for its existence. We can define an organization as a set of stable social relationships deliberately created with the explicit intention of continuously accomplishing some specific goals or purposes.

If we look around, we shall not fail to notice the existence of several such organization in the society some of which are formal, others informal or casual. The army, the school, the local panchayat or municipality are examples of the former category while the cricket team in your neighbourhood composed of local youngsters or an assembly of women in a neighbourhood meeting after their meals are examples of the latter. A formal organization is a highly organized group having explicit objectives, formally stated rules and regulations, and a system of specifically defined roles, each with clearly designated rights and duties. Informal organizations are systems of personal relationships that develop spontaneously as individuals interact within a societal set up.

All organizations, be they formal or casual, have some elements in common. All of them have goals or purposes. In fact, no organization can come into existence without a purpose or a goal. Similarly, all of them have some programmes or methods for achieving these goals. All of them likewise have leaders or managers to manage affairs of the organization.

3.3.1 School as a Formal Organization School is a formal organization. It is an arrangement or structure within which principal, supervisors, teachers, pupils and others cooperate to carry out various activities of the school so as to achieve the organizational goals of educating the young ones. It, being a school has all the characteristics of a formal organization. Now, let us try to find out what those characteristics are:

i) To run a school, one needs official sanction. Before opening a school, the prescribed conditions have to be met and the required permission needs to be obtained.

ii) Like other formal organizations, school is a permanent body as its membership persists beyond the immediate membership. As the old members leave, new ones keep on occupying their position. Thus, a school never runs out of its membership.

ml System iii) A school, like any other formal organization, has an assigned hierarchy. At the apex is the principal. Below him are a few supervisors; under each supervisor are a number of teachers; and under each teacher is a large body of pupils. The framing of this hierarchy is guided by certain codes and rules.

iv) Every position in the hierarchy has definite roles and responsibilities. This means the principal, the supervisors, the teachers, etc. have their specific roles and responsibilities.

v) The objectives and tasks of a school, as in case of any other formal organization, are perceived not only by the members of the organization, but also by everyone in the society.

All these characteristics show that school is a formal and not a casual organization.

3.3.2 Functions of School as an Organization

In the preceding section of this unit, we have noted that school fulfills all the characteristics of a formal organization and therefore it is a formal organization beyond doubt. Now, let us proceed to find out the main functions of a school as an organization.

Everyone in a society, even those who are illiierate, knows that the main purpose for the existence of school is to educate children. The term "education" had in the past a very limited connotation. It generally referred to learning three Rs (reading, writing and arithmetic). However, as time passed, the concept underwent a change. Education now refers to the all round development of a child. Today, in addition to the mental (intellectual or cognitive) development of a pupil, hisher physical, moral, emotional, spiritual, social, aesthetic and even vocational developmant are also emphasized in education. The task of a school, therefore, is quite gigantic and through planning and execution of various activities a school tries to achieve the organizational goal of education.

When pupils come to school, they have already formed habits which are generally acquired during the early years of life. A school's basic function is to identify those basic traits which exist in each pupil. Some of these habits and traits might be seen to be undesirable. School tries to change these traits in desired directions. Freud thought that mind was like an iceberg. As in the case of an iceberg, only certain elements of personality of an individual are visible, while much of it is submerged. It takes an enlightened teacher to discover those innate potentialities lying submerged in a student. The main function of a school is to find those traits in each pupil, some of which are visible and others invisible and could be nurtured by giving an adequate opportunity.

Schools usually have an elaborate system of activities and learning experiences which in its totality is called curriculum. It is with the help of this that schools bring about modification of behaviour of their pupils in desired direction. Cumculum comprises a multitude of curricular, co-curricular and extra-curricular activities. While debating, holding seminars, discussions etc. are part of co-curricular activities, celebrating national holidays like the Independence Day, Republic Day, Teachers' Day, Childrens' Day etc. and conducting special activities on such occasions like staging of plays and presentation of cultural activities are instances of extra- curricular activities. These activities give pupils the exposure which in turn provides them with the experience from which they gain the required knowledge, information, skills and attitudes. Schools, therefore, have to plan and organize various activities in such a manner that total development of the pupils takes place.

Schools generally have a lopsided curriculum. They mainly emphasize cognitive development of pupils at the expense of other important aspects of their personality. A curriculum should have adequate provision for such activities, as socially useful productive works (SUPW), music, painting various types of sports and games, etc. Physical education, for example, should get its due share among school activities. It should not merely be considered as a series of exercises through which a child's body is developed but as a medium which secures social and emotional development of a child. Teams of children working together offer abundant opportunities to develop such characteristics as endurance, co-operation, self-discipline, leadership, fair-play, and even sportsmanship. Games which require physical strength enable them to master their temper, control their emotions and develop good manners. In addition, physical education provides scope for worthwhile recreational pursuits which will develop interests for their leisure, provide fun and amusement. Physical education, therefore, should not be looked upon as boring but as an educationally enjoyable activity.

The extent of fulfilment of educational goals depends very largely on the personality of the principal. First and foremost, he should be a man of vision. He should have realistic vision of the type of pupils that his organization would like to produce. With a vision before him, he has to plan and organize various activities in the school. Through his constant striving and selfless endeavour, he would be able to translate his vision into a reality by making the maximum use of the various resources available. We can therefore, say that to a great extent the image and status as well as the fulfilment of organizational goals depend on the personality of the principal.

Intext Activity 1

Visit one of the schools in your neighbourhood. Both through observation and discussion with the principal and some of the teachers, find out the various activities and the purposes for which they are being organized in the school. Assess how far these activities are effective in fulfilling the objectives for which they are being organized. Suggest ways through which they can be made more useful in case you find them in-effective.

3.4 SCHOOL STRUCTURE

In this unit, we have so far seen that school is a formal organization and that the main purpose for its existence is the education of boys aqd girls in the society. Now, let us discuss school structure.

The question of school structure is becoming increasingly important because it influences the number and determines the distribution of the people who flow through the system. It is seen as a major instrument by means of which policy objectives and priorities set for the system can be achieved. Hence one of the main policy concerns is to devise educational structure which is compatible with sound pedagogic principles and theories of individual development and will facilitate the harmonious pursuit of a variety of objectives - social, economic, cultural and political - served by education in a modern society.

If we look to the past, we find that schools in India were not graded. The Brahmanic and the Buddhistic schools and the Maqtabs and Madrasas of the Muslims were supported to provide limited forms of instruction, and anyone who wished to have education attended these schools irrespective of his age. These were in a sense single teacher schools.

Graduation (3 years)

Higher Secondary (2 years)

Secondary (2 years)

Upper Primary (3 years)

Lower Primary (5 years)

Preschool stage (Nursery and

Kinder Garten)

Fig 3.1

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Elementary Education

School O ~ + t i a n

School System The educational hierarchy in a systematic form was introduced in India by the Wood's Despatch of 1854. This Despatch laid down a scheme of education ffom the elementary to the university stage. ?he entire education programme constituted of four stages, the primary, the middle, the high school and the university. Although during the long years that followed, there have been changes here and there and the main educational structure has remained almost the same to date.

At prewnt India has the 10+2+3 educational pattern as recommended by the Education Commi$sion (1964-66) and the National Policy .statement issued by the Central Government in 1968. Therefore, there is a uniform educational structure in all parts of the country. Out of the ten years of school education, 8 years of schooling are for elementary education which generally is divided into lower primary and upper primary and two years of secondary school. The ten years of school are followed by two years of higher secondary education.

In many parts of the country, especially in urban areas, some form of pre-school education for children of the age group 3 to 6 is available. It is during these years that children develop most of their habits. This stage is, therefore, of paramount importance in the growth of the child. Since this stage of education occurs prior to actual schooling, this stage is known as pre-school or pre-primary education. By the time a child completes six years of age, he or she is admitted to Standard I and during the subsequent ten years, heishe completes the secondary stage and enters the higher secondary stage which is of two years' duration. After completion of higher secondaxy stage, a student has to spend another three years for completing studies leading to first degree viz. B.A., B.Com. or B.Sc. In some courses, like medicine, engineering and so on a student need not enter frrst degree level studies. They are admitted on the basis of tests to 4-5 years of professional education.

3.4.1 Pre-school Education

Preschool education is generally given between the age of three and six. This stage of education, as we have already noted, is very important in the life of a child for physical, emotional and intellectual development. It provides a healthy foundation for the future of the child.

The main purposes of providing pre-school education are as under:

To develop in children good health habits, to build up basic skills necessary for personal adjustment such as dressing, toilet habits, eating, washing, etc. . To develop desirable social attitudes and manners, to encourage healthy group pxticipation, making the child sensitive to the rights and privileges of others, etc.

To promote emotional development by guiding the child to express, understand and accept and control his feelings and emotions.

To encourage aesthetic appreciation.

To stimulate intellectual curiosity concerning the environment and help the child understand the world in which he lives, to develop the ability to express his thoughts and feelings in fluent, correci and clear speech.

To promote cognitive development.

To promote school readiness.

Play forms a major component of the curriculum at this stage as it provides children with all kinds of experiences that lead to both cognitive and social development. A teacher offers children a range of play activities and helps them explore them to the full. Importantly children develop the ability to verbalize their thoughts and activities. Thus, children are helped to develop linguistic and cognitive skills to gain confidence in their own ability to command appropriate vocabulary structures while at the same time extending their knowledge of how the physical world behaves and of the appropriate skills for dealing with this world. Thus, through play, children's ability to sort, categorize, match by colour, size and shape, recognize familiar objects, symbols, identify the relationship between cause and effect, to use and modify existing knowledge in the solutions of new problems, etc. are being developed. Play is again used as a medium for developing essential manipulative skills such as using pencils, scissors and constructional toys. Play, thus, proves to be great instrument for their development.

Children at play would provide a teacher with opportunity to gain insight into their

behaviour which, in turn, would assist him or her to help mould their behaviour in a better manner.

3.4.2 Ten Year Schooling

Whether or not a child has undergone pre-primary education, helshe is ready for admission to school at the age of six. The decision to have this pattern was taken with a view to strengthening national integration, modernizing and strengthening school curricula and raising the general standard and quality of education at all levels. Such a step, would further facilitate greater pupil mohility .and the introduction of vocationalization at an appropriate stage, etc. Ten years schooling was expected to provide common, undiversified and broad-hased general education for all practical purposes.

The NCERT has recently come out with a national curriculum framework for ten years of schooling. It has the following main features:

a To develop human resources for the realization of national goals of development.

a To provide a hroad-based general education to all at the primary and secondary stages.

a To emphasize such core elements as history of India's freedom movement, constitutional obligations, emphasis on national identity and India's common cultural heritage, democracy and socialism, equality of sexes, protection of environment, observance of small family norm and inculcation of scientific temper.

a To define minimum learning outcomes for each area of learning at all stages of education.

a To provide flexibility in terms of content and learning experiences.

a To provide child centered and activity-based education rather than use teacher centered approaches during the transaction of curriculum.

The framework, thus, gives a comprehensive perspective for education at national level. The framework is suggestive and provides flexibility in adoption of its approach. In fact, what is actually being envisaged in only a broad framework which would provide room for considerable amount of flexibility and accommodate local specificities in terms of content, methodology, resources, etc.

The ten year schooling also gives weightage to inter-active style of teaching and learning instead of the prevalent expository style of teaching which leaves little room for interaction. In the absence of interaction, students are unable to develop such qualities as independent thinking, originality, creativity, critical thinking, scientific temper and such other qualities. Only those styles of teaching and learning based on teacher-student interaction are capable of producing such qualities. In the present pattern, therefore, a teacher is not visualized as a mere transmitter of information, but as a facilitator of learning. Students are expected to involve themselves into a variety of modes of activities such as observation, projects, assignments, demonstration and experimentation, playway activities, role playing and dramatization, discussion, etc. These ways of curricular transaction is pupil centered rather than teacher centered.

Through such learning experiences, it is hoped, students would gradually pick-up the required knowledge, skills and attitudes needed for being useful citizens.

3.4.3 Higher Secondary ~dukation

By the time, an individual completes ten years of general education, he would he showing certain liking or aptitude in some specific direction. Aptitude, would reveal an individual's present characteristics which indicates his future potentialities. Through a formal or informal conference with the individual, while talking with him, from his written or oral classwork, through administration of interest questionnaires, standard interest inventories and aptitude tests or from school records, one could collect sufficient evidence as to one's aptitude. Based on the data obtained, pupils at the end of Class X could be loosely classified as having mechanical, artistic, scientific, literary aptitudes. It is desirable that teachers, parents and others who are concerned with the education of children should see that they are diverted at this stage to a course of study according to their aptitudes so that they could make the maximum use of their potentialities. Higher secondary or +2, therefore, may be seen as a stage for diversification.

School Organization

School System At +2 stage, as we have already noted, different possibilities are open for students so that they can follow their inclinations after the compulsory stage of study. Thus, in accordance with his/ her aptitude, a student may select agriculture education, technical education, education in arts, science or commerce ,or any other vocational area which heishe feels suits himher. Within agriculture education itself, for example, the courses are so varied that they include agriculture, animal husbandry, dairying, animal diseases, horticulture, marketing, village industry etc. The same is the case with technical education, science, arts, commerce, etc. Technical eduation again, for example, involves several courses related to vocational, technical and professional training. At +2 stage, therefore, each student should choose a line in conformity with his aptitude so that he could gradually find opportunity for self-actualization.

Unlike general education period of ten years, the higher secondary stage is meant to provide pupils with knowledge and skills in certain specific directions. It is during this stage or at the end of it, that students mostly decide their future course of action, or their vocation or profession.

3.4.4 University Education

At the university stage students can pursue their further studies - general or professional education. It also provides students with a opportunity to engage vigorously and fearlessly in the pursuit of truth, interpret old knowledge and beliefs in the light of new needs and discoveries and to the right kind of leadership in all walks of life. Universities also have the function of supplying society with competent men and women, well-versed and fully trained in agriculture, arts, medicine, science, technology and various other professions. Apart from teaching and training, universities also do several tasks related to research and dissemination.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below. b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.

1. Three main purposes of pre-school education are:

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2. The common structure of education in the country is

3. Upto what stage is general education provided to students and why?

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........................................................................................................................................ 4. What are the specific characteristics of the higher secondary stage?

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3.5 PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE

We have so far learnt that the school is a formal organization and its main function is imparting of education. We have also found out about the school structure. Now we have to learn something regarding the physical infrastructure necessary for schools in general.

School, as we have noted, is an organization whose main task is to provide education which involves a series of programmes and activities. The successful conduct of these programmes and activities depends mainly upon the availability of proper infrastructure in a school. The term 'physical infrastructure' refers to the physical facilities of a school. It is often referred to as school plant which includes various buildings, grounds, furniture and apparatus and other equipment essential for imparting education.

Ideally speaking, a school should be set up in a suitable atmosphere. Its location has enormous significance. It should have plenty of space with shady trees around, far away from the noise of the crowded city and polluting atmosphere. However, this doesn't imply that school site should be so far away as to be inaccessible to children, traffic and essential services. What we imply is that there should be a calm and quiet atmosphere which is conducive to teaching and learning.

The school plant itself should be well planned in terms of space, utility and attractiveness. The school buildings should be attractive, have adequate lighting, comfortable seating, useful service facilities such as library, multipurpose rooms, functional play grounds, classrooms, chalk and bulletin boards, sinks, work areas, filing and storage space and lockers for pupils and teachers etc. Although financial limitations may not permit all these facilities, an ideal school requires them all. If our school plants are to play the role of learning laboratories where pupils are provided with the opportunity for doing their own study either individually or in groups, to think togetder, to arrive at conclusions and to plan constructive programmes, etc. all these facilities need to be provided.

3.5.1 School Building School buildings should be planned spaciously, functionally and with pleasing architechtural features. They should have all the space and convenience needed for carrying out the multifarious activities and programmes of the school. What is required is that the various rooms in the building should have the required space and facilities needed for carrying out various activities for which they are meant.

While constructing a school building, therefore, we should keep in mind the school buildings should have different facilities such as library, different laboratories (physics, chemistry and biology), workshops (to impart work experience), arts and crafts rooms, staff room, principal's office, school office, a multipurpose hall which can serve as assembly hall, auditorium, gymnasium, etc.

The architectural design of the building is important. It should allow free movement in and out of classroom for students and teachers while it is often preferred that schools are housed in single storey building in urban areas due to non-availability of land; multi storeyed buildings are constructed for schools.

3.5.2 Classrooms Every school should have adequate number of classrooms and every classroom should have pleasant look. Walls should be painted in some light colours and rooms should be carefully decorated. Fixed to the walls on either side should be flannel boards for pinning notices, newssheets, charts, writeups, maps, etc. The front wall should have blackboard at appropriate height. The wall at the back should have built-in-cupboards for keeping books, tools, crafts materials, apparatus for experiments, maps and other teaching aids. In a classroom where there are movable seats and work tables, where varied resources for learning are readily available in storage cabinets, the seating can be changed in a variety of activities simultaneously. The classroom should be well lighted so that students seated at different corners are able to see the teacher and the blackboard.

3.5.3 Library With the shift from formal to non-formal ways of education and from expository ways of teaching and learning to interactive and pupil centered models of teaching and learning, the library plays a very vital role in school. The library, therefore, is now an essential component

School System of a good school. The room should be located in such a way that students are not disturbed by noise. This, however, does not mean that it should be so located as to be inaccessible. Library is a place where a useful means of storing and communicating knowledge and one that teacher today cannot do without. A library is a repository of books and should have textbooks, workbooks, reference books, fiction, non-fiction books at various reading levels, reference books on special topics and interests and related pamphlets, clippings, pictures, maps, charts, various periodicals, kits containing teaching materials of various kinds, wall sheets pictures, charts, diagrams and posters on which selected information is presented in a large format suitable for use with large or small groups of children. Resource materials in the library should be so arranged that they can be easily located and utilized. Normally library should have an open shelf system so that students can pick up books and other material wherever they so want.

3.5.4 Laboratory

Like the library, the laboratory is also essential. It is here where experiments are conducted, where hypotheses are tested and where answers to various problems are sought. Schools with +2 stage need a biology, a physics and a chemistry laboratory. The physics lab should have various apparatus like optical instruments, spring balance, pendulums, glass slabs, glass prisms, etc. The biology laboratory should have mounted slides of micro organisms like bacteria, amoeba, mounted plant and animal cells, bottled samples of various reptiles, embryo, models of heart, kidney, lungs, etc. A chemistry laboratory should have acids, and bases of required concentration, various other chemicals, indicators, test tubes, flasks of various sizes and shapes, vessels, glass rods and burners, etc. In addition to these, the laboratories should have charts, diagrams, maps and other useful resources. Thus, the laboratories should be well-planned and equipped to aid instruction and stimulate general interest.

As is generally known, mere knowledge would not be sufficient for building the required competence in specific content area. If theory is supported by adequate practice and experimentations, conceptual clarity could be maintained as well as psychomotor skills could be developed. Hence, no school, however small it might be, can totally afford to do away with laboratories altogether.

With the importance of computers in present day life, many schools provide for computer labs.

3.5.5 The Administrative Block

Since administration involves both leadership and service functions, the administrative block should be planned carefully. The school office should be centrally located so as to serve as a good co-ordinating centre which is easily accessible to visitors, teachers, and pupils. The principal's office should be large enough to accommodate small conferences, and should open into the general office as well as to the corridor.

A good office of a large school requires a room for the principal, a waiting room for visitors, an office for clerks, a store room with shelves and cupboards for office and files. In addition, the office should have such equipment as a typewriter, a duplicating machine, a desk calendar, rubber stamps, and such other materials to facilitate the performance of various functions.

3.5.6 Staff Room

Teachers should have a room where they can meet and interact with each other, do corrections of home/school work of students and refer to books, etc. The staff room should have lockers for teachers so that they can safeguard various reference books and instructional materials, and answer-books and their personal efforts.

3.5.7 School'Playgrounds

Schools should have well maintained playgrounds. Sports and games play so vital roles in education that they cannot be totally dispensed with. Playgrounds not only enable pupils to develop their physical but also help them to grow cognitively, socially and effectively. Hence any school that has its eye on the total development of children should have enough facilities for indoor as well as outdoor sports and games. A number of schools have now

54 gymnastic for athletics and sports room for indoor games. Of course, it is important

that schools should have enough funds for purchase of sports and physical education equipment.

3.5.8 Other Facilities and Equipment Apart from having a good library, a couple of laboratories, playgrounds, etc., the school should also have a11 arts room, a music room, a computer room, a workshop, etc. so that they can enable students to participate in various activities related to work experience, painting, craft works, music, etc. which in their own turn would contribute to the total development of the personality of the individual students.

In short, we can say that physical infrastructure is to education as body is to the mind. A sound body holds a wholesome mind. Similarly, only adequate and well-planned physical infrastructure can ensure efficient and effective education.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.

5 . How can staff as well as pupils be encouraged to take pride in their school buildings, keep them tidy and carry out simple repairs when necessary?

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6. What is the educational value of having a school whose grounds are kept neat and attractive?

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3.6 HIERARCHIES IN SCHOOL SYSTEM

Upto this point in this unit, we have learned about school organization, its purpose, its structure and its physical infrastructure. Now, we will proceed to learn about the hierarchies present in the school system in this section of the unit.

The school, as we have already seen, is the centre of many activities. In order to carry out these activities, several people are appointed. In accordance with the roles and responsibilities given to each, they occupy different positions, thereby forming certain hierarchy in the school system. In fact, this hierarchy in the organization represents the formal procedure through which the school is managed. In short, we can define structure as a mechanism being set up in order to divide the work among the various members of the organization.

The above chart shows that at top of the hierarchy is the Principal. Under him are two main categories of staff, namely the academic and the administrative staff. The academic staff is responsible for curriculum transaction, while the administrative staff helps the academic staff in the conduct of various activities by procuring and providing various materials and other resources and facilities needed for smooth conduct of different activities. In addition, the administrative staff also helps in collecting fees, maintaining records, etc. Class IV employees help both the administrative as well as academic staff either as errand boys or help them keep the neatness and cleanliness of the school plant.

School Organization

Schools with large enrolments might have a Vice-Principal who assists the Principal in looking

School system

ADPftN ]STRATIWE srrow off f ~ e SUPERIN r€ ND-

Fig. 3.2 : Hierarchical Structure of a School

after the schools. In composite schools there might be different people looking after primary classes, middle classes etc. All of them, howerver, work under the guidance and administrative control of the principal.

This shows that there is a clear hierarchy in the school system. Academic staff, for instance, has at its heads, principal or vice-principal. Below himher are supervisors of various departments namely science, commerce and arts. Below each supervisor are a number of teachers. All the staff irrespective of the positions that they occupy are expected to look after education and welfare of students. Similarly, the administrative'staff has superintendent, below whom is a head clerk and under the head clerk are a number of junior clerks, and so on. Thus, every organization has certain hierarchies in its system.

Apart from the allocation of various duties and responsibilities, the prevailing structure permits the principal to coordinate various activities of the school. Coordination involves an integration of objectives and activities of various units of an organization in order to achieve organizational goals efficiently.

In addition to the division of labour and coordination, structure of a school also functions as an effective tool for communication. Successful management of any organization depends, to a great extent, on the channel of communication that exists in an organization. The structure that exists in the organization often allows smooth downward flow of information from the principal to supervisors and from them to teachers and through the teachers to pupils and so on. Similarly, the structure also permits an upward flow of communication from pupils to teachers and from them to supervisors etc.

Organizational behaviour is all about performance. To accomplish this objective we need to learn about behaviour within organizations. The field of organizational behaviour offers a body of knowledge about people at work and information about their performance. Acquiring this information will improve our understanding of the behaviour of individuals and groups, as well as the way organizations .* built and the ways organizations change and develop. . . According to Keith Devis (1982), "Organizational behaviour is an academic discipline concerned . with understanding and,dq@bing human behaviour in an organizational environment. It seeks to shed light on the wh6lkcomplex factor in organizations by identifying causes and efforts of that behaviour."

In the words of others, "Organizational behaviour is concerned with the study of the behaviour, attitudes and performance of workers in an organizational setting; the organization's and group's effects on worker's perceptions, feelings and actions, the environment's effects on the organization and its human resources and goals, and the effect of the workers on the organization and its effectiveness." . . The above definition emphasizes the following points:

i) Formal organizations are only one of several concerns in organizational behaviour. Individuals and groups as. separate entities are also a part of this field of enquiry.

ii) It is necessary to learn about individual and group behaviour, attitudes and performance.

iii) Organizations, groups and environments play a role in how people behave and perform. The inter-relatedness of the parts of an organization and the environment must be considered while discussing the issues related to organizational behaviour.

In this section, so far, the definition and characteristics of organization and the meaning and definition of organizational behaviour have been explained.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.

1. Organization may be defined as:

2. The essential characteristics of an organization are:

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3. The key elements in organizational behaviour are:

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School System 4. Organizational behaviour may be defined as:

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4.4 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM

In the previous section, an attempt was made to understand organizational behaviour in a general way. In this section, attempt will be made to understand organizational behaviour in the context of a school system.

The system concept has a rich history in physical as well as social sciences. Indeed, the idea of an organised whole, or system, occurring in an environment is fundamental and essential to science. The notion of a social system is a general one. Therefore, it can be applied to social organization that are carefully and deliberately planned. The school is a system of social interactions; it is an organised whole consisted of interacting personalities bound together in an organic relationship. As a social system, it is characterized by an inter-dependence of parts, a clearly defined population, differentiated from its environment, a complex network of social relationships and its own unique culture.

4.4.1 Social System

A social system is a bounded set of elements (sub-systems) and activities that interact and constitute a single social entity. This statement implies that a social system is creative because by definition it has praperties and purpose over and above the component parts and relationships. In a school, for example, educated individuals are created. In the words of Marvin Olsen, "Social system is a model of organization that possesses a distinctive total unity (creativity) beyond its component p a s ; it is

Inputs, A

Environment

Boundary

I The School Building Mutually interacting components 1 1. Elements - Sub-systems

Formal School Structure Administration and Policy Classrooms Individuals Administrators Other Employees Students

2. Activities - behaviour Administering Teaching Maintaining Learning Creating Socializing

k I

Boundary

Feedback Loop

Fig. 4.2: A graphic illusbtion of the social system defmition using a schod building as the unit of analysis.

Source: Hoy, W.K. and Miskel. C.G. (1991): Educational Administration - ZReory, Research and Practice, pp. 29. -

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distinguished ffo111 its environment by a clearly defined boundary; it is composed of sub-units, elements Organizational Behaviour

and sub-systems that are interrelated within relatively stable patterns (equilibria) of social order." Figure 4.2 and the following discussion of each component of the preceding definition along with a synthesis of the basic model, should help increase your understanding of a school as a social system.

Boundaries: A given social system, such as the school building in Figure 4.2 must be bounded in the same manner to separate it from the environment. The school building, as the unit of analysis, coincides with the larger schooling system. Therefore, when using social system analysis, it is important to define carefully the boundaries and the unit of analysis.

Environment: The environment is anything outside the boundaries of the unit of analysis that (1) affects the attributes of the internal components, and (2) is changed by the social system itself. Educational policies, administrators, other schools, and the community are some of elements constituting the environment in Figure 4.2. The environment contributes students, materials, information and cultural values; the school returns.educated persons and infornlation in matters of social significance. Thus, for any organization (here the school) to function effectively, there must be mutual control and exchange between environment and organization (school). This mutual control and exchange is explained in social system model as homeostasis, feedback, and equilibrium.

Homeostasis: It is a process in which a group of regulators act to maintain a steady state among the system components. A biological analogy illustrates the concept when an organism moves from a warm environment to a cold one, homeostatic mechanism trigger reactions to maintain body temperature. Similarly, in a school, crucial elements, or sub- systems, and activities must be protected so that overall stability is maintained.

Feedback Loop: The triggering mechanism in the school social system (Figure 4.2) is the feedback loop. This mechanism ensures that a portion of the school's behaviour and the internal and external environment's reactions to that behaviour are filtered back into the system as input.

Equilibrium: This exists when the social and biological parts of the system maintain a constant relationship to each other so that no part changes its position or relation with respect to all other parts. As administrators are well aware, progressive or disruptive stresses upset this equilibrium and create temporary periods of disequilibrium. For example, a community group may demand that a course on sex education be introduced in the school curriculum, while another group may oppose the idea. Further, addition of an additional component to the curriculum requires adjustments. This causes 'disequilibrium', but the system either changes itself in tune with the progressive stresses or neutralizes the disruptive forces impinging on it, and restores equilibrium. Because all parts of the social system, a school building in this case, are related, a change in any one part necessarily produces a corresponding change in every other part. Thus, equilibrium is re-established or maintained.

The above description of different components of Figure 4.2 reveals that a school consists of several sub-systems. Figure 4.2 indicates the formal school structure, the different groups, and individuals comprising these components.

4.4.2 Elements of a Social System

Figure 4.3 is an extraction and elaboration of the elements, or sub-systems, presented in Figure 4.2. The basic formulation of a social system presented here comes from the work of Getzels and Guba (1957) and Hoy and Miskel (1991). According to them, the social system is conceived as two classes of phenomena which may be thought of as independent, hut in an actual situation they are interactive. There are the institutions characterized by certain roles and expectations in keeping with the goals of the system. And there are individuals with certain personalities and dispositions inhabiting the system. The social behaviour found in this system may be understood as a function of two major elements: institution, role and expectations, which together constitut'e the nomothetic or. institutional dimension of activity in a social system; and individual, personality, and need-disposition, which together constitute the idiographic or personal dimension of activity in a social system.

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school System External Environment

Fig. 43: Structural Elements (sub-system) of a System Model.

f > Boundary - School Building

Source: Jacob W. Getzels and Egon G. Guba (1957): "Social Behaviour and the Administrative Process", The School Review, Vol. 65, Winter, 1957, pp 423-41.

Wayne, K. Hay and Cecil G. Miskel (1991): "Educational Administration - Theory, Research and Practice", (Lithed), McGraw Hill International Edition, Singapore, P. 32.

I N P u T

Institutional Element

Institution, role and expectation are the conceptual elements of nomothetic or normative dimension. Institutions are agencies established to carry out certain imperative functions for the social system as a whole. The imperative functions are those which in time have become the established functions of the social system. The school is an jnstitution because it is an agency established to carry out the function of socialization which is an imperative function of the social system of the school. Thus, school can be described as an institution as well as a social system. Both terms are, however, used in a different sense. The school as in institution is a component conceptual element of ilormative dimension of a social system.

Boundary - School Building . /

r \

Social system behaviour

Individual -> Personality -> Needs L J

Roles represent positions, offices, or status within an institution. A role exists only within a particular social system and represents a particular position within that system. It involves certain rights and duties. A person is expected to put these into effect. When he does that he is said to be performing his role. The rights and duties expected of him may be called as role expectations.

0 u T P U T

Individual Element

Each social system is inhabited by living people. Whenever role is being performed, it is performed by individuals. Each individual stamps the role he occupies with the unique style d his own pattern of expressive behaviour. Thus, personal dimension involves the personality of the role incumbent.

The personality may be defined by the component need dispositions. The need dispositions are conceived of as forces within an individual.

A school is thought of as a social system, with its characteristic institutional functions, roles and expectations. As an institution it has the function of socialization. There are various incumbents in it who have to play the roles expected of them. In the social system of a school the goal behaviour is achieved through the integration of various institutions (classes may be taken as institutions in the sense of performing the institutionalized function of the social system).

The social systems are inhabited by living people and roles are performed by individuals who have different personalities. It is because of this that each individual stamps 'the particular role he occupies with the unique pattern of his behaviour. That is why Getzels, et. al., in 1968 had observed: "Not all administrators "administer", not all workers "work", not all teachers "teach", not all students "study" - at least not in the same way". In brief, the individual element of the social system explains the behaviour of individuals in psychological terms with reference to their personalities and needs. This personal dimension of the social system is known as the

-- idiographic dimension.

The Basic Model

Till now, the analysis has focussed on two basic elements of social systems - the institutional uid the individual. Taken separately, each explains a portion of the behaviour in social systems in terms of sociological or psychological concepts. Together, they provide the basis for a social -psychological theory of group behaviour in which a dynamic transaction between roles and personality interacts, Figure 4.3 provides a summary of the basic model.

Behaviour (B) in the system is explained in terms of interaction between role (R), defined by expectations, and personality (P), the internal needs structure of an individual, that'is,

The proportion of personality factors that determine behaviour varies with the particular system, role, and personality. In rigid bureaucratic structures, behaviour is more likely to be determined by prescribed roles, rather than personality characteristics. In less formal social systems, roles are more likely to be secondary considerations, while personality attributes are likely to be more important. The interplay and blending of role and personality vary widely from system to system, in some systems there is a balance between the two elements, in others, roles submerge personality or vice-versa. In virtually all social systems, however, behaviour is determined by both the needs of the institution and the needs of the individual.

The social system operates within and interacts with a larger environment. The inputs from the environment affect both the institution and the individual; consequently, the environment influences behaviour within the system, which.in turn contributes to outcomes of the system. In this section, so far, we have discussed the meaning, definition and characteristics of school as a social system from organizational point of view by following an analytical approach. Also we have discussed the basic components and elements of a school as a social system, by presenting two conceptual models. However, before going into next section, let us check ,our

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of .this unit.

5. From organization point of view a social system may be defined as

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6. The school as a social system is characterised by . .

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7. When using social system analysis, it is important to

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OrgnnizaUooal Behaviour

School System 8. "The environment is anything outside the boundaries of the unit of analysis that:

9. The mutual control and exchange mechanism is explained in social system model as

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10. Homeostasis is a process in which

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11. The triggering mechanism in the school social system is

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12. Equilibrium exists when

13. The institutional element of the social system explains the behaviour of individuals in terms of

14. The institutional aspects of the system are termed as

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15. The individual element of the social system explains behaviour of individuals is

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16. The personal dimension of the social system is known as the . %... ......................................................................................................................................... - ...

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17. Behaviour in a social system is a function of the two classes of factors

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18. To put in the form of a general equation behaviour B =

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INTERPERSONAL INTERACTION

Organizational Behaviour

In the previous section, we have discussed school as a social System in the context of organizational behaviour in school. The present section will be devoted to the discussion of interpersonal interaction in a school system. As we all know in each school there are a number of persons who work together. They interact with each other and also those who are concerned with the school. These interactions give a shape to the learning process that goes on in the school. A healthy pattern of interpersonal interaction promotes the progress of school system. In other words, healthy interpersonal interaction is a sin-qua-non for a better organizational behaviour in a school system. Therefore, it is necessary to study interpersonal interactions.

Interpersonal interaction may be defined as the interaction between people of equal level and of people across different levels in an organization. This definition reveals two types of interaction patterns. They are horizontal and vertical. Horizontal interaction takes place between people of same level and vertical interaction takes place between people of different level in an organization. Both these types of interaction patterns help in maintaining healthy interpersonal relationship in an organization.

When people interact there is social transaction in which one person responds to another. The study of these social transactions between people is called transactional analysis (TA). The purpose of TA is to provide better understanding of how people relate to each other, so that they may develop impqoved communication and human relationships.

People interact with each other from one of the three psychological positions, known as ego states. These ego states are called Parent, Adult and Child, and a person can operate from any of these three positions. Parent ego state of a person is influenced by his parents, teachers and religious preachers. The parent ego state is reflected by these characteristics: 'playing old tap", and utter such sentences "it is right", "it is wrong" and so on.

The adult ego state will reflect rational calculating, factual and unemotional behaviour. It shows in such forms as to upgrade decisions by seeking facts, processing data, estimating probabilities, and holding factual discussions.

School System The child ego state reflects the emotions developed in response to childhood experiences. It may be spontaneous, dependent, creative or rebellious. Like a child, the child ego state desires approval from others and prefers immediate rewards.

4' 'Qpes of Transactions: Transactions may be (i) complement Transactions are complementary when the ego states of the sender and th opening transaction are simple reversed in the resgonse. When the patterns between ego &J's, is charted. the lines are paralled. This re1$ions%ip is depicted in Figure 4.4 in which t h y principal (supervisor) speaks to a teacher (an employee) as a parent to a child and the teacher responds as a child to a parent. If a principal initiates a transaction in parent-to-child pattern, the teacher tends to respond from a child state and the principal's behaviour is dominated by this pattern, it may lead to reduced interpersonal and group effectiveness. Non-complementary transaction occurs when the stimulus and response lines are not parallel, as also shown in Fig. 4.4. In this instance the principal (supervisor) tries to deal with the teacher (employee) on an Adult-to-Adult basis, but the teacher responds on a child-to-parent basis. The important point is that when cross transactions occur communication tends to be blocked and a satisfactory transaction is not accomplished.

People can maintain comn~unication with any complementary transactions, but the transaction that is likely to be most effective at work i s that of Adult-to-Adult.

Principal Teacher Principal Teacher (Supervisor) (Employee) (Supervisor) (Employee)

Parent Parent Parent

Adult Adult Adult Adult

Child Child Child Child I

( 1 1 1

Complimentary Transaction CPT~ Transaction S = Stimulus R = e.$onse ,;+

7 ' 1 . Flg. 4.1: Complementary and Crossed Transaction in TA

Source: Adopted from Mathew, M.J., (1993): Organizationpl Theory and Behaviour, p.175.

Organizations that have used TA report that it has been moderately successful. Training in TA cam give teachers (employees) fresh insights into their own personalities, and it can also help them understand why others some times respond as do. A major benefit is improved interpersonal communication. Teachers (employees) 'a4a c n sense when crossed communication occurs and then take steps to restore complementary communication, preferably in the adult-to-adult pattern. The result is a general improvement in interpersonal transactions.

In this section, so far the meaning and importance of interpersonal communication and how transactional analysis can be used in studying interpersonal interaction have been discussed. Before going into the next section let us check our progress.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.

19. In an organizatton two types of interpersonal interaction takes place. They are: I f

3.6.1 Types of Hierarchies of Structure SE~OOI organization

Every organization, although it has some sort of hierarchy of positions, does not necessarily have to follow a uniform model. Some schools may have a purely bureaucratic model while others may have a departmental model or any other model that suit them.

Bureaucratic Model

There is a clearly defined structure of authority in organizations where the bureaucratic model of structure is being used. In this case, the head teacher wields complete authority over all that is done in a school. Policies are formed, decisions taken at top and passed down to subordinates to carry them out. As this model is functioning on the basis of a legalized formal authority, it strict1 y follows rules and regulations even at the expense of human and environmental factors. As the system is highly mechanistic, it can rarely provide scope for innovation and creativity. However, this model has the virtues of stability, quick decision-making and efficient implementation.

Head Teacher

- Senior Teachers

- Junior Teachers

- Pupils

Fig. 3.3 : The Bureaucratic Model

Departmental Model

In the departmental model, the head delegates authority to senior members of the staff and line of authority is lateral rather than downwards. The head will usually make clear what he would like to see happening in the departments and will do this through discussion with the heads of departments. However, because each department has a certain degree of autonomy, it will in practice be the heads of departments who work out in detail the activities of their departments. At +2 stage, the senior most teacher may act as departmental head or supervisor. Under him, would be other teachers of the department.

( Principal ) I

Supervisor G I Supervisor ELI

Fig. 3.4 : The Departmental Model

The Democratic or Collegial Model

Supervisor [TI

Instead of following either the bureaucratic or the departmental model, some schools may opt for a democratic model in which one may not see clear lines of hierarchy operating as in the above two cases. In the democratic model, all members of the staff may meet and elect one of the senior members as their head. Policy making decisions are taken by the entire staff with the head teacher in the role of a chairperson. As compared to the other models discussed earlier, this model is more flexible, dynamic and organic. It does not strictly adhere to formalities

S f h o d System and procedures and therefore provides the required academic freedom as well as dignity to individuals.

Head Teacher P Fig. 3.5 : The Democratic or Collegial Model

All organizations, irrespective of their nature, have some sort of hierarchical structure in their system. It is a mechanism set up by an organization for division of labour, proper coordination as well as for maintenance of proper flow of communication. In short, we can say that it is through such models that organizations like schools get their work accomplished.

Intext Activity 2

Visit a few schools of your district. Through observation and discussion with principal and some of the teachers in each school, find out what model-bureaucratic, departmental or democratic is being followed there. Then try to find out how following aspects are dealt with:

1. Policy formation and decision-making

2. Distribution of duties and responsibilities 3. Freedom of communication 4. Staff initiation and innovation

5. Methods and techniques of teaching and learning

6. Pupil performance.

Until now, we have covered various aspects of school organization like the school structure, physical infrastructure, and hierarchies in school system. The last aspect we have to cover with refqence to school organization is manpower resources.

As we have noted in the immediately preceding section of this unit, a school organization has a large component of manpower resources. Generally, they comprise professionals like the principal, supervisors, teachers, librarian, the counsellor, etc. administrative personnel like the head clerk, junior clerk, typist, class IV employees etc. Thus, school'as an organization is composed of people of varying potentialities, expertise and status. Perhaps, having a little familiarity with some of these manpower resources can be of immense value to us as teachers in making.

3.7.1 Principal (Headmaster) Principal is the most important person in a school. Helshe should be a person of a wide range of qDdities and competencies. Helshe should be a person of sound educational background and philosophy, good scholarship, adequate professional training, proficient in human relations, physical and mental health and stamina, optimistic attitude, emotional stability, integrity and scientific temper.'In addition to the above, helshe should have administrative abilities, leadership qualities, progressive views and sound judgement, Above all, he should be a person who is sensitive to needs of the society as well as to allround development of children.

The success and image of a school depends, to a great extent, on the personality of the principal. As the pilot is to the aeaoplane the principal is to the school. A pilot through his reckless flying can bring the plane to wreck and the passengers in it lose their lives and property. Similarly. a principal through hit or miss or casual ways of running his organization can cause loss of image and bring it ignominy.

The principal should, therefore, be a person of wide conceptual, human and technical skills. Only suah a person will be in a position to have the right type of vision as to what his school sho~ald be and do these by proper planning, scrupulous organization, efficient leading and effective controlling of the various programmes and activities. Helshe is responsible for procuring and supplying requisite resources and ensuring that they are put to optimum use. He/she is again responsible for building up an organizational climate and culture that is conducive to teaching as -

well as learning and thus through gradual approximation and hy constant vigilance and timely action, translate hidher vision into a reality. It takes an able principal to cause all these to happen.

Supervisors, as far as a school is concerned, are senior teachers or teachers with expertise in matters related to school. Principals usually delegate some of their powers to senior teachers ;111tl give them the responsibility of guiding and directing junior teachers with a view to developing their resources. Supervisors, therefore, devote some of their time to nurturing the leadership potential, motivation, decision-making, communication and problem-solving skills of teachers under them. Thus, one of the main duties is the development of the task relevant competency among their followers.

The concept of supervision has changed in the last few decades from one of inspection and rating to one of help and improvement. Supervision is now mostly thought of as a way of giving help to teachers in improving instruction. Hence, teachers can go to supervisors without fear of being judged or rated low. In smaller schools, principal is normally the only source of supervisory help. In larger schools, in addition to the principal, one or more senior teachers or department heads are given time for conferencing with teachers on their instructional problems. Supervisors should sympathetically deal with the problems faced by teachers and suggest ways in which teachers can solve their problems by themselves rather than supply them with solutions which are ready-made.

3.7.3 Teaching Personnel Traditionally, a teacher is thought to be the prime source of wisdom and the giver of information. Similarly, teaching is mainly seen as transmission of the material from hisher note book to that of students. But with increased utilization of automated learning devices such as television, electronic learning, laboratories, computer terminals, dial access retrieval systems, and with the availability of quite a number of techniques, methods and media, and other models of teaching such as discussion, enquiry, concept teaching etc. the teacher is rapidly becoming a director or rather a facilitator of learning experiences. Teacher is now gradually moving away from the central position in the classroom, giving room for the pupils to occupy it. Greater stress is now being laid on learning by doing rather by listening. Pupil centered and interactive methods are replacing traditional ways of teaching.

In spite of all these, the present day teacher is expected to carry out at least four important functions. The first of these is as an executive or leader which involves leading, establishing of procedures, coordinating activities of others etc. The second function which a teacher is expected to perform is the interactive function of teaching; helshe is expected to select and use appropriate models of teaching. The third is that of organizational functions which expect a teacher to work with colleagues, parents and others. Lastly, a teacher is expected to provide assistance to students, in the form of counselling to overcome some of the difficulties that they face in adjusting to school conditions and tasks.

If all these functions are to b e performed effectively and efficiently, a teacher needs to possess several personal qualities and professional competencies. As a person, he should be friendly and cheerful, kind and sympathetic towards children, interested in pupil's requirements and patient with pupils who have difficulties. In addition, hetshe should be hard-working, enthusiastic and objective in hislher outlook. As a professional, a teacher should know hislher job thoroughly, make his lessons interesting, involve his pupils actively in learning and use effective classroom management techniques, etc. Hetshe should have the desire to continuously learn and thereby upgrade his academic and professional competency.

3.7.4 Librarian

The librarian was earlier regarded as a mere keeper of books. This view has now become outmoded and a librarian is now seen as a person rendering important instructional services. Hislher responsibility is to procure books, pamphlets and other materials and bring them into the main stream of instructional programme. This is possible only when there is good rapport among pupils, teachers and the librarian. Teachers must be able to propose a pattern of requests for books and their circulation which the librarian should see as a systematic attempt by teachers and pupils to use books effectively. A librarian must have as much confidence in

Schod Organization

Scl~ool System motivation of teachers towards books as he has desire to develop broad reading habits among pupils.

A librarian should offer opportunity for teachers and pupils to recommend books for purchase by the library. Helshe should see that books are available for research by students under the superbision of teachers and that there is increase in quantity and quality of reading material for students. Similarly, helshe should also, develop responsibility for discovery, use and evaluation of library materials among students. If the librarian so wishes, helshe can take assistance from students and teachers for keeping the books in order, for checking books in and out, and for repair of books that are damaged.

3.7.5 Administrative Staff Apart from professionals about whom we have had a discussion, there are quite a number of other human resources in the organization. The head clerk, junior clerks. typist, class IV employees, etc. are part of the human resource of an organization. Their main function is to extend assistance to academic staff in the conduct of various programmes and activities of a school. They procure and supply necessary instructional materials like textbooks, chalk, paper, etc. They also maintain various records related to income and expenditure, service books and oWer record related to both teachers and pup~ls.

Class IV employees in the school not only serve the organization as errand boys but also help in the maintenance and cleanliness of a school and its vicinity. They also help in keeping lavatories and urinals clean. They also help in making a school beautiful by planting trees and other flowering plants and regularly looking after them.

3.7.6 Pupils Pupils are the most important component of a school. It is for them that all efforts are being made. It is again for their allround development that curriculum is being designed and plannerl, qualified principal and teachers appointed and other auxiliary services arranged.

R~pils come to school with certain amount of information, skills and attitudes, etc. which we call as entry behaviour of pupils. It is this entry behaviour which is regarded as an input to insmctional process. Through various activities, programmes and the time and effort made by principal and teachers, and through various efforts, students are enabled to acquire desired level of knowledge, skills and attitudes. The changes that occur in behaviour of pupils in terms of expected goals and objectives, are regarded as output of a school. The extent and quality of change that occur in the pupils depend upon the ability of staff in planning, designing and executing different instructional programmes and activities.

3.7.7 Community The Community amidst which a school is located has resources which can be utilized by a school to perform its functions. It has in it different people having experience and expertise. There are excellent architects, engineers, doctors, scholars, musicians, actors, lawyers, scientists, artisans and craftsmen with expertise. If tapped, their knowledge and skills can prove to be of a great help for pupils. They could be of infinite value in producing knowledge and skills to students. A school should, therefore, provide pupils opportuhity to interact with such people either through interviews or discussions. Their services could be utilized for more effective organization of school activities. For instance, the services of local craftsmen and artisans can be used for organizing SUPW and skill training. r

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below. b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.

7. What different structure models do we generally find in schools?

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8. Name four important qualities and four potentials which you think a principal should possess:

a) Qualities:

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3) ................................................... 4) ....................................................................

b) Potentials:

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3) ................................................... 4) ....................................................................

9. In which sense is community a fine source of resource for education? (Answer in five or six lines).

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3.8 LET US SUM UP

A school is a formal organization establised by the society for educating its young ones. Like any other formal organization, a school needs formal sanction; its membership persists beyond immediate membership. It has plans and programmes and has leaders or managers. School functions in different layers or progressive levels such as pre-school, primary, upper primary, secondary and higher secondary etc. Each of these stages has its own thrusts and importance.

Every school should have proper infrastructure which comprises building, furniture, library, laboratory, playground, other equipment and facilities required for the effective conduct of various activities of the school. Several people are appointed in each school to carry out various activities. Depending upon the roles they play and the responsibilities they carry out they occupy certain hierarchical positions in the organization. This leads to the formation of a structure which becomes a mechanism for divisions and distribution of work and responsibilities. It also facilitates easy coordination and direction of various activities as well as smooth communications.

A school also has rich manpower resource. In it are such professionals as the principal, supervisors, teachers, librarian, etc. It also has a number of administrative and ancillary staff. Above all these, the school also has a large number of pupils whose interest it vies to serre.

3.9 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES

School Organization

1. Visit a school in your neighbourhood. Discuss with a few teachers of (i) pre-school, (ii) ten years schooling; and (iii) +2 stage and uy to find out the following:

a) Techniques, methods and media used in teaching-learning process at each level.

b) Goals and objectives of instruction at each level, and

c) Nature of content being taught at each level. 61

School System 2. Visit the library of your local school and make an assessment of the different types of books and other instructional materials being stored there. Discuss with the librarian, a few students and teachers and then make a report as to how students of the school make use of the library.

3. Write an essay of about 250 words on what physical infrastructure you think necessary for an ideal school.

4. Visit a school in neighbourhood and make a list of the m'mpower resources available there. Explain the role that each category plays in the education of pupils of that school.

3.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Three main purposes of Pre-school education are: Please refer to Sub-section 3.4.1. of this Unit.

2. 10+2+3.

3. General education is provided up to Standard X as it would provide a general awareness and skills needed to live in the society.

4. The +2 stage is a stage for diversification based on the aptitude of each student. This stage provides pupils with knowledge and skills in certain specific direction.

5. By devoting certain amount of time for this in the routine of activities. The school could distribute this task to various classes in a systematic way.

6. If school grounds are kept neat and attractive, they contribute towards creation of atmosphere which is conducive to learning. In addition, such grounds facilitate conduct of various Sports and games and other activities.

7. 1) Bureaucraticmodel

2) Departmental model

3) Collegial or democratic model.

8. a) Qualities: /

1) Integrity

2) Optimistic attitude

3) Scientific temper

4) Integrity

b) Potentials:

1) Leadership

2) Inter-personal skills

3) Administrative abilities

4) Sound grasp over relevant knowledge bases.

9. The community is abundant with people having invaluable experience and expertise. There are hundreds of excellent architects, engineers, doctors, etc. whose expertise could be tapped for enriching the pupils' knowledge and skills.

3.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Mukerji, S.N. (1963): Secondary School Adtninistration, Its Principles and Functions, Acharya Book Dept., Baroda.

Mathur, V.S., (1990): Towards New Education, The Associated Publishers, Ambala Cantt., Amb~ala.

Mohanty, J., (1981): Indian Education in the Emerging Society.

Kaul, G.N., (1964): Better Schools for India, Orient Longmans Ltd., Calcutta.

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