Chapter 7: Iron Age Highlands

Author: Susan Kruse with contributions from Steven Birch, Andy Heald, Fraser Hunter, Tanja Romankiewicz, Michael Stratigos

7.1 Iron Age Introduction

In National ScARF published in 2012, the Highlands did not feature at all prominently, with few sites mentioned, most of which were old excavations. Since then there has been a huge amount of important research undertaken in the Highlands, many at sites with good preservation; these now provide type sites which have national importance. As the final reports are awaited on Culduthel, Clachtoll Broch, High Pasture Cave, Dun Deardail and caves near Rosemarkie, aspects of what follows are provisional. These sites, and some others, also provide key data to shed light on many of the research questions and recommendations of National ScARF.

The fact that many of the projects have been undertaken in the last two decades means that there is a good body of radiocarbon dates which are starting to underpin our studies. However, radiocarbon dating for the period is hampered by plateaus in the Early to Mid Iron Age, hindering precise datings in this period (Jacobsson et al 2018), although statistical techniques are refining this to some extent (Iron Age panel 5.9).

An overview of Scottish Iron Age research pre 2012 can be found in National ScARF (Iron Age panel 2.). There are no published overviews of Iron Age activity in the Highlands, though regional overviews for Caithness (Heald and Barber 2015) and Skye (Armit 1996) are available. There is some overlap with the Argyll Regional ScARF (Regan 2017), as some sites now in Highland Region were long considered part of Argyll and Bute. Other information and assessments appear in reports for certain sites and artefacts, and these are highlighted in the individual sections below.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, some archaeologists adopted a chronological scheme ‘the long Iron Age’, using the Viking raids and settlements as the end of the Iron Age (Iron Age panel 2.6, 8.4). While there are arguments for this, it creates confusion with earlier works, and there is evidence of distinct changes in the Highlands from the 4th century, notably in burial evidence. As a result, the Highland Regional ScARF is using the term late Iron Age to refer to the first centuries AD, and the term Early Medieval for c. 300-c. 900.

Unlike National and many regional ScARFS, the Highland Regional ScARF has no separate chapter for the Roman period. This is because the Romans probably did not directly reach the Highlands, or if so, were only fleeting visitors. Their impact on the Highlands is discussed below (7.4).

Strengths and Weakenesses of Highland material for the Iron Age

Before suggesting research questions and recommendations (see 7.9), it is useful to identify the regional Iron Age archaeology strengths and weaknesses and to characterise these as either “within reach of a solution” (opportunities) or with no obvious solution (threats). Some of these relate to all periods, and are outlined in Chapter 3, and should also be read in conjunction with these below.

Strengths

· Good type sites at Culduthel (settlement and industry), Clachtoll Broch (settlement), High Pasture Cave (ritual) and Dun Deardail (hillfort), and a wealth of other settlement sites, some excavated, some not. These include crannogs, hillforts, roundhouses (simple and complex) and caves, with examples in most areas of the Highlands, providing evidence of both high status and more ordinary settlement. The Atlas of Hillforts provides recent summaries of the many hillforts in the area.

· Large number of surviving roundhouses allow study of material and form through time and area.

· Large artefactual base from excavated finds, as a result of the large amount of attention paid to settlement studies. Much cannot be finely dated, but nevertheless is a body of evidence which holds potential. Metal detected finds have greatly contributed to this picture.

· First steps towards gaining an understanding of burial traditions in the period.

· A growing number of radiocarbon dates.

· Identified outcrops of limited raw materials such as steatite and jet-like materials which can be compared to finished artefacts.

· A large amount of antiquarian work providing finds and site information which can be revisited. This is particularly the case for Caithness.

Weaknesses

· Relatively few landscape studies.

· Apart from hillforts, gaps in Badenoch and Strathspey, Nairn and southwest Highlands.

· The plateau in the radiocarbon dating hinders precise chronological discussions.

Opportunities

· Large number of surviving structural remains allowing discussion of architectural variation on site, between sites, between sub-regions and through time.

· Large numbers of sites so there will likely be burnt-down or waterlogged sites to be found.

· Sub-regional variations allow for highly nuanced observations that are usually unavailable in less variable landscapes.

Threats

· Coastal erosion is a risk on some promontory forts.

NOTE:

Much of the material mentioned in this chapter is still unpublished. I am grateful to Candy Hatherley for sharing the draft of the Culduthel publication, and input from Steven Birch (High Pasture Cave), and Andy Heald and Graeme Cavers (Clachtoll broch). The full publication of a number of the sites mentioned in this chapter may revise some of the information cited.

7.2. Iron Age Environmental Evidence

By the late Iron Age much of Scotland had been deforested, though in the northern Highlands this may have been through a combination of human and climatic factors as well as peat formation (Tipping 1994, 37). While many sites show the-increasingly normal evidence of hazel, birch and alder, clearly some areas continued to have oak and even pine.

Information is available from a number of sites. For example, charcoal and wood remains at Crosskirk Broch, Caithness showed aspen, alder, birch, hazel, juniper, pine, rowan and willow (Dickson and Dickson 2000, 108). At Upper Suisgill, Sutherland, the Iron Age landscape was dominated by pine and birch, interspersed with open heathland (Barclay 1985, 192). Closer to the Dornoch Firth, at Cyderhall, Sutherland, a quantity of oak survived, interpreted as possibly used for roofing for the roundhouse, with speculation that this was sourced locally (Dickson and Dickson 2000, 109). This view has been supported by environmental analysis from more recent excavations at nearby Dornoch Bridge quarry (Young et al 2019). The multiperiod analysis at Lairg provides useful data, including utilitisation of oak resources as well as the typical hazel, willow and alder. Pollen suggests intense grazing, rather than agricultural use in the area (McCullagh and Tipping 1998, 210-211). The recent work in advance of development around Inverness has resulted in a growing body of data, and research in progress on macrofossil evidence will look at issues of wood source and management. Information from local studies needs to be gathered to assess the situation on a local level.

Studies suggest that the earliest Iron Age was relatively dry, but an abrupt change c. 750 BC resulted in much wetter climate (IA panel 3.2). A study in Wester Ross revealed increased coastal dune formation, probably due to storminess (Wilson 2002, but see also Smith et al 2017, 28-29). This spell of wetter climate, lasting until c. AD 200, relates to peat formation elsewhere, as well as areas in the Highlands. For example, during the first centuries AD peat formed over House 3 at Lairg (McCullagh and Tipping 1998, 44). However, as noted in Chapter 3, regional differences occurred and individual data needs to be assembled, and assessment of upland/lowland differences.

A survey of evidence of sea level, including from northwest Scotland and Wick, suggests that during the last 2000 years sea level has been falling or near stable (Smith et al 2017, 26-27). As for other periods, this information for the coastal areas needs to be integrated with settlement evidence. In particular, it will affect feasibility of cave occupation.

Other localised data is still awaiting publication of several key sites including Bellfield, North Kessock in Easter Ross; Culduthel and other excavations in Inverness; Clachtoll Broch, northwest Sutherland; Dun Deardail hillfort, Lochaber and High Pasture Cave, Skye. The geographical spread of these sites will provide good data for much of the Highlands, especially when integrated with other published sites (see 7.3, Table X). Areas from Nairn, Badenoch and Strathspey and southwest Lochaber have sparse data, however, and could be targeted.

Crannog sites also offer great potential for environmental data. Few have been excavated in modern times in the Highlands, but artefactual and environmental information may survive. Many have Iron Age, and indeed later, occupation.

Key sites for environmental data:

Caithness brochs: eg Fairhurst 1984; Dickson and Dickson 2000; Heald and Cavers 2012; Barber and Humphreys 2012

Lairg, Sutherland: Holden 1998, McCullagh and Tipping 1998

Upper Suisgill, Sutherland: Barclay 1985

Cyderhall, Sutherland: Dickson and Dickson 2000, 108-109; Pollock 1992

Seafield West, Inverness: Cressey and Anderson 2011

Culduthel, Inverness: Timpany et al 2021 forthcoming

Bellfield, North Kessock: Murray 2011; Hatherley and Scholma-Mason forthcoming

Clachtoll Broch, northwest Sutherland: awaiting publication

Dun Deardail, Lochaber: awaiting publication

High Pasture Cave. Skye: awaiting publication

7.3 Iron Age settlement

Landscape

As in other periods there are few landscape studies for Iron Age Highlands. The settlement at Lairg, a model for the Bronze Age (see Chapter 6.3), had only one house in the Iron Age, although there were dates showing agricultural activity in this period (McCullagh and Tipping 1998). The Strath Suardal, Skye (Wildgoose 2016) and WeDigs, Wester Ross (Welti and Wildgoose nd) projects show roundhouse occupation continuing into the Iron Age, and indeed later, but generally with only test pitting to obtain dates, and little evidence of the nature of the settlement. The Strath Suardal survey is of special interest since some roundhouses were contemporary with the ritual site at nearby High Pasture Cave. As part of the investigations of the Fiscavaig, Skye rock shelter, a survey was undertaken of sites in the vicinity, although no further dating or investigation was made (Wildgoose and Birch 2009). Excavations at Kilphedir, Sutherland in the 1960s investigated several roundhouses and tried to relate them to cultivation in the vicinity (Fairhurst and Taylor 1970-1971), but with little dating evidence. The area was covered with peat after abandonment, suggesting cultivation remains are likely to be contemporary with the buildings.

Earthworks marked by lines of pits found in southern Scotland (Iron Age panel 3.4) do not seem to be a feature of the Highlands, but in much of the Highlands we would expect upstanding remains. Few earthworks have been dated. If a genuine difference, this may indicate a different way of perceiving the landscape and territories.

Field boundaries associated with settlements are rare for all of Scotland (Iron Age panel 3.5). The National ScARF panel concluded: ‘Essentially, the field-system of Iron Age Scotland is an untidy, cumulative and haphazard layout, shaped on the one hand by topography and by the earlier remains within its compass, and on the other by the intensity and extent of the cultivation practices.’ (IA panel 3.5). As such, there is no diagnostic way to identify Iron Age field systems, and good dating is essential.

Excavations of a series of banks at a croft near Dingwall (MHG58319) showed turf dykes with a clay layer deposited at the bottom, a deliberate construction technique requiring clay to be sourced and transported. A radiocarbon date of 536-385 cal BC was obtained, but only shows that the turf was burnt in the Iron Age. The dyke could date anytime later (McKeggie 2017).

Investigation of high and low status buildings in the landscape is hindered by the general scarcity of low-status buildings (Iron Age panel 6.3). However, a few places in the Highlands can shed light here. The landscape survey at Strath Suardal in Skye was deliberately chosen because of its proximity to the ritual site at High Pasture Cave. Most of the roundhouses dating to this period were fairly modest. Having said that, given that the area of influence for High Pasture Cave is not known, one perhaps should be looking further afield as well.

The Highlands have a wealth of potential sites for landscape studies. There are clusters of high status complex roundhouses, also known as brochs or broch towers (see settlement and building definitions) for example at Glenelg, Lochalsh, Waternish on Skye and Sinclair Bay, Caithness. Were these in use at the same time? There are also many areas with different types of sites, with hillforts, crannogs and roundhouses of timber and stone in the same area. Studies such as Strath Suardal, where settlement evidence in the region potentially associated with a major site (Wildgoose 2016), show the benefits of looking widely, as well as providing potential for more detailed examination of individual houses. There have also been a number of excavations in the Culduthel area of Inverness. The major high status settlement occupied between 2nd century BC and early 2nd century AD has been the main focus of attention (Hatherley and Murray 2021 forthcoming), but a number of other sites with Iron Age remains are in the area (see summary in Hatherley and Murray 2021 forthcoming).

Types of Houses/Settlements

Enclosures

EnclosureEnclosing an area generally over 20m in diameter using timber, stone, turf or combinations

Palisaded enclosureEnclosure defined by one or more rows of closely spaced vertical timbers embedded in a narrow foundation trenchMajor discussions with references: Iron Age panel 6.5, 6.6

HillfortEnclosure in prominent topographical position, with enclosing outworks for an area greater than 0.2 hectares Major discussions with references: Atlas of Hillforts (hillforts.arch.ox.ac.uk)Note: Many exceptions apply to Highland hillforts.

Dun enclosureEnclosure with thick, stone-built wall, typically around 3m or more in width, and an overall diameter greater than 20m in diameter, also generally in prominent topographical positions Major discussions with references: Harding 1984Note: Often simply referred to as dun, which can be confused with Dun building (see below).

CrannogA wholly or partially artificial islands which usually included the construction and occupation of a domestic dwellingMajor discussions with references: Henderson 2002; Cavers 2010; Stratigos forthcoming;

Buildings

Roundhouse Building with circular plan which can be constructed of stone, timber, turf or combinations. The term is used as a composite noun which means this category covers round buildings with different functions, not just round houses.Major discussions with references: Pope 2003; Romankiewicz 2011; 2018

Simple Atlantic Roundhouse (sAR)Roundhouse with one thick stone wall (c. >3m) without intramural space or an indication of double-wall construction in the upper stories. The wall construction is a composite structure consisting of two faces and an uncompacted rubble-mix core; it has not been built with layered courses throughout (see difference with cAR) Major discussions with references: Armit 1992; Gilmour 2005; Romankiewicz 2009; 2011; Hatherley 2015c

Complex Atlantic Roundhouse (cAR)Circular, sub-circular or oval stone-walled roundhouses that have evidence for intramural space (galleries, i.e. long passages, or cells) and double-wall construction from ground floor or in surviving upper storeys; key characteristic is they are built in well-coursed masonry throughout the thickness of their walls, which means they could have reached a substantial building height (compare Simple Atlantic Roundhouses)Major discussions with references: Armit 1992, 2003; Romankiewicz 2009; 2011; 2016Notes: Still much debated. See also Brochs

BrochsA Complex Atlantic Roundhouse with geometrically circular ground plan.Major discussions with references: Armit 2003; MacKie 2002; 2007; Cavers et al 2015; Romankiewicz 2011; 2015; 2016; Barber 2017Note: Still much debated. A variety of definitions have been employed over the years. Some divide into a subcategory Broch Tower for those with more than one story.

Dun buildingA stone-walled building of around 3m wall thickness or more, which is less than 20m in diameter. Often used in pre-1990s literature for structures similar to sARs, although some are known to have intramural spaces or well-coursed masonry (see Galleried dun).Major discussions with references: Fairhurst 1938-1939; Harding 1984; Gilmour 2005; Henderson and Gilmour 2012; Ritchie 2005; Romankiewicz 2009, 381Note: Often simply referred to as dun, which can be confused with Dun enclosures

Galleried dunA form of complex Atlantic Roundhouse with intramural galleries, i.e. long passages in the middle of their walls, but generally smaller in diameter or less regularly built in its circular plan and inconsistent wall thickness throughout than most defined brochs. Usually sited in elevated positions; also geographical preference of use in Argyll/Western Scotland.Major discussions with references: Graham 1946-1947; Cavers 2010

WheelhouseRoundhouse in which the roof was supported by internal radially placed stone piersMajor discussions with references: Armit 2006, MacKie 2002; 2007

WagsAisled structures, often oblong in shapeMajor discussions with references: Heald & Barber 2015

Table X: Iron Age Settlement and Building Definitions

Terminology for discussing settlement types, enclosures and buildings has varied and changed over the years, with still no general consensus, creating some complexity in discussion and comparison (see Table X). As a result it is also necessary to understand what authors have meant when writing in the past. Some terms are particularly enduring – broch comes to mind – and will inevitably continue to be used.

The Iron Age has a wealth of types of houses and settlements, often within the same area. The relationship of these sites remains to be further explored. Were some special purpose or seasonal? Were some representing social status (Iron Age panel 5.1, 5.4)? Romankiewicz (2018) has explored criteria for identifying non-domestic structures, a useful way to approach the evidence. There are also some regional trends within the Highlands. For example, there no brochs south of Tain in the eastern Highlands (Hatherley 2105c; forthcoming). On the other hand, hillforts and crannogs appear throughout the Highlands (see below). As better dating emerges, it will also be possible to see if there are chronological differences.

The last decades have seen a number of excavations and surveys, many of which are mentioned below. The Forestry Commission (now Forestry and Land Scotland) commissioned detailed and innovative surveys of some of the structures on their properties (Cavers et al 2015); see for example, the survey of Dun an Ruigh Ruadh in Wester Ross (Hudson and Humble 2015). These provide a good first step when assessing these complex structures.

As in other periods, accessibility of building materials influenced construction in different areas. In areas where timber was becoming scarce, turf was probably a key material, although its presence in the archaeological record remains elusive (Iron Age panel, 4.4; Romankiewicz 2019). It is noteworthy that the roundhouse on the hill at Wester Rarichie, Easter Ross with an internal diameter of around 12m appears to have been turf walled, despite its prominent location. It is also of interest in providing dating to the Early Iron Age (MHG8465; Hatherley 2014; 2015c).

Few settlements were single period, and more work such as occurred at Kintore, Aberdeenshire (Cook and Dunbar 2008) needs to be undertaken. Some houses were reused from earlier periods, for example Loch Raa which was built in the Bronze Age (MHG91260), and others would in turn be re-used in subsequent centuries (see Chapter 8.3).

Enclosed Settlements

A number of settlements are enclosed, either by walls, wooden palisades or on elevated locations with ramparts. This does not necessarily equate with high social status. It is noteworthy that one of the wealthiest Iron Age settlements in the Highlands, at Culduthel, was not enclosed, nor was the comparable settlement at Birnie in Moray (Iron Age panel, 6.3). In addition to hillforts, duns, palisaded enclosures and crannogs discussed below, there are also examples of smaller enclosures that were, however, not houses, as any structure greater than 20m in diameter was probably not roofable with Iron Age technologies and this diameter is therefore seen as the threshold to distinguish houses from enclosures (Harding 1984, 219).

Few enclosures have been explored and dated in the Highlands. An exception is a ditched enclosure at Lairg which enclosed around 26m, with dates around 400-200 BC. It was not on a hilltop, nor was it possible to determine if it had contained buildings, although there was a fair amount of charcoal (McCullagh and Tipping 1998, 69-72).

Hillforts and Duns

Site

Area

Datings

Comments

Source

Easter Rarichie

ER

7 dates 400-200 BC

Partial excavation of stone built simple roundhouse with internal postholes, with occupation between house and rampart. Built over earlier occupation.

MHG44719; Atlas of Hillforts SC2912; Hatherley 2014

Craig Phadrig

I

Various; 1970s dates too broad to be useful

Multi-period vitrified hillfort, with new and old dates. Initial destruction 4th/3rd c BC

MHG3809; Peteranna and Birch 2018

Dun Deardail

L

Various: 5th – 2nd c BC

Vitrified hillfort. No later reoccupation

MHG4348; Ritchie 2018

Table X Hillforts with dating evidence

Hillforts and duns refer to enclosed or defended sites on elevated positions, which could hold none or multiple buildings. When discussing regional trends in hillforts and enclosures, National ScARF highlighted the lack of information from the Highlands, noting that ‘any work in this area would be beneficial’ (Iron Age panel 6.8). Since then there have been few excavations, and even fewer with dating (see Table X).

We are still a long way from understanding the function of hillforts, as the National ScARF stated: ‘It is now generally accepted that there is no definitive interpretation of the function of hillforts and enclosures, which probably conveyed a variety of ideological statements at different times and places to different people’. Excavation results elsewhere in Scotland suggest some were occupied both long term but also seasonally in some cases (Iron Age panel 6.7). At present we have little evidence in the Highlands to add to this debate; more dated examples are needed.

The recent online Atlas of Hillforts of Britain and Ireland (hillforts.arch.ox.ac.uk) provides an assessment of all known hillforts, defined as having a prominent topographic position, and enclosing outworks for an area greater than 0.2 hectares. In fact, 62% of the Highland sites accepted as hillforts were less than 0.2 hectares, showing a regional trend for smaller hillforts. In Highland the Atlas identified 154 confirmed and 42 possible, with an additional 12 either unlikely or needing further survey (see Datasheet X). The Atlas provides a very useful basis to address a variety of questions, such as entrance arrangements, size, evidence of vitrification and geographical distribution (see also Iron Age panel 6.6).

Small hillforts have sometimes been called duns. Unhelpfully the term dun is also applied to some buildings which appear at elevated locations, and will be discussed below. The defining characteristics in the past appear to be size, combined with wall thickness (Harding 1984). Creating distinctions between hillforts and duns in the past based on size was already seen as unhelpful by the time of National ScARF (Iron Age panel 6.8), and the general trend towards small hillforts in the Highlands makes it even more so. The Highland HER records 221 duns of which 26 are unlikely or need more information, 64 are rejects (natural, buildings (galleried duns or roundhouses), or not located), 40 are considered hillforts by the Atlas of Hillforts, leaving 91 possible duns (see Datasheet X). The majority enclose areas less than 20m diameter, begging the question just what was inside, or even if the walls were used structurally for a building, but analysis with an architectural perspective focussing on wall thickness can provide some insights (Romankiewicz 2009). However, in many Highland cases the term appears to be applied where preservation does not allow more detailed attribution. In most cases, the Highland sites recorded as duns are ruinous or have not had any fieldwork, so that their exact nature and purpose remain unclear.

The defining characteristic of the hillfort or dun is the enclosure wall. Where contemporary buildings are contained within them, they are usually substantial stone built structures, and discussed below. Occasionally modern excavation with dating has shown the main building to be a simple roundhouse; for example at Wester Rarichie (MHG8465) the roundhouse was constructed of turf (Hatherley 2014).

Hillforts and duns were clearly positioned for their commanding views and presence. Some are in areas of good agricultural land, for example Easter and Wester Rarichie (MHG8465; MHG44719), but others, particularly coastal promontory forts are more remote (Iron Age panel 6.2). Many clearly consumed extensive resources and manpower in their construction, but the social organisation behind this remains unclear (Iron Age panel 6.6; Barber 2017). The logistics and background to building some of the Highland hillforts, such as Ben Griam Beg in Sutherland (MHG9658), the highest and one of the most remote in Scotland, provide a case in point (Iron Age panel 6.8).

At Rahoy, Lochaber (traditionally classified as a dun), stone walls enclosed an area around 12m in diameter (MHG487). The site when excavated by Childe and Thorneycroft in the 1930s had excellent preservation, with good artefact and wood survival, including floor levels and hearths. The excavators noted the possibility of upright timbers on postpads which could leave little trace but would have supported a roof, fully covering the enclosed area (Childe and Thorneycroft 1937-1938). Others have interpreted it as a robbed dun-house like Comar Wood (Peteranna and Birch 2017a, 37). Euan MacKie suggested it might have been a wooden roundhouse protected by the massive walls (MacKie 2007).

There appear to be some clusters of hillforts and duns, for example in Strathglass, Inverness-shire or on Skye, suggesting there might be regional preferences in some areas within the Highlands for small hillforts. Again, further dating, survey and excavation would provide evidence. The seeming preference for small hillforts/duns in southern Skye and Complex Atlantic Roundhouses/brochs in the north of the island could be explored further, looking also at sources of building materials.

Although more dating evidence is becoming available elsewhere, there are still questions on chronology and phasing. There have been some suggestions that some hillforts date to the late Bronze Age, but little evidence is available for Scotland as a whole (Iron Age panel 6.5) or the Highlands in particular. Some earlier thermoluminescence dates are known, for example for Knockfarrel (MHG7152), but there is some question as to reliability (Peteranna and Birch 2018, 79), and further work is needed. As Gordon Noble’s excavations on promontory forts are showing, many of these were used in the Early Medieval period (see Chapter 8.3), so without excavation cannot be assumed Iron Age. Evidence elsewhere suggests that enclosures may be only one phase at the site (Iron Age panel 6.6), which cautions against dating the vast range of Highland hillforts and duns as a single event. Cnoc an Duin hillfort (MHG8188), Easter Ross, is generally considered to be an unfinished structure, providing opportunity for dating and single-phase investigation.

Many of the Highland hillforts and some duns are vitrified (15% of the confirmed Highland hillforts). The predominant theory is that this was a deliberate action, even if it is still unclear exactly how the high temperatures were generated and sustained; however, accidental fires, fuelled by fierce Highland winds cannot be ruled out. If deliberate, it does not appear to be a construction device (Iron Age panel 6.6 with refs).

Palisaded Enclosures

Site

Area

Datings

Comments

Source

Lairg

S

395-90 BC

465-30 BC

470-135 BC

590-90 BC

750-265 BC

Trial trenches. V-shaped ditch surrounding an area 17m in diameter internally. No trace of internal buildings were found, but quantities of charcoal Possible shale bracelet fragment.

MHG20136; McCullagh & Tipping 1998, 69-72

Bellfield, North Kessock

ER

Awaiting results

Contained two pits, but unclear if they relate to enclosure

Murray 2012, 23; Hatherley & Murray forthcoming

Seafield West

I

110 BC – AD 140

50 BC-AD 220

170 BC – AD 90

Large ditch 24m in diameter with 2 rings of post holes and pits; possibly multiperiod. Several possible interpretations, but excavators favoured a smaller roundhouse structure inside palisade.

MHG3058; Cressey & Anderson 2011

Palisaded enclosures with dating evidence

A number of palisaded enclosures have been identified in the Highlands, mainly from aerial photographs, but there is little dating evidence nor a clear understanding of what they are enclosing. These enclosures would have had one or more rows of closely spaced vertical timbers embedded in a narrow foundation trench (Iron Age panel 6.5, 6.6). Highland sites have a distinct eastern distribution, excluding Caithness, a result of being situated mainly on agricultural land where crop marks are visible. Nevertheless, occasional evidence survives in some upland settings (eg Sithean Mor Dail A’Chaoruinn, Badenoch; MHG4560). Only three sites have dating (Table X), though an enclosure at Brackla, Nairn had a sherd of Roman Samian pottery suggesting occupation in the early centuries AD (MHG7309). While a palisaded enclosure was identified at Culduthel in Inverness, the only date relates to the ditch fill, providing a Chalcolithic date which when compared to dates elsewhere suggests it is probably residual. The enclosure had no occupation debris, and is thought perhaps to have been a stock enclosure (Hatherley and Murray 2021 forthcoming). Elsewhere in Scotland palisaded enclosures date from the Neolithic to Medieval, with various functions (Hatherley and Murray 2021 forthcoming). As a result, further investigation with good dating is needed to determine regionality, dating and use.

Crannogs

Site

Area

Datings

Comments

Source

Loch Migdale

S

796-516 BC

41 BC- AD 125

2 trial trenches for Time Team in 2003. Evidence of causeway

MHG10059; Wessex Archaeology 2003

Redcastle

R&C

9 dates, mainly Early Iron Age

Marine crannog. Tidal link to shore. Structural timbers, showing 2 phases, including wattle-sided pits. Animal bones and hides suggesting industrial activities. No domestic finds

MHG9112; Hale 2000

Carn Dubh, Beauly Firth

I

805-490 BC

Marine crannog. Piles of oak and pine.

MHG3811; Hale 2000

Phopachy, Beauly Firth

I

200 BC-AD 90

199 BC – AD 54

100 BC – AD 220

110 BC – AD 120

Marine crannog. Separated from shore by tidal channel. Structural timbers

MHG18664; Hale 2000

Loch of the Clans I

I

AD 5-13020 BC – AD 130

Excavated 1862; one trench in 2010s. Possibly single-phased.

MHG6991; Stratigos & Noble 2017

Loch Na Claise

NWS

190-38 BC

113 BC – AD 52 (precision not known)

Partial excavation 2016 found evidence of timber building in circular stone enclosure. Finds of charcoal, burnt bone

MHG12218

Crannogs with Iron Age dating evidence

As with so many Iron Age site types, the definition of a crannog has seen much discussion, with attention focussed on how significant is the artificial/partially artificial construction criteria, and whether natural islands with buildings (‘island duns’) should be included (Henderson 2002; Cavers 2010; Stratigos forthcoming with refs). There appears to be more acceptance of discussing together crannogs and islets on which structures were built, though the term crannog generally persists in having an element of artificial construction.

Even if one focusses on a broad definition of island dwellings, natural or otherwise, for the Highlands the evidence for Iron Age occupation is almost entirely for construction of fully or partially artificial construction. This is striking because there are numerous possible natural islands in the many lochs throughout the region, many of which no longer survive but have been shown on old mapping (Stratigos 2016). In other words, people could have taken an easier construction option, but seem to have chosen not to. More survey of possible natural island sites would be useful, to indicate if their use stretches into prehistory.

Although some crannogs elsewhere in Scotland have been shown to be Late Bronze Age in date (Iron Age panel 5.3), the only dates so far in the Highlands are Iron Age and later (Table X). The tradition is enduring here, with reuse of crannogs common in later periods, and some even built in the Medieval period (eg Loch Vaa, Badenoch and Strathspey; MHG4691) and post-Medieval period (eg Eilean Tigh Na Slige in Loch Treig, Lochaber; MHG4296). Dating is therefore crucial.

Many crannogs of the Highlands were explored in the late 1800s/early 1900s by Odo Blundell, a monk at Fort Augustus Abbey (see Case study X), and much of the information we know about dates from his surveys and excavations. He also reported anecdotal and local knowledge of crannogs, some of which has been shown to be inaccurate (for example MHG7444, MHG2674). In a number of cases the water levels have changed as well, due to agricultural improvements or hydro schemes (Stratigos 2016). Since Blundell’s time there has been relatively little focus on crannogs, apart from those listed in Table X.

The reasons for occupation of crannogs are still debated, and they are found in areas with other types of settlement (Iron Age panel 5.3). The results from Redcastle in the Beauly Firth are particular interesting, as they seem to show non-domestic use of the crannog, and it is possible marine crannogs, which are not common, had a wider range of use (Hale 2000). Some Highland crannogs had exceptional preservation and even deep stratigraphy, for example Kinellan, Strathpeffer in Easter Ross (MHG6285) or Loch of the Clans (MHG6991) but early excavation has limited the amount of information which can be obtained about these two sites.

Crannogs are likely to have good preservation, and as such good potential for structural, artefactual and environmental data. The large number of surviving crannogs in the Highlands (Map X) therefore holds great potential for future work. Even crannog sites on now-drained sites are worth exploring in some cases. Michael Stratigos noted that the second crannog at Loch of the Clans (MHG6987) has high archaeological and palaeoenvironmental potential due to permanent saturation (Stratigos & Noble 2017).

Caves and Rock Shelters

Site

Area

Datings

Comments

Source

Cairds Cave

ER

400-200 BC

AD 220-390

Occupation deposit. Later re-use in Early Medieval period for boneworking

MHG8855; Anderson-Whymark 2011

Learnie 1B

ER

AD 257-414

Multi-period use. Awaiting publication

Birch & Peteranna 2019;

Learnie3C

ER

AD 132-328

Multi-period use. Awaiting publication

Spanglefish.com/rosemarkiecavesproject; Pers. comm. S. Birch

Three Peaks Cave

ER

AD 85-243

Awaiting publication

Spanglefish.com/rosemarkiecavesproject; Pers. comm. S. Birch

Allt na Criche

WR

342-1 BC

187BC – AD 25

Test pitting of area with several rock shelters and middens, showing multi-period use

MHG37252; Hardy & Wickham-Jones 2007, site SFS68

Camusteel 2

WR

752-261 BC

Test pitting at cave with midden showing multi-period use

MHG37291; Hardy & Wickham-Jones 2007, site SFS77

Creag Na H-Uamha

WR

365-62 BC

Test pitting at cave with midden showing multi-period use

MHG37315; Hardy & Wickham-Jones 2007, site SFS49

Crowlin 1

WR

AD 128-333

Test pitting at multi-period rock shelter with midden

MHG34256; Hardy & Wickham-Jones 2007, site SFS2

Toscaig 2

WR

386-118 BC

342-1 BC

171BC – AD 21

Test pitting at cave with midden showing long period of use in Iron Age. Good preservation, including bone, possibly suggesting processing of animal carcasses.

MHG38820; Hardy & Wickham-Jones 2007, site SFS20

An Corran

Skye

336-78 BC

A rock shelter and midden with long use, from Mesolithic onwards. Iron Age dates is from a bone point.

MHG6497; Saville et al 2012

Uamh an Eich Bhric, Fiscavaig

Skye

A number of dates showing occupation c. AD 50-150

Remote rockshelter and midden with good excavation. Metalworking, bone and leather working. Awaiting publication

MHG51768; Wildgoose & Birch 2009; http://www.high-pasture-cave.org/

High Pasture Cave

Skye

Various dates

Discussed in section 4, Religion & Ritual. Awaiting publication

MHG32043; Case Study X; http://www.high-pasture-cave.org/; Birch et al forthcoming

Loch a Sguirr 1Loch a Sguirr 2

Skye

176 BC -AD 26

Test pitting at two adjacent rock shelters with middens, Loch a Sguirr 1 with c-14 date was mainly Mesolithic but also Iron Age activity. Loch a Sguirr 2 with later prehistoric artefacts.

MHG58707; MHG35897; Hardy & Wickham-Jones 2007, SFS8, SFS18

Table X. Dated Iron Age use of caves

Caves and rock shelters continued to be occupied in the Iron Age, though not all for the same purposes. Coastal caves predominate, and include evidence of craft activity and unspecified use. High Pasture Cave however is inland, and was a ritual site (see 7.6; Case study X). It is striking how much of our information for the Iron Age (and other periods) cave use is based on the Scotland’s First Settlers project (which in the main only test pitted to obtain dating evidence) and the ongoing Rosemarkie Caves project. Without these two projects, we would have little data indeed, and they show the value of targeting areas with known caves. Both projects also show the multiperiod use of caves in the Highlands. The Rosemarkie Caves project demonstrates the need for full excavation; if only test pitting had occurred, important evidence would have been missed (Steven Birch pers comm). Uamh an Eich Bhric, Fiscavaig on Skye (MHG51768) is one of the few sites thus far to have complete excavation, though some information has been lost to coastal erosion. It was an interesting site with industrial activity and evidence of exotic connections including Roman finds despite its remote location, with activity focussed in a short time frame (Wildgoose & Birch 2009). The final report is awaited.

Buildings

The roundhouse continues to dominate the building tradition, but with variations: drystone brochs, Simple and Complex Atlantic roundhouses (cARs), timber, stone or mixed material roundhouses, dun buildings either alone or in clusters, some on islands. The Highlands, particularly the upland areas, are dotted with roundhouses, but the work of the Strath Suardal project (Wildgoose 2016) and WeDigs project (Welti and Wildgoose nd), show that the tradition is long-lived, from Neolithic through to Medieval times, thus requiring good dating control. Functions are likely to have varied, and again excavation is the only way to provide this interpretation; a way to address interpretation of non-domestic use, including a list of criteria, has been proposed by Romankiewicz (2018). Good stratigraphy and dating are also crucial in order to determine if there was continuous use or episodic occupation.

A roof span of 20 metres is considered the maximum feasible, with any larger diameters, even those displaying similarities in wall construction, generally considered unroofed enclosures (Harding 1984, 219; see Romankiewicz (2011, catalogue) for roof reconstructions for diameters between 15-20m). This is a key defining element for all buildings regardless of construction materials, as larger examples must be enclosures.

Buildings constructed on hilltop settings would have had a visual impact and dominated the landscape, as reconstruction drawings based on excavations at Easter and Wester Rariche, Tarrel Dun and Morangie Dun, Tarlogie, all in Easter Ross show (www.socantscot.org/research-project/bringing-landscapes-alive-the-atlantic-roundhouses-of-the-tarbat-peninsula/, accessed June 2020).

Roundhouses

Site

Area

Datings

Comments

Source

Loch Shurrery

C

183-77 BC

Oval roundhouse; dating from hearth. Few finds.

MHG1564; MacLaren 2003

Burn of Swartigill

C

366-192 BC

198-47 BC (accuracy not stated). Awaiting other results.

Excavation in progress (UHI and Yarrows Heritage Trust), but appears to include Early-Mid Iron Age structures

Canmore 271492; Barton 2018

Nybster Broch

C

cellular outbuildings 1st – 3rd c AD

49 BC 0 AD 120 (antler comb) AD 27-216 (antler comb)

Excavations by Tress Barry in 1890s; AOC / Caithness Archaeologist Trust in 2000s. No intramural walls or tower. A range of finds, including Roman artefacts.

MHG1593; Heald & Cavers 2012; Case study X

Kilphedir

S

Hut 2:733-380 BC. Hut 5: 5 dates on same samples 360s BC- AD230s

Old dates. Settlement with five huts in field system, excavated in 1960s. Most built on platforms dug into hillsides. Internal ringposts. Hut 5 with pronounced circling bank, entrance passage and collapsed roofing branches; multi-phase.

MHG9858; Fairhurst & Taylor 1970-1971

Cyderhall

S

755-258 BC

733-234 BC400-131 BC

400-126 BC

With associated souterrain. 3 phases. Phase 1 roundhouse with sunken floor. Fire preserved oak roofing material.

MHG11834; Pollock 1992

Lairg

S

c. 400-350 BC

House 7. Greater use of stone than BA houses on site; internal post-ring. Few artefacts

McCullagh & Tipping1998, 56-58

Rhicullen

ER

Various Middle IA dates

Probable post built roundhouse associated with kiln

MHG49778; Farrell 2005

Easter Rarichie

ER

7 dates, 400-200 BC

Stone built roundhouse within ramparts: see Hillforts and duns above

MHG44719; Hatherley 2014

Wester Rarichie

ER

728-392 BC

736-398 BC

(charcoal from internal posthole fills)

Structure on prominent knoll. Turf-and stone wall roundhouse with interior postrings. Finds of animal bones, burnt clay, cannel coal bracelet fragment

MHG8465; Hatherley 2014

Dun Morangie, Tarlogie

ER

360-170 BC

AD 25-130

AD 235-385

Stone roundhouse c. 9.3m diameter. 3 main periods of use, with evidence of remodelling. Limited excavation, so not possible to determine if simple or complex roundhouse. Interior floor levels only excavated for last phase, which had a complex of hearths and slag.

MHG8706; Hatherley 2015b

Cnoc a’Leacachan

ER

756-390 BC

Roundhouse with possible turf bank, 10m internal diameter.

MHG28205

Mullans Wood, Kilcoy

ER

767-435 BC

Internal ring posts, stone built bank, perhaps turf-covered. In area with prehistoric settlement

Peteranna & Stirling forthcoming

Bellfield, North Kessock

ER

Awaiting results

Includes large Phase 4 roundhouse, rebuilt after burning down; latter building with turf walls

MHG53532; Jones 2009; Hatherley & Scholma-Mason forthcoming

Knocknagael

I

Awaiting results

Hut circle 5a. 13m overall diameter; rubble bank, internal post ring

Demay 2018

Culduthel

I

A number between 2nd c BC and early 2nd c AD

22 roundhouses, most used for industrial activity. Finds show high status settlement. All postring, and 3 with ring grooves.

MHG49950; Hatherley & Murray 2021 forthcoming

Seafield West

I

1) 200 BC – AD 50 (post-hole fill)

2) 110 BC-AD 140

50 BC – AD 220

170 BC- AD 90

1) Structure G with closely spaced posts. No surviving occupation layers

2) Structure B with inner and outer postring and penannular ditch; 17.5m diameter. Possibly smaller roundhouse within palisade

MHG3058; Cressey & Anderson 2011

Balloan, Lower Slackbuie

I

210-40 BC360-50BC

Large postholes, probably for roundhouse, perhaps 6m diameter. Samples from charcoal in postholes

MHG3775;

Fanellan

I

Range of dates. Roundhouse: Early Iron Age

Roundhouse with inner postring, central hearth, pottery, lithics. Neolithic, Bronze Age and Early Medieval activity on site.

MHG61055; Masson-Maclean 2014; Sneddon forthcoming

Crathie, Laggan

B&S

Early Iron Age

Hearth associated with stone-built wall, presumably part of a structure, but shape unknown. Not fully excavated

MHG54326

Inverewe Estate

WR

Awaiting publication

DETAILS NEEDED

Achnahaird

WR

511-378 BC

Partially excavated roundhouse 10.9m external diameter, with double skinned wall. Two phases. Part of WeDigs project

MHG45594; Welti & Wildgoose nd; www.wedigs.co.uk

Achtercairn 1 / Torr Na H-Ulaildhe / Achtercairn R8

WR

376-197 BC359-112 BC

Partially excavated large roundhouse on dug-out platform. Dating from two hearths at centre

MHG7523; Welti & Wildgoose nd; www.wedigs.co.uk

Loch Raa

WR

535-391 BC

Partially excavated roundhouse 10.4m external diameter, with double-skinned wall. Multi-phase

MHG9126; Welti & Wildgoose nd; www.wedigs.co.uk

Meall Mor

WR

755-540 BC

751-511 BC

Partially excavated roundhouse 10m external diameter. 2 occupation levels, one in Early Medieval Period

MHG7820; Welti & Wildgoose nd; www.wedigs.co.uk

Beillach A’Ghlinne (An Sithean 6)

Skye

361-172 BC

231-91 BC

Test pitting of roundhouse on summit of small hill, built over earlier occupation level. Earlier date from below the wall; second from floor surface.

MHG6387; Wildgoose 2016, site LS41

Ben Suardal

Skye

50 BC – AD 90

Test pitting of roundhouse. Finds included pottery, lithics, pot boilers, charcoals

MHG6364; Wildgoose 2016, site LS115

Camas Malag

Skye

653-542 BC

Test pitting of roundhouse on boulder-rivetted platform. Date from beneath platform revetment

MHG59562; Wildgoose 2016, site LS120

Coille A’Ghasgain

Skye

899-1 BC

Roundhouse with postring excavated 1993. Finds included pottery, pot boilers and bronze rivet

MHG13992

Coille Gaireallach

Skye

410-350 BC

Test pitting at roundhouse. Turf ringbank with central pit hearth. Compacted floor with lithics and pottery sherds.

MHG59524 Wildgoose 2016, site LS10

Coille Gaireallach

Skye

370-170 BC

Partial excavation at roundhouse 14m in diameter overlaying Late Bronze Age structure. Multiperiod.

MHG55550; Wildgoose 2016, site LS6

Coille Gaireallach

Skye

AD 80-240

Test pitting at roundhouse 11m external diameter, with two stone faces. Hearth in pit with iron slag, lithics, charcoal, pot boilers and pottery.

MHG59525; Wildgoose 2016, site LS11

Kilchrist

Skye

360-271 BC

Test pitting at-bank 12m in diameter, with stone facing on interior only. Dating from pit with charcoal and pot boilers

MHG59768; Wildgoose 2016, site LS113

Table X ‘Simple’ Roundhouses with dating evidence

Roundhouses were constructed in a number of materials, and in the main probably relate to local availability. Many were solely built from stone and the more substantial of these identified as Simple or Complex Atlantic roundhouses (see below); others were built of stone and turf, turf only, or turf and wattle or timber-only constructions. As a result, here the term roundhouse includes examples in a range of materials including the mixing of materials. Simple stone-walled roundhouses, typically with wall width thinner than for Simple or Complex Atlantic roundhouses (see below) build on the roundhouse tradition of the Bronze Age, but no simple development sequence can be put forward. However, at Lairg the Iron Age construction show chronological changes. House 7 at Lairg with Iron Age dates marked a departure from Bronze Age houses on the site. It used more stone, and had evidence of an internal postring (McCullagh and Tipping 1998).

Within this broad category, Simple Atlantic Roundhouses (sAR), as distinct from the complex Atlantic Roundhouses (cAR) discussed below, are defined as with one wall without intramural space or an indication of double-wall in the upper stories. The wall construction is a composite structure consisting of two faces and an uncompacted rubble-mix core; it has not been built with layered courses throughout (Romankiewicz 2009). Many buildings published as duns but without intramural spaces, would be considered sARs; see Fairhurst 1938-1939; Harding 1984; Henderson and Gilmour 2012; Romankiewicz 2009, 381 for discussions of dun buildings.

Often all that remains for analysis is the lowest footing level, which often survives because it was built from stone, as a wall, or continuous platform, especially on sloping ground such as at Dun Ardtreck, Skye. Without upstanding structures, only negative features remain to identify a building, such as a ring-ditch, ring-groove or postring. These distinctions, as Romankiewicz pointed out, mix function and structural aspects; for example, the ring-ditch was created by repeated wear, while the ring-groove is a foundation trench and therefore a structural feature; both can appear with postrings. The internal postring may or may not be discerned on the surface due to the use of postpads (Romankiewicz 2009, Romankiewicz 2011, 20, 23ff).

Some timber roundhouses from the Highlands are exceptionally large. Two of the largest roundhouses known from the Highlands were at Culduthel, with a diameter at 18 and 17 metres internally, at the upper end of what was feasible to roof (Hatherley and Murray 2021 forthcoming). The construction of large ring-groove buildings appears elsewhere in the Highlands, for example at Seafield West (MHG3058; Cressey & Anderson 2011), and elsewhere in Scotland, and may be a preferred way to construct large timber buildings in the early years AD (Hatherley and Murray 2021 forthcoming). Investigation at Culduthel (MHG49950) revealed 22 timber roundhouses, most of which were completely excavated (see Case Study X). All had postrings, and three had a ring-groove, with the later two large roundhouses from the first centuries AD also with a carefully cut ring-ditch. Most of the houses were workshops; indeed none can be categorically interpreted as solely domestic.

While the current evidence has fewer examples of structures dating to the early years AD, there are some examples, to which can be added the cellular buildings surrounding Nybster broch. Roman objects found at some Complex Atlantic Roundhouses also provide evidence of occupation at this later period.

Complex Atlantic Roundhouses / Brochs / Galleried duns

Site

Area

Datings

Comments

Source

Crosskirk Broch

C

Most last three centuries BC, but possibly earlier; with reuse 2nd c AD

Old dates. Wealth of artefacts, including Roman finds. Poorly built walls. Probably no tower

MHG13496; Fairhurst 1984

Elsay Broch (Staxigoe)

C

AD 143-384

Excavations by Tress Barry. Dating is from a long-handled antler comb

MHG2079; Sheridan et al 2017

Thrumster Mains Broch

C

Number of dates, showing several phases 4th/3rd c BC – early years AD

Cleared out before 1910. Recent excavations, including of the walls, showing complexity of multi-period use

MHG2043; Barber and Humphreys 2012

Langwell

S

536-46 BC

452 BC – AD 1

481 BC – AD 21

297 BC – AD 249

The last two dates are from the same timber, but 2 different labs (type of wood not specified)

Galleried dun, situated in hillfort. Large roundhouse 15 x 15.5m internal, with thick walls; timber structure near opening, and timber postring. Intramural guard cell. Initial construction interpreted as mid 3rd c BC; 2 phases of occupation before fire, followed by 3rd occupation phase. No pottery, few finds. Remains of burnt roofing timbers.

MHG7371; Nisbet 1994-1995

Scotsburn House

ER

731-399 BC

537-387 BC

355-58 BC

Stone built roundhouse, with probable intra-mural void, with outer enclosures. Activity also between roundhouse and enclosure wall. Multi-phase

MHG8627; Hatherley 2015a

Comar Wood Dun

I

9 dates, one group 357-184 BC, the other first centuries AD

Clear phases of occupation and re-occupation within the central building and the enclosure outwork, and two burning events Small stone tools assemblage, small amount metalworking debris. Interior diameter 18m x 15m, with timber structure near opening.

MHG55867; Peteranna and Birch 2017a

Applecross Broch

WR

4th/3rd c BC to early centuries AD

Multi-phased occupation, with at least 2 roundhouses before complex roundhouse which may not have had tower.

MHG7680; Peteranna 2012a

Dun an Ruigh Ruadh (Rhiroy)

WR

Last centuries BC

Old dates. Excavation in 1968 by E. MacKie. Domestic artefacts. Postholes for supports in the centre, suggesting a raised wooden structure.

MHG7808; MacKie 1980; Hudson & Humble 2015

Clachtoll Broch

NWS

Mainly 50 BC – early years AD

Good preservation at modern excavation by AOC and Historic Assynt. Artefacts mapped to show spatial distribution.

MHG13002; Canmore 4499; Case study X

Cavers pers comm

Dun Flodigarry

Skye

178 BC – AD 132

Much disturbed. Finds included pottery, including Roman Samian ware, slag, animal bone, querns, stone tools.

MHG5219; Armit 1996, 241

Dun Ardreck

Skye

356 BC – AD 238

Old date. Excavated in 1960s. Multi-period. Large number of finds, including Roman.

MHG5019; MacKie 2000

Complex Atlantic Roundhouses with radiocarbon dating evidence. Note: antiquarian excavations at a number of sites in Caithness, Wester Ross and Skye have diagnostic artefacts for Iron Age, but rarely allow detailed phasing.

The terminological debates on brochs/Complex Atlantic Roundhouses have been simmering for decades (Armit 1992, 2003; MacKie 2002; 2007; Romankiewicz 2009; 2011; 2015; 2016; Cavers et al 2015; Barber 2017). Romankiewicz defined them as ‘circular, sub-circular or oval stone-walled roundhouses that have evidence for architectural complexity in the form of intramural space and well-coursed masonry’ (Romankiewicz 2011, 29). The key problem for poorly preserved structures is determining whether intramural galleries existed. In some cases these start from upper stories, so without good preservation the defining evidence will be lacking. The distinction between substantial Simple Atlantic Roundhouses and Complex Atlantic Roundhouses can therefore seem slight. Some of the Simple Atlantic Roundhouses were substantial structures. In the past some have been defined as brochs, but without the diagnostic intramural features, are not considered Complex Atlantic Roundhouses.

The terminological confusion increases when galleried duns are considered: their use of intramural features places them in the Complex Atlantic Roundhouse group, but for reasons generally, but not exclusively, of smaller diameter size, they are not considered brochs (Graham 1946-1947; Cavers 2010). These galleried duns are also distinct from enclosure duns (see above).

John Barber has investigated the structural aspects of brochs with forensic detail, including with experimental archaeology work (Cavers et al 2015; Barber 2017; 2018 Rhind lectures), while Tanja Romankiewicz has approached the subject from an architectural perspective, looking at design aspects, spatial layouts and structural issues (Romankiewicz 2011; 2016). Both are useful approaches, providing greater insights from simply typological considerations. Romankiewicz has highlighted the variety of architectural detail which react to regional environmental circumstances and availability of materials (Romankiewicz 2016; Romankiewicz and Ralston 2020). For example, brochs built in areas which had been substantially deforested such as Caithness, have smaller internal dimensions, probably due to issues of sourcing timber for roofing and other internal work (Romankiewicz 2016, 18).

Issues regarding broch development, dating and the social factors relating to construction have also been the subject of much debate, still ongoing (see eg Armit 2003; MacKie 2007; Cavers et al 2015; Romankiewicz 2011; 2016; Barber 2017). These are important for the Highlands, though one should not presuppose one explanation fits all examples. It is therefore important to think in alternatives (Romankiewicz and Ralston 72-73).

The dating of Complex Atlantic Roundhouses is now seen to go back to the 4th or 3rd century BC with many showing occupation in the early centuries AD, though whether continuous or episodic is often debated (Dockrill et al 2006). Dating remains key, as it is probable every surviving broch was altered and modified, either in the Iron Age or later (Barber 2017). Only at Thrumster Broch in the Highlands is it possible to show in detail the chronological changes (Barber and Humphreys 2012).

[NB: request reproduce diagram of Thrumster Broch datings – no. 45 in AH symposium PP]

Andy Heald argues strongly that it is therefore necessary to dig the walls as well as the interiors to illustrate phasing and re-use, especially since interior remains may relate to re-deposited fill after a structure has gone out of use. For this reason the Clachtoll Broch finds are important, because they were sealed by a wall collapse (Case study X). Romankiewicz (2016) also notes that only with large scale excavations will some of the questions relating to the social dimensions of broch building and use be tested. The cost of such investigations is, however, a major factor.

A great deal of work has been undertaken over the years on Highland brochs, on the east and west coasts. These include in Caithness 19th/early 20th excavations by Tress Barry, Rhind, Anderson and Laing (Heald and Barber 2015), with more recent investigations by AOC at Nybster (MHG1593), Whitegate (MHG1645), Keiss Harbour (MHG1659), Keiss Road (MHG1650), and Thrumster (MHG2043). On the west, Euan MacKie excavated a number of Wester Ross and Skye brochs in the later 20th century (MacKie 2007). AOC and Historic Assynt have recently excavated Clachtoll in northwest Sutherland (MHG13002). There the preservation was exceptionally good, allowing a range of detailed analysis, including spatial distribution of artefacts (Case study X). A number of new, detailed surveys have also been undertaken of Highland brochs in recent years (Cavers et al 2015).

Several key points have emerged from this work. They provide evidence for the terminology debates and issues relating to the people who built and used the brochs/cARs. Most of the sites are multi-phased, and detailed dating is needed. There is also great scope re-analysing finds from old antiquarian excavations; a good example of what can be gleaned by looking at old finds from Caithness brochs was published by Heald and Jackson (2001).

Some Highland cARs are built on sites which were probably earlier hillforts, as accepted in the Atlas of Hillforts, for example Dun Chealamy (MHG19718), Kilphedir (MHG9856), and An Dun (MHG9158) in Sutherland; Ness (MHG2151) and Skirza Head (MHG655) in Caithness; Dun Cruinn on Skye (MHG6488); and Dun Lagaidh, Wester Ross (MHG7812). Other hints suggest siting near an even earlier prehistoric past. For example at Carn Liath, Golspie, the broch was built near a Bronze Age cist burial (MHG10872).

Non circular buildings

The excavation of a rectilinear house with associated souterrain at Tungadale, Skye (MHG5106), also suggests other building traditions may have been present in the Iron Age in the Highlands. The dates at the site have a wide range, but clearly indicate Iron Age activity (Miket 2002; Armit 1996); a full publication of this important site is desirable. Only further dating of other rectangular structures will provide a context for this site. At Easter Galcantray, Nairn-shire (MHG5892) excavations of a rectangular structure but without ancillary buildings by Barri Jones based its interpretation in part on a postulated Roman presence. The evidence was ambiguous (Gregory 2001). Four-poster buildings were found in the Culduthel, Inverness area, but are undated (Hatherley and Murray 2021 forthcoming). Elsewhere these have been reconstructed as roundhouses, but they could also be square structures (Noble et al 2012).

Some Highland Simple Atlantic Roundhouses such as Nybster broch (MHG1593) and Complex Atlantic Roundhouses such as Carn Liath (MHG19872) have cellular buildings around the large central stone-built roundhouse. These ‘broch villages’ appear to be an east coast preference and are also found on Orkney and Shetland. Only at Nybster Broch in Caithness, is good dating available for the Highlands, showing they were occupied in the early centuries AD, at the same time as the large roundhouse (Heald and Cavers 2012; Case study X). The contemporary occupation of large and small houses is rare evidence of social hierarchies in Iron Age settlements (IA panel 6.2, 6.3). Whether this is true for other broch villages, and confirmation if some continue to the Early Medieval period as has often been postulated, remains to be tested.

At Upper Suisgill, Sutherland (MHG4183) postholes belonging to a structure of probably Late Bronze Age or Early Iron Age date were interpreted by the excavator as different from the roundhouses (Barclay 1985, 194, 196), but the exact details were confused by multiple buildings, and the dating is quite old.

Aisled structures often oblong in shape, attached to round houses, known as wags, have been found in a number of locations in Caithness (Heald and Barber 2015, 122-126). Precise dating evidence is lacking, though these structures are often suggested to be post-broch based on their association with the broch at Yarrows (MHG1937). Their function and dating remain enigmatic. Recent work at Wag of Forse by Gordon Noble will hopefully shed more light on these issues.

Although in the Western Isles wheelhouses were built in the Iron Age (Armit 2006), and have been argued to replace brochs (Barber 2017), only three possible examples have been suggested for the Highlands. A small well-preserved inland stone-built example at Tigh na Fiamain near Durness, northwest Sutherland (MHG11958) has free standing orthostats (not radial walls), and there is a suggestion of more recent rebuilding and clearance. It may relate more to the tradition of wags to the east (MacKie 2007). Heavily robbed examples at Berriedale Water, Caithness (MHG1624) have also been identified as wags or wheelhouses, but present condition does not allow any further conclusions. More promising is a structure identified at Ob Na Leobag, Skye (MHG9253), but it has received little attention since its discovery in the 1980s.

Building Exteriors

Few walls survive to any height, with the exception of a few brochs, but it is clear that various materials were used in wall construction. In some cases, such as the Complex Atlantic Roundhouses, drystone walling to one or more stories occurs. In a few cases timber lacing of walls has been proposed, particularly in vitrified duns such as Rahoy (MHG487; Childe and Thorneycroft 1937-1938) and Langwell (Nisbet 1994). There is also evidence of the use of turf, for example at Coille Gaireallach, Skye (MHG59524), Wester Rarichie, Easter Ross (MHG8465) and a large structure (c. 19m internal diameter) at Bellfield, North Kessock (MHG53532; Hatherley and ScholmaMason forthcoming). One of the early Iron Age structures at Culduthel (MHG49950), another large roundhouse with external diameter of 18m, may also have had turf walls with a timber revetting encasing the outer wall (Hatherley and Murray 2021 forthcoming).

Less evidence survives for timber exteriors and their architectural analysis (Romankiewicz 2009, 380). The ring-groove roundhouses may have had walls of planks or closely placed posts, but conclusive evidence is rare. However, the large roundhouses in the early AD years at Culduthel suggest walls made of closely set timber posts set with stones (Hatherley and Murray 2021 forthcoming). Such stone packing, together with voids likely to represent the rotted posts, also survived in the ring-groove of the roundhouse built into the earlier stone circle at Strichen, Aberdeenshire, here arguably in a non-domestic context (Phillips et al. 2006; compare Romankiewicz 2018)

Good roofing evidence survived at the galleried dun at Langwell (MHG7371), where the burnt timbers preserved even beetle holes in many cases. The logs were up to 18cm diameter, and in lengths up to 2m. Inside the house there was a ring of postholes which would have supported the roofing timbers. These large timbers were not found in the central areas, suggesting to the excavator that this was left open or covered by skins. She also postulated a layer of branches, twigs, heather or even birch bark for roofing materials (Nisbet 1994, 62, 67). Roofing with turf supported by rafters springing from the rampart was proposed at the vitrified dun at Rahoy, Lochaber (MHG487), also with burnt timbers and sods surviving (Childe 1946, 88-89). A destruction layer at Cyderhall, Sutherland (MHG11834) also preserved roofing timbers (Pollock 1992).

Building Interiors

There is little evidence of building interiors. Most roundhouses had a central hearth, sometimes slab-lined. At Cnoc a’Leacachan, Easter Ross a roundhouse exposed during construction work had a wattle fence lining the inner wall which was radiocarbon-dated to 756-390 cal BC (MHG28205; Wordsworth 1997). At Dun Morangie, Tarlogie, the building shows internal modifications (MHG8706; Hatherley 2015), as indeed do many brochs. Postholes at Culduthel roundhouses (MHG49950) hint at internal partitions (Hatherley and Murray 2021 forthcoming). Some roundhouses had upper stories or lofts (Iron Age panel, 8.1); at Culduthel, the size of the posts for the internal rings of the roundhouses from the early years AD suggest this possibility. The ring-ditches of the two large roundhouses from Culduthel included charred planks which may be the remnants of a wooden floor. Whereas ring-ditches in many other sites were thought to be formed by people and animals, at Culduthel they were deliberately cut features with stone and wooden partitions, floors and steps. The activities which would have occurred in these subterranean chambers are not known, but included the exotic objects which were deliberately deposited, suggesting they may have been for storage of the community’s most valued items (Hatherley and Murray 2021 forthcoming). The roundhouse at Cyderhall (MHG11834) also had a sunken floor area in its early phase (Pollock 1992).

Other Settlement Evidence

Burnt Mounds

Burnt mounds were discussed in the Bronze Age chapter (Chapter 6.3), noting that they have been interpreted as both practical (for cooking) or ritual, or indeed both. Regardless, they indicated settlement nearby. Their use continued into the Early Iron Age in the Highlands, as shown by High Pasture Cave. There numerous fire-cracked stones and hearths were uncovered, often with the burnt residues carefully deposited in the cave, but no tanks were found. The heated stones may have therefore been used in containers, or possibly used directly to cook and prepare food. These burnt spreads were dated to the Early to Middle Iron Age (Birch et al forthcoming). The burnt mound from Auchinduich, Sutherland (MHG20592) may also possibly date to the Iron Age (McCullagh and Tipping 1998). Further dating of Highland sites will show if Iron Age burnt mounds are widespread or not.

Middens and pits

Site

Area

Datings

Comments

Source

Brotchie’s Steading

C

390-170 BC

AD 20-230

AD 60-250

Midden. Iron Age dates but no structures. AD dates are from antler tool and cow bone.

MHG46260; Holden et al 2008

Upper Suisgill

S

Last two centuries BC (old date)

Series of houses at same site. Phase VI has evidence of stake holes, walls and drains, but no house

MHG9345; Barclay 1984

Portmahomack

ER

Early centuries AD

Pits

Carver et al 2016

Foulis

ER

5 dates, 1st two centuries AD

Burning and animal bone layer on top of knoll

MHG8945; ARCH 2012

Torvean, Inverness

I

381-204 BC

Grain storage pit

Pers comm. Mary Peteranna

Broadford Medical Centre

Skye

A range of dates, mainly c. 350-50 BC

Grain drying kiln and grain storage pit

MHG55638; Birch 2012; Birch forthcoming

Home Farm, Portree

Skye

Early Iron Age

Fill of pits

MHG51648; Suddaby 2013

Torrin

Skye

400-115 BC

Pits near hearth, but no structures identified. Later shieling huts on the site.

MHG5158; Armit 1996, 241

Arisaig

L

AD 1-130

Charcoal layer overlying Bronze Age kerb cairn mound

MHG36853; Carter et al 2005

Dun Mhurchaidh

L

Early Iron Age

Platform with cremated bone beneath.

Awaiting publication (Ardnamurchan Transitions Project).

Other dated settlement evidence

Other settlement evidence consists of middens, pits, postholes or occupation layers. Some indicate industrial use and are discussed in 7.5. Hearths without walls might indicate an ephemeral structure, but could also be evidence of outdoor activity.

7.4 Iron Age Daily Life

The rich settlement evidence from the Highlands (see 7.3) has resulted in a large body of evidence relating to subsistence and material culture. Much of this material still needs to be pulled together to allow regional trends to be teased out. National ScARF usefully looked at resources available to Iron Age inhabitants in their daily life (Iron Age panel 4.4).

Food

Food, once grown, gathered and processed, was cooked in either the hearth or cooking pits, and some sites in Scotland suggest hot stone cooking technology, for example at burnt mounds, continued in the Iron Age. The National ScARF panel highlighted the need for further research in this area, combined with assessment of artefactual evidence, particular pottery (Iron Age panel, 4.3).

Excavation reports from Culduthel, North Kessock, Clachtoll Broch, High Pasture Cave and Dun Deardail hillfort when published should provide more detailed evidence of what people were eating. These fortunately cover different areas of the Highlands. Reports from various Caithness brochs can be added to this picture.

Cultivation

Six-row barley was the main crop grown throughout Iron Age Scotland, although occasionally naked barley appears, with a low percentage of oats and occasionally emmer wheat and spelt. Flax is also occasionally identified, and could have been used for food, oil and/or fibres. Rye is rarely identified (IronAge panel 4.2).

Broadly speaking, the Highland sites conform to this pattern, but recent excavations with good pollen analysis are presenting a more nuanced picture. At Lairg, barley predominated, but oats and wheat were also grown in the areas (McCullagh and Tipping 1998). Naked barley continues to be cultivated at some sites, with evidence for example at Crosskirk Broch (MHG29521), Caithness and Cyderhall , Sutherland (MHG11834; Pollock 1992, Dickson and Dickson 2000, 108-109). A sub-rectangular lined storage pit near a roundhouse at Cyderhall, Sutherland with good preservation contained a large amount of burnt grain, predominantly six-rowed barley but also reasonable amounts of naked barley, some emmer wheat, and a few grains of spelt and oat, together with weed seeds. Chaff survived for both barley and wheat, suggesting the grain was not winnowed thoroughly or had not been sieved before the fire, and may have been stored in spikelets in an internal pit within the house. A carbonised barley grain within the pit was dated to 400-126 cal BC (Dickson and Dickson 2000, 109; Pollock 1992, 158-159). At Bellfield, North Kessock, there appears to have been increased cultivation of oats (Murray 2011). At Crosskirk broch in Caithness a stone tank contained ash with chaff from cereal crops, which included on the site naked barley, wild oats and a single flax seed (Dickson and Dickson 2000, 108).

Preservation varied at Culduthel (MHG49950), but included barley (mainly hulled 6-row), but also oat and wheat, and lesser amounts of rye. Some of the barley had sprouted, which may indicate brewing. The evidence also hints at different types of wheat (Timpany et al 2021 forthcoming).

Environmental evidence has also suggested times of agricultural intensification during the Iron Age, for example at An Druim, northwest Sutherland around 500 BC, in an area showing gradual woodland clearance (Tipping 1994, 24). This is an area with substantial roundhouses, and might repay further landscape studies to complement the environmental work. Other sites can provide similar information for the Iron Age, for example, Freswick Links in Caithness (Morris et al 1995, 15). Evidence of agricultural intensification at other Highland sites should also be gathered together and correlated with settlement remains.

The rotary quern appears in the Iron Age, probably between 400 and 200 BC (McLaren and Hunter 2008). Querns, both saddle querns and rotary querns, are common at Scottish sites, though the date and circumstances of the change are still not much understood. There also appears to be regional differences in design (Iron Age panel 4.2, 4.5; McLaren 2021 forthcoming). The majority of rotary querns at Culduthel were bun-shaped, which are generally more common to the south and east (McLaren 2021 forthcoming). At Clachtoll broch a knocking stone full of grain shows that these were also used (G. Cavers pers comm). A number of querns are known from well-dated Highland sites, and would repay more detailed investigation.

A few sites have evidence of grain drying and storage. At Broadford Medical Centre on Skye, a grain drying kiln with stone bowl had been re-cut several times, with use somewhere between c. 350 and 50 BC. There were also contemporary grain storage pits (MHG55638; Birch 2012; Birch forthcoming). A kiln from Rhicullen, Easter Ross was circular, stone-lined, and had a flat stone base and small flue; nearby were postholes which might be related or belong to a postulated roundhouse. The fill in the kiln and nearby postholes dated to the last centuries BC (MHG49778; Farrell 2005). Pits containing grain from several sites including Cyderhall, Sutherland (MHG11834) and Torvean, Inverness (pers comm M Peteranna) have been interpreted as designed to store grain.

Souterrains are often cited as built for food storage, as some preserve evidence of grains, but they are also interpreted as ritual structures. They are discussed below 7.6.

A closer inspection of cereal pollen may provide evidence of movement of food goods. At Culduthel, for example, there is very little chaff (pers comm Scott Timpany), suggesting that the inhabitants were importing much of their grain, though of course it is not possible to determine how far away it was grown and transported. Despite the fact that domestic cultivation finds were rarer at Culduthel, iron reaping hooks were found (Hunter 2021 forthcoming).

Animal Husbandry

National ScARF noted that animal bones on Iron Age sites are generally consistent across Scotland, with cattle and sheep dominating, and pigs with a minor role. Goat is difficult to distinguish from sheep, and may be under-represented. Horses were present, but whether as food is unclear. A few sites show domestic fowl (Iron Age panel 4.2).

As noted in Chapter 3, the acid soils of the Highlands have resulted in less bone preservation, hindering analysis of general trends in animal husbandry over the Highlands. Where preservation allows discussion, for example, Comar Wood dun (MHG55867; Peteranna and Birch 2017a), some Caithness coastal sites (Robertson 2012), Kintradwell Broch, Sutherland (MHG9777) and Applecross Broch in Wester Ross (MHG7680), the situation in general conforms to the Scottish picture. For example, at Kintradwell there were teeth and/or bones from horse, ox, pig and goat/sheep, as well as dogs (Joass 1862-1864).

The major exception is at High Pasture Cave on Skye (MHG32043; Case Study X) which shows a very different picture, and one which must relate to the nature of the site. Over 60,000 individual animal bones were identified and analysed including cattle, sheep/goat, pig, deer, dog and horse, all showing young elements with the exception of horse, as well as foetal elements. An unusual assemblage of over 23 juvenile pigs with unusual butchery and processing, was deposited in the stairway during closure of the stairwell c. 185-100 cal BC. This may indicate the remains of a large feast. The detailed analysis shows different episodes, choice and treatment of animals, butchery practices, and depositional preferences (Birch et al forthcoming).

There is little evidence of foddering or stalling animals, although environmental work on parasites may in the future provide an indicator. Sites with good animal preservation with remains of older animals, such as at Thrumster Broch, Caithness where all animals were older than one year, show that some overwintering must have occurred, although it need not have been at the site where the bones were found (Robertson 2011). Ring-ditches in roundhouses may in some cases be caused by overwintering animals, with scoops caused by clearing out the interiors (Iron Age panel 4.2, 5.4).

Hunting/Gathering

While domestic cultivation and animals appear to be the main sources of evidence of food, hunting, gathering, fishing and fowling are evidenced on a number of sites in Scotland (Iron Age panel 4.2). Analysis of animal bone on some Caithness sites shows that animal husbandry was supplemented with wild species such as red deer, whale, seal and otter (Robertson 2012). Preservation was good at Kintradwell Broch, excavated in the late 1800s, with evidence of fox, deer and birds (MHG9777; Joass 1862-1864). Evidence at Bellfield, North Kessock and Culduthel, Inverness showed foraging for wild foods including nuts (Murray 2011, 25-26; Timpany et al 2021 forthcoming). At Dun Morangie, Tarlogie (MHG8706) an orca or killer whale tooth was found from the construction raft of rubble used to level the site before the house was built in the 4th century BC, suggesting exploitation of beached whales (Hatherley 2015b, 5.6). This site also had good bone preservation, which will be outlined in the final report.

Fishing / Shellfish Gathering

Poor survival of fish bones hinders detailed analysis but there are some sites with good preservation, such as Kintradwell Broch (MHG9777), Applecross Broch (MHG7680) and some of the caves and rock shelters, and this evidence should be pulled together. The ash-filled tank from Crosskirk Broch in Caithness was interpreted as possibly designed for preserving seafood, based on ethnographic parallels (Dickson and Dickson 2000, 108). Even inland sites have some evidence, including High Pasture Cave, but as noted above, this cannot be taken as necessarily normal given the special nature of the site.

Shellfish was plentiful at some sites. For example, at Applecross Broch examples of periwinkle, limpet/mussel, oyster, scallop and razor shells were found (MHG7680; Wessex Archaeology 2006). While some could have been used as bait, others could well have formed part of the diet. This is a topic of interest given the general Bronze Age avoidance of marine protein (see Chapter 6.4) identified from isotope analysis. At Caird’s Cave in Easter Ross the shallow in situ deposits dating between 4th/3rd century BC and 2nd/3rd century AD contained a range of shellfish, including periwinkles and to a lesser extent limpets and crabs, interpreted here as for human consumption, with evidence of fish and land mammals much less prevalent and therefore less important to local diet (Anderson-Whymark 2011, 71).

Bone fish gorges have been identified from some sites, including Dun Ardtreck, Skye (MHG5019; MacKie 2000), Keiss Harbour (MHG1659) and Crosskirk brochs, Caithness (MHG13496; Fairhurst 1984). Given the general poor preservation of bone in the Highlands, these are likely to have been more common.

Overall diet

The only isotope analysis undertaken on Iron Age bodies has been on human remains from High Pasture Cave (pers comm Steven Birch) and Applecross (pers comm Ian Armit), with published results awaited from both. A number of human remains of children and adults were recovered from High Pasture Cave, most in the midden deposits in the cave, but also an adult woman buried with two infants at the top of the stairway, as a final closing act c. AD 25-90 (see section 4). A young adult from the 4th to 3rd centuries BC showed a high level of marine protein, an unusual find for the period. The adult female buried at the top of the stairway in contrast shows a more traditional diet of animal protein, though interestingly different from the herbivores from the site (Birch et al forthcoming).

While not plentiful, there are other Iron Age human remains which could be investigated to determine diet and mobility (see 7.6). In particular, it would be useful to determine if Iron Age peoples continued to have an avoidance of marine protein in the Highlands, though limited evidence suggests shellfish and fish may have been important in some areas, for example at caves in Easter Ross (Anderson-Whymark 2011, 71). Further work is needed, combined with environmental evidence.

Material Culture

Despite the great increase in settlement information compared to earlier periods, we have in many ways fewer diagnostic artefacts which when found without context can be firmly placed in the Iron Age. On the plus side, the growing number and range of non-diagnostic objects found in dated contexts provide more opportunities for comparing with stray finds, and contributing to the picture of daily life. However, undoubtedly more work needs to be done on artefacts for the period, including revisiting assemblages in museums (Iron Age panel 9.5).

Pottery

The pottery from dated Iron Age contexts is building up a picture of Iron Age ceramics. The Iron Age pottery from northern mainland and the Small Isles was considered by Euan MacKie (eg 2002, 2007) and the subject of an unpublished Ph.D thesis by Orlene McIlfatrick (2013). In her useful discussion of pottery from the Dornoch Quarry site she noted that Iron Age pottery in northern mainland Scotland tended to be long-lived vessel forms, with little decoration and mainly grit-tempered fabrics (McIlfatrick 2019).

Given that many of the Iron Age sites are multi-period (see 7.3), good dating is essential. Discussions in forthcoming excavation reports will provide a good start. Clachtoll Broch with its relatively narrow dating and good preservation in particular should also provide useful evidence of west coast pottery traditions. There is also a large body of material in museums which can be integrated into this picture. An overview of Iron Age ceramics from Highland sites is therefore feasible and desirable, and would allow insights into any geographic differences.

Glass

Guido’s study (1978) remains the main source, but her dating needs revision in light of other finds, notably Culduthel (Iron Age panel 4.5). Manufacturing was taking place at Culduthel (Hatherley and Murray 2021 forthcoming) and Culbin Sands on the border of Highland and Moray, two of only a handful of sites known from Iron Age Britain (Guido 1978, 78; Hunter 2021 forthcoming). Usefully, many of the Culduthel beads are from dated contexts, providing help with dating. For example, Guido’s Class 8 beads found at Culduthel dated to the 2nd century BC to 2nd century AD, a broader range than was available to Guido. Hunter’s analysis of the Culduthel material provides a useful summary of dating and types (Hatherley and Murray 2021 forthcoming; Hunter 2021 forthcoming). The work of Elizabeth Foulds (2017) included the southeast edge of the Highlands, and offers a modern reappraisal of Iron Age glass beads. Diagnostic Iron Age bead types (Guido classes 8, 13 and 14) were being made on the Moray Firth (see 7.5) but their distribution spans large areas of the Highlands, giving insights into patterns of contact.

Metal

Non-ferrous metalwork

Large objects with a preference for three dimensional decoration, most of them cast copper alloy, have come to be known as ‘massive metalwork’ and are diagnostic of the late and Roman Iron Age. Most are from the Forth to the Moray Firth, and this is probably where they were made, but some reached the rest of the Highlands (see Table X). The objects are generally ornaments, including heavy armlets, bracelets and finger rings, and often enamelled. Fraser Hunter has discussed the group, including some Highland objects. Where dating evidence exists, most appear to be later 1st to 2nd centuries AD (Hunter 2014b; 2019, 87-113). A strap junction from Culduthel was made in a different style, showing that there was more than massive metalwork in the area (Hunter 2019, 112-3; 2021 forthcoming). Some of the objects being made at Culduthel are unclear but include objects and sheet working, suggesting fine decorative objects (Hunter 2021 forthcoming; Hatherley and Murray 2021 forthcoming).

Site

Area

Object

Comments

Source

Kettleburn

C

Tweezers

Broch excavated in 1850s. Unique in Scotland; perhaps in massive tradition

MHG2134; Mackie 2007; Hunter 2014b; 2019, 98-99

Achavrail, Rogart

S

Massive armlet

‘Folded’ type;

MHG12745; MacGregor 1976 no. 234; Hunter 2019, 91-93, 102

Lairg

S

Finger-ring

Triskelar bezel decoration, with settings for enamel

MHG9472; Hunter 2019, 96

Muir of Ord

ER

Finger-ring

MHG60602; Hunter 2019, 96

Culbokie

ER

Strap mount

With bosses and enamel

TT 226/09 report attached to MHG60614

Culduthel

I

Strap junction

Cruciform shape with enamelling; 2nd c AD date; Unfinished, made on site.

Hunter 2014b, 333; Hunter 2021 forthcoming

Culduthel

I

Sword hilt

Decorated. Rare find in north

Hunter 2021 forthcoming

Castle Stuart

I

Finger-ring

With enamel inlays. Evidence of heavy wear. Inlays likely