satyagraha prisoners on natal’s coal mines kalpana hiralal ... · ramachandra guha, gandhi before...

Historia,64,2,November2019,pp21‐46

* KalpanaHiralal is a professor of History at the University of KwaZulu‐Natal, SouthAfrica.HerresearchinterestsaretheSouthAsiandiasporaandgenderandresistancein SouthAfrica.Hermost recent co‐editedpublication iswithZ. Jinnah,GenderandMobilityinAfrica,Borders,BodiesandBoundaries(PalgraveMacmillan,Cham,2018).

Howtocitethisarticle:K.Hiralal,“SatyagrahaprisonersonNatal’scoalmines”,Historia,64,2,November2019,pp21‐46.http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2309‐8392/2019/v64n2a2Copyright:©TheAuthor(s).PublishedunderaCreativeCommonsAttributionLicence.

SatyagrahaprisonersonNatal’scoalmines

KalpanaHiralal*Abstract

In 1913 under the leadership of Gandhi, the first “mass” political resistance waslaunchedinSouthAfrica.ThekeysitesofresistancewereinNatalandtheTransvaal.This resistance was popularly known as the Satyagraha campaign or the IndianStrike.Wellover20000men,womenandchildrenengagedinprotestactionagainstdiscriminatorylegislationthatrestrictedtheireconomic,socialandpoliticalmobility.The historiography of the 1913 Satyagraha Campaign is substantial, but there aregapsofcoverageontheincarcerationandtreatmentofprisoners.Thecoalminesinthe Natal Midlands became another site of resistance in the aftermath of thecampaign. This article documents prisoner/captor relations in the aftermath of thecampaignonthecoalmines.Indianprisonersweresubjectedtoflogging,poorrationsandattimes,ringleaderswereassaultedseverely.Theselesserknownnarrativesaddto the current historiographyby highlightingmine authorities’ attitudes andpolicytowardsprisoners in the context of control, repression and coercion aswell as thenatureoftheprisonerandcaptorrelationshipintheSatyagrahacampaignof1913.

Keywords:Indians;satyagraha;coalmining;resistance,Natal.

Opsomming

Dieeerstemassa‐politieseversetinSuid‐Afrikais in1913onderGandhiseleidingvanstapel gestuur.Die belangrikste liggingsvanhierdie versetwas inNatal enTransvaal.Hierdie verset staan algemeen bekend as die satyagraha‐veldtog oftewel die “IndieseStaking”.Mééras20000mans,vroueenkinderswasbetrokkebydieprotesaksieteendiskriminerendewetgewingwathulekonomiese,sosialeenpolitiesemobiliteitbeperkhet.Diehistorieseliteratuuroordiesatyagraha‐veldtogvan1913isomvangryk:daarisegtergapingsindiedekkingvangevangenskapendiebehandelingvangevangenes.DiesteenkoolmyneopdieNatalseMiddellandhetnóg’nruimtevirversetgewordnaafloopvan die veldtog. Hierdie artikel dokumenteer gevangene‐merverhoudings op hierdiesteenkoolmynenaafloopvandiesatyagraha‐veldtog.Indiesegevangeneshetdeurgelooponder geseling, swak rantsoene en,met tye, die swaar aanranding van die belhamels.Hierdie minder‐bekende narratiewe dra by tot die bestaande historiografie deur diemynowerhede sehoudingenbeleid teenoorgevangenesbinne ’nkonteksvanbeheer,onderdrukking en dwang uit te lig; asook die aard van die gevangene‐gevangenemerverhoudinggedurendediesatyagraha‐veldtogvan1913.

Sleutelwoorde:Indiërs;satyagraha;steenkoolmyne;verset;Natal.

Hiralal–SatyagrahaprisonersonNatal’scoalmines

22

IntroductionThe satyagrahamovements undertaken by the Indian community in the Transvaal(1907–1911)andin1913areoneofthedominantnarrativesofresistanceinSouthAfricanhistoriographyinthefirstquarterofthetwentiethcentury.Attheturnofthatcentury,SouthAfricawasapoliticallystratifiedandraciallysegregatedsociety.TheCape and Natal were for the most part English‐speaking settler colonies withresponsiblegovernmentwhile thewhite residentsof theTransvaaland theOrangeFree State (OFS) were primarily Afrikaans speaking and were independent Boerrepublics. However, the Anglo‐Boer War (1899–1902) led to the incorporation ofboththeTransvaalandtheOFSunderBritishrule.1Britishrulewasorganisedonthepremise of racial segregation, with colonialists occupying privileged positions. TheIndian community, who arrived in Natal either as indentured labourers or freeIndians fromthe1860sonwards,were subject tovariousdiscriminatory legislationthatrestrictedtheireconomic,politicalandsocialmobility.

IntheTransvaal,between1907and1911theIndiancommunityembarkedonthefirstsatyagrahacampaign,anon‐violentprotestcampaignagainstdiscriminationand injustice. Its supporters were known as passive resisters or satyagrahis. ThecampaignwasinitiallyinresponsetotheAsiaticLawAmendmentAct,No.2of1907(alsoknownasthe“BlackAct”),whichrequiredthatallAsianmalesberegisteredandfingerprinted and carry a certificate (a pass) at all times. In the same year theTransvaal’s Immigration Restriction Act imposed an education test on all futureimmigrants to the colony and established the Immigration Department to checkagainst illegalAsiaticentries.2Resistance to thesemeasureswasconfinedprimarilyto the Transvaal, with the merchant class taking the lead. The government of theTransvaaland later thegovernmentof theUnionofSouthAfricaresortedtoseverepunishmentstobreakthenon‐violentresistance.3ThecourtssentencedhundredsofIndians to imprisonmentwithhard labour.Menwereobliged toembarkonhungerstrikesbecauseoftheconditionsinprisons.IndianOpinion,alocalIndiannewspaper,askedinits3October1908edition,“ShouldIndiansbestarvedintosubmission?”4

A second non‐violent protest movement was undertaken in 1913. Manyresisters were assaulted and wounded and several were killed by the police oremployers.OnthecoalminesintheNatalMidlandstherewerenumerousreportsbyIndian passive resisters and prisoners of ill‐treatment and physical abuse bymineofficials and policemen. For example, at the Durban Navigation Colliery atDannhauser, an Indian mine labourer, Appana, accused David Jenkins, a miner, of

1. The Anglo‐Boer War (also known as the South African War) was fought between

BritainandtheBoerrepublicsinSouthAfricafrom1899to1902.2. IndianOpinion, 29 August 1908; M. Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa (Navajivan

PublishingHouse,Ahmedabad,1961),pp34–35.3. TheUnionofSouthAfricawasestablishedin1910.4. IndianOpinion,3October1908.


23

“unlawful assault”.5Annamarrai, a “free” ( Indian laboureratBallengeichminealsoaccusedthecompoundmanager,EdwardJamesRoberts,ofslapping“myfacewithhisopenhand”whenherefusedtoworkundergroundalone.6

TheSatyagrahaCampaignof1913wasthefirstmassmobilisationofIndiansinSouth Africa against discriminatory and unjust laws. As yet, in the vast corpus ofliterature on this campaign, the treatment of resisters in the aftermath of thecampaign has not been fully contextualised, analysed or documented. One of theearliest accounts penned on the subject was the book Satyagraha in South Africa,dictatedbyGandhi inan Indianprison from1922 to1924andcompletedwhilehewasrecuperatingfromillnessafterhisrelease.Intheprefacetothebookhewrote,

Ihaveneitherthetimenortheinclinationtowritearegulardetailedhistory.Myonlyobjectinwritingthisbookisthatitmaybehelpfulinourpresentstruggle,andserveasaguidetoanyregularhistorianwhomayariseinthefuture.7

WhilethebookdoesincludediscussiononcertainimportantaspectsofSouthAfricanprisonconditions it is basedmainlyonGandhi’s recollections.Furthermore, itdoesnotcapturedetailedaccountsofhowthesatyagrahisweretreatedbytheiremployersonthecoalmines.8

Scholarshavesincefocusedlargelyonthesocio‐economicbackgroundtothecampaign, the role of Gandhi, the role of the Indianmasses and on the campaign’sglobalimpact.9AstudybySurendraBhanaandNeelaShukla‐Bhattprovidesliteraryand cultural perspectives of this struggle.10 Gendered perspectives have sought to

5. Natal Archives Depot (hereafter NAD), Pietermaritzburg (hereafter PMB), Attorney

General’s Department (hereafter AG), 764/1913, “Alleged Floggings of Indians atBallengeich Colliery Compound (special gaol) and allegation that Magistrate,Newcastle, authorized floggings”, Testimony of Appana, Magistrate’s Court,Newcastle,23December1913.

6. NAD, PMB, AG, 938/1913, Rex vs Edward James Roberts, Magistrate’s Court,Newcastle,15December1913.

7. Gandhi, Satyagraha in SouthAfrica, pp xiv–xv. Because this bookwaswritten frommemoryithassomeerrors.SeealsoE.S.ReddyandK.Hiralal,PioneersofSatyagraha:IndianSouthAfricansDefyRacistLaws,1907‐1914(Navajivan,Ahmedabad,2017).

8. Refer to chaptersVI andXII, “Women in theFrontline” and “PrisonConditions andDeportations”,inReddyandHiralal,PioneersofSatyagraha.

9. S. Bhana and U. Dhupelia, “Passive Resistance among Indian South Africans”UnpublishedpaperatSouthAfricanHistoricalAssociationConference,UniversityofDurban‐Westville, July1981; J.BeallandD.North‐Coombes, “The1913Natal IndianStrike:TheSocialandEconomicBackgroundtoPassiveResistance”, JournalofNatalandZuluHistory,6(1983),pp48–81;M.Swan,“The1913NatalIndianStrike”,JournalofSouthernAfricanStudies,10(1984),pp239–58;B.GovindenandK.Hiralal(eds),1913,Satyagraha,PassiveResistanceand itsLegacy (Manohar,Delhi,2015).SeealsoRamachandraGuha,GandhibeforeIndia(Penguin,LondonandNewDelhi,2013).

10. S.BhanaandN.Shukla‐Bhatt,AFirethatBlazedintheOcean:GandhiandthePoemsofSatyagrahainSouthAfrica,1909–1911(Promilla&Co.,NewDelhi,2011).


24

assignwomen’sagencyinthismovement.Ofthese,theprimaryfocushasbeenontheSearle judgement, the collective mobilisation of women on the coal mines andplantations and the implications of women’s participation for traditional genderroles.11 However, an analysis of prison conditions, prison‐captor relations andtreatment of resisters has thus far been a neglected aspect of satyagrahahistoriography. Indeed, the only documented accounts of prison conditions are thepersonal reminisces of well‐known resisters such as Bhawani Dayal and RaojibhaiPatel. They participated in the 1913 struggle and were imprisoned. Even theiraccounts, however, provide only cursory and minimal insight into individualincarceration, describing themeals theyweregiven, their solitary confinement anddailyexperiences.12InPioneersofSatyagraha:IndianSouthAfricansDefyRacistLaws,1907–1914 (2017), E.S. Reddy and the present author have published acomprehensivestudyofthesatyagrahamovementinSouthAfricabetween1907and1913. This book shifts the focus fromGandhi and examines themotivations of theresisters.However,whileithasachapteronprisonconditions,itdoesnotexploreindetailhowresistersweretreatedonthecoalminesintheaftermathofthesatyagrahastruggle.13

This article adds to the above literature in that it highlights lesser‐knownaspectsofthe1913Satyagrahacampaign,andfocusesinparticularonitsaftermathand on the relations between prisoner and captor. Using archival sources such asmedical reports, affidavits, testimonials, official correspondence as well ascontemporary newspapers, it provides rich insights into employer attitudes,conditions of capture, prison treatment and resistance.14 It reveals that the overalltrendofmineauthoritieswasoneofincreasedcontrolandcoercionoversatyagraha

11. R.Mongia,“GenderandtheHistoriographyofGandhianSatyagrahainSouthAfrica”,

GenderandHistory, 18 (2006),pp130–149. SeealsoK.Hiralal, “RethinkingGenderand Agency in the Satyagraha Movement of 1913”, Journal of Social Sciences, 25(2010),pp71–80;andK.Hiralal,“OurPluckySisterswhohaveDaredtoFight:IndianWomenandtheSatyagrahaMovementinSouthAfrica”,TheOrientalAnthropologist,9,1(2009),pp1–22.

12. R.M. Patel,TheMakingof theMahatma, Adaptation into English by A. Shamsi (R.R.Patel,Ahmedabad,1990);andB.Dayal,S.Bhawani,D.Sanyasi,P.KiAtmakatha,TheAutobiographyofaSettler, Translated fromHindi (RajhansPublications,NewDelhi,1947).

13. ReddyandHiralal,PioneersofSatyagraha,pp161–173.14. Thisarticleisbasedonarchivalandnewspapersources,notablyfromIndianOpinion,

which documents the struggle, names of resisters, employer attitudes, prisonsentencesand ill‐treatment.Archivalsourceswere found intheBritishLibrary(BL)the Natal Archives (NAD) in Pietermaritzburg and Talana Museum in Dundee. Forexample, sources at the BL, provided data on resisters on mines and coastalplantations inNatal; testimonials of satyagraha prisoners and details of the Britishgovernment’sresponsetoallegationsoffloggings.TheAttorneyGeneralOffice(AGO)papersattheNAD,havereportsbymedicalpractitioners,affidavitsbymineofficialson the incarceration of prisoners on Ballengeich mines. Monthly reports by theCommissionerofMines, accessed from theTalanaMuseum,provide informationonmineofficials’attitudesandpolicytowardsthesatyagrahastruggle.


25

prisoners.ThesiteofanalysisisthecoalminesoftheNatalMidlands,whichwasoneofthekeyareasofmobilisationandresistanceinthe1913Satyagrahacampaign.

Eventsleadingtothe1913SatyagrahaCampaignThe arrival of indentured and “Free” or “passenger” Indians from 1860 onwards,changed the economic, political and social landscape of South Africa.15 Indenturedimmigrants laboured along the coastal regions of Natal in the tea and sugarplantations,on therailwaysandwereemployedasdomestic servants.As labourerstheywere subject inmany instances, to poor living andworking conditions. Therewere numerous complaints of physical and sexual assaults, of verbal abuse,exploitation,andofpoorrationsandhousing.However,bythelate1890sitwastheFreeIndians–ex‐indenturedand“passenger”Indians–whobecametargetsofracialdiscrimination.

Aftertheircontractshadexpiredmanyindenturedmenandwomenrefusedtore‐indenture andopted to engage in livelihoods suchashawking, fishingand retailtrade. Many “passenger” Indians, too, eked out a livelihood as small‐scale traders,hawkers and engaged in other menial work. But the colonial trader found itincreasingly difficult to compete with the thrifty mode of living and competitivepricesoftheFreeIndianpettytrader.Theywereperceivedasa“menace”tocolonialtradeand livelihood.Both thecolonial–and laterUnion–governments, seeking toappease the white electorate instituted discriminatory legislation that curbed thepolitical, economic and social mobility of Free Indians. For example, in 1896 theintroduction of the £3 annual tax stipulated that time‐expired indenturedworkerscouldonlyremaininthecolonyiftheyre‐indenturedorpaidthestipulatedtax.16Thiswas the first serious attempt by the Natal colonial government to prevent thepermanentsettlementofIndiansinNatal.

The laws governing indentured labourdidnot apply to “passenger” Indians,therefore there was no legal restrictions to their entry to Natal and the Cape.Subsequently, to discourage immigration and trade in Natal, the ImmigrationRestrictionAct(No.1of1897)andtheGeneralDealersLicensingAct(No.18of1897)were enacted. The immigration law sanctioned the entry of new immigrants onlyaftertheyhadpassedacompulsoryeducationtest,whilethelegislationongrantingatradinglicencewasdesignedtorestrictIndiansfromembarkingontradingactivity.Itempowered towncouncils and townboards tobe the final arbiteron issuing tradelicenses.Therewasnorecoursetoappealifsuchlicensesweredeclined.17

15. “Passenger” Indians were those immigrants who arrived unencumbered by labour

obligationsbutweresubjecttonormalimmigrationlaws.16. ReddyandHiralal,PioneersofSatyagraha,pp3–17.17. British Library (hereafterBL), London, Public& JudicialCollection, IORL/PJ/8/293,

"Memorandumon thePositionof Indians in theUnionofSouthAfricasubmitted totheUnitedNations1946,SegregationofIndians,SouthAfrica,Emigration",pp1–3.


26

However,by1913, twosignificant issuesservedasacatalyst tomobilise theIndiancommunityatanationallevel,transcendingreligion,class,caste,languageandethnic differences. The first was a judgement given in the Cape Supreme Court inMarch1913byJusticeMalcolmSearleinthecaseofEsopvtheMinisteroftheInterior.In effect, the judgement declared that all non‐Christian Indian marriages, unlesslegalised before a civil marriage officer or the “protector” of Indian immigrants,contractedwithinoroutsideSouthAfrica,irrespectiveoftheirreligiouscustom,wereinvalid. Thus the judgement did not affect indentured or ex‐indentured women astheirmarriageswere registeredwith the protector of Indian immigrants and localmagistrates.18 But the judgement had serious implications for “passenger” Indianwomen, whose marriages were solemnised by priests in India, not recognised bySouthAfricanlaw.TheywereoftheopinionthattheSearlejudgementreducedtheir“statusfromthatofbeinghonouredandhonourablewivesoftheirhusbandstooneofconcubinage”.19Indianwomenwereoutragedatthejudgement,foritwasaninsulttotheirwomanhoodandhadseriousimplicationsforfamilymigrationandinheritanceandraisedquestionsregardingthelegitimacyoftheirchildren.20

The second issuewas the failureof theUniongovernment to remove the£3

tax.Collectively, these issuesrallied the Indiancommunity.Giventhatmost Indianswere living in the Transvaal and Natal, it was decided to defy the inter‐provincialimmigration laws which required permits. Hence, crossing Volksrust, the bordertown between Natal and the Transvaal, became the primary target of satyagraharesistance.On6November1913therewere2037men,127womenand57childrenwhoparticipated inthe“GreatMarch”crossingtheVolksrustborderandseekingtoenter the Transvaal without a permit. Hundreds of satyagrahis were arrested andimprisoned.

SatyagrahaprisonersThesatyagrahacampaignof1913,unlikethefirstof1907,wasfarmorewidespread,takingplaceinNatal,theTransvaal,andeventheCapeProvince.Itdrewsupportfromvarious groups: traders,merchants, hawkers, teachers, lawyers, labourers from themines and others from the coastal districts ofNatal. Significantly, it includedmanywomenandchildren.Mostresisterswerefinedorgiventheoptionofthreemonths’imprisonment. The vast majority opted for imprisonment. Many served theirsentencesinDurbanandPietermaritzburgprisons.Therewerenumerouscomplaintsbyresistersofverbalandphysicalabuseandoftheinhumanemannerinwhichtheywere treated in prison. For example, some prisoners took offence to being called“coolies”.21Prisonfoodwasoftendescribedasinedible,“half‐cooked”,andtherewere

18. IndianOpinion,5April1913.19. IndianOpinion,5April1913;and12April1913.20. IndianOpinion,5April1913.21. IndianOpinion,15October1913;ReddyandHiralal,PioneersofSatyagraha,p169.


27

complaints that rice was poorly prepared and sometimes the rice tins contained“weevils”.22

These complaints gave rise to resistance in the prisons. Hunger strikes by

resisters became a common act of defiance. Prisons became another site of non‐violent resistance in the1913Satyagrahacampaign. In thePietermaritzburgprison60resisterswentonahungerstrike.AmongstthemwereParseeRustomjee,ManilalGandhi and Ramlal Gandhi. Rustomjee was prevented from wearing his “sacredthread”,whichhefoundunacceptableandanaffronttohisreligion.23Anotherpassiveresister,avegetarian,was“forciblyfed”withmilkmixedwitheggs.24

Appendix 1 below, “Statements made by Indian Passive Resisters (from

Pietermaritzburg) at the Durban prison on 2 December 1913 before the ChiefMagistrate”, highlights clearly the reasons for embarking on a hunger strike. Forexample,Rowashanker(astudentfromthePhoenixsettlement),Bhaga(astudentinJohannesburg) andNaganbhai, refused to eat because their “littlewants”were notsupplied.Thecommon itemsrequestedbyall threeresisterswereboots, socksandsandals.Otheritemswere,“acleancoat”,salttocleantheirteeth,abook,andabeltforthewaist.Rowashanker,BhagaandNaganbhaiwereadamantthattheywouldnotconsume foodunless their “littlewants”weremet.25 Clearly, the statements by thehunger strikers reveal that they were deeply committed to their cause and werepreparedtosufferfortheiractions.Engaginginahungerstrikewastheonlymeansofprotestinprison.Whethertherequestsoftheresistersweremetisunknown,asnofollow‐up data is available on how the prison authorities and state responded.However,thetreatmentofsatyagrahaprisonersandthestancetakenbythehunger‐strikers,gainedmediaattentionandenhancedthecommitmentofsupporters.

ResistanceonthecoalminesTheIndianlabourersonthecoalminesintheNatalMidlandsplayedapivotalroleinthe1913satyagrahastruggle.Thecoalmineswereamajoremployerof indenturedand free Indian labour. In 1897, there were 342 indentured men who hadvolunteered to work on the mines, by 1906 there were more than 1 000 menemployed there. By1909 thenumberhad increased to over3200.26ByDecember

22. Indian Opinion, 10 December 1913; Reddy and Hiralal, Pioneers of Satyagraha, pp

170–171.23. TheSacredParsithread.24. ReddyandHiralal,PioneersofSatyagraha,p171.25. IndianOpinion,10December1913;BL,BP2/2(20),Despatcheson Indians inSouth

Africa, "Statementsmadeby IndianStrikers (fromPietermaritzburg) at theDurbanGaol, 2 December 1913, before the Chief Magistrate, Durban, with regard to theirtreatmentattheGaol".

26. A.J. Arkin, “TheContributionof the Indians to theEconomicDevelopment of SouthAfrica,1860–1970:AnHistoricalIncomeApproach”,PhDthesis,UniversityofDurbanWestville,1981,p67.


28

1913atotalof3705Indianswereemployedon12collieries.Asmanyas2854oftheIndianswereindenturedworkerswhile851were“free”Indians.27

The coal mines became a key site for satyagraha resistance. Most of theIndianswereindenturedandwerenotyetliableforthepaymentofthe£3tax.Theyhadnoseriousgrievancesagainsttheminemanagementbutwereinsolidaritywiththe free Indianswhowere liable for the£3 tax,and they “wish[ed]have the£3 taxrepealed”.28 The strike on themines commenced during the latter part of October1913 when Gandhi proceeded to Newcastle to mobilise support amongst mineworkers. On 23October 1913, the 300miners at St George’s Colliery, 850 atNatalNavigation, 500 at Glencoe, 100 at Hatting Spruit and 300 at New Shaft, staged astrike. Railwayworkers, at Glencoe and at Hatting Spruit, were also on strike.TheDundee andDistrict Courier reported on 23 October: “The Collieries at Newcastle,Dannhauser, Ingagane and Hatting Spruit as well as the railways to that point areaffected and nearly the whole of the Indians’ employed are out. There is nodisorder…”29

Mine officials described the Satyagraha campaign of 1913 as the “IndianStrike” and “Indian coolie `Passive Resistance’ strike”.30 The Indianmine labourersdislikedthispejorativedescriptionandbeinglabelledas“strikers”;theyviewedtheirshowofresistanceas“a[mere]demonstration”.31

Indianminelabourersformedpartofthe“GreatMarch”whentheycrossedtheTransvaal border inNovember 1913.Manywere arrested at Balfour, south‐east ofJohannesburg,andreturnedbyrailtothecoalmines.Theyweregivenaday’srespite,and several decided to return to work, while others who refused to do so, werearrestedandsentencedtoshortperiodsofimprisonment.

One of the key challenges that bothmine and prison authorities facedwithreturning strikers was with regard to their incarceration. The main problem waswhere tohouse theprisoners.Neither thegovernmentnor theminemanagershadexperienced a situation on this scale before. On 12 November, Rifleman TaylorarrivedinNewcastlewith145Indiansprisonerswhoweresentencedasfollows:31toa£5 fineor threemonths’ imprisonment;109to£5or6months’ imprisonment;

27. GandhiLuthuliDocumentationCentre(hereafterGLDC),UniversityofKwaZulu‐Natal

(hereafter UKZN), Bhana Collection (hereafter BC), 1107/454, "Report of theProtectorofIndianImmigrantsfortheYearended31stDecember1913".

28. NAD,PMB,AG764/13,"Re:AllegedFloggingofIndiansattheBallengeichCollieryon11th November 1913", Attorney General to Secretary for Justice, Pretoria, 22December1913.

29. IndianOpinion,29October1913.30. Talana Museum, Dundee (hereafter TM), Commissioner of Mines (hereafter CM)

123/1913,MonthlyReportoftheDeputyCommissionerofMines,ProvinceofNatal,fortheMonthofOctober1913.

31. TM,CM123/1913,MonthlyReportoftheDeputyCommissionerofMines,ProvinceofNatalfortheMonthofOctober1913.


29

fouryoungmenreceivedlasheswithasjambok,andonewassentencedtoa£5fine,whichheopted topay.On13November, 32 Indianprisonerswereescorted to theNewcastlemagistrate’soffice.Theirsentenceswere:31indenturedIndiansreceived7dayson themines andonewas sentenced to threemonths’ imprisonmentor thepaymentofafineof£5.InNewcastle,on19November,atotalof299resistersweresentenced,ofwhom208were freeand91 indentured(seeTable1below).Overall,the sentences imposed varied from fines between £1 to £10 with the option ofimprisonment.

However,therewereinadequateprisonfacilitiesavailable.AsTable1shows,themajorityoftheresistersoptedforimprisonmentratherthantopaythefines.Bychoosing imprisonment the number of arrested strikers caused congestion in theexistingprisons,creatingadilemmaforprisonauthoritiesandmineofficialsonhowand where to incarcerate the resisters. The local prisons in Newcastle andsurrounding areas such as Dundeewere already filled to capacity. The only viablesolution available to the authoritieswas to convertmine compounds to prisons tohousethestrikers.32ThegovernmentandmineofficialsthereforeoptedforsentencestobeservedonthemineswheretheIndianworkerswereemployed.Subsequently,inboth Dundee and Newcastle, compounds in certain collieries were designated andturned into out‐station prisons. In Dundee the following collieries served asoutstationprisons:

BurnsideCollieries,No.1shaftBurnsideCollieries,Nos.2shaftSouthAfricanCollieriesWallsendMalangeniCollieriesNatalNavigationCollieries,No.1shaftNatalNavigationCollieries,No.2shaftNatalNavigationCollieries,No.3shaftGlencoeCollieriesSt.George’sCollieriesHattingSpruitCollieries.[InNewcastle], thewesternsideof thecompoundatBallengeichCollierieswasusedasanoutstationtotheNewcastleGaol.33

AsTable3shows,Ballengeichhad the largestnumberof resistersconfined to

mine compounds – a total of 172 by 19November 1913. Itwas at the Ballengeichmines thatrumours firstsurfacedof floggingsbymineofficials tocompelreturningresisters towork. Therewere protests from the Indian community and the Indiangovernment also expressed concern. Dossen Lazarus, chairman of the PassiveResistance Committee at Newcastle submitted affidavits by Indians miners toSergeantE.H.PurdonoftheSouthAfricanMountedRiflemen(SAMR).LordGladstone,

32. NAD, PMB, AG 4/13, Attorney General to Secretary for Justice, Pretoria, 22nd

December1913.33. BL,BP2/2(20),DespatchesonIndiansinSouthAfrica,TelegramfromLordGladstone

toGeneralBotha,25November1913.


30

the governor‐general sent a telegram to the primeminister of the Union of SouthAfricaon25November1913,seekingurgentclarificationonthe“Indiancomplaints”:

I earnestly hope that General Smuts will himself make searching enquiry atprison out‐stations; have Indian complaints brought before him; as far aspossibleaffordpublicdemonstrationoffalsityofstatements;andtakenecessaryaction if illegal violence on part of gaolers andwarders has in fact occurred. Ineed scarcely point out to you that it is of the first importance to IndianGovernmentthatofficialdenialsshouldbefollowedbyresponsiblestatementofMinisterafterinquiryonthespot,andthatIamonlyaskingforwhatSouthAfricaitselfhasrighttoexpect.34

Giventheseriousnessofthematter,theAttorneyGeneralinNatalwrotetoPurdontoinvestigate.HeinstructedthatIndianstrikersbeinterviewedandrequiredthatalltheaffidavits to be taken separately and on the same day so “that none of them cancomparenotesaftersigningtheiraffidavits,andletthemtelltheirownstories.”35Inaddition, the attorney general and the director of Prisons, C.P. Batho, called for areportfromtheinspectorofPrisons,G.Mardall.36

BelowisanaccountofthetreatmentofIndianstrikersatBallengeichCollierybased on these affidavits, and on official correspondence and newspaper accounts.Theaffidavitshighlightseveralissues:prisonerill‐treatment;allegationsoffloggings;coercionandcontrolbyauthorities;andtheminesassitesofpoliticalresistance.PrisonerresistanceatBallengeichCollieryinNovember1913At Ballengeich Colliery, at Ingagane, Newcastle, there were 330 Indians and 400Africans working on themines in November 1913. Over half of the Indianminersparticipated in the satyagraha campaign, and 190were arrested at Balfour, in theTransvaal.On10November, thecompoundmanagerforBallengeichMines,EdwardJamesRoberts,andtheminemanager,EdwardHeadleyHutt,wenttoHattingSpruittorein inthestrikingminers.On11NovemberHuttandRobertsreturnedwiththeresistersescortedbytwowhiteandtwoAfricanconstables.

Back at the mine, the authorities were keen to get striking Indians back towork.TheIndiansweretakentotheminecompoundwheretheywereaddressedbyHutt, Roberts and the Sirdar (headman). Hutt advised them to return to work, 34. BL,BP2/2(20),DespatchesonIndiansinSouthAfrica,TelegramfromLordGladstone

toGeneralBotha,25November1913.35. NAD,PMB,AG.764/13,AttorneyGeneraltoSergtPurdon,SAMR,"AllegedFloggings

of Indians at Ballengeich Colliery Compound (special gaol) and Allegation thatMagistrate,Newcastle,AuthorizedFloggings",28November1913.

36. NAD, PMB, AG 764/13, Attorney General to Public Prosecutor, Newcastle, 22December1913;BL,BP2/2(20),“DespatchesonIndiansinSA”,Governor‐GeneraltoSecretary of State, 6 January 1914. A full investigation was halted and the AGOdeferredthematteruntilthecommissionofinquirywassetupanditsfindingsweremadeknown.


31

warning them that failure to do so would result in no rations being issued andimprisonmentonthemines.Butmostremaineddefiantandonlyabout“halfadozensteppedout”toresumework.37ThedefiantIndianswereaskedtositasideandwereguardedbyastrongpolicecontingent.

Being incarcerated in make‐shift prison compounds aggrieved the resisters.Furthermore,theywereinstructedtoconstructaprisonfence.Polesandwireswerebrought to the compound to facilitate the building of the compound prison andaccordingtooneofthestrikers,SyedBadsha,theywereinformedthattheywouldbe“fencedinandbetakentoworkinthemorningandlockedinsideintheevening”justas the “Bambatanatives” [hadbeen].38The resistersobjected to compoundprisonsand determined instead tomarch toNewcastle, demanding to be incarcerated in a“governmentgoal”.39AccordingtoTaylor,thestrikingIndiansbecamevery“excited”andunhappy.Theywerenotchallengingimprisonmentitself,butthelocationoftheirimprisonment. Theywanted to be incarcerated inNewcastle notwithinmake‐shiftprisoncompounds.

TheIndianstrikershadthesupportoftheirfellowworkersandtheirfamilies,in particular that of the wives of Indian labourers. These women challenged thestrikerstobedefiant,raisingquestionsabouttheirmasculinityiftheyacceptedpoortreatmentwith equanimity. According to Puckrie Pillay, a time‐keeper at themine,twoIndianwomen“startedtoabusethemensayingtheywerenotmenand[asking]whydidtheynotmarchontoNewcastle”.40Accordingtothemedicalpractitioner,J.A.Nolan of Newcastle, “one woman was evidently urging the Indians on”.41 IndianstrikerssubsequentlymarchedtowardstheNewcastleprison.

On theirway toNewcastle, theymetwith resistance from themine officialsand government police.Manywould complain that themanager of the Ballengeichmine took part in flogging the retreating Indians.42 From testimonies, it becomesevidentthatguns,rifles,sticksandsjambokswerethemaintoolsintheviolencethattookplaceatthecolliery.However,affidavitsbymineofficials,compoundandmine

37. NAD, PMB, AG 764/1913, "Alleged Floggings of Indians at Ballengeich Colliery

Compound (special gaol), and allegation thatMagistrate, Newcastle, authorised thefloggings",Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,12December1913.

38. TM, NatalMineManagers’ Association,Minutes ofMeeting, 8 November 1913. Thereferencewas to the “Bambatharebellion”of1906when theZulupeopleprotestedagainstanewtax.Therebellionwassuppressedbrutallybytheauthorities.

39. NAD, PMB, AG 764/1913, "Alleged Floggings of Indians at Ballengeich Colliery andallegation thatMagistrateAuthorizedFloggings",TestimonialofRajiah,Courtof theMagistrate,DivisionofNewcastle,23December1913.

40. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,TestimonialofPuckriePillay,Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,12December1913.

41. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich",TestimonialofJANolan,MD,Magistrate’sOffice,15December1913.

42. Indian Opinion, 26 November 1913; NAB PMB, A.G. 764/13, Attorney General toSecretary for Justice, Pretoria; “Alleged Flogging of Indians at the Ballengeich”, 11November1913and22December1913.


32

managers,SAMRpolicemenandmineengineersclaimthat theywereacting inself‐defence and that sticks and sjamboks were necessary to disarm a “threatening”,“riotous” and armed mob. According to the testimony of Chief Nkabana of theNewcastledivision,whowasknownas"DokotelaNdaba"(aliasSibiya),“Wetriedtostopthem,andtoldthemtowait…buttheywouldnotstop.OneoftheIndianspickedupaboneandthrewitatapolicemannamedMtshaliandhithimonthebackofhisrightfoot”.43Huttalsoclaimedthathehadbeenactinginself‐defence:

TheIndianwhowasleadingthemobstruckmeonthehandwithastick.Ithenretaliatedwhenheseized thesjambok… Iwasdodging thestoneswhichwerebeingpeltedatmeby theothers… I thenusedmysjambok todrive them[theIndians] back into the Compound. The other men and the Native police thenjoinedin.44

Another witness, John Cunningham, a blacksmith employed at Ballengeich CollieryreinforcedHutt’stestimony,“…oneoftheIndiansstruckhim[Hutt]onthehandwitheitherastickorastone”,andthusithadbeennecessarytouse“force”todisarmthestriking Indians.45 According to Roberts, he found “the Indians gesticulating andbrandishing their sticks about 400 yards from the Compound”.46 Chief NkabanaaddedthatafewIndiansrefused“togiveuptheirsticks[and]wegave[them]acutortwountiltheygavethemup”.47Taylorwasadamantthat,“Onlysufficientforcewasused to meet the first rush and only against those who were threatening withsticks”.48TohastentheretreatofthestrikingIndianstothecompound,twowarningshotswerefiredintheair.TheIndianswereoverpoweredandforcedtoretreattothemine compound. Defiant resisters were addressed by the Newcastle magistrate,DouglasG.Gilesthroughaninterpreter.Heexplainedtothemthathehadarrivedoninstructionsfromthegovernmentandbelievedthattheywere“misguided”andhad“broken the law by running away”. He added, “what you have just done was notpassiveresistance”andthathenowhadto“lookuponthem…asrioters”.49

43. NAD, PMB, AG 764/1913, "Alleged Floggings of Indians at Ballengeich Colliery and

Allegation that Magistrate Authorized Floggings", Testimonial of Dokotela Ndaba,KaNkunga,ChiefNkabana,Magistrate’sOffice,12December1913.

44. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,TestimonyofEdwardHeadlyHutt,Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,11December1913.

45. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,TestimonyofJohnCunningham,Magistrate’sCourt,Newcastle,11December1913.

46. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,TestimonyofEdwardJamesRoberts,Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,11December1913.

47. NAD, PMB, AG 764/1913, "Alleged Floggings of Indians at Ballengeich Colliery”,Testimony of Dokotela Ndaba, KaNkunga, Chief Nkabana, Magistrate’s Office, 12December1913.

48. NAD, PMB, AG 764/1913, “Alleged Floggings of Indians at Ballengeich”, A.S. TaylorRfmSAMR1229,toS.S.M.CurtisSAMR,BallengeichColliery,14November1913.

49. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,“AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,SecretaryforJusticetoAttorneyGeneral,Natal,22December1913.


33

Testimonials from striking Indian miners at Ballengeich, however,contradictedtheaffidavitsoftheminemanagementandpolicewhohaddescribedtheIndians as “threatening”, “riotous” and armed. These statements reveal thatmanyminers were subjected to brutal floggings and physical abuse. According to oneIndianstriker, SyedBadsha, themenweredisarmedbeforebeing floggedbypoliceandmineofficials.50MahomedNabbi(Saiboo),afreeIndian,concurred,statinginhisaffidavit,“IdidnotseeanyIndiansusingsticksorstones”.51ThestrikingIndianswereaskedtoremovetheirhats“andtheytookawayall thestickswehadwithus.AfterthistheManager,CompoundManager,andaNativeIndunastartedtostrikethemenwithsjamboks…”.52AccordingtoMannikam,anIndianlabourerandstriker,

TheManager,CompoundManger,CunninghamandSibiyastruckmeanumberofblows.Twoof ourparty fell from theblows, andwehad to turnback,GoudenNairandIsoop[Essop]fell.Thetwowhofellweretakenawayonstretchers.53

Govinden (a free Indian labourer) claimed that he was unarmed when he wasattacked by Cunningham who was on horseback, "[He] struck me on back withsjambok and I ranawayand the engineer cameupandwith thebutt endof a riflestruckmeonmyleftside,Idroppedandbecameunconscious.”54

Duseph, another free Indian labourer, further stated that the compound

manager “struckmewith a sjambok saying that I shouldnot drinkwater, and alsothat themines'butcher struckme in theeyewithhis fistsandanotherblow in thefacewithhisfists...”55Treatmentof“agitators”Mineofficialsalsohadhostile interactionswithstrikerswhoprovided leadership inthesatyagrahacampaignonthemines.Theywereoftendescribedasringleadersor“agitators” responsible forboth intimidationand violence.56Theywereparticularlysoughtoutanddealtwithseparately.Mineofficialsfearedtheirpresencewouldbringthemines to a standstillbyencouragingotherminers to strike.The testimonialsofthese “agitators” and strikers reveal that mine officials were “merciless” in theirtreatmentofthem. 50. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonyof

SyedBadsha,Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,6December1913.51. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonyof

MahomedNabbi(Saiboo),Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,12December1913.52. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonyof

MahomedNabbi(Saiboo),Magistrate’sOffice,12December1913.53. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonyof

Mannikam,Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,6December1913.54. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,“AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonyof

Govinden,Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,12December1913.55. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonyof

Duseph,Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,12December1913.56. IndianOpinion,31October1913.


34

Among the known ringleaders at the Ballengeich mines were, Annamalay, Rajiah,SyedBadsha,Babhoo,MahomedAbdool,Manikum,JaymungalSinghandRajoo.AfreeIndian labourer, Lellie Channie, describes the physical assaults on ringleaders as“merciless”.57Hestates,

TheManagerMrHut[t]andtheCompoundManagerMr[EdwardJames]Robertswent on flogging the supposed leaderswithout aword to them and then theywere passed on to the Nativeswho delivered a further course of flogging andfinally[theywere]lockedintheOffice”.58

AccordingtoAnnamalay,

… he [the compound manager] beat eight [ringleaders] altogether, and as hefinishedwith thempassed eachover to themanager,whogave thema furtherfloggingwithasjambok.Themanagerthenpassedthemovertothenativepolice[four]whoagainbeatthemwithsjamboks,sticksandfistsandthenwereplacedin a room and locked up.The otherswere then floggedwith sjamboks as theyweresittingandweretauntedwithhavingfollowedGandhi.59

InhisaffidavitMannikamwentontosaythatsomeofthemen“hadtodigholesforpoles”andIndiansstrikerswere“forcedtoassist”.60Abdullahconcurred,

… a European Govt Police caught me by the arm, and as I was being takentowards a room, the Manager using both hands struck me a blow on rightforearmwithasjambok,thenanotherblowattheendofthesjambokstruckmenearrighteye.61

JaymungalSingh,afreeIndian,statedthatMahomedNabbi(aliasSaiboo)wastoldtoremovehiscapandwasthenbeatenseverelybytheminemanager,Cunningham,andother mine employees. Singh described his assaults by the manager and Sibiya asfollows,

Hestruckmeonbackwithsjambokabout5blows.HecaughtmebytheneckandpulledmeforwardandasIfellforwardtheCompoundMangerstruckmeseveral

57. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonyof

LellieChannieNewcastle,3December1913.58. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonyof

LellieChannieNewcastle,3December1913.59. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,“AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonyof

Annamalay,Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,22November1913.60. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,“AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonyof

Mannikam,Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,6December1913.61. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,“AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonyof

Abdulla,Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,6December1913.


35

blowsonbackwithsjambok.[Then]Sibiyacaughtmebythecollarandpushedmeintotheroomandlockedmeup.62

SyedBadshadescribedhisordeal,claimingthatthecompoundmanger,

…caughtmebytherightarmandtheManagerstruckmewithasjambokonleftsideandshouldersandIwasthenhandedtoCunninghamwhostruckmewithasjambokonthesamesidewhilstheheldmyrightarm.ThenIwashandedovertotheEngineerwhohadashortstickandstruckmetwoorthreeblowsonmyhead.Thenhehandedmeover to themanwhoworksat theButcher’s shopsandhekickedmeonthebuttocksandslappedmyhead.HehandedmetoSibiya,andhestruckme on the headwith a sjambok, and caughtme by the shirt collar andpushedmeintothepoliceroomandlockedmein.63

MahomedNabbi(Saiboo),claimedthattheminemanagerstruckhim“4or5blowsonmyback”,andthecompoundmanagerthen“struckme3blowsfromthesidewithasjambok and thenMr Cunningham struckme about 4 blows…Then the Europeanlampsroommanoneblow…Iwasquitedizzywiththeseblows”.64

Medical reports submittedbygeneralpractitionerson thephysicalhealthofthe prisoners substantiate these claims and provide insight into the nature andfrequency of the floggings at Ballengeich. These reports of alleged floggings atBallengeichwereseriousenoughfortheNatalIndianCongress(NIC)andgovernmentofficials to launch an investigation. Medical examinations were conducted by thedistrictsurgeons,DrSutherland,DrCharlesCooperandDrJ.A.NolanofNewcastle.65The report submitted by Cooper, who examined the ringleaders at the Newcastleprison on 13November 1913, shows evidence of physical assaults by some of themineofficials.Indeed,thephysicalexaminationsrevealedthattheringleaderssuchasMannikam, Syed Badsha, Abdool, Ramantak,Mahomed Nabbi and Jaymungal Singhhad“bruisesontheirback…withmarksofstickorsjambok”.Themethodsusedbymineofficialswasclearlyaimedatsuppressingtheactivityoftheringleadersandanyfutureuprisingsonthemines.Coopersubmittedthefollowingreport:

Mannikam961:Bruisesleftback,complainsofpaininbackandchest:½inchcutoverlefteye:smallscalpwoundrightocularregion.SyedBatsha(Badsha)960:Bruisesonback:marksofstickorsjambok,bruisedleftthumb.Abdool962:Abrasionacrosstheface:swollenleftjaw:bruiseleftsideofback.

62. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonyof

Jaymungal,Magistrate’sOffice,12December1913.63. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,“AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonyof

SyedBadsha,Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,6December1913.64. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonyof

MahomedNabbi(Saiboo),Magistrate’sOffice,12December1913.65. NAD, PMB, AG 764/1913, "Alleged Floggings of Indians at Ballengeich”, Dr Charles

Cooper,DistrictSurgeon,toMagistrateNewcastle,15November1913;andTestimonyofJ.A.Nolan,MD,Magistrate’sOffice,15December1913.


36

Ramantak 964: Bruises across back, one on left scapular region and one rightscapularregion.MahomedNabbi966:Bruisesonbackleftscapularregion.Oldmarksoflashes.JaymungalSingh:Bruisesacrossback.66

Annamalay, Rajiah, Syed Badsha, Babhoo, Mahomed Abdool, Mannikam, JaymungalSinghandRajoo,weretakentoNewcastle.Ofthegroupsevenweresentencedto£5or the optionof 6months’ imprisonment andone received a sentenceof £5 or theoptionofthreemonths’imprisonment.

While Cooper’s examination revealed that the ringleaders had been brutallytreated,hedidnotmakesimilarfindingsforthevastmajorityoftheprisoners.On14November 1913, he examined 134 free Indian prisoners and reported that theiroverallhealthwas “good”.67Table4belowprovidesa listofnamesof allprisonerswhowereexaminedandcommentsontheir“stateofhealth”.Ofthe134prisoners,23hadcomplainedofillnesses;twooftheinjuriesweresufferedwhen"alighting[from]thetrain",and29hadcomplainedofinjuriesrelatedtotheviolenceonthemine.68

A perusal of the medical report indicates that the vast majority of the

prisonerswerejudgedtobe“fit”andingoodhealth.Therewerenoseriousinjuriesrecorded. Themost commonmedical complaints (23 prisoners) were “pain in theback”,headache, fever,stomachpainsanddiarrhoea.69Afewcomplainedof injuriesreceivedduetotheoutbreakofviolenceon11November1913onthemine.Furthercommon complaints regarding physical assaults included an abrasion of the right[sideofthe]face;painintheback;asmallcutontheheel;bruiseson[the]rightthigh;[injury sustainedwhena]horse trampedon the foot; a scalpwoundand abruisedshoulder.70

Both Nolan and Cooper concluded that some prisoners were faking theirassaults.Nolanhadbeenonsiteon11NovemberwhentheIndianstrikersreturnedto Ballengeich. He maintained that the returning strikers were very “noisy” and“armed with sticks and behaved in a threatening manner and that the mineemployersdrovethembackwiththeirsjamboks”.71Nolanattendedtoafewstrikerswhowere assaulted during the violence that erupted atBallengeich.He challengedthestatementsofsomeof thestrikers,arguingthattheirstatementswerefalseand 66. CitedverbatimfromNAD,PMB,AG764/1913,PublicProsecutortoAttorneyGeneral,

22December1913.67. NAD, PMB, AG 764/1913, "Alleged Floggings of Indians at Ballengeich”, Charles

Cooper,DistrictSurgeontoMagistrateNewcastle,15November1913.68. NAD, PMB, AG 764/1913, “Alleged Floggings of Indians at Ballengeich”, Cooper to

MagistrateNewcastle,15November1913.69. NAD, PMB, AG 764/1913, “Alleged Floggings of Indians at Ballengeich”, Cooper, to

MagistrateNewcastle,15November1913.70. NAD, PMB, AG 764/1913, “Alleged Floggings of Indians at Ballengeich”, Cooper, to

MagistrateNewcastle,15November1913.71. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonialof

J.A.Nolan,MD,Magistrate’sOffice,15December1913.


37

misleading.72 Cooper, after examining Iniarpillay and Gouden at Ballengeich mine,was convinced that they were “shamming” their bruises. He discovered thatIniarpillayhada“slightbruise”onhisbackandthatGoudenhadabruiseontheleftupper arm and his left side. “Thatwas all the injuries these two had… [although]evidently[theywere]blowsfromsticksandsjamboks”.73HeaddedthatChindranhadshowedhimwhat appeared to be an “old injury”,whichwas a growth on his arm,claimingthatitwasabruisefromabeating.Itwasinfact"toooldtobethat”.Inhisaffidavit,CooperaddedthathehadwitnessednofloggingsatBallengeichColliery.74

Under pressure from both the NIC and the Indian government, the Uniongovernment requested an investigation by the prison authorities. The director ofprisons,C.P.Batho,calledforareportfromG.Mardall,theinspectorofprisonswhowas based in Pietermaritzburg. Mardall submitted a preliminary report on 30November 1913. He concluded that floggings and assaults on Indians had indeedoccurredatBallengeichout‐stationon11thofNovember1913whiletheyweretryingto leave the mines for the Newcastle prison. He added that strikers, after theirconviction by the magistrate in Newcastle on 12 November, had “shown nounwillingnesstoperformtheirtasksandnoviolencehasbeenusedtocompelthemtowork…”.75

TheoutbreakofviolenceatBallengeichCollieryledtoonefatality.ThiswasofNagadu(Nargiah),a labourer,whodiedon17November1913.Accordingto fellowworkerDuseph,Nagaduhadbeenstruckby“twonatives”,oneofwhomwasSibiya,andthecompoundmanager,withasjambok,“Isawitwithmyowneyes”,hestated.76Annamalay supportedDuseph’s statement. Hewas adamant that he hadwitnessedthecompoundmanagerbeatingNagadu.77However, themedicalreportsbybothDrCooper and Dr Sutherland of Newcastle, recorded evidence to the contrary. TheyreportedthatNagaduhadinfactdiedofpneumonia,causedby“exposure”,andtheydidnotfindanyevidenceorsignsofwoundsoffloggingoranyotherill‐treatment.78In his preliminary report on 30 November 1913, Mardall concurred with the twodoctors, Cooper and Sutherland, that Nagadu had died from natural causes, but

72. NAD, PMB, AG 764/1913, "Alleged Floggings of Indians at Ballengeich Colliery”,

TestimonialofJ.A.Nolan,MD,Magistrate’sOffice,15December1913.73. NAD, PMB, AG 764/1913, "Alleged Floggings of Indians at Ballengeich Colliery”, Dr

CharlesCooper,DistrictSurgeontoMagistrateNewcastle,15November1913.74. NAD, PMB, AG 764/1913, “Alleged Floggings of Indians at Ballengeich Colliery”,

CharlesCooper,DistrictSurgeontoMagistrateNewcastle,15November1913.75. BL, BP2/2 (20), Dispatches on Indians in South Africa, Inspector of Prisons,

Pietermaritzburg,toDirectorofPrisons,30November1913,pp12–13.76. NAD, PMB, AG 764/1913, "Alleged Floggings of Indians at Ballengeich Colliery”,

TestimonyofDuseph,Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,12December1913.77. NAD, PMB, AG 764/1913, "Alleged Floggings of Indians at Ballengeich Colliery”,

TestimonyofAnnamalay,Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,22November1913.78. IndianOpinion,24December1913.


38

acknowledgedthattherewasevidenceindicatingthatwhileincustodyhehadbeensubjectto“roughtreatment”.79

Indianstrikersalsohad serious complaints regarding thequalityof the foodprovided to thosewhowere incarcerated. On their arrival at the Ballengeichminefrom Hatting Spruit (not far from Dundee), they complained of extreme hungerhavingnoteatenapropermealfordays.Theminemanagerandcompoundmanagerdidprovidefoodrationsbutwithoutanycookingfacilitiessuchaspotsandpansorcoal.According toLellieChannie,a free Indian, Indianprisoners wereonlygivenacanofriceanddholl“withoutanypotsoranyothercookingnecessities,consequentlywe starved through the night and in the morning”.80 Nevertheless, the Indiansmanagedtoacquiresometinswhichtheyusedaspotsandcouldusethericethatwasgiventomakeameal.InhisaffidavitChanniealsoalludedtothekindnessofsomeofthe localpeople,sayingthat“IrememberawhitemangaveusasliceofbreadeachwhichIthinkisoutofhisownpocketandpity”.81ConclusionInconclusion, thetreatmentofprisonersontheBallengeichcoalmines intheNatalMidlandsduringtheSatyagrahacampaignof1913highlightsthreecrucialaspectsofthe history of these events. Firstly,with regard to the relations between prisonersandtheircaptorsduringthisperiod,itisclearthatthemineauthoritieswereseekingto quell prisoner resistance by control and coercion. The existing evidence clearlyreveals that there was some degree of prisoner abuse in terms of floggings.Ringleaders who organised resistance were intimidated and assaulted. Moreover,neitherthemineauthoritiesnortheprovincialauthoritiesorUniongovernmenthadplanned adequately for the housing and feeding of the satyagrahi prisoners. Thenumberofresisterssentencedduringthe1913campaignoverwhelmedboththestateand the mine authorities. In the Natal Midlands, inadequate prison facilitiesexacerbated the problems of imprisonment and forced the authorities to createmakeshiftprisoncampsonminepremises. Secondly,theminesbecameyetanothersiteofresistanceintheaftermathofthe 1913 campaign. Indian resisters wanted to be imprisoned in “proper” prisonswithadequatefacilitiesratherthaninmakeshiftcampsputuphastilyonminingsites.The dissatisfied Indians challenged themine officials bymarching to Newcastle inprotest.Thisdefiancewasnotonlyanactofresistancebutwasalsoindicativeoftheirdesiretobetreatedfairly. Thirdly,thisarticlerevealsthatrelationsbetweenprisonerandcaptorremain

79. BL, BP2/2 (20), Dispatches on Indians in South Africa, Inspector of Prisons,

Pietermaritzburg,toDirectorofPrisons,30November1913,pp12–13.80. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,“AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonyof

LellieChannie,Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,3December1913.81. NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeich”,Testimonyof

LellieChannie,Magistrate’sOffice,Newcastle,3December1913.


39

oneof the leastresearched,or indeedresearchable,aspectsof the1913SatyagrahaCampaign. The narratives reproduced here highlight the responses of capitalistemployerstopoliticalresistanceintheearlytwentiethcenturyandalsotheneedtoexamineoneofthefirstmassmovementsinSouthAfricafromdiverseperspectives.This trajectory of study will add to new histories of resistance in South Africanhistoriography.REFERENCESArkin,A. J., “TheContributionof theIndianstotheEconomicDevelopmentofSouth

Africa, 1860–1970: A Historical Income Approach”, PhD thesis, University ofDurbanWestville,1981.

Beall, J., and North‐Coombes, D., ‘The 1913 Natal Indian Strike: The Social andEconomicBackgroundtoPassiveResistance, JournalofNatalandZuluHistory,VI(1983).

Bhana, S., and Dhupelia, U., “Passive Resistance among Indian South Africans”,Unpublishedpaperpresentedtotheconferenceof theSouthAfricanHistoricalAssociation,UniversityofDurban‐Westville,July1981.

Bhana,S.,andShukla‐Bhatt,N.,AFirethatBlazedintheOcean:GandhiandthePoemsofSatyagrahainSouthAfrica,1909–1911(Promilla&Co.,NewDelhi,2011).

Bhana,S.,andBrain,J.,SettingdownRoots:IndianMigrantsinSouthAfrica,1860–1911(WitsUniversityPress,Johannesburg,1990).

Dayal,B.,SwamiBhawaniDayalSanyasi,PravasiKiAtmakatha/TheAutobiographyofaSettler,TranslatedfromHindi(RajhansPublications,NewDelhi,1947).

Gandhi,M.K., Satyagraha in SouthAfrica (Navajivan PublishingHouse, Ahmedabad,1961).

Govinden,B.,andHiralal,K.(eds),1913,Satyagraha,PassiveResistanceanditsLegacy(Manohar,Delhi,2015).

Guha,R.,GandhibeforeIndia(Penguin,LondonandNewDelhi,2013).

Hiralal, K., “Rethinking Gender and Agency in the Satyagraha Movement of 1913”,JournalofSocialSciences,25(2010).

Hiralal, K., ‘“Our plucky sisters who have dared to fight’: Indian Women and theSatyagrahaMovementinSouthAfrica”,TheOrientalAnthropologist,9,1(2009).

Mongia,R.,“GenderandtheHistoriographyofGandhianSatyagrahainSouthAfrica”,GenderandHistory,18(2006).

Patel,R.M.,TheMakingof theMahatmaBasedonGandhijiniSadhana.Adaptation inEnglishbyAbidShamsi(RavindraR.Patel,Ahmedabad,1990).

Reddy,E.S.,andHiralal,K.,PioneersofSatyagraha: IndianSouthAfricansDefyRacistLaws,1907–1914(Navajivan,Ahmedabad,2017).

Swan,M.,“The1913NatalIndianStrike”,TheJournalofSouthernAfricanStudies,10(1984).


40

APPENDICESandTABLES(Author'snote:thesearereproducedverbatimfromtheoriginalsources)Appendix1:Statementsmade by Indian strikers (fromPietermaritzburg) at theDurbanGaol, 2December1913beforethechiefmagistrate,Durbanwithregardtotheirtreatmentatthegaol.Rowashanker(questionedbythechiefmagistrate)Q.Isthisasampleoftherationwhichwasgivenyouto‐day?A.Yes,SirQ.Yourefusetoeatit?A.Irefusetoeatit.Q.Why?A.Idesiretohavecertainthings,andassoonasIgetthosethings,Iwilleatit.Q.Whatarethethingsyoudesire?A.Iwantapairofbootsandsocks.Iwantsandals.Mycoatisdirty,andIwantaclean

coat.IwishtobeamongotherprisonerswhocamefromPietermaritzburg.Q.Whatcomplainthaveyouagainstthefood?A.IcannotpartakeofthefoodtillIgetthethingsIdesire.Q.(Indicatingthefoodonthetable)Willyoueatthisfood?A.No,sir.Q.Haveyouanycomplaintagainstthefood?A.Wedidnotintendtocomplainagainstthisfood?Q.Wherewereyoubeforeyoucamehere?A.Wewereatschool.Q.Whatschool?A.MrGandhi’sschoolatPhoenixQ.Didyouwearshoesatschool?A.Yes.Q.Didyouwearthemeveryday?A.Yes.Q.Didyoualwayshavecleanclothes–clothescleanerthanthoseyouhaveonnow?A.Yes.Iwearplainclothes,buttheyareclean.Q.Thefoodwhichyourefusetoeatistheregulationallowanceofrice,whichIhave

myselftasted.Itiswellcooked,andgoodenoughformyownuse.Therearealsobeans,whichIhavetasted,whicharewellandthoroughlycooked,besidesboiledcabbage,eschalots,chilis,andanallowanceofsalt.Whydoyoudeclinetoeatthisfood?

A.IdeclinetoeatitunlessIamgivenclothesandsandals.


41

Bhaga(DGNo.4606/13)(questionedbythechiefmagistrate)Q.Whatareyourreasonsfornoteatingyourfood?A.Iwantsandals,socks,andsalt.Q.Butsaltisprovidedinyourmeals.A.Iwantsalttocleanmyteethinthemornings.Q.Whatarethethingsyousayyourequire,beforeyouwilleatthisfood?A.Iwantsandals,socksandsalt.(C.M.Foryourcleaningyourteeth?Ans.Yes,sir.)I

alsowantabook to read, andabelt formywaist. Idonot remember theotherthings.

Q.Whatdoyoudo?A.IamastudentinJohannesburgQ.WhatareyoudoinginNatal?A.Iamputingaol.Q.Doyouwearsandalseveryday?A.Iaminthehabitofwearingboots.Naganbhai(DGNo.4525/13)

Q.Whatareyourreasonsfornoteatingthisfood?A.Mylittlewantsarenotsupplied.Q.Whatareyourwants?A.SocksandsandalsQ.Whatfaulthaveyoutofindwiththefoodyouhavebeensuppliedwith?A.Idonotwanttoeatituntilmywantshavebeensupplied.Source:BL,BP2/2(20),DispatchesonIndiansinSouthAfrica,InspectorofPrisons,Pietermaritzburg,toDirectorofPrisons,30November1913,pp12–13.

Table1:IndianStrike(Natal)10December1913

COOLIESWORKING

COOLIESONSTRIKE

COOLIESINGAOL

ESTATEONWHICHRATIONSARENOTBEINGSUPPLIEDBYEMPLOYERS

CoalArea[NatalMidlands]

3680 165 167 Bellamont‐Mount,Moreland.

(roughly300employers)

NorthCoast 11060 302 810SouthCoast 7864 154 92Zululand 1400 ‐ ‐ 24,004 621 1069

Source:BL,DespatchesonIndiansinSouthAfrica,BP2/2(20),InspectorofPrisons,Pietermaritzburg,toDirectorofPrisons,30November1913,pp12–13.


42

Table2:IndianStrikersSentencedatDundeeandNewcastle(Reportsdated19November1913)

Totalsentenced

Free Indentured Tocomeupforsentence

Withdrawn

Free Indentured Free IndenturedNewcastle 299 208 91 84 127 20 5Dundee 169 169 41 154

ParticularsofSentencesImposedImprisonmentwithoptionofpayingfines Fines

onlyCorporalpunishment

£10or3months

£5or6months

£5or30days

£5or3months

£3or2months

£3or1month

£2or1month

£1or14days

10sor7days

£5

£1

Newcastle

1 127 ‐ 35 37 1 2 1 8 ‐ 1 2juveniles

Dundee ‐ ‐ 1 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 1 1 5 ‐

Imprisonmentonly30days 21days 14days 7days

Newcastle 1 1 2 79Dundee ‐ ‐ ‐ 120*

*Ofthese120Indianpeople,21werereleasedafterservingtwodays;and86werereleasedafterservingoneday

Source:BL,DespatchesonIndiansinSouthAfrica,BP2/2(20),InspectorofPrisons,Pietermaritzburg,toDirectorofPrisons,30November1913,pp12–13.

Table3:StrikersCommittedtoOut‐StationPrisons(Reportsdated19November1913)

Newcastle DundeeBallengeich Hattingh

SpruitNatalNavigationNo.2

Glencoe NatalNavigationNo.1

Burnside

172 2 11 86(released)20(sentencedeferred)

8(sentencedeferred)

13(sentencedeferred)

Source:BL,DespatchesonIndiansinSouthAfrica,BP2/2(20),InspectorofPrisons,Pietermaritzburg,toDirectorofPrisons,30November1913,pp12‐13.


43

Table4:ReportbyCharlesCooper,DistrictSurgeon,Newcastle15November1913Prisonno. Name Complaint State16 Varndappa Nocomplaint Fit15 Coopoosamy Do Do25 Ratna Do Do14 ShankerMahara Do Do4 John Do Do6x Bhagam Abrasionofright

faceDo

24 Gengadherie Nocomplaint Do11 Nadawa Do Do3 Dhatoo Do Do5 Jugraj Do Do52 Shanker Do Do23 Vallappa Do Do7 SheikDada Do Do30 Murugan Do Do10 Perumal Do Do2 Subadoo Do Do28 Katapan(Kattiah) Do Do19 Lutchimah Do Do80 Pearumal Buborightgroin Unfit260 Govinden ? Fit18 Maboop NoComplaint Do1000 Ramcheron Paininrightfoot Do58 Ramdeye Nil Do27OT Ringeah Synovitisofright

kneeDo

90 PistaPillay Syphilis Do13 Gokul Nil Do310 Cheedan Headache Do20 Polaanah Nil Do108 Coopoosamy Nil Do22 Nagannah Nil Do12 Najakoh Nil Do119 Annasamy Nil Do10 Gagaden Paininback Do132 Lala Nil Do35 Sathee Nil Do113 Venketsamy Nil Do21x Cooppen UpperLip Fit112 Moonsamy Nil Do


44

34 Kondiah Nil Do93 Cundersamy Nil Do78 ChinnaMoonan Nil Do1380 Girdhari Ulceroutsideleft

ankleDo

122x Chinniah Smallcutonleftankle

Do

101 Subanna Nil Do49x Balulal Scratchonleftfoot Do97 Somiah Nil Do33 Munian Nil Do51 Sooban Nil Do65xo Lutchiman Feverishnoinjury Unfit77x Ramtokul Noinjurytobe

seenFit

54 Gonesh Nil Do91 Chinniah Nil Do1200 Mari Headache Do109 Ramasamy Nil Do1030 Appadoo Gonorrhoea Do115T Appanah Chestpain Lightlabour80x? Moosa Syphilis Fit63x Lutchman Bruisesonright

thighDo

139 ToolKamem Nil Do111 Yenketiah Nil Do92 Mureegan Nil Do81o Penchalu Stomachache Do39 Gingan Nil Do106X Varadappa Injuryonback

NomarksDo

126 Chengareddy Nil Do116x Chinnsamy Bruiseonright

thighDo

61x Moonsamy Nomarks Do117x Pearianah Horsetrampedon

footAbrasionrightfootScratchonhead

Do

60 Gingeah Nil Do68x Chundrian Nomarks Do88x Moonsamy Do

Do

79x MoothalKistan Scalpwound Do84 Karrin Nil Do


45

41 Mathadal Nil Do64 Orie Nil Do85 Badrie Nil Do94o Mahomed Headache&Fever Do47 Moonsamy Nil Do131 Moonsamy Nil Do130 Sanasi Nil Do137 Pearumal Nil Do124x Kammanai Scalpwound;

noothermarksDo

43x Rumduth Bruiseonrightback

Do

45o Chini Rashonpenis Do102x Yenkenna Slightswellingof

leftheelDo

96 Nagaih Nil Do48x Govenden Bruiseleftarm&

backDo

140o Kuitti Nil Lightlabour136 SyedMordein Nil Fit104x SahibPiri Smallscalpwound Do87 Pathana Nil Do36o Raganan Diarrhoea Lightlabour37x MAsoop Bruiseonleftback Fit73x Akuj Bruiserightwrist

nomarksDo

46 Juggernath Nil Do59 Papiah Nil Do40 ChhotajKhan Nil Do67 Sodar Nil Do99 Ourtideen Nil Fit82 ChiniaGovenden Nil Do98 Soobrian Nil Do76x Subarum Bruisedshoulder Do42x Sewsunker Bruises?Nomarks Do53x Ramjeawun Nomarks Do72 Runkiah Nil Do70o Baldoe Diarrhoea Lightlabour133 Pediah Nil Fit126o Kistadhan Diarrhoea Lightlabour114 Mahabeer

(Sunkern)Nil Fit

105x Punchin Nomarks Do

71 Kaloo(Solvo) Nil Do


46

62 KulunNar Nil Do75 Vedi Nil Do86 Appalsamy Nil Do95o Sinalsen Nil Lightlabour135 Adiah Nil Fit134 ChiniahAgadu Nil Do123 Lutchman Nil Do55 Ramkersoiam Nil Do56 Badul Nil Do69o Ranadan Diarrhoea Lightlabour83 Oialjupan Nil Fit74 Jungram Nil Do107 Kanhai Nil Do121o Yanen Cough Lightlabour89 Kamerasamy Nil Fit57 Balddo Nil Do44 Janhaha Nil Do129o SheikDada Diarrhoea Lightlabour66 Kandhai Nil Fit90x Badula Scratchonhead Do118x Bathoo Bruiseonback Do125o Nagada Coughand

TemperatureUnfit

50x Kawlesener Temperature100.8BruiseleftwristThreebruises[sic]onback

Unfit

ThosemarkedxcomplainedofinjuriesThosemarkedocomplainedofillnessonlyThosemarkedTcomplainedofbeinginjuredwhenoff‐loadingfromtrainSource:NAD,PMB,AG764/1913,"AllegedFloggingsofIndiansatBallengeichCollieryCompound(specialgaol)andallegationthatMagistrate,Newcastle,authorizedfloggings",DrCharlesCooper,DistrictSurgeon,totheMagistrateNewcastle,15November1913.

satyagraha prisoners on natal’s coal mines kalpana hiralal ... · ramachandra guha, gandhi before...

Documents