Sarah Hammon, Amy Steffes, Amanda Draxler, and April Bleske-RechekUniversity of Wisconsin-Eau Claire

Acknowledgments

Discussion

MethodParticipants were 176 female and 104 male undergraduates (M = 20.13 years, SD = 2.23 years) from the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire.Participants provided information on up to two high school PAs and up to two college PAs and completed the revised version of the Exercise Motivations Inventory-2 (EMI-2) (Markland & Ingledew, 1997) for each activity. The EMI-2 consisted of 14 motives (5-point response), to which we added four (fun, high skill level, habit, and pressure from others).Participants also completed the 13-item Revised Competitiveness Index (Houston et al., 2002). Items were on a 5-point scale with responses ranging from “Not at all” to “Very much so.” Participants completed the Mini-Markers (Saucier, 1994), a 40-adjective measure of the Big 5 personality traits (A=Agreeableness, C=Conscientiousness, N=Neuroticism, O=Openness, E=Extraversion).

MethodParticipants were 176 female and 104 male undergraduates (M = 20.13 years, SD = 2.23 years) from the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire.Participants provided information on up to two high school PAs and up to two college PAs and completed the revised version of the Exercise Motivations Inventory-2 (EMI-2) (Markland & Ingledew, 1997) for each activity. The EMI-2 consisted of 14 motives (5-point response), to which we added four (fun, high skill level, habit, and pressure from others).Participants also completed the 13-item Revised Competitiveness Index (Houston et al., 2002). Items were on a 5-point scale with responses ranging from “Not at all” to “Very much so.” Participants completed the Mini-Markers (Saucier, 1994), a 40-adjective measure of the Big 5 personality traits (A=Agreeableness, C=Conscientiousness, N=Neuroticism, O=Openness, E=Extraversion).

DiscussionThis study was designed to determine whether major personality traits, competitiveness, and motives for PA are associated with maintaining PA from HS to college. Students reported fewer minutes per week active in college than in HS.The most common PAs in HS were sport-oriented whereas the most common PAs in college were more exercise-oriented. Contrary to expectation, we did not find any consistent link between the Big Five personality traits and adherence.6 The only motives that were not significantly different from HS to college were “Strength & Endurance” and “Enjoyment”. Motives in college were more strongly correlated with adherence than motives in HS were. These findings suggest that interventions should focus on motives in college rather than earlier on in life. Men, on average, were more physically active than women were, which is consistent with previous research8. However, men’s competitiveness was not correlated with adherence and women’s competitiveness was, which is inconsistent with prior research.7

Understanding the correlates of PA adherence will aid the development of more effective interventions which should be developed specifically for the college population because behaviors developed in college are carried over into adulthood.4

Limitations of the study include bias in reporting, difficulty in creating a measure of adherence, an abnormally active sample, and a need for a longitudinal investigation.

 

DiscussionThis study was designed to determine whether major personality traits, competitiveness, and motives for PA are associated with maintaining PA from HS to college. Students reported fewer minutes per week active in college than in HS.The most common PAs in HS were sport-oriented whereas the most common PAs in college were more exercise-oriented. Contrary to expectation, we did not find any consistent link between the Big Five personality traits and adherence.6 The only motives that were not significantly different from HS to college were “Strength & Endurance” and “Enjoyment”. Motives in college were more strongly correlated with adherence than motives in HS were. These findings suggest that interventions should focus on motives in college rather than earlier on in life. Men, on average, were more physically active than women were, which is consistent with previous research8. However, men’s competitiveness was not correlated with adherence and women’s competitiveness was, which is inconsistent with prior research.7

Understanding the correlates of PA adherence will aid the development of more effective interventions which should be developed specifically for the college population because behaviors developed in college are carried over into adulthood.4

Limitations of the study include bias in reporting, difficulty in creating a measure of adherence, an abnormally active sample, and a need for a longitudinal investigation.

 

References1. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2000). Healthy People 2010. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.2. Kilpatrick, M., Hebert, E., & Bartholomew, J. (2005). College students’ motivation for physical activity: Differentiating men’s and women’s motives for sport participation and exercise. Journal of American College Health, 54, 87-94. 3. Calfas, K. J., Sallis, J. F., Lovato, C. Y., & Campbell, J. (1994). Physical activity and its determinants before and after college graduation. Medical Exercise Nutrition Health, 3, 323-334.4. Sparling, P. B., & Snow, T. K. (2002). Physical activity patterns in recent college alumni. Research Quarterly of Exercise and Sport, 73, 200-205.5. Keating, X.D., Guan, J., Piñero, J.C., & Bridges, D.M. (2005). A meta-analysis of college students’ physical activity behaviors. Journal of American College Health, 54, 116-125.6. Courneya, K. S., & Hellsten, L. M. (1998). Personality correlates of exercise behavior , motives, barriers and preferences: An application of the five-factor model. Personality and Individual Differences, 24, 625-633.7. Ryan, R. M., Frederick, C. M., Lepes, D., Rubio, N., & Sheldon, K. M. (1997). Intrinsic motivation and exercise adherence. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 28, 335-354.8. De Bourdeaudhuij, I. D., & Sallis, J. (2002). Relative contribution of psychosocial variables to the explanation of physical activity in three population-based adult samples. Preventive Medicine, 34, 279-288.

References1. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2000). Healthy People 2010. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.2. Kilpatrick, M., Hebert, E., & Bartholomew, J. (2005). College students’ motivation for physical activity: Differentiating men’s and women’s motives for sport participation and exercise. Journal of American College Health, 54, 87-94. 3. Calfas, K. J., Sallis, J. F., Lovato, C. Y., & Campbell, J. (1994). Physical activity and its determinants before and after college graduation. Medical Exercise Nutrition Health, 3, 323-334.4. Sparling, P. B., & Snow, T. K. (2002). Physical activity patterns in recent college alumni. Research Quarterly of Exercise and Sport, 73, 200-205.5. Keating, X.D., Guan, J., Piñero, J.C., & Bridges, D.M. (2005). A meta-analysis of college students’ physical activity behaviors. Journal of American College Health, 54, 116-125.6. Courneya, K. S., & Hellsten, L. M. (1998). Personality correlates of exercise behavior , motives, barriers and preferences: An application of the five-factor model. Personality and Individual Differences, 24, 625-633.7. Ryan, R. M., Frederick, C. M., Lepes, D., Rubio, N., & Sheldon, K. M. (1997). Intrinsic motivation and exercise adherence. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 28, 335-354.8. De Bourdeaudhuij, I. D., & Sallis, J. (2002). Relative contribution of psychosocial variables to the explanation of physical activity in three population-based adult samples. Preventive Medicine, 34, 279-288.

Overview

•Regular physical activity (PA) has many health benefits1, but regular PA is not the norm in American society .2

•PA levels dropped from high school (HS) to college and again after college.3

•84.7% of college students who engaged in PA in their senior year were still active five or ten years later; and 81.3% of those who were inactive remained inactive.4

•Adherence has been measured as the degree to which one maintains PA levels over time, relative to one’s peers.5

•Application of the Big Five personality traits to PA adherence has centered on three traits: conscientiousness , extraversion, and neuroticism. 6

•Extraversion and conscientiousness were positively related to PA, whereas neuroticism was negatively related to PA.6

•Higher scores in total motivation were correlated with enjoyment, which was correlated with adherence. 7

•Men more than women perceived competition as a benefit of PA.8

Overview

•Regular physical activity (PA) has many health benefits1, but regular PA is not the norm in American society .2

•PA levels dropped from high school (HS) to college and again after college.3

•84.7% of college students who engaged in PA in their senior year were still active five or ten years later; and 81.3% of those who were inactive remained inactive.4

•Adherence has been measured as the degree to which one maintains PA levels over time, relative to one’s peers.5

•Application of the Big Five personality traits to PA adherence has centered on three traits: conscientiousness , extraversion, and neuroticism. 6

•Extraversion and conscientiousness were positively related to PA, whereas neuroticism was negatively related to PA.6

•Higher scores in total motivation were correlated with enjoyment, which was correlated with adherence. 7

•Men more than women perceived competition as a benefit of PA.8

Acknowledgments We thank the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire ORSP for supporting this research which was funded, in part, by differential tuition.

Hypotheses Extraversion and conscientiousness will be positively associated, and neuroticism negatively associated, with PA adherence.

Competitiveness will be positively associated with PA adherence, particularly for men.

Motivations for participation in PA will differ from HS to college.

Individuals who perceive many motives for activity as important will have higher levels of adherence to PA.

Hypotheses Extraversion and conscientiousness will be positively associated, and neuroticism negatively associated, with PA adherence.

Competitiveness will be positively associated with PA adherence, particularly for men.

Motivations for participation in PA will differ from HS to college.

Individuals who perceive many motives for activity as important will have higher levels of adherence to PA.

HS Percent of

Participants

College Percent of

Participants

Football 16.2 Working out at gym

23.4

Basketball

13.2 Running 19.0

Volleyball 11.8 Basketball 7.7

Soccer 9.2 Volleyball 5.5

Swimming

6.3 Cycling 4.4

Softball 5.9 Football 3.7

Mean Minutes

per Week in HS

Mean Minutes per

Week in College

Minutes per Week

Adherence (College/HS)

Mean Months per Year

in HS

Mean Months per Year

in College

Months per Year

Adherence (College/HS)

Men 695.99 (304.15)

323.13 (255.07)

0.52 (0.41) 10.34 (2.75)

10.47 (2.79)

1.33 (1.79)

Women

588.62 (254.71)

229.68 (197.46)

0.46 (0.54) 9.03 (3.34) 9.92 (3.30) 1.52 (2.25)As shown in the table of means (and standard deviations) above, participants experienced a reduction of nearly one-half of their minutes per week active from HS to college, but essentially no drop in number of months active per year from HS to college. Men’s and women’s changes in activity from HS to college were similar. However, men participated in more minutes per week in HS t(271) = 3.13, p < .01 and months per year t(234.59) = 3.44, p < .001 than did women. Men also participated in more minutes per week in college than did women, t(168.81) = 3.15, p < .01. However, men and women reported similar number of months active in college, t(237.84) = 1.45, ns.

Motivation HS Mean (SD)

College Mean (SD)

RevitalizationBecause it makes me feel

good

4.39 (0.72) 4.41 (0.83)

Stress ManagementC

Because it helps reduce stress

3.59 (1.18) 4.08 (1.02)

Positive HealthC

To have a healthy body3.65 (1.03) 4.07 (1.11)

EnjoymentBecause I like the feeling

of exerting myself

4.02 (0.96) 4.02 (1.08)

ChallengeBecause I like the

challenge

4.18 (0.86) 4.01 (1.07)

FunHS

Because it is fun4.64 (0.64) 4.01 (1.16)

Health PressuresC

To improve my health3.46 (1.13) 3.98 (1.14)

Strength and Endurance

To increase my strength/endurance

3.90 (1.00) 3.93 (1.10)

NimblenessC

To maintain/improve agility

3.58 (1.09) 3.75 (1.11)

Weight ManagementC

To stay slim3.04 (1.28) 3.74 (1.28)

AppearanceC

To improve my appearance

2.80 (1.23) 3.64 (1.32)

High Skill LevelHS

Because I am good at it4.13 (0.94) 3.56 (1.24)

Ill-Health AvoidanceC

To prevent health problems

2.63 (1.18) 3.56 (1.25)

HabitHS

Because I’ve always do3.ne it

3.72 (1.26) 3.22 (1.42)

CompetitionHS

Because I liked trying to win in physical activities

3.96 (1.14) 3.14 (1.54)

AffiliationHS

To spend time with friends3.80 (1.09) 3.10 (1.54)

Social RecognitionHS

For the social status2.88 (1.24) 2.38 (1.33)

Pressure from OthersHS

I feel pressured by others to participate

2.16 (1.32) 1.97 (1.26)

Total Motivation Score 64.39 (9.85)

64.45 (10.09)

The table above displays the most frequently reported PAs in HS and college. 84% of participants reported two PAs in HS, and 71% of participants reported two PAs in college. The most commonly reported PAs in HS were sport based whereas the most commonly reported activities in college were exercise based.

ResultsMost Commonly Reported PAs PA in HS and College and Adherence from HS to College

by Sex

The table to the left displays the means (and standard deviations) for each motivation in HS and in college. In HS, social recognition was the only motivation that predicted adherence r(269) = .14, p < .05. In college, several reasons for activity were positively correlated with degree of adherence from HS to college: challenge r(273) = .16, p < .01, strength and endurance r(273) = .17, p < .01, fun r(273) = .13, p < .05, and high skill level r(273) = .14, p < .05. As predicted, adherence had a marginally positive association with total motivation score (in college), r (252) = .21, p = .08.

Motivations in HS and College Men’s Competitiveness is Not Associated

with Adherence to PA

Women’s Competitiveness is Negatively Associated with Adherence to PA

The figures to the right show that, contrary to expectation, men’s competitiveness scores were not associated with adherence to PA. Correlational analyses revealed a negative correlation between women’s competitiveness scores and PA adherence.

The table to the left displays the significant differences in motivations from HS to college:

HS=High school motive is significantly greaterC=College motive is significantly greater