sar for leaders

7/29/2019 Sar for Leaders

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Search and

Rescuefor Outdoor Leaders

Charley Shimanski

Mountain Rescue Association

www.mra.org


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FFoorr OOuuttddoooorr LLeeaaddeerrssCharley Shimanski

Mountain Rescue Associationwww.mra.org 2008, Charley Shimanski/Mountain Rescue Association All rights reserved

COVER PHOTO: Photo courtesy How ard Paul.
http://www.mra.org/http://www.mra.org/http://www.mra.org/


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Objective ..........................................................................................................1Introduction.................................................................................................... 2Part 1 Emergency Response Plans .............................................................. 2

Personnel .......................................................................................................................................2Equipment .....................................................................................................................................3Medical protocol ............................................................................................................................3Relationship/Communication with Local Agencies .....................................................................3Using "Runners" for Communication ...........................................................................................3

Part 2 Search Theory and Response ...........................................................4Experiential Programs' need for a Pre-Plan .................................................................................4Common Lost Person Strategies for Getting "Unlost" .................................................................4Mental/Emotional Aspects of the Lost Person.............................................................................5

The First Few Hours of a Search Operation ................................................................................. 5Search Methodology ......................................................................................................................6"So, what are we looking for, anyway?" ........................................................................................ 7

Part 3 Rescue Response .............................................................................. 8Level of Emergency........................................................................................................................8Type of Emergency ........................................................................................................................8Technical Rescue Systems.............................................................................................................8Do You REALLY want to do this? .................................................................................................9Trail Carry ......................................................................................................................................9Using YOUR OWN Resources for the Rescue ............................................................................ 10

What to do with Your Resources................................................................................................. 10Use of Helicopters in Field Rescue Operations .......................................................................... 10Working with Local Search and Rescue Teams.......................................................................... 10

Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 11Suggested Readings.......................................................................................12


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The Mountain Rescue Association (MRA), a volunteer organization dedicated to saving livesthrough rescue and mountain safety education, has developed this Search and Rescue forOutdoor Leaders program. Although these materials are valuable for individuals, they arelargely developed for experiential education programs that may be required to respond to asearch and rescue emergency.

Charley Shimanski is President and Education Director for the Mountain Rescue Association, a

national organization of rescue mountaineers. A 20-year veteran of ColoradosAlp ine RescueTeam, Charley has participated as a field member and Incident Commander for hundreds ofrescues among Colorados highest peaks.

The author of the Mountain Rescue AssociationsHelicopt ers in Mounta in Rescue Operationsmanuals and co-author of theAv alanche Rescue Operations manual, Charley has consultedrescue mountaineers, mountain guides, and climbers throughout the world, from Israel toChina, from Kilimanjaro to Aconcogua. Charley is a frequent speaker at meetings of theInternational Technical Rescue Symposium, The National Association of Search and Rescue, the

Wilderness Medical Society, and the Mountain Rescue Association.


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I n t r o d u c t io n a n d P a r t 1 E m e r g e n c y R e s p o n s e P l a n s

Search and Rescue for

Outdoor Leaders2

The recent increase in participation inoutdoor adventure programs has brought

with it an increased need for outdoorleaders with skills in search and rescue(SAR) management. Although accidentrates among experiential programs areconsistently lower than the rates amongother users, experiential programs cannoteliminate accidents altogether. It istherefore critical that such programs workto integrate rescue response into theiroutdoor adventure program.

When it comes to search and rescueemergencies, time is of the essence. Theclock starts ticking the moment anemergency is identified, and the longer theclock ticks, the greater the risk to allinvolved. It is during this initial stage that apre-plan helps lay a framework for themanagement of the emergency, and aresource management plan creates astructure for the organized response.

This program is broken into 3 major

elements:

Emergency Response Plans Search Theory and Response Rescue Response

The 2 disciplines of search and rescue are asdistinctly different as their names. Whilethe search response is still an emergency, itis arguably easier than the rescue responseand relies more on management skills thanon hands-on technical and medical skills.

The rescue response, on the other hand, isfully dependent on the hands-on skills of theparticipants. No amount of managementskill will make up for a lack oftechnical/medical skills in a rescue of aninjured party.

Before any outdoor leader can develop asearch and rescue plan, they must addressthe issue of pre-plans - an essential elementof any emergency response. Much has been

written about Emergency Response Plans(ERP's) for outdoor leaders. Listed beloware a few relevant factors that should beconsidered concerning search and rescueoperations.

PersonnelThe human resource is most importantresource in your ERP. Developing layers ofresponsibility and management helpsassures the smooth implementation of anySAR response.

In any rescue situation, you will likely findyourself with instructors who have beentrained in the emergency response. But you

will also have program participants who areable to assist. How many students are in

your program and what briefing did they getbefore the program started? What is theirstate of mind at the time of the accident?

What is their experience level andreliability? These individuals might proveto be a valuable resource.

Unlike search and rescue teams, whose soleresponsibility is to provide SAR services, theexperiential leader must consider thecurrent field activities as well. Some peoplein the emergency response plan may be

responsible for elements unrelated to thesearch or rescue itself, but critical to themanagement of the field operations andpersonnel involved. The program leadermust assess the planned field activities andmake any adjustments that are necessary.


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I n t r o d u c t io n a n d P a r t 1 E m e r g e n c y R e s p o n s e P l a n s


Outdoor Leaders3

EquipmentIn their pre-plan, managers must considerthe location, time of year, terrain, and

possible emergencies with each outdoorprogram. All programs are different, and itis important to have the right equipment forthe terrain and season. For example, does

your supply list include the equipmentnecessary to improvise an evacuation litter?

Are your radios capable of communicationon the frequency of the land manager or lawenforcement group?

Medical protocolA medical pre-plan is also essential,including a list of medical protocols. Whatis the chief medical officer authorized to doin the field? When does a medicalemergency require notification of higherauthorities? A qualified ERP addressesthese issues.

Relationship andCommunication with

Local AgenciesA communication plan is essential to anyemergency response. Do your field leadershave radio communication with the landmanager or another authority? Who are theauthorities in the area where your fieldactivities take place? When possible, spendtime with the land manager and lawenforcement officials discussing your plan.Knowing how to contact the local search andrescue team is important, and valuable timeis lost if you have not already established

communication guidelines, including a fulllist of radio frequencies and where there areradio "dead spots" at your field locations. Inaddition, knowing the local SAR resources

will help you understand their abilities andtheir limitations. This will help you in yourdecision-making in the field when anemergency does occur.

Using "Runners" forCommunicationIn the absence of field radios or mobilephones, your Emergency Response Planmust make provisions for runners tocommunicate any emergencies to the localauthorities. Your ERP should include achecklist of what information those runnersshould have when they leave the accidentsite.

When runners are utilized, they should:

Always travel in groups of 2 or more, Take a clearly marked map, If the accident is off-trail, flag the

route from the location to the trailthey utilize,

Have the 10 essentials to avoidcomplicating the situation.


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P a r t 2 S ea r c h T h e o r y a n dR e s p o n s e


Outdoor Leaders4

To the outdoor leader, preparing for andmanaging the search response is muchdifferent than preparing for and managingthe rescue response. The one thing the twohave in common, however, is the need foran established and well-documented pre-plan.

Experiential

Programs' need for aPre-Plan

"A number of lost student

incidents have been

unnecessarily aggravated

because students did not

know what to do when

separated from the patrol

or instructor."

Colorado Outwar d Bound School'sCourse Director Man ual

To understand effective search, we mustunderstand behavior of lost persons.Hopefully you have modified your program

briefing to include discussion on what to doif you get lost." If your pre-plan establishesan expected behavior for any group member

who becomes lost, you have just increasedyour search effectiveness a hundred-foldover SAR teams who are searching for a lost

person who had no such briefing. "Stay put"is the most important lesson you need togive your program participants. Unlessthere is imminent threat of life or limb, anylost person is better off if they do not move.This will keep the search area small.

Common Lost PersonStrategies for

Getting "Unlost"So your student KNOWS he or she is lost -and that the rest of the group will initiate asearch fairly quickly. You have alreadyinstructed your participant to stay put. Sothey will stay put, right? Don't count on it.Most participants will also come equipped

with an ego, and that ego may tell them torescue themselves. For this reason, it ishelpful to understand lost person behavior.

A summary of studies on the behavior oflost persons includes:

If a lost person finds a trail, theymight get on it and run like hell -convinced they're on the way back totheir last point, when in fact theymight be running FROM it,

Rarely will a lost person reversetheir direction on a trail,

Many people ignore trails and followtheir own logic - traveling in a

straight line. They figure they'llcome to a road or highway - notexpecting the cliff or impassableriver that ultimately confronts them,

Some lost people will climb/hike tothe top of the closest hill to get a

better view, only to find that thetrees atop that hill obstruct any view,

The majority of lost people willtravel downhill and/or downstream,

Those who travel downstream willlikely end up in a swamp or

impassable confluence long beforethey reach civilization,

Other noteworthy behaviors include:

Many lost people will travel at night- even without a flashlight,


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Most lost persons will stay on a trailif they're not absolutely sure of theright direction,

Lost people will rarely move aroundrandomly - they usually move withconviction and hope that they'reheading in the right direction.

Participants in outdoor programs maybehave differently when lost. In particular,they are probably better equipped thanmost, presumably with ten essentials orsome survival equipment.

Mental/Emotional

Aspects of the LostPersonIf the subject is a course participant,consider the mental and emotional state ofthat participant. If there is a chance thesubject is despondent, your search strategyshould changes accordingly. Despondentsubjects react with a different kind of lost

behavior, largely because they are adifferent kind of "lost."

A search for a despondent and/or suicidalsubject must be considered an emergency

ALWAYS. They generally do answersearchers calls, may try to hide, often diefrom exposure, since they do not have thenatural tendency to protect themselves fromthe elements. Suicidal subjects usually donot travel far - but almost always to a sceniclocation where they can sit and meditate.

If yours is a youth program, keep in mindthat 50% of adolescents seriously considersuicide before adulthood. Females are morelikely to threaten suicide, but males aremore likely to succeed.

How searches for despondent subjects behandled differently? In particular,searchers should:

Not underestimate the emergentnature of the search,

Increase the saturation of thesearchers, and rely less on audiblesearch and attraction techniques,

Expect that the subject might nottravel as far as a typical lost subject,

Consider whether the subject headedtowards a checkpoint or resupplypoint,

Be prepared to offer emotionalsupport to the subject when thesubject is located; this is a criticaltime for support and understanding.

When a despondent subject is missing,outdoor leaders should immediately contactthe program leader, who should furthercontact the family.

The First Few Hoursof a SearchOperation

"Urgent response to a lost

person incident reduces thesize of the search area"

"Managing the Lost Person

In cident " by Nat ional Associat ion

of Search and Rescue

Hopefully, your outdoor program's carefullydeveloped pre-plan includes emergencyresource lists and call-out procedures.

While some programs suggest that leadersshould not notify authorities until they haveconducted their own search for a specified

period, others suggest immediatenotification of authorities.

The Mountain Rescue Association,representing thousands of rescuemountaineers nationwide, does not chargefor its services. Since SAR professionals aregenerally volunteers, and in many casesknow their response areas quite well, it is


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prudent to call them as soon as any SARresponse is activated.

Little is lost when calling for help. A search

area expands exponentially with each hour aperson is lost. Call for help - even if you endup not needing it.

Search MethodologyA participant is overdue. You haveassembled your participants and are readyto respond.

Whats next? The first (and often neglected)step in any search is to gather as much

information as possible before sendingother participants into the field:

Who is missing, and since when?What is his/her experience level?

What was the last seen point? What did they have with them?

Food/clothing?

What was their emotional state ofmind?

What type of footwear/what is thesole pattern? Is there a sample

footprint available?

Once you're ready to initiate a search,assembling your staff and students meansassessing their condition, abilities, andresources. What other resources do youhave? Are other programs in the vicinitythat you can call on?

Some basic search techniques will help:

All search teams must be at least 2people,

When possible, use staff as the teamleaders. At the same time, let thestudents play active roles. This is atremendous learning (and growing)opportunity for your students.

If your program is near a road, havesomeone search the roads by vehicle

- driving slowly and honking thehorn 3 times periodically.

Hints for basic search technique include:

Start documenting early. The personin charge of documentation shouldclearly mark search assignments anddeparture times on a map,

Designate the search areas with thehighest probability and sendsearchers there immediately,

Communication between searchteams is essential. Be certain thateach field team has a radio,

Start a "hasty search" early on - havepeople run the trails and streams,etc., carrying a whistle andperiodically stopping to blow it 3times,

Periodically, request check-in witheach team (including their location),

The base camp might be a goodlocation to practice attractiontechniques - build a smoky fire,make noise, honk car horns, etc.,

Communication between searchteams is essential. Be certain thateach field team has a radio,

When search teams return from anassignment, ask them howsuccessful they felt they were in theirefforts some may surprise you

with, "not very, the brush was verydense,"

As soon as possible, a "scent article"should be collected for search dogs.Take a plastic bag and invert it over

your hand. Using the bag like aglove, pick up articles such as socks,

underwear, hats - then invert the bagover the items, so your hand nevercomes in contact with the articles,

Leave notes at trailheads or otherexit points telling the lost party whatto do if they get there.


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"So, what are welooking for,

anyway?"The truth is that professional searchers arelooking more for clues than for victims.There are always more clues than victims,and once clues are found, the size of thesearch area is significantly reduced. Tomake the job of searchers easier, lost partiescan leave clues such as clear footprints,arrows drawn with sticks, notes attached totrees or anything they can think of to signalrescuers. Searchers should be taught to

search for clues and hope they trip over thevictim in the process.


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P a r t 3 R e sc u e R e sp o n s eSearch and Rescue for

Outdoor Leaders8

Rescues require specific skills without whicha bad situation can become worse. Thereare a number of elements related to rescuesthat outdoor educators should consider

when undertaking rescue operations.

Level of EmergencyFirst and foremost, is the need to evaluatethe level of the emergency. What is the

nature of the injuries? If life threatening,what is the level of medical care available?

Take a moment to carefully evaluate thesituation. Is a helicopter proposed for therescue? If so, is it necessary? Has therescue leader truly considered the danger ofairborne rescue operations? Many rescueaccidents occur because of haste in therescue effort.

A common belief among backcountry rescue

professionals is that the subject is usuallystable - dead or alive. Still, in the case ofexperiential programs, potential rescuersare often far from the scene, and not a 9-1-1call away. For this reason, acting with greaturgency is important.

Type of EmergencyBefore you can determine the appropriaterescue response, you have to look at the typeof emergency. The evacuation options aredependent on the nature of the terrain,injuries, weather, and the equipment andsupplies available.

If the subject is ambulatory or semi-ambulatory, evacuation might be as simpleas a horseback ride or even an assisted

walkout. But in the more difficultsituations, evacuation might only bepossible by use of a rescue litter. And if the

terrain is real nasty, a technical rescuesystem may be required to lower the litter tomore benign terrain.

Technical RescueSystems

Any experiential program that participatesin activities in mountainous terrain mayencounter emergencies that require atechnical evacuation of a stranded orinjured climber. This means lowering alitter with one or more litter-bearers to thepatient, loading the patient carefully, andcontinuing the lowering to the ground.

Rescuers must understand and haveexperience with technical rescue anchorsand systems, since they are vastly differentthan climbing anchors and systems.Obviously all participants must understandthe physical components of any rescuesystem to be used. Familiarity withequipment and technique is essential, as isan understanding of the appropriateness ofthe equipment to be used. Actual rescueoperations should not be the time for

participants to learn rescue equipment andtechniques.

The term "technical rescue" means morethan rescues that take place in technicalterrain. Technical rescue systems are oftennecessary on relatively easy 5th-class terrain,simply because the subject is notambulatory and needs to be transported bya litter with numerous attendants.

While vertical rescue operations areexhausting to the litter attendants, low- tomoderate-angle technical rescues can bemore exhausting. In the vertical situation,the subject, rescuers, and equipment aregenerally fully weighted on the anchorsabove. In the low- to moderate-angleevacuation, this weight is often transferredto the arms and legs of litter attendants. Inthis situation, rescuers must have theupper- and lower-body strength to sustain


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Outdoor Leaders9

long evacuations. Rescuers with experienceare often prepared for the physicalrequirements of such operations -adrenaline-laden novices, on the other

hand, may be unprepared.

Do You REALLY wantto do this?

"While a climbing anchorneeds to support a fallingclimber, a rescue anchorneeds to support a falling

School Bus

Charley Shim anski - Mountain

Rescue Associa tion

While most climbers understand the theoryof "shock-loading" systems, they understandit only as regards the weight of a singleclimber. Technical rescue loads involveforces well beyond those encountered inclimbing. Rescue loads are magnitudesgreater as forces increase with the weight ofthe victim, any attending rescuers, and therescue system itself. Shock-loading such

systems can be disastrous.

The suggested readings in the back of thismanual references texts that teach technicalrescue operations. In particular, the

American Mountain Guides Association hasprepared basic training for one-on-onerescue of stranded or injured climbers.

Trail CarryThe more frequent rescue will be a simpletrail carry of an injured subject in a litter. A

trail carry usually involves 4 to 6 litter-bearers that walk on each side of the litterand carry it down an established trail.

Although it sounds simple, a trail carry canbe a challenge because most trails are notwide enough for three people to walk side byside - yet a litter and attendants are as wideas 3 people.

Some simple precautions for a trail carryinclude:

Pad the litter before putting thepatient in. This should include a padunderneath the knees.

Eye and head protection must beprovided to the patient,

Secure the patient inside the litterusing tie-downs so that difficultterrain can be negotiated withoutseparating the patient and litter.

Litter bearers should monitor thesubject constantly (nausea and

vomiting are not uncommon, sincethe patient is tied down flat onhis/her back and suffering through

what can be a bumpy ride),

If you have more than enough litter-bearersfor the trail carry, you can help them workin periodic breaks without stopping thelitter. This is accomplished as follows:

As the litter is carried down the trail,a replacement pair of litter-bearersapproaches the litter from the rear,

The replacements grab the litterfirmly, then tap the shoulder of thelitter bearer in front of themindicating they can take the load,

That litter-bearer moves forward oneposition, then taps the shoulder ofthe bearer in front of him/her,

When the front litter-bearers aretapped, they leave the litter andadvance down the trail to thelocation where they can then prepareto become the next replacement

group.


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Using YOUR OWNResources for the

RescueCertainly any small adventure program cancarry out a successful rescue by improvising

with its own existing equipment. A slipknotrope litter, and a litter fashioned from skisand poles are effective and easy-to-assemblelitters.

Wisely, some adventure programs includeinto their coursework the building and useof these types of litters, giving the

participants a valuable lesson in theimportance of emergency preparedness inany adventure.

With no more than slight modifications toyour equipment list, you may be able toinclude the equipment required to fashion ahomemade litter. Still, keep in mind that

while a homemade litter might be ideal fortrail carries of non-ambulatory patients,only hard litters (such as a Stokes Litter)should be used for technical evacuations or

for the seriously injured. No patient withsuspected spinal injury should travel in animprovised litter.

What to do with YourResources

Whenever possible, get your studentsinvolved in the rescue. They can assist by:

Creating shelter, if necessary, for thesubject and/or rescuers,

Caring for and monitoring thepatient, including medical condition,etc.,

Providing food and drink for theprogram participants,

Providing emotional support to thesubject and the other participants.

Use of Helicopters inField Rescue

OperationsMed-Evac Helicopters are a valuableresource that outdoor programs can callupon to assist in evacuation. Somehospitals with helicopter capability maychoose to fly by virtue of little more than thedescription by a qualified professional in thefield.

As such, outdoor program managers mustassure their program considers the

following issues:

Know the resources available andhow to request them by phoneand/or radio,

Know their flight times to yourlocations,

The actual communication with thehospital should be made from thefield when possible. Field personnelcan better describe the nature ofinjury, weather conditions, and

proposed landing zone, The local law enforcement agency

should be contacted immediately inthe event of any helicopter med-evac(In mountains, a 9-1-1 call will oftenNOT give you the local agency),

Field staff must have the authority tocall for a helicopter if other levels ofauthority cannot be reached,

A pre-plan should include helicopterprotocol and all staff should betrained in basic helicopter safety.

Working with LocalSearch and RescueTeamsIn the United States, search and rescuegenerally falls under the jurisdiction of thecounty sheriff or state police. In highly


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populated backcountry areas, that lawenforcement authority will generally havean organized volunteer search and rescuegroup. In those areas where there are many

SAR missions each year, the local team isusually a group accredited by the MountainRescue Association. This means they have

been tested by their peers at least every fiveyears in four key disciplines:

1. Technical rescue2. Search3. Avalanche rescue4. Winter rescue

While not every SAR team in the U.S. is an

MRA-accredited team, many are. For thosethat are not MRA-accredited, the organizedrescue team may be comprised ofindividuals whose experience level rangesfrom beginner to advanced.

Depending on the locality, the local sheriffmay either turn the leadership of the SARresponse over to the organized SAR teamentirely, or the sheriff may take a greaterrole in the operation. This is usually at thediscretion of the sheriff.

While outdoor adventure programscontinue to develop and refine theirEmergency Response Plans, it is becomingequally important that programs in search,rescue and emergency management bedeveloped. Hopefully this training hashelped identify some of the elements thatare essential to developing such a program.


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Sugges t ed Read i ngsSearch and Rescue for

Outdoor Leaders12

W i l d e r n e s s S e a r c h a n d R e s c u e

Tim J. Setnicka; 1980, the AppalachianMountain Club; Boston, MA

M a n a g in g t h e L o s t P e r s o n I n c i d e n t

Kenneth Hill, Editor; 1997, NationalAssociation for Search and Rescue

T e ch n i ca l H a n d b o o k f o r P r o fe s s io n a l

M o u n t a in G u id e s

@1999 Association of Canadian MountainGuides, American Mountain Guides

Association

E m e r g e n c y R e sp o n s e S ys t e m s fo r

O u t d oo r P r o g r a m m in g

Jay Satz; 1999, The Wilderness RiskManagers Committee and theauthor; 1999 Wilderness RiskManagement ConferenceProceedings

H igh An g le Res cu e Tech n iq u es

Tom Vines and Steve Hudson 1999 Mosby, Inc.11830 Westwood Industrial Drive

St. Louis, MO 63146

Man ag in g F ie ld Evacu a t io n s

Jay Satz, David McEvoy, Kurt Merrill; 1999, The Wilderness Risk ManagersCommittee and the authors; 1999

Wilderness Risk ManagementConference Proceedings

S t r e s s a n d t h e R e s cu e r

Tod Schimelpfenig & Linda Lindsey; 1998, The Wilderness Risk Managers

Committee and the authors; 1998Wilderness Risk ManagementConference Proceedings

H e l i co p t e r s in S e a r c h a n d R e s c u e

O p e r a t i o n s - Ba s i c a n d

I n t e r m e d i a t e L e ve ls

2008 Charley Shimanski/MountainRescue Association

M o u n t a i n Tr a v e l a n d R e s cu e

1995, National Ski Patrol System;

Lakewood, CO 80228


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The Mountain Rescue Association is an organization dedicated to savinglives through rescue and mountain safety education

www.mra.org
http://www.mra.org/http://www.mra.org/http://www.mra.org/

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