Foreign Policy and Comparative Pol i t ics : A Strange Divide 9.

M i t c h e l l , J M and M i t c h e l l , W C (19691, P o l i t i c a l Ana lys is and P u b l i c P o l i c y

S a r t o r i , G (1970), 'Concept M i s i n f o r m a t i o n i n Comparative P o l i t i c s ' , American (Chicago, Rand McNal l y ) .

. - . . The Format ion o f N a t i o n a l S ta tes i n Western Eurooe

Wallace, W and P a t t e r s o n , W (eds) (1978) , Fore ign Pol icy-Making i n Western (London, Saxon House).

1979), Theory o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o l i t i c s (London, Addison Wesley).

SANCTIONS AND SOUTH AFRICA

THOMAS YOUNG

The c o n t i n u i n g demand fo r sanc t ions a g a i n s t South A f r i c a f rom a wide v a r i e t y o f spokesmen and t h e damaging e f f e c t s o f t h e a c t i o n s t h a t have a l ready been taken, have ensured t h a t t h e sanc t ions q u e s t i o n remains a h i g h l y s a l i e n t one. Yet as a q u e s t i o n t h a t spans a wide range o f moral , p o l i t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l issues, i t demands p e r i o d i c a l re-examinat ion t o ensure c l a r i t y of thought even i f t h e r e s u l t i s o n l y t o c l a r i f y areas o f disagreement. T h i s paper i s a smal l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h a t end.

Sanct ions may be d e f i n e d as n o n - v i o l e n t i n t e n t i o n a l l y c o e r c i v e pressures designed, a t l e a s t i n t h e South A f r i c a n case, t o induce s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l changes w i t h i n a s t a t e . Three aspects w i l l be considered here. The f i r s t concerns the i n i t i a t o r s o r agents o f sanc t ions , the second the n a t u r e o f t h e sanc t ions themselves and t h e l a s t t h e t a r g e t s o f sanc t ions . Agents o f s a n c t i o n s must make a number o f c a l c u l a t i o n s about t h e i r use, eg. there must be an assumption t h a t the t a r g e t o f sanc t ions can i n p r i n c i p l e be changed i n t h e d e s i r e d d i r e c t i o n . I n t h i s c o n t e x t two c e n t r a l ques t ions must be faced which r e l a t e t o t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f sanc t ions . i t i s an e s s e n t i a l p r e c o n d i t i o n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r p r a c t i c e s a r e unacceptable, and i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e r e must be standards o f a genera l k i n d as t o what i s acceptable.

Wi th r e f e r e n c e t o t h e f i r s t ,

How does t h i s app ly t o South A f r i c a ? An examinat ion o f what makes c u r r e n t South A f r i c a n p r a c t i c e s unacceptable r e v e a l s a general r e v u l s i o n towards a p a r t h e i d , e s p e c i a l l y i f the l a t t e r i s p r i m a r i l y d e f i n e d by re fe rence to the i n s t a l l a t i o n i n law o f sys temat ic r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . T h i s nar rowly focussed moral argument i s a s t r o n g one because South A f r i c a i s p robab ly the o n l y count ry t h a t l e g a l l y s u s t a i n s r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n (Santa Cruz, 1976).

10. Thomas Young

But i t i s no t t h e o n l y argument i n p l a y . S i m p l i f y i n g somewhat, two o t h e r genera l arguments a r e w i d e l y p u t forward. o f w h i t e rac i sm (S jo l l ema, 1982) w h i l e another focusses on w h i t e dominat ion and l a c k o f democracy (Legassick, 1985).

One tends t o s t r e s s t h e moral unacceptabi 1 i t y

I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i n d i c t m e n t a f f e c t s t h e na tu re o f what would be an accep tab le a l t e r n a t i v e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l arrangement and p robab ly the n a t u r e of t h e t r a n s i t i o n between t h e two. The ending o f l e g a l l y entrenched a p a r t h e i d i s d i f f e r e n t f rom forms o f power-shar ing and d i f f e r e n t aga in f rom forms o f m a j o r i t y r u l e . focussed ind i c tmen ts , u n l i k e t h e narrow focus on l e g a l a p a r t h e i d , r a i s e s e r i o u s conceptual d i f f i c u l t i e s which South A f r i c a n commentators, b o t h o f f i c i a l and otherwise, have n o t been slow t o p i n p o i n t (Koenderman, 1982). These can be l a b e l l e d c o m p a r a b i l i t y and cons is tency . C o m p a r a b i l i t y r e f e r s t o t h e c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n , s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e q u e s t i o n o f whether i t i s o n l y South A f r i c a i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community which e x h i b i t s m o r a l l y unacceptable behaviour . Again d e f i n i t i o n s a r e c r u c i a l . I f , f o r example, e t h n i c dominat ion i s what i s a t i ssue then i t i s beyond d i s p u t e t h a t such dominat ion e x i s t s i n a number o f o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . The q u e s t i o n then a r i s e s as t o why South A f r i c a i s t o be s i n g l e d o u t f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l p ressu re . Consis tency r e f e r s t o the end s t a t e which i s t o be a t t a i n e d by sanc t i ons . I f they a r e t o h e l p i n t r o d u c e democracy i n t o South A f r i c a ( t h e r e would, o f course, be d i s p u t e as t o how t h a t term was t o be de f i ned ) i t i s n o t obv ious why o t h e r c o u n t r i e s which do n o t have democrat ic p o l i t i c a l systems should n o t a l s o be t h e s u b j e c t o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l sanc t i ons .

I t should be noted t h a t t h e more b r o a d l y

Wi th re fe rence t o the p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f s a n c t i o n s t h e obv ious p o i n t must be i n t roduced t h a t t h e w o r l d i s a w o r l d o f n a t i o n - s t a t e s i n which t h e r e a r e some rudimentary mechanisms f o r m a i n t a i n i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r d e r . A c e n t r a l f e a t u r e o f t h i s o rde r i s t he n o t i o n o f s o v e r e i g n t y and n o n - i n t e r f e r e n c e i n the domest ic a f f a i r s o f sovere ign s t a t e s . I t i s e s s e n t i a l t h e r e f o r e t o d i s t i n g u i s h severa l types o f agent. A t l e a s t t h e f o l l o w i n g seem p e r t i n e n t - t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community through i t s c o l l e c t i v e o r g a n i s a t i o n s , i n d i v i d u a l governments, non- governmental o r g a n i s a t i o n s , p r i v a t e a s s o c i a t i o n s and p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s . A l l these p o t e n t i a l agents make t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n s under d i f f e r e n t c o n s t r a i n t s . But s ince t h e s p e c i a l f e a t u r e o f t h e c a l l s f o r s a n c t i o n s a g a i n s t South A f r i c a i s t h a t they be organised by i n t e r n a t i o n a l bodies, i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e here t o concen t ra te on t h a t aspect .

I n t h i s regard t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e domest ic j u r i s d i c t i o n o f s t a t e s and the powers o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s o f t h e UN system a r e paramount (Doxey, 1980). A r t i c l e 2 (7 ) o f t h e Char te r i n s t a l l s n o n - i n t e r f e r e n c e by t h e UN i n t h e domest ic j u r i s d i c t i o n o f s t a t e s . and c o n s i s t e n t l y r e j e c t e d by t h e General Assembly l a r g e l y by re fe rence t o a r t i c l e s 55 and 56 o f the Char te r which s t a t e t h a t t h e UN w i l l promote respec t f o r and obse rva t i on o f , human r i g h t s and fundamental freedoms f o r a l l w i t h o u t d i s t i n c t i o n as t o race, sex, language, o r r e l i g i o n , and t h a t a l l members pledge themselves t o take j o i n t and separate a c t i o n i n co -opera t i on w i t h t h e Organ isa t i on f o r t he achievement o f these purposes. What i s c r u c i a l here i s , f i r s t l y under what c i rcumstances a c t i o n may be taken and secondly, what k i n d of a c t i o n can be taken. The l e g a l s i t u a t i o r ! i s complex, b u t t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e some o f t h e s a l i e n t p o i n t s and i t w i l l become apparent how they have a f f e c t e d t h e moral i nd i c tmen t o f South A f r i c a a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d t o : The UN has powers o f suspension and e j e c t i o n ( though these r e q u i r e S e c u r i t y Counci l recommendation) a l t hough these a r e perhaps l e s s impor tan t t han t h e more genera l powers. Only where t h e r e i s a t h r e a t t o the peace, a breach o f t he peace o r an a c t o f aggress ion may s a n c t i o n s be implemented. (Note i n pass ing t h a t t h e r e i s no p r o v i s i o n f o r t he enforcement o f t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o a r t i c l e s 55 and 56 as

I t has been c o n s i s t e n t l y appealed t o by South A f r i c a

Sanctions and South Africa 1 1 .

regards t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f r i g h t s ) . t h r e a t s t o peace e x i s t and may deploy sanc t i ons o r m i l i a r y a c t i o n a g a i n s t o f f e n d e r s . Even i f i t has i d e n t i f i e d such a t h r e a t i t s under no o b l i g a t i o n t o o r d e r sanc t i ons . However, i f i t does a l l members o f UN a re then bound t o c a r r y o u t i t s d e c i s i o n . The S e c u r i t y Counci l a l s o has e n t i r e y d i s c r e t i o n a r y powers t o e n f o r c e judgements o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Cour t . I n r e l a t i o n t o South A f r i c a t h e General Assembly may do no more than recommend t h a t member s t a t e s sever r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h i s c o u n t r y , which indeed i t began t o do i n 1962. There i s , o f course, n o t h i n g t o p r e v e n t i n d i v i d u a l s t a t e s f rom t a k i n g independent a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e Repub l i c ; t h e f i r s t t o r e s o r t t o an o f f i c i a l b o y c o t t o f a l l South A f r i c a n goods be ing Jamaica i n 1959. Nor i s t h e r e a n y t h i n g o t h e r than t h e i r own mun ic ipa l laws t o p reven t l o c a l government bodies and p r i v a t e o r g a n i s a t i o n s doinq the same.

The S e c u r i t y Counci dec ides whether such

Given t h i s l e g a l frameworA t h e r e have been f a i r l y desperate a t tempts i o cons t rue the d e n i a l of human r i g h t s as i n i t s e l f a t h r e a t t o peace which w o u l d open up t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f sanc t i ons . The h i g h p o i n t o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n so z a ~ , t h e mandatory arms embargo imposed i n 1 9 7 7 , showed t h a t the !JN S e c u r i t y Council had moved i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h i s argument w i t h o u t , however, f u l l y accep t ing i t . I t no ted t h a t , 'The p o l i c i e s and a c t s o f t he South / \ f r i c a n government a r e f r a d g h t w i t h danger t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l peace and s e c u r i t y ' and tha:., 'The Republ ic o f South A f r i c a ' s procurement o f arms a c t u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e s a t t i r e a t t o the maintenance o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l peace and s e c u r i t y ' ( S e c u r i t y Couiicil R e s o l u t i o n 418, 4 November 1577) .

O f course, s t a t e s do n o t o n l y implement p c ; l i c i e s acco rd ing t o t h e d i c t a t e s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l law and conven t ion , and i t i s as w e l l t o no te the f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s which weigh i n t h e d e c i s i o n s o f a t l e a s t Western s t a t e s whose p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n sanc t i ons a g a i n s t South A f r i c a would be e s s e n t i a l t o t h e i r success. There a re many c l o s e l i n k s between Western s t a t e s and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , t he w h i t e p o p u l a t i o n o f t he Republ ic . These l i n k s a r e b o t h conmercial and pe rsona l . I n many Western c i r c l e s , even i f no l onger so open ly , w h i t e South A f r i c a i s s t i l l p e r c e i v e d as a wayward member o f t he 'F ree W o r l d ' . Beyond t h i s Western s t a t e s a r e r e l u c t a n t t o a1 low precedents f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e domest ic p o l i c i e s o f UN member s t a t e s . F i n a l l y , sanc t i ons a r e n o t c o s t l e s s t o t h e s t a t e s which w ish t o deploy them; t h e r e a r e many reasons t o doubt t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s , and such c a l c u l a t i o n s w i l l i n c l i n e s t a t e s towards measures t h e impact o f which i s l a r g e l y symbol ic such as t h e w i thd rawa l o f a t t a c h k s and s o on.

Tu rn ing now t o the s a n c t i o n s themselves, i t i s c l e a r t h a t a l l sanc t i ons seek t o deny t o t h e t a r g e t s t a t e and i t s c i t i z e n s normal d i p l o m a t i c i n t e r c o u r s e , resources, c u l t u r a l goods and g e n e r a l l y a l l human exchanges w i t h a v iew t o changing t h e behaviour o f those depr i ved . As i n t h e case o f ' a g e n t s ' a p r e l i m i n a r y d i s a g g r e g a t i o n o f t he t a r g e t i s necessary. I t would comprise t h e South A f r i c a n s t a t e , o r a t l e a s t i t s d i r e c t i n g group, organs o f l o c a l government, t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r , p r i v a t e a s s o c i a t i o n s and, more vaguely , p u b l i c o p i n i o n . T h i s generates a complex web of p o s s i b l e connect ions s i n c e b o t h s t a t e and non-s ta te agencies i n the d e p l o y i n g c o u n t r i e s can e x e r t p ressu re on b o t h s t a t e and non-s ta te agencies i n t h e t a r g e t s t a t e . O f ten a l l l e v e l s a r e i nvo l ved . I n t h e f i e l d of s p o r t , f o r example, i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s , governments, s p o r t i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n s and p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s a r e i n v o l v e d a t bo th ends o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p .

Sanct ions a r e , i n s h o r t , a s t r a t e g y o f d e n i a l . Two ques t i ons immediately p resen t themselves which r e f e r t o the scope and purpose o f d e n i a l . aspects a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d , b u t t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s t i l l seems a u s e f u l one, and w i l l be i l l u s t r a t e d by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e areas o f s p o r t and employment. The

These two

12. Thomas Young

famous B a s i l D ' O l i v e i r a case (when the South A f r i c a n government re fused t o accept an M C C team which inc luded a s o - c a l l e d co loured) may stand as an example o f a l i m i t e d scope/ l im i ted purpose sanc t ion . I n t h i s ins tance i t was n o t s imply t h a t the p o l i c i e s o f the South A f r i c a n government and s p o r t i n g bodies were o b j e c t i o n a b l e b u t t h a t acceptance o f such p o l i c i e s would have c o n s t i t u t e d an unacceptable i n t e r f e r e n c e i n o n e ' s own p r a c t i c e s i n an area regarded as almost sacrosanct, namely, the s e l e c t i o n o f team members. Here the scope was l i m i t e d t o a n a t i o n a l s p o r t i n g team, and t h e purpose was l i t t l e more than the avoidance o f c o m p l i c i t y i n something m o r a l l y repugnant.

Rather d i f f e r e n t i n scope and purpose have been t h e codes r e g u l a t i n g m u l t i n a t i o n a l companies i n South A f r i c a . These a l l c o n t a i n commitments t o r a c i a l desegregat ion i n t h e workplace, equal pay for equal work, advancement f o r b lacks and so on. Since coming i n t o e x i s t e n c e they have been taken up by governments so t h a t , f o r example, US p o l i c y i s n o t t o g i v e suppor t t o c o r p o r a t i o n s o p e r a t i n g i n the RSA which a r e n o t S u l l i v a n s i g n a t o r i e s ( S u l l i v a n , 1984). Here the scope and t h e purpose a r e wider than t h e e a r l y s p o r t i n g sanc t ions , y e t they have run i n t o s i m i l a r d i f f i c u l t i e s . n a t i o n a l o r reg iona l teams may c o e x i s t w i t h more o r less t o t a l segregat ion o f school s p o r t (St reek, 1985) so, as a p u r e l y p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r , c o r p o r a t i o n s have found t h a t b l a c k advancement i s h indered by, p u t t i n g i t a t i t s m i l d e s t , the ' inadequacies ' o f t h e educat ion system f o r b lacks (Sch ind le r , 1984).

J u s t as i n t h e f i e l d o f s p o r t desegregat ion o f

From the r e c o g n i t i o n o f these i n d i s p u t a b l e f a c t s i t i s a s h o r t s t e p t o the p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e r e can be no normal a c t i v i t i e s i n an abnormal s o c i e t y . I t then f o l l o w s t h a t the scope of sanc t ions must be t o t a l and t h e i r purpose n o t l i m i t e d t o t h e avoidance o f c o m p l i c i t y o r even t o the promot ion o f s e c t o r a l change. Noth ing less i s r e q u i r e d than a commitment t o t o t a l s o c i a l t rans format ion . As Amon Nsekela, then Tanzanian High Commissioner i n London, p u t i t i f t r a n s - n a t i o n a l companies were a c t u a l l y t o improve c o n d i t i o n s for b l a c k workers t o a p o i n t where t h i s began t o 'de lude A f r i c a n s o r t h e F i r s t World f r i e n d s o f l i b e r a t i o n i n t o t h i n k i n g t h a t a r e a l process o f change had begun, these f r i n g e gains would have been bought a t t o o h i g h a c o s t ' (Koenderman, 1982, p 162). Th is s h i f t i n scope and purpose i s c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e sequence o f UN statements on South A f r i c a which i n i t i a l l y concentrated o n l y on t h e apparatus o f r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . Whereas i n 1952 the UN c a l l e d on South A f r i c a t o suspend t h e implementat ion o f the Group Areas A c t , i t has, s i n c e 1967, c a l l e d f o r m a j o r i t y r u l e and has c la imed f o r i t s e l f the r i g h t t o des ignate t h e ANC and the PAC as the a u t h e n t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the m a j o r i t y o f South A f r i c a n s (Sagay, 1978). For those whose i n t e r e s t l i e s i n a w ider s t r u g g l e aga ins t South A f r i c a n c a p i t a l i s m o r even i n t e r n a t i o n a l c a p i t a l i s m (Legassick, 1985), t h e r e a r e no problems here b u t t a c t i c a l ones. For everyone e l s e t h e q u e s t i o n of scope and purpose o f sanct ions poses cons iderab le d i f f i c u l t i e s .

L a s t l y , t h e r e i s t h e aspect o f the t a r g e t s t a t e i t s e l f . Again two issues present themselves as c e n t r a l : the s t a t e ' s v u l n e r a b i l i t y and what w i l l be c a l l e d here i t s responsiveness. The f i r s t o f these has been perhaps t h e most thoroughly debated aspect o f t h e sanc t ions q u e s t i o n . k i n d s o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y , b u t t h e d i s c u s s i o n has been l a r g e l y devoted t o i t s economic aspects and much o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e - both p r o and a n t i sanc t ions - depends on a l l s o r t s o f ques t ionab le assumptions. But a number o f b a s i c f a c t s have t o be taken i n t o account. The geographica l f a c t s a lone a r e n o t p r o p i t i o u s . South A f r i c a has a lengthy c o a s t l i n e , and a number o f ne ighbour ing c o u n t r i e s a r e h e a v i l y dependent upon her for t h e supply of v a r i o u s commodit ies. Economical ly South A f r i c a has enormous minera l wea l th , i n c l u d i n g g o l d , which i s always i n demand. Her economy i s r e l a t i v e l y d i v e r s i f i e d and h e r government has long exper ience o f s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n . Her p o s s i b l e A c h i l l e s hee l , i t i s w i d e l y

There a r e d i f f e r e n t

Sanctions ayld South Africa 1 3 .

recognised, i s o i l . I t s s e n s i t i v i t y i s apparent f rom the Petro leum Products Amendment Ac t o f 1979 which makes i t an o f f e n c e t o p u b l i s h ar,y i n f o r m a t i o n about v i r t u a l l y e v e r y aspect of t h e R e p u b l i c ' s a c q u i s i t i o r , o f o i l p r o d u c t s . A f r i c a r e l i e s on o i l f o r about 20 p e r c e n t o f i t s energy requi rements and a l a r g e p a r t o f t h a t i s consumed i n t h e t r a n s p o r t s e c t o r . There i s an o i l s tock - p i l e whose e x a c t s i z e i s n o t known, b u t es t ima tes range between two and s i x Years ' supply . As a r e s u l t o f t h e c o u n t r i e s p i o n e e r i n g exper iments w i t h o i l - from-coal t echno logy i t s t h r e e SASOL p l a n t s a r e now claimed t o produce 50 p e r cen t o f c u r r e n t o i l consumption. (A p u r e l y t e c h n i c a l p o i n t i s r e l e v a n t here - t h e SASOL technology works w e l l w i t h c o a l , l i k e South A f r i c a ' s , o f h i g h ash con ten t (Spandau, 1979, p 157) . ) Es t ima tes a t p resen t p u t t h e c o u n t r y ' s e x t r a c t a b l e rese rves o f c o a l a t 61 b i l l i o n tons. F i n a l l y , a s a wea l thy coun t ry , South A f r i c a can f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e pay h i g h e r p r i c e s f o r o i l and, i n a d d i t i o n , i n v e s t i g a t e and f i n a n c e f u r t h e r sources o f energy supp ly (Sh ipp ing Research Bureau, 1986). I t i s hard t o a v o i d t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e t ime when an o i l embargo would have b rough t t h e c o u n t r y t o i t s knees, i f i t eve r e x i s t e d , has l ong s i n c e passed.

South

These c a l c u l a t i o n s o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y i n an ' o b j e c t i v e ' sense need t o be complemented by what m igh t be c a l l e d t h e aspect o f responsiveness. I n p r a c t i c e most proponents o f s a n c t i o n s recogn ise t h a t t hey a r e n o t l i k e l y t o be s u f f i c i e n t t o coerce t h e government and t h e w h i t e p o p u l a t i o n b u t must be seen i n a p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t o f a number o f p ressu res , b o t h domest ic and e x t e r n a l , whose combined weight w i l l have some impact. C a l c u l a t i o n and debate about such a p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t t a k e p l a c e on t h e i n t r i n s i c a l l y more e l u s i v e ground o f n a t i o n a l psychology, genera l mora le and p u b l i c o p i n i o n . Judgements on these m a t t e r s a r e h i g h l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l . A f a i r assessment would perhaps conclude t h a t t h e r e would be c o n t r a d i c t o r y e f f e c t s . I n t e r n a t i o n a l d i sapprova l o f a p a r t h e i d , e s p e c i a l l y t h rough h i g h l y v i s i b l e a c t i o n a g a i n s t s p o r t i n g l i n k s and, more r e c e n t l y , p o p u l a r TV e n t e r t a i n m e n t , has c l e a r l y focussed t h e a t t e n t i o n o f South A f r i c a n w h i t e s and t h e i r government on t h e i r i s o l a t i o n . T h i s has been r e i n f o r c e d by t h e d r a m a t i c d e p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e rand ove r t h e p a s t year which, i f n o t d i r e c t l y i n s t i g a t e d by means of s a n c t i o n s , i s seen by South A f r i c a n wh i tes , and r i g h t l y so, as h a v i n g occu r red i n p a r t as a r e s u l t o f i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s a p p r o v a l . There has never been more d i s c u s s i o n and debate about p o l i t i c s than now and more w i l l i n g n e s s t o j e t t i s o n l a r g e chunks of a p a r t h e i d , d e f i n e d i n t h e narrow sense.

E q u a l l y , expe r ience suggests t h a t e x t e r n a l p ressu re on any c o u n t r y o r group encourages r e s i s t a n c e and a heightened sense o f a g o - i t - a l o n e m e n t a l i t y (Maya l l , 1984). I t i s t h i s w r i t e r ' s impress ion, f o r which t h e r e i s some suppor t f rom o p i n i o n survey d a t a (Geldenhuys, 1984, pp 193-99) t h a t such tendencies do e x i s t i n South A f r i c a . Whi le t h e w h i t e p o p u l a t i o n and t h e government have shown t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s t o implement what a r e by t h e i r s tandards d r a m a t i c changes (most r e c e n t l y t h e a b o l i t i o n of t h e Pass Laws), they have been r e l u c t a n t t o contemplate measures t h a t would encroach upon t h e c o r e o f t h e i r s o c i o - economic p r i v i l e g e s o r t h e i r ( v i r t u a l ) monopoly o f p o l i t i c a l power. Faced w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l p ressu res t o i n i t i a t e changes a l s o i n these areas, t h e w h i t e p o p u l a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i t s lower income groups, may w e l l be prepared t o make c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r s a c r i f i c e s i n t h e defence of such p r i v i l e g e s than has h i t h e r t o been t h e case.

T h i s a l l t o o b r i e f survey o f t h e sanc t i ons i ssue has n o t sought t o p resen t a p a r t i c u l a r s tance on t h e q u e s t i o n b u t s imply t o suggest t h a t any coherent , r a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n on s a n c t i o n s a g a i n s t South A f r i c a , whether f o r o r a g a i n s t , must p r o v i d e answers t o t h e ques t i ons posed above.

14. Thomas Young

References

Doxey, M P (1980), Economic Sanctions and I n t e r n a t i o n a l Enforcement (London, Macmi 1 lan) .

Geldenhuys, D (1984), The Diplomacy o f I s o l a t i o n - South A f r i can Foreign Pol i c Maki n (Johannesburg, Macmi 1 lan) .

Koenderman ---+-7+ T 19 2 ) , Sanctions, the Threat t o South A f r i c a (Johannesburg, Jonathan B a l l ) .

Legassick, M (1985), 'South A f r i c a i n C r i s i s : What Route t o Democracy?', A f r i can A f f a i r s 84(4) , pp 587-603.

Mayal l , J (1984), 'The Sanctions Problem i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic Relat ions: Ref lec t ions i n the L i g h t o f Recent Exper ience' , I n te rna t i ona l A f f a i r s 60(4), DD 631-42. . . . , . ~

Sagay, I E (1978), I n te rna t i ona l Law and the Southern A f r i c a n S i t u a t i o n (Lagos, N iger ian I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s ) .

Santa Cruz, H (1976), Racial D isc r im ina t i on (New York, Uni ted Nat ions) . Schindler, J (1984), Separate But Equal: Some Comments on de Lange and the

White Paper (Johannesburg, South A f r i c a n i n s t i t u t e o f Race Re la t ions) . Shipping Research Bureau (1986) , Newslet ter on the O i 1 Embargo Against South

A f r i c a , No 4 (Amsterdam). S jo l lema, B (1982), i s o l a t i n g Apartheid (Geneva, World Counci 1 o f Churches). Spandau, A (1979), Economic Boycott Against South A f r i c a (Cape Town, Ju ta) . Streek, B (1985), ' I l l u s i o n and R e a l i t y i n South A f r i c a ' s Sport P o l i c y ' ,

Su l l i van , the Rev. Leon H (1984), 'The S u l l i v a n P r i n c i p l e s and Change i n South A f r i c a In te rna t i ona l 16(1) , pp 29-41.

South A f r i c a ' , A f r i c a Report 29(3) , pp 48-50.

AUTHORITARIANISM I N CHILE AND THE ROLE OF THE OPPOSITION

JEAN GRUGEL

Curren t ly , the fashionable word i n L a t i n American s tud ies i s ' redemocra t isa t ion ' . across the South American cont inent s u f f i c e s t o understand why. and 1985, c i v i l i a n regimes were es tab l i shed i n B o l i v i a , Argent ina, Uruguay, B r a z i l and Peru. Such are the hopes and asp i ra t i ons generated by the r e t u r n t o democracy a f t e r long years o f m i l i t a r y r u l e tha t Paul Cammack concluded: ' long- term prospects f o r democracy i n South America a re b e t t e r than they have ever been before ' (Cammack, 1985). O f the 'modern' m i 1 i t a r y regimes es tab l ished i n South America i n the 1960s and 1970s, on l y one remains - t h a t o f Chi le , where General Pinochet came t o power i n 1973.

A b r i e f g lance a t the p o l i t i c a l s t ruc tu res now i n p lace Between 1982