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WORK ENVIRONMENTS AND RETENTION OUTCOMES OF ACADEMIC
STAFF OF STATE UNIVERSITIES IN SOUTHERN NIGERIA
SALAU, ODUNAYO PAUL
Matric Number: 13PAC00560
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WORK ENVIRONMENTS AND RETENTION OUTCOMES OF ACADEMIC
STAFF OF STATE UNIVERSITIES IN SOUTHERN NIGERIA
By
SALAU, ODUNAYO PAUL
Matric Number: 13PAC00560
B.Sc; M.Sc Industrial Relations and Human Resource Management
(Olabisi Onabanjo University)
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES OF
COVENANT UNIVERSITY, OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D.) DEGREE IN INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS AND
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, IN THE DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS
MANAGEMENT, COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES,
COVENANT UNIVERSITY, OTA
MAY, 2017
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ACCEPTANCE
This is to attest that this Thesis is accepted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the award of the degree of the Doctor of Philosophy in Industrial Relations and Human
Resource Management in the Department of Business Management, College of
Business and Social Sciences, Covenant University, Ota.
Mr. Philip John Ainwokhai …………………………………..
Secretary, School of Postgraduate Studies Signature & Date
Professor Samuel Wara ………………………………….
Dean, School of Postgraduate Studies Signature & Date
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DECLARATION
I, SALAU Odunayo Paul, (13PAC00560), declare that this research work was carried
out by me under the supervision of Dr. Rowland E. Worlu and Dr. Adewale O. Osibanjo
of the Department of Business Management, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State. I
attest that the thesis has not been presented either wholly or partly for the award of any
degree elsewhere. All sources of data and scholarly information used in this thesis are
duly acknowledged.
SALAU Odunayo Paul ………………………………
Signature & Date
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CERTIFICATION
We certify that the thesis titled “Work Environments and Retention Outcomes of
Academic Staff of State Universities in Southern Nigeria” is an original work carried
out by SALAU Odunayo Paul, (13PAC00560), of Industrial Relations and Human
Resource Management Programme in the Department of Business Management,
College of Business and Social Sciences, Covenant University, Canaan land, Ota, Ogun
State, Nigeria. We have examined the work and found it acceptable for the award of a
degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Industrial Relations and Human Resource
Management.
Dr. Rowland E. Worlu …………………………….....
Supervisor Signature & Date
Dr. Adewale O. Osibanjo ………………………………..
Co-Supervisor Signature & Date
Dr. Oluwole O. Iyiola ………………………………..
Head, Department Business Management, Signature & Date
Professor Kehinde O. Osotimehin ………………………………..
External Examiner Signature & Date
Professor Samuel Wara …………………………..........
Dean, School of Postgraduate Studies, Signature & Date
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DEDICATION
Glory be to God in the highest. This thesis is dedicated to the King of Kings, the Alpha
and Omega, the One that knows the end from the beginning, the Sustainer of my life,
the One that has given me the grace to come this far and to conclude this thesis. And
also to my wife, Mrs. Jumoke Mary Salau; my Children, Master Opeyemi Peter Salau
and Oreoluwa Theresa Salau for their supports and understanding throughout the period
of the work.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
On a starting note, I want to acknowledge God Almighty for His sufficient love upon
me and for mercies, innumerable blessings, and protection that have kept me in good
health till date, and for giving me the strength and ability to go through with this
research project successfully. To Him is all the glory.
I will forever be grateful to the visionary of this great institution (Covenant University,
Ota), Dr David Olaniyi Oyedepo for his foresight and for constantly giving out time
both to challenge our potentials in God and to provoke us in the school of exploits. I
sincerely thank the management of the school under the able leadership of Professor
Aaron Aderemi Atayero (The Vice Chancellor), Professor Shalom Chinedu (Deputy
Vice Chancellor) and the Registrar – Mrs. Mary Aboyade. I deeply appreciate the
support of Professor Francis Iyoha (Dean, College of Business and Social Sciences)
and Professor Oluranti Olurinola (Former Dean, College of Business and Social
Sciences) for the support and encouragement. Worthy of mention is the support of the
Dean, School of Postgraduate Studies, Professor Samuel Wara and Dr. Abiodun
Adebayo (Sub- Dean, School of Postgraduate Studies). I humbly appreciate the efforts
of the Head, Business Management Department, Dr. Oluwole Iyiola. Thank you Sirs
and May the good Lord continue to bless you with good things of life. Amen.
Special thanks go to my supervisor and co-supervisor, Associate Professor Rowland
Worlu and Dr. Adewale Osibanjo for their valuable contributions to the success of this
work. Sirs, your positive critiques and insistence on high standards have been highly
illuminating. Despite all odds, you were able to go through my work and made
necessary corrections. My fervent prayer is that God continues to bless you and yours
beyond boundaries (Amen). I cannot forget my Daddy and former Head of Department,
Professor Ibidunni Samson for “the Push” and the great intellectual input he made to
this work. May God Almighty reward and bless him abundantly.
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Equally, I wish to appreciate my erudite and amiable Head of Unit, our MAMA – Dr.
Adeniji Anthonia Adenike for her motherly affection and guidance. I pray that her years
be long on earth with good things of life. There are many other academics whose inputs
and contributions made this work a success. Senior colleagues and fathers they are
really. These include Distinguished Professor Charles Ayo, Professor Maloma
Akinnusi, Professor Olufemi Adeyeye, Professor Daniel Gberevbie, Professor Dayo
Akintayo, Professor Dayo-Ade Turton, Professor Patrick Edewor, Professor Adetola
Obatunde (formerly known as Alliyu Nurudeen), Professor Alaba Adenuga, Professor
Olawole Obembe, Professor Philip Alege, etc. And also to Associate Professor Moses
Love Chinonye and Dr. (Mrs.) Tayo George (Department of Sociology), Associate
Professor David Imnophi, Associate Professor Grace Olasehinde; I thank you all for
creating time to nurture and help me read through this work times without number.
Special mention must be made of friends and colleagues at work on whose wings of
love I am flying. I am eternally grateful to Dr. Osibanjo Adewale Omotayo for always
being there for me. Sir, I say a big thank you for your continuous inspiration, influence
and motivation through various platforms. Special thanks to my boss of life and mother
Dr. (Mrs.) Omoniyi-Oyafunke Comfort (Olabisi Onabanjo University) for giving me
the hope and opportunity to learn and grow. My gratitude to you and your family is
immeasurable. Your contributions towards my eventual success cannot be quantified.
May God in his infinite mercies continue to bless and guide you and your family in all
you do (Amen).
I sincerely appreciate scholars like Dr. Oludayo Olumuyiwa, Dr. Edwin Agwu, Dr.
Joachim Abiodun, Dr. Olaleke Ogunnaike, Dr. S. T. Akinyele, Dr. O. J. Kehinde, Dr.
Omotayo Adegbuyi, Dr. Olabode Oyewunmi, Dr. Oke Adunnola, Dr. Toyinayo
Mathew, Dr. A. Oke, Dr. Mercy Ogbari, Dr. Jegede (Department of Sociology), Dr.
Igbinoba Ebeguki, Dr. Eniola Sokefun, Otunba (Dr.) Fayemi, Dr. David Imnophi and
many others that are not mentioned here. My honour list is also extended to my
colleagues (lecturers): Dr. Agboola Mayowa, Dr. Akinbode Mosunmola, Mrs.
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Oyewunmi Esther Adebukonla, Mr. Maxwell Olokundun, Mr. Stephen Ibidunni, Mr.
Fred Peters, Mrs. Dirisu Joy, Pastor Philips (PG Secretary), Mr. Adekola Paul
(Demography), Miss Augusta Amaihan, Mrs. Tolu Atobagbe, Miss. Marvelous
Gberevie, Mr. Sogo Adediran (Department of Economics), Mr. Alejo (Department of
Economics), Mr. Abasilm Ugochukwu (my good friend), Mrs Adeniji Chichi, Mrs. Aka
Deborah, Mrs. Damilola Oluwaniyi (Departmental Officer), Mrs. Faith-Osasumwen
Shodipo and Mr. Adekunle Shodipo (My Neighbours/CU) and Queen Esther for their
contribution towards the success of this work.
I acknowledge the efforts of my brother and friend Mr. Falola Hezekiah Olubusayo for
his contributions. I also thank my friends and brothers: Mr. Isaiah Adisa, Sheriff and
Segun Onifade (FOTO) for their supports. I sincerely appreciate the supports given to
me by the lecturers in Department of Sociology/Psychology, Olabisi Onabanjo
University, Ago- Iwoye, Ogun state. People like Professor Nurudeen Alliyu, Dr. James
Adekoya, Dr. Aluko Arowolo, Dr. Ajadi Oyekunle (Baba You Know), Dr. Omoniyi
(My Mother and Mentor), Dr. Chiedu Abrifor, Mr. Adeleke, Mr. Solaja Mayowa, Mr.
Peter Kalejaiye, Mr. Abiodun (Psychology), Elijah Olusegun Akinola (G.O), Mr.
Atiku, Ekechukwu Faith. Your names have been written in gold and this will never be
forgotten in the annals of history. A very big kudos goes to my big brothers, friends and
colleagues who include: Saheed Banjo (Seedorf), Alh. Mojeed Ekelojumati, Dr.
Kayode Olusanya (Baba Three), Hon. Bayo Adekoya, Dr. Ojo, Mr. Kayode
Ogunsanya, Mr. Bode Durojaiye, Idowu Maroofdeen Adebanjo (Alpha), etc.
I sincerely express my profound gratitude to Alaporu of Ilaporu: HRH. Oba Jimoh
Adebamiro Quadri for his prayers and supports. Kabiesi, Igba odun, Odun kan ni o. To
all the members of Citizen Brothers’ Club (Ilaporu) and Royal club of Ijebuland, I say
a very BIG thank you for your unflinching encouragement. To all my well-wishers and
friends, Dare Apena, Seyi Quadri, Abiodun Quadri, Mr. Akeem Sodiq, Anthonia and
Ifeoluwa Tiriba, Mama Adeyemi, Ademola Adewusi, Peter Akinyelu, Adisa Olaide,
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Seun Momoh, Soji Olu-Idowu, Imam Kunle (Imota), Aderibigbe Adekitan, Alhaja
Mariam Tutu Adeiye and all the family members of Salau and Adekitan, I say thank
you and God bless you all.
My heartfelt appreciation goes to my ever loving and supportive parents – Mr. Pius
Tajudeen Salau and Mrs. Deborah Iyabo Salau who birthed me into this world and
offered me early tutelage. I will forever remember the good deeds and values both of
you deposited in my life. May God in his infinite mercies continue to guide, bless and
protect you from the evils of life (Amen). Blessed be the day I met my wife – Salau
Jumoke Adejonwo Mary and thank God for the fruits of the union (Opeyemi and
Oreoluwa Salau). I appreciate you all for the sacrifice, love, care, prayers and
perseverance. I also recognize all my brothers and sisters both from within and outside.
May God continue to uphold and bless all your endowments.
Also, I appreciate all the staff and management of the sampled Universities in Southern
Nigeria for their support and cooperation in giving necessary information required for
the success of the study. Finally, I sincerely express my profound appreciation to the
Management of Covenant University for the innumerable supports and encouragement.
This list of Contributors are endless, please forgive me if by omission your name do
not appear, I have not treated you with levity but for lack of space. I salute you all!
SALAU Odunayo Paul
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page .................................................................................................................................. i
Acceptance Page ...................................................................................................................... iii
Declaration Page ...................................................................................................................... iv
Certification Page.......................................................................................................................v
Dedication ................................................................................................................................ vi
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. vii
Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... xi
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... xvi
List of Figures ..........................................................................................................................xx
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................ xxii
List of Appendices ............................................................................................................... xxiii
Abstract ................................................................................................................................ xxiv
CHAPTER ONE ……………………………………………………………………….. 1
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background to the Study ..................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem ............................................................................................ 3
1.3 Objectives of the study........................................................................................................ 6
1.4 Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 7
1.5 Research hypotheses ........................................................................................................... 7
1.6 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................................. 9
1.7 Scope of the Study ............................................................................................................ 10
1.8 Operationalization of Research Variables................................................................................ 11
1.9 Structure of the work ........................................................................................................ 12
1.10 Schematic Model of the Study ................................................................................................ 13
1.11 Operational Definition of Terms ..................................................................................... 14
1.12 Historical Development of Sampled Universities ................................................................ 16
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CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................... 20
LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................... 20
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 20
2.2 Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 20
2.2.1 An Overview of Work Environments ............................................................................ 20
2.2.2 Nature of Work Environments ....................................................................................... 21
2.2.3 Factors Influencing Work environment ......................................................................... 22
2.2.4 Determinants of Work Environments ............................................................................ 26
2.2.5 Staff Loyalty .................................................................................................................. 50
2.5.6 Staff involvement ........................................................................................................... 51
2.2.6 Staff commitment........................................................................................................... 52
2.2.7 Job Satisfaction .............................................................................................................. 53
2.2.8 University Education and Its status in Nigeria .............................................................. 55
2.2.9 Problems and Prospectus of Management Education in Nigeria ................................... 57
2.2.10 Public Universities and their Staff Unions in Nigeria ................................................. 59
2.2.11 Work Environments in Nigerian Public Universities .................................................. 63
2.2.12 Staff Turnover in Nigerian Higher Institutions ............................................................ 64
2.2.13 Consequences of Staff Turnover and Brain Drain in Nigerian Public Universities .... 72
2.3 Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................... 74
2.3.1 Equity Theory ................................................................................................... 74
2.3.2 Fredrick Herzberg Two Factor’s Theory ................................................................ 76
2.3.3 Victor Vroom and Lawler’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation ............................ 77
2.4 Empirical studies ............................................................................................................... 79
2.5 Conclusion and Gaps in the Literature.............................................................................. 82
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CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................ 83
METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................. 83
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 83
3.2 Research Methods ............................................................................................................. 83
3.3 Research Design................................................................................................................ 83
3.4 Study Population ............................................................................................................... 84
3.5 Sample Frame and Sample Size Determination ................................................................ 86
3.6 Sampling Techniques ........................................................................................................ 87
3.7 Sources of Data ................................................................................................................. 88
3.8 Research Instruments ........................................................................................................ 88
3.8.1 Quantitative Data .................................................................................................... 88
3.8.2 Qualitative data ....................................................................................................... 89
3.8.2.1 In-depth Interview ............................................................................................... 89
3.8.2.2 Observations .................................................................................................... 90
3.8.3 Matrix of Research Instruments and Objectives ..................................................... 90
3.9 Pre-distribution of research instruments ........................................................................... 90
3.10 Data Collection Process .................................................................................................. 91
3.11 Validity and Reliability of the instruments ..................................................................... 92
3.12 Method of Data Analysis ................................................................................................ 93
Quantitative data: ........................................................................................................ 93
Qualitative data:…………………………………………………………………... 93
3.13 Ethical considerations ..................................................................................................... 95
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CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................... 96
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ....................................................................... 96
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 96
4.2 Data Presentation .............................................................................................................. 96
4.2.1 Response Rate of Questionnaire Administered ...................................................... 96
4.3.2 Distribution of Biographical Characteristics of the Respondents .......................... 98
4.3 Cross-tabulation of Biographical Data by Gender .......................................................... 103
4.4 Descriptive Statistics and Test of Hypotheses ................................................................ 107
4.5 Summary of Multiple Regression for the Variables ....................................................... 141
4.6 Summary of Tested Hypotheses ..................................................................................... 156
4.7 Qualitative Findings Based on Thematic Analysis ......................................................... 166
4.7.1 Thematic Analysis of Physical Work Environment and Retention Outcomes ..... 166
4.7.2 Thematic Analysis of Psychological Work Milieu and Retention Outcomes ...... 167
4.7.3 Thematic Analysis of Job Contents and Retention Outcomes ............................. 167
4.7.4 Thematic Analysis of Reward System and Retention Outcomes ......................... 167
CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................. 170
DISCUSSIONS ..................................................................................................................... 170
5.1 Physical Work Environment and Commitment of Academic Staff ................................ 170
5.2 Psychological Work Milieu and Loyalty of Academic Staff .......................................... 172
5.3 Job Contents and Performance of Academic Staff ......................................................... 173
5.4 Reward System and Satisfaction of Academic Staff ...................................................... 175
5.5 Organisational Climate and Productivity of Academic Staff ......................................... 176
5.6 Work Environments and Retention Outcomes ............................................................... 177
5.7 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 178
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CHAPTER SIX ..................................................................................................................... 180
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................180
6.1. Summary of the Thesis .................................................................................................. 180
6.2 Summary of Research Findings ...................................................................................... 182
6.2.1 Summary of Theoretical Findings ........................................................................ 182
6.2.2 Summary of Empirical Findings ........................................................................... 184
6.2.2.1 Summary of Quantitative Findings.................................................................... 184
6.2.2.2 Summary of Qualitative Findings...................................................................... 186
6.3 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 187
6.4 Recommendations of the Study ...................................................................................... 188
6.5 Contributions to Knowledge ........................................................................................... 189
6.6 Policy and Managerial Implications ............................................................................... 190
6.7 Suggestions for Further Studies ...................................................................................... 191
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 192
RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................................................................ 218
APPENDIX II ....................................................................................................................... 224
APPENDIX III ...................................................................................................................... 225
APPENDIX IV...................................................................................................................... 226
APPENDIX V ....................................................................................................................... 228
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Names and number of state universities in Southern Nigeria. ................................... 11
Table 2.2: Total Reward System ............................................................................................. 38
Table 2.3: Components and meaning. ..................................................................................... 43
Table 2.4: ASUU Strikes (Between 1980 and 2015) ................................................................. 61
Table 2.5: Allocation to Education in Nigeria by Federal Government: 2000-2015. ................. 63
Table 2.6: Allocation to Education as % of GNP in Selected 20 Countries in the World. .......... 68
Table 3.1 Population of the Study........................................................................................... 84
Table 3.2 Study Population ..................................................................................................... 85
Table 3.3 Population Distribution of Sampled Universities ................................................... 87
Table 3.4 Matrix of Research Instruments and Objectives ..................................................... 90
Table 3.5 Reliability Coefficients for the Variables in the Study ........................................... 92
Table 4.1: Respondents by Type of Institutions (Comparative) ............................................. 97
Table 4.2: Distribution of Biographical Data of the Respondents .......................................... 98
Table 4.2a: Gender * University Cross-tabulation ................................................................. 99
Table 4.2b: Current status of respondents *Code of University sampled Cross tabulation . 100
Table 4.2c: Work Experience * University Cross tabulation ............................................... 101
Table 4.2d: Highest Educational Background * University Cross-Tabulation ..................... 102
Table 4.3.1:Cross-tabulation of Biographical Data by Gender ............................................. 103
Table 4.3.2: Cross-tabulation of “Years of Service” by Gender........................................... 105
Table 4.3.3: Cross-tabulation of Highest Educational Qualification by Gender .................. 106
Table 4.4: Statistics showing the Classification Of Research Variables .............................. 107
Table 4.4.1a: Physical Work Settings by Gender ................................................................. 107
Table 4.4.1b: Psychological Work Milieu and Job Contents by Gender .............................. 108
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Table 4.4.1c: Extent of Reward System by Gender .............................................................. 109
Table 4.4.2a: Physical Work Settings by Status ................................................................... 110
Table 4.4.2b: Psychological Work Milieu and Job Contents by Status ................................ 111
Table 4.4.2c: Extent of Reward System by Status ................................................................ 112
Table 4.4.3a: Mean Statistics of physical work milieu and staff commitment ..................... 114
Table 4.4.3b: Names and University’s Representation ......................................................... 115
Table 4.4.3 (c): Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Variables for each University ... 115
Table 4.4.3(d): Determinants of Physical setting and commitment using Regression ........ 117
Table 4.4.3(e) Coefficients of the effects of Physical Settings on Staff Commitment ......... 118
Table 4.4.4(a): Mean Statistics of Psychological factors and staff loyalty ........................... 120
Table 4.4.4(b) Descriptive Statistics of Psychological Work milieu .................................... 121
Table 4.4.4(c) Correlations of Variables for each University ............................................... 122
Table 4.4.4(d): Contributions of Psychological work milieu: ............................................. 124
Table 4.4.4(e): ANOVA and the Determinants of Psychological work milieu: .................. 124
Table 4.4.5(a): Descriptive Statistics for Variables in Objective 3 ...................................... 126
Table 4.4.5(b): Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for the sampled Universities .......... 127
Table 4.4.5(c): Correlations of Variables for each University .............................................. 128
Table 4.4.5(d): Mean Statistics of Job Contents and Staff Involvement .............................. 130
Table 4.4.5(e): Correlation between Job Contents and Staff Involvement. .......................... 131
Table 4.4.6(a): Mean Statistics for Reward Systems and Staff Satisfaction ........................ 132
Table 4.4.6(b): Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Variables for University ............ 133
Table 4.4.6(c): Correlation co-efficient between Reward System & Satisfaction ................ 135
Table 4.4.6(d): Contributions of work environments & satisfaction using Regression ........ 135
Table 4.4.6(e): Analysis showing the effects of Reward System on Staff Satisfaction ....... 136
Table 4.4.6(f): Coefficients of the effects of Reward system on Staff satisfaction .............. 136
xviii
Table 4.4.7(a): Descriptive Statistics on Organisational Climate ......................................... 138
Table 4.4.7(b): Descriptive Statistics on Organisational Climate and Staff Productivity .... 139
Table 4.4.7(c): Contributions of Organisational Climate and Staff Productivity ................. 140
Table 4.4.7(d): Correlation Co-efficient of Organisational Climate and Productivity ......... 141
Table 4.5: Summary Of Multiple Regression For The Variables ......................................... 141
Table 4.5.1(a): Contributions of Work Environments and Staff Commitment .................... 141
Table 4.5.1(b): Model Summary for Predicting Staff Commitment ..................................... 142
Table 4.5.1(c): Test of Model Fitness for Predicting Staff Commitment ............................. 142
Table 4.5.2(a): Contributions of Work Environments on Staff Loyalty. .............................. 144
Table 4.5.2(b): Model Summary for Predicting Staff Loyalty ............................................. 144
Table 4.5.2(c): Model results & Regression Weights for Staff Loyalty ............................... 145
Table 4.5.3(a): Contributions of Work Environments on Staff Involvement. ...................... 146
Table 4.5.3(b) Model Summary for Predicting Staff Involvement ....................................... 146
Table 4.5.4(a): Contributions of Work Environments Determinants on Staff Satisfaction .. 148
Table 4.5.4(b) Model Summary for Predicting Staff Satisfaction ........................................ 148
Table 4.5.4(c): Regression Weights for Predicting Staff satisfaction ................................... 149
Table 4.5.5(a): Contributions of Work Environments Determinants on Staff Productivity . 150
Table 4.5.5(b): Model Summary for predicting Staff Productivity ...................................... 151
Table 4.5.5(c) Model and Regression Weights for predicting Staff Loyalty ........................ 152
Table 4.5.5(d): Hierarchical Factor Loadings Model of Work Environments Scale ............ 154
Table 4.6: Summary Of The Tested Hypotheses .................................................................. 156
Table 4.6.1(a): Model Summary between Work Environments and Retention Outcomes .. 156
Table 4.6.1(b): Correlation Co-efficient of Work Environments & Retention Outcomes ... 156
Table 4.6.1(c): Model Fit Index of Work Environments and Retention Outcomes ............. 157
xix
Table 4.6.2: variation in perception of staff on the relationship between work environment
and retention outcomes across Demographic characteristics .................................... 159
Table 4.6.3: Responses to the open ended questions ............................................................ 161
Table 4.6.4: Summary of Findingd from Hypotheses Tested .............................................. 164
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LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1.1: Proposed Schematic Model for the Study ........................................................................ 13
Fig 2.1: Factors Influencing Work environment ........................................................................... 24
Fig. 2.2: Predictors of Work Environment .............................................................................. 26
Fig. 2.3: Predictors of Work Environment .............................................................................. 27
Fig. 2.4. Predictors of Psychological Factors ......................................................................... 29
Fig. 2.5: Factors that influence Perception ............................................................................. 31
Fig. 2.6: Motivation Framework ............................................................................................. 32
Figure 2.7: A Framework for Job Design ............................................................................... 35
Figure 2.8: Motivation through the Design of Work .............................................................. 36
Figure 2.9: Components of Total Reward Strategy ............................................................... 37
Figure 2.10: Components of Organisational Culture .............................................................. 43
Figure 2.11: Determinants of Organisational Culture............................................................. 45
Figure 2.12: Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction .................................................................. 55
Figure 2.13: Equity Equations ................................................................................................ 75
Figure 4.1: Respondents by Type of Institutions (Comparative) ............................................ 97
Figure 4.2a: Gender * University Cross-tabulation ............................................................... 99
Figure 4.2b Current status of respondents *Code of University sampled Cross tabulation 101
Figure 4.2c: Work Experience * University Cross tabulation .............................................. 102
Figure 4.2d: Highest Educational Background * University Cross-Tabulation ................... 103
Figure 4.3.1: Cross-tabulation of Staff Status by Gender ..................................................... 104
Figure 4.3.2: Cross-tabulation of “Years of Service” by Gender ......................................... 105
Figure 4.3.3: Cross-tabulation of “Educational Status” by Gender ...................................... 106
Figure 4.4: Structural equation model for predicting Staff commitment……………………..143
Figure 4.5: Structural equation model for predicting Staff Loyalty …………………………..145
xxi
Figure 4.6: Structural Equation Model for Predicting Staff Involvement ........................... 147
Figure 4.7: Structural Equation Model for Predicting Staff Satisfaction ............................. 149
Figure 4.8: Structural Equation Model for Predicting Staff Productivity ............................. 151
Figure 4.9: Hierarchical Factor Model of the Work Environments (WEs) Scale ................. 153
Figure 4.10: Modification of the Schematic Model Proposed Earlier .................................. 155
Figure 4.11: Structural Equation Model for Work Environments and Retention Outcomes 158
Figure 4.12: Standardised Estimates of Structural Model for Work Environments and
Retention Outcomes .................................................................................................. 158
Figure 4.13: Degree of Work Environment Factors in the sampled universities.................. 162
xxii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
HRM Human Resource Management
HR Practices Human Resource Practices
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science
ASUU Academic Staff Union of Universities
ANTUF All Nigerian Trade Unions Federation
COLA Cost Of Living Allowance
ILO International Labour Organisation
IOE International Organisation of Employers
MBO Management By Objectives
NIC National Industrial Court
NLC Nigerian Labour Congress
NUC National Universities Commission
SAP Structural Adjustment Programme
TUCN Trade Union Congress of Nigeria
FG Federal Government
THE Times Higher Education
WUR World University Rankings
WEs Work Environment Scale
QWE Quality Work Environment
SEM Structural Equation Modelling
CIPD Chartered Institute of Personnel
Development
xxiii
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
APPENDIX 1 (QUESTIONNAIRE) .................................................................................... 218
APPENDIX II ....................................................................................................................... 224
APPENDIX III ...................................................................................................................... 225
APPENDIX IV...................................................................................................................... 226
APPENDIX V ....................................................................................................................... 228
xxiv
Abstract
The evolving competition in higher education environment has called for implementation of
retention strategies to enhance staff performance. Strategies have been put in place by
institutions to understand what induces staff performance and retention. Despite the
continued efforts for quality work environment, qualified staff still leave and this becomes
worrisome especially in the state owned universities. However, the need to retain employees
is no longer hidden. What remains controversial is the best method and outcome of staff
retention. Therefore, this study established the contributions of work environment
determinants on retention outcomes of academic staff of State Universities in Southern
Nigeria. The study which was anchored on equity, expectancy and Fredrick Herzberg two-
factor theory was cross sectional and descriptive. The study adopted a mixed method
(sequential explanatory approach) to elicit information from 384 academic staff that were
randomly and purposively selected. The use of questionnaire (quantitative) and structured
interview (qualitative) were adopted. The quantitative data were analysed using correlation,
regression and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) to obtain results, while the qualitative
data were subjected to thematic analysis and narrative technique. The results of Kruskal
Wallis Test revealed that the difference in the perception of academic staff on the relationship
between work environments and retention outcomes by staff status, educational status and
years of experience were statistically significant while retention outcomes by gender and
marital status were insignificant. The findings indicated that the issue of inadequate and
decay of infrastructural facilities have been a concern to the sampled Universities. Many
lecturers, including professors, shared offices that are dilapidated, poorly ventilated and
furnished. Lecture theatres were observed to be overcrowded and classrooms, laboratories
and workshops were shared by many programmes across different faculties. The findings
indicate that adequate laboratory equipment and other facilities in the sampled universities
especially those in the area of science and technology are not readily available in many
campuses and where they are available, they are in state of disrepair. Such situation serves as
discouragement, which often encourage them to leave their place of work for another
institution with better equipment/facilities. The results indicated an increasing pauperization,
varying promotion criteria, erratic power supply, over-congested classrooms and a growing
disparity in the ratio between teaching staff and students. Also, teaching effectiveness is not
given a great deal of attention in appointment and promotion decisions while the issue of
research funding leaves much to be desired. Due to its consequences, strategies for curbing
this menace in state Universities, such as creation of enabling environment, adequate funding
of tertiary education, non-interference of government in institution’s affairs, effective
administration and motivation of staff of the sampled institutions, among others were
proffered
Keywords: Work environment, Retention, Organisational climate, Reward, Loyalty, Satisfaction,
Productivity, Commitment, Involvement
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
The evolving competition in higher education has called for proper implementation of
retention strategies to enhance employees’ performance. Today’s higher education
environment is diverse, complex, and persistently changing as academic staff live in a
growing economy and have boundless job opportunities. This complexity necessitates a
degree of proficiency, scholarship and proven erudition from University academic staff.
The achievement of this becomes imperative because Universities, by their distinctive
nature, are required to be a fountain of competency, governance and partnership. Central
to achievement of the objectives are the teaching staff (lecturers) whose responsibilities are
fundamental to ensuring continued existence, sustenance and success of University system.
The quantity and quality of the required academic staff make the difference in any
University education system. In Nigeria, the National Universities Commission (NUC)
(2008) noted that Universities are increasing rapidly while the number of seasoned and
competent faculty members is not increasing proportionally. The increasing number of
these Universities and insufficient qualified academic staff, become worrisome especially
in the Nigerian state owned Universities.
The Nigerian State (Public) University education has been faced with high degree of
apprehension and recurrent crises of different kinds which has ultimately resulted to
incessant strike embarked by the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU). There are
crises of internal governance and vulnerability (Akinyele, 2010), favouritism,
unsatisfactory work situations such as poor condition of services (Gberevbie, 2008; Aluko,
2007), severe administrative and organisational structure (Osibanjo, Abiodun, and Adeniji,
2014); under-funding and inadequate learning and teaching facilities (Abdulsalam and
Mawoli, 2012; NUC, 2010), poor relationship with supervisors and colleagues (Bloom and
Reenen, 2011); crises of employment relationship and continuity (Oredein and Alao, 2010);
brain-drain, rising absenteeism and attrition (Gberevbie, 2008). Of all the crises,
unsatisfactory working conditions, under-funding, rising absenteeism and brain-drain have
been recognised as most critical and worrisome (NUC, 2015; Nwagwu, 2015; Geofrey,
2010).
2
The University system and all the stakeholders required for managing the state Universities
have been unable to create an enabling environment with provision of modern teaching
facilities for the Nigerian academic staff. The rewards and general working conditions are
unexciting and de-motivating. Academic staff of the Universities are given rewards which
cannot satisfy their physical or physiological needs (Alele-Williams 2012) and the
fulfilment of their basic needs has become a delusion to the enthusiastic academic staff
(Alele-Williams 2012; ASUU, 2014). The high rate at which University academic staff in
Nigeria embark on industrial action and eventually resign from their jobs has become a
source of concern for University management and government in general. Within the
sphere of academics, available evidences indicate that academic staff resign from their jobs
typically as a result of inadequate reward system and poor working conditions such as
infrastructural neglect and deterring conditions of service (Ologunde, Asaolu & Elumilade,
2013).
This sentiment is validated by the poor performance of our Universities on the ranking
tables. It has become a common knowledge that Nigerian state Universities have not
featured in the first 7,000 Universities in the world (Webometrics, July 2016). The
Universities are ranked based on the quality of education (10%), quality of academic staff
(40%), research output (40%), and per capital performance (10%). Report from the Times
Higher Education (THE) World University Rankings for 2015/2016 indicated that none of
the Nigerian state Universities was listed in the first 5000 Universities in the world. The
parameters used for the ranking include: teaching (30%), research output (30%), citations
which determines the research impact (30%), global outlook (7.5%) and industry income
(2.5%). Apparently, most, if not all, of Nigerian Universities especially the state owned
would not be able to feature and compete with the rest of the world on the ranking tables if
measured on these parameters above, especially on those parameters that focuses on
research outlook in world journals, student to faculty ratio, academic reputation, Alumni
winning a Nobel laureate, knowledge transfer, patents, industry income, citations,
International outlook, etc. Central to National University Commission (NUC) annual
University rankings, no state University appeared in the first 10 Universities in Nigeria
(NUC, 2015). Okebukola (2008) noted that the primary reason why Nigerian Universities
are poorly ranked is attributed to the level of research impact, openness, publications,
citations and alumni employment.
3
Universities are expected to strive for and develop creative knowledge (Abdulla, Djebarni
and Mellahi, 2010); educate students; develop human capacity (Fletcher and Nusbaum,
2010) as well as coordinate the demands for economic development (Bozeman & Gaughan,
2011). The University academic staff require an enabling and favourable environment to
achieve a dynamic learning culture and participative governance. Regrettably, these could
not be identified in Nigerian University system. Work environment was found to be related
to a number of factors including the quality of teaching, academic performance, research,
innovation quality, congeniality, citations and scholarship in the Universities. This
combination of factors has created an environment where institutions especially the
Nigerian state Universities need its staff more than the staff need the Universities (Abiodun-
Oyebanji, 2011).
Given that work environment in today’s dynamic environment has achieved the status of
an institutionalised norm, the relevant question is not so much whether or why institutions
should provide work environment, but rather how best to implement the process and
strategy in a way which will enable institutions to amass benefits and successfully create
an environment that ultimately promotes employee satisfaction and retention efficacy. The
study becomes necessary because the employee intellectual capacity and talent are crucial
to University’s strategic success. Universities cannot be successful without an enabling
environment that gives room for better performance and achievement of predetermined
corporate objectives. It is against this background that this study examined the effects of
work environments variables on retention outcomes of academic staff of state Universities
in Southern Nigeria.
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
One of the core functions of the University is the production, dissemination and utilisation
of knowledge. This enhances other core functions of teaching and outreach activities and it
also determines national and international standing. University education is perhaps the
most important and indispensable component in human capital development in the building
of a strong and sustainable economy. The achievement of goals by a University
fundamentally can be determined by the quality of academic staff, academic reputation in
terms of student-faculty ratio and workplace environments. Quality work environment has
been found to be a strategic way of promoting and retaining the productive efforts of
4
academic staff (Abdulsalam and Mawoli, 2012), yet there is dearth of evidence for the
implementation of such strategic plans in Nigerian tertiary institutions. This may probably
be the reason for the increase in brain drain, staff turnover and low commitment. To solve
the problem of brain drain for instance, the realities of both the internal relativities and
external imperatives need to be reviewed jointly. This has always been the position of
ASUU in its negotiations with the federal government. As stated by The Guardian
Newspaper Editorial Comment of December, 2013:
‘In the last 20 years, a sizable number of Nigerian academics have migrated
abroad in search of greener pastures’. Many of them have been absorbed into
Universities & centres of Research in Europe, America and Middle East’.
The provision of good working environments by owners of the Universities could motivate
academic staff to work beyond a predetermined level if given attention. Although, the
concern for, and problems of how to attract and retain staff for more effective job
performance through favourable work environment have continued to engage the attention
of many tertiary institutions, especially the state owned Universities. Studies have shown
that work environment in many of these public Universities is abysmal and intolerable. The
learning environment in Nigerian Public Universities, according to Akinnaso (2012) and
Anyim (2012), is extremely compromised by over-congested classrooms, infrastructural
neglect, poor academic standards and quality assurance, inadequate inspection and
monitoring by the regulatory agencies, over-congested laboratories with no power and
water to put the equipment to work, and unsatisfactory ergonomic resources such as desks,
chairs, shelf, office arrangement, lighting, etc., which seem to cost too much for the school
budget. Few of the reviewed studies done in the country attempted to show that physical
work milieu influences workers’ performance (Ozongwu, 2013; Tafida, 2008; Ayeni,
Jaiyeoba and Atanda, 2008) but rarely indicated the significant predictors and extent to
which the predictors can influence commitment of academic staff.
Work and working conditions are indispensable aspects of retention across sectors, though
they have received less attention from scholars and researchers in the educational sector.
The University dilemma among academic staff in Nigeria, according to Ogunbameru
(2001) can be attributed to anxiety over quality of teaching and research, employability and
internalisation. Additionally, the certainty that attributes such as student faculty
engagement, modern teaching facilities, practical laboratories, social responsibility,
innovation, arts and culture, gender balance, updated books and journals in libraries,
5
scholarship, sponsorship and research grants which keep Universities academic staff have
become erratic commodities (Abdulsalam and Mawoli, 2012; Chandrasekar, 2011).
However, inability to recognise and control these trends give room for psychological
implications. Therefore, it is against this fact that the study addresses the gap in literature
with regards to how this psychological work milieu can influence staff loyalty in Nigerian
state Universities.
Studies have shown that adequate reward system is one of the strategies institutions adopt
to retain staff in their employment (Ibrahim, Usman, Bagudu, 2013; Anyim, 2012).
However, one major problem facing the Nigerian state Universities is the ability to pay and
how to retain competent workforce through an equitable reward system such as salary,
bonuses, allowances, recognition, promotion, benefits, etc. This problem has deprived these
institutions from matching the organisational demand for quantity and quality of employees
with the available supply (Iyoha, Gberevie, Egharevba and Iruonagbe, 2015; Ige, 2014).
Where skilled staff are obtainable as a result of proper resourcing strategies, recurrent
turnover arising from inadequate and non-equitable reward system have made it almost
impossible for institutions to retain competent staff (Fapohunda, 2012; Adeniji, 2011). As
long as proficient staff are essential for staff satisfaction, there is urgent need therefore to
recognise and explore strategic means of staff retention for the attainment of the stated
objectives in Nigerian state Universities.
Another thought-provoking fact that appeared from preceding research is that providing a
favourable work environment may not at all times increase retention. Quality work
environment may increase retention if positive characteristics of the job are highly
recognised and managed (Hackman & Oldham, 2005). The job itself which comprises task
identity and significance, skill variety, autonomy and feedback is linked with motivation
and job satisfaction. The job dimensions also are often associated with performance through
the meaningfulness of the work and its outcomes, and knowledge of the consequences of
work accomplishments. This recognizes the fact that staff differ in their levels of ‘growth
need’. For example, academic staff with a high need for personal growth are more likely to
react favourably in a psychological sense when the five core factors are improved. Prior
studies have largely observed the association between core job dimensions and satisfaction
in health and manufacturing sectors (Abdulsalam and Mawoli, 2012; Ahmed, Usman and
Rana, 2011; Hashim and Mahmood, 2011) but there is a dearth of research on how it affects
academic staff involvement in Nigerian state Universities.
6
Universities as organisations, provide institutional, financial and infrastructural
frameworks in which research activities are conducted. How well these frameworks are
organised affect the performance of teaching and research activities. Thus, institutions need
to develop high performing research environment characterized by what Holmgren,
Hensing and Delive (2010) described as the development and maintenance of a distinctive
culture, favourable climate, decentralized organisation, participative governance, and
effective communication that would enhance research and teaching among faculty
members. Studies on these factors have been carried out in other countries like Asia and
Europe (Shin and Jung, 2013; Schulz, 2013; Saba, 2011) but little studies have been
identified in Africa (Anyim, 2013; Adeniji, 2011) especially in West African countries. The
findings of these studies have been contradictory and none of these studies have assessed
how organisational climate enhances staff productivity in state owned Universities.
Substantial review of relevant literature indicated that little research has been conducted
with regards to the contributions of work environments to retention outcomes. However,
the little research done in the area of work environment and satisfaction has explored
domains like telecommunication, financial institutions, banking, oil and government
parastatals, to name a few, yet not much wide-ranging work has been done in the domain
of the educational sector especially in Nigeria state owned Universities. Review of work
environments literature has also shown that large proportion of studies were conducted in
developed countries where their findings due to cultural differences and peculiarity in the
employment patterns, may not be directly applicable to the Nigerian context.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The general objective of this study focused on the contributions of work environments and
retention outcomes among academic staff of state Universities in Southern Nigeria.
However, the specific objectives were to:
1. determine the role of physical work environment in facilitating commitment of
academic staff in state owned Universities;
2. investigate the effects of psychological work milieu on the loyalty of academic staff in
state Universities;
3. examine the relationship between job contents and staff involvement in academic
excellence of state owned Universities;
7
4. examine the effect of reward system on the satisfaction of academic staff in state owned
Universities; and
5. assess how organisational climate facilitates staff productivity in state owned
Universities.
1.4 Research Questions
Drawing from the statement of the research problem, the study provided answers to the
following research questions:
1. What role do physical factors play in enhancing the commitment of academic staff in
state owned Universities?
2. To what extent have psychological factors influenced loyalty of academic staff in state
owned Universities?
3. What is the relationship between job contents and staff involvement in promoting
academic excellence of state owned Universities?
4. In what ways have the reward systems influenced satisfaction of academic staff?
5. How does workplace climate facilitate staff productivity in state owned Universities?
1.5 Research Hypotheses
The study of work environment till date appears to have embraced four major issues: Why
do Universities provide a conducive work environment? What are the consequences of
work environment on the individual staff and the institution as a whole? What are the
strategies that can be adopted for providing successful work environment? How can the
provision of a successful work environment be used to satisfy and retain qualified staff in
the institutions?
The provision of good (physical) working environments by owners of the Universities
could motivate academic staff to work beyond a predetermined level if given attention. In
any case, there is limited documentation showing how physical work environments
influence employees’ performance, competence and responsiveness. This, therefore, gives
rise to the first null hypothesis:
H01: Physical work setting does not play any significant role in enhancing the commitment of
Academic staff
8
Researchers are motivated to do research by both intrinsic and extrinsic reasons, depending
on what they value as successful researchers (Knudsen, Bucks & Lindt, 2011). Central to
individual psychological characteristics, there are also the impact of demographic
characteristics and individual life cycles. Hence, the research problem addressed here
therefore is to identify the psychological factors influencing the loyalty of academic staff
in State owned Universities. Thus, this offers the second null hypothesis for this study:
H02: Psychological work milieu does not have significant effects on the loyalty of
academic staff
The nature of job content has attempted to make tasks more intrinsically interesting,
involving and rewarding with an environment that provides autonomy, flexibility, skill
variety, task identity, feedback, personal growth and satisfaction (Lunenberg, 2011; Khan,
Farooq & Ullah, 2010). Therefore, an inclusive understanding of ‘why and how’ job content
can contribute significantly to staff involvement and engagement becomes a fundamental
concern for the management of Nigerian state Universities. Arising from this, the study
also hypothesized that:
H03: There is no significant relationship between job contents and academic staff
involvement in the performance of state Universities
Numerous studies have observed that staff intention to quit results from comparable
remuneration packages, benefits, career path, etc. Several factors have been acknowledged
in literature responsible for job dissatisfaction and these factors are principally associated
with reward system and administration. The effect of these factors is diverse and relatively
associated with staff beliefs, management prerogative and government interference (Ige,
2014; Anyim, 2013). The research problem addressed here is to identify the reward
packages and explore how these packages have influenced staff satisfaction.
H04: Reward system does not significantly encourage the satisfaction of academic staff in
state Universities
Climatic conditions of state Universities have both positive and negative work outcomes
on the performance and productivity of staff (Manjunath &Rajesh, 2012). The climate of
the University system is often concerned with the current atmosphere within the institution
as manifested in communication culture, leadership style, etc. However, when
organisational climate becomes less attractive or otherwise unmanageable, it may lead to
high staff turnover. In order to prevent this, the following proposition is hypothesized:
H05: Organisational climate does not contribute significantly to staff productivity in state
Universities
9
1.6 Significance of the Study
This research is relevant in Nigeria where most institutions are hunting, attracting,
acquiring, deploying and retaining talents for sustenance and survival. There is therefore
the need to study and compare the retention strategies of these state Universities with their
contemporaries in Nigeria with a view to finding explanation for incessant industrial action
and disparity in their performance levels. In other words, this research serves as an
academic contribution towards solving problems of absenteeism, job dissatisfaction,
incessant strike action, and labour turnover facing academic staff. Research have shown
that the state Universities in Nigeria seem to have degenerated to the level where
infrastructure abandonment, unfriendly research environment, rigid bureaucratic structure,
pay disparity, varying personnel policies and poor implementation of collective agreement
(Ige, 2014; Ologunde, Asaolu and Elumilade, 2014) are the order of the day.
In the light of the above, the relevance of this research can be appreciated from the
following three dimensions:
Firstly, there is a need to establish a parallel strategic method and a ground-breaking
developmental pattern that can be exploited to control the ever-increasing turnover among
academic staff in public Universities.
Secondly, the need to properly adapt scientific and human relations theories developed in
Western world to an emerging and embryonic country like Nigeria for more effective and
efficient performance in the workplace.
Thirdly, the need to design and restructure the competitiveness of enabling work
environments to ensuring academic staff attraction and motivation, optimizing efficiency
and higher commitment. Conclusively, this study is significant in the sense that:
i. It brings an improvement of retention strategies for the academic staff of the state
owned Universities.
ii. Human capital and intellectual property can be enhanced when the relevant
retention strategies are identified for emphasis by managers, labour unions,
practitioners,
iii. The government and its specialized agencies can use the findings to create a
platform to formulate and implement policies to facilitate attractive work
environment which ultimately results in staff retention
10
iv. It contributes to knowledge and as a valuable reference material to various scholars
in the field of management, psychology, sociology as well as students undertaking
courses in the area of motivation, compensation, organisational behaviour,
industrial psychology and business management.
v. The study creates a platform by which stakeholders, particularly the state
government and management can create an enabling work environment strategies
in preventing contingencies as regards attrition, job dissatisfaction and labour
turnover.
vi. It helps the Nigerian government at all levels to formulate and implement policies
that ensure friendly workplace environment as it is obtained in private institutions.
Above all, the findings serve as a great benefit to government and academic staff; not just
in the educational sector but also in other sectors. The recommendations will assist
management of institutions in strategic planning for the development and implementation
of a supportive work environments. The academics and researchers are provided a platform
upon which further investigation of the subject matter can be carried out.
1.7 Scope of the Study
This study provides a background to the state of University system in Nigeria and
particularly in the southern region, hinging on the attendant challenges of poor work
environment, high attrition rates, under-funding, low quantity and poor quality of research.
In a general context, the widespread feeling is that Nigerian academic staff of state
Universities often perceive that their reward in terms of pay and other benefits are not
equitable to their contributions (skills) especially when matched with their counterpart in
the federal and private institutions including their contemporaries outside the country. This
calls for the need to model the contributions of work environments in determining retention
outcomes with special reference to state Universities in the Southern zones of Nigeria.
Nigeria has 38 state Universities established and recognised by NUC while the government
fund major activities of the Universities and offer proper education for sustainable
development. Prior to the oil boom ages of 1970s, University education was extended to
reach every sub-region of Nigeria. For the purpose of this study, attention was given to
state Universities in the southern part, consisting of south-west, south-south and south-east
region of Nigeria. There are Nineteen (19) state Universities in Southern Nigeria and this
11
study intend to cover the first two (2) oldest institutions in each region. This is reflected in
Table 1.1 below.
Table 1.1: Names, Years and Addresses of State Universities in Southern Nigeria
South-West South-South South-East
Name(s) of University & Year Name of Uni. Year of Estab. Name of Uni. Year of Estab.
Ekiti State University, Ekiti.
Year of Establishment: 1982*
River State University of Science &
Technology, Rivers.
Year of Establishment: 1980*
Enugu State University of
Science & Technology, Enugu
Year of Establishment: 1979*
Olabisi Onabanjo University,
Ago-Iwoye, Ogun.
Year of Establishment: 1982*
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma,
Edo
Year of Establishment: 1981 *
Ebonyi State University,
Abakaliki, Ebonyi.
Year of Establishment: 1980*
Lagos State University, Ojo,
Lagos.
Year of Establishment: 1983
Delta State University, Abraka,
Delta.
Year of Establishment: 1984
Abia State University, Uturu,
Abia
Year of Establishment: 1981
Ladoke Akintola University of
Technology, Ogbomoso, Osun
Year of Establishment: 1987
Niger Delta University, Yenagoa,
Bayelsa State.
Year of Establishment: 2000
Imo State University, Owerri
Year of Establishment: 1981
Adekunle Ajasin University,
Akungba, Ondo.state.
Year of Establishment: 1999
Cross-Rivers State University of
Science &Technology, Cross-Rivers
Year of Establishment: 2002
Anambra State University of
Science & Technology,
Anambra.
Year of Establishment: 2000 Tai Solarin University of
Education, Ijebu-Ode, Ogun.
Year of Establishment: 2005
Osun State University,
Oshogbo, Osun State.
Year of Establishment: 2007
Ondo State University of
Science and Technology,
Okitipupa, Ondo.
Year of Establishment: 2008
Source: NUC, 2015
1.8 Operationalization of Research Variables
Operationalization of the research is the division of the topic into different parts, constructs
and variable so as to have adequate direction of the research topic. Operationalization of
the topic helps to determine the spilt of variables in equation for further evaluation. Thus,
this research work focused on the variables, namely, work environments and retention
outcomes, that is,
Y= f (x)
Where y = retention outcomes (dependent variable)
x = work environments (independent variable)
12
This implies that retention outcomes is a function of quality work environments. However,
it is on this platform coupled with the work of other scholars that the researcher selected
the dependent (y) and independent (x) constructs for the study. Consequently, work
environment is represented by ‘x’ construct while retention outcomes is represented by ‘y’
construct as displayed below.
However, retention outcomes were operationalized as follows:
Y = y1, y2, y3,….………….…., yn
Where y1 = Staff Commitment
y2 = Staff Loyalty
y3 = Staff Involvement
y4 = Staff Satisfaction
y5 = Staff Productivity
Furthermore, the work environments were measured with the indicators below:
X = x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, ……….…..xn.
Where x1 = Physical work setting
x2 = Psychological work milieu
x3 = Job contents
x4 = Reward system
x5 = Organisational climate
The various indicators of work environments and retention outcomes were subsumed from
the works of scholars such as: Manjunath and Rajesh, 2012; Gberevbie, 2011;
Chandrasekar, 2011; Knudsen, Bucks and Lindt, 2011; Chen, 2011; Chandrasekar, 2011;
Hackman and Oldham 1976; 2005)
1.9 Structure of the Work
The thesis was divided into five (5) major chapters. Chapter one addressed the background
to the study, problem statement, objectives, hypotheses formulation and justification,
scope, operationalization and concepts definition. Chapter two reviewed relevant and
recent literatures and the theoretical framework of the constructs. Chapter three described
the methodology process which include description of the population, sample and sampling
techniques, research design, instruments and analyses. Chapter four focused on the
analysis, interpretation and presentation of the data collected with a detailed discussion of
research findings. Finally, chapter five emphasized on the summary, conclusion, and
recommendations. Contributions to knowledge and suggestions for further study were also
proffered.
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1.10 Schematic Model of the Study
The schematic model of the study was adapted from the works of Chandrasekar (2011);
Knudsen, Bucks and Lindt, (2011); Knudsen, Bucks and Lindt, 2011; Chen, 2011; Kanai-
Pak, Sloane and Poghosyan (2008); Stansfeld and Candy (2006).
Source: Adapted from Chandrasekar (2011); Knudsen, Bucks and Lindt, (2011); Kanai-Pak and
Poghosyan (2008); Westerman and Simmons, (2007); Stansfeld and Candy (2006)
Key: Work_Envnts = Work Environment
Physical_fac = Physical Factor
Erg = Ergonomics Lig = Lighting
Nois = Noise Ven = Ventilation
SpAr = Spatial Arrangement
Psycho_fac = Psychological factors
Mot = Motivation Att = Attitude
Lrn = Learning Belf = Belief
Rel = Relationship
Reward_Systems
Sal = Salary Ben = Benefits
Rec = Recognition Grnt = Grant
Prom = promotion
Job contents Skv = Skill Variety
TaSg = Task Significance Tald = Task Identity
Aut = Autonomy Feed = Feedback
Org_climate = Organisational climate
Men = Mentoring Part = Participation
Lead = Leadership style
PPy = Personnel policy
Comm = communication style
Retention Outcomes
Staff_Commt = Staff commitment
Staff_Involvmt = Staff involvement
Staff_Satisfctn = Staff satisfaction
Staff_Prod = Staff productivity
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1.11 Operational Definition of Terms
Compensation: These are monetary benefits provided to hearten, inspire and motivate
workers to enthusiastically perform beyond normal expectation, e.g bonuses,
commission, profit sharing plans, etc. (Mbah and Ikemefuna, 2012).
Employee-Related Factor: This relate to changing employees’ attitude and behaviour so
that they will strategically fit and conform to the emerging culture.
Environmental Factor: This deals with technological (emerging technology, R&D
initiatives), economic, ecological (energy availability, climate change, workforce
health), political (tax policy and regulations, services, infrastructure), and socio-
cultural (demography, education, cultural norms, income distribution) forces upon
which an organisation operates its level of productivity.
External Work Environment: These are factors such as political awareness, socio-
economic issues, technology, and legal context which have direct and indirect
influence on the organisation and environment at large.
Flexibility Management: This is the process of giving the employees opportunities to
manage their private schedules and frees them from the rigid bureaucratic fixed time
work arrangements; through its flex-time work system.
Internal Work Environment: This largely focused on the operation of the organisation;
determination of specific goals and objectives aimed at fulfilling the mission.
Job satisfaction: This is a pleasurable response and effective orientation of individual
towards their job (Adeniji, 2011).
Loyalty: This involves employee’s net reaction to all of the situations relating directly or
indirectly to the line of job (Leblebici, 2012; Kyle & Malfa, 2007).
Managerial Factor: Management is the process of accomplishing tasks through people,
therefore, it is important for managers to display a strong interest in the continuing
performance of the organisation, with an appropriate vision for the future.
Motivation: This is the strategic process of creating organisational conditions which
propels and facilitates employee’s performance towards the achievement to
corporate objectives (Senturk, 2014; Bashir & Ramay, 2010).
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Organisational Climate: This is concerned with the current atmosphere within the
organisation as manifested in communication, culture, leadership style influencing
work place behaviours (Markos & Sridevi, 2010).
Organisational Factor: this defines the organisation culture, structure, technology, system
and climate influences its competence, output and decision.
Physical Workplace Environment: This focuses on the protection of employees from
hazardous environment by providing them with improved safety equipment. The
physical factors involve the interactions of employees with office space
arrangement, computers, chairs, tables, lighting, office temperature etc. that
enhance employee’s comfortability (Knudsen, Bucks & Lindt, 2011)
Psychological Factors: This is a pattern of reactions to a situation where job demands are
not compatible with employees’ competence, abilities or aptitudes, and which
challenge their coping mechanism (Irene, 2010).
Staff Involvement: This is the “consistent and formalized efforts to increasing workers’
participation and heartening the yearnings and aspirations of employees’ and the
organisation’s needs (Mohsan, 2012). It is also a platform that supports staff to look
beyond their present jobs and prepare for optimistic future positions within
organisations and sometimes outside the organisations.
Strategy: This involves the deployment of resources to the achievement of a set of
objectives (Makosa, 2007).
Retention: This is the strategic efforts put in place to reward employees with physical,
financial and psychological benefits that help to sustain a degree of morale,
satisfaction and productivity (Khan, Farooq, & Ullah, 2010).
Reward: It is a managerial function that incorporates financial and non-financial values to
reward employees who add value to achieve distinctive advantage (Danish &
Usman, 2010).
Work Environments: These are the forces that are currently and continually influencing
performance, motivation and employment relationship. Work environment
comprises a total network of inter-relationship existing among the stakeholders and
the environment in which they operate (Kohun, 2012).
16
Workplace features: This involves the interactions of employees with office space
arrangement, computers, chairs tables, lighting, office temperature etc. that
enhances employee comfortability, safety, health, satisfaction and performance.
1.12 Historical Development of Sampled Universities
1.12.1 Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo
Ambrose Alli University (AAU) was first known as Bendel State University, then Edo
State University, it was later changed to its present name in commemoration of Professor
Ambrose Folorunso Alli. The University is also known for its social lifestyle as it is
known for their academic prowess. A social hub of sorts that draw people from all over
Edo and even other parts of the country, there is always something new and buzzing on
campus. The university was established on the need to foster the growth of knowledge
for the advancement of society, AAU is one of the top ranked higher education
institutions in Nigeria. Since its inception, it has gone on to nurture and graduate many
distinguished national dignitaries, conduct researches, and played key roles in
advancement of quality education in Nigeria. Featuring 11 faculties, with a revered
College of Medicine and a Post Graduate program, it is an all-round institution that
provides the best of education possible here in Nigeria.
1.12.2 Enugu State University of Science & Technology (ESUT)
The Enugu State University of Science & Technology (ESUT) as it is known today was
founded as Anambra State University of Technology (ASUTECH) by the then government
of His Excellency Chief Dr. Jim Ifeanyichukwu Nwobodo the Executive Governor of old
Anambra State through edict number 7 of 30th July, 1980. ASUTECH was established as
non-residential University, having a multi-campus arrangement. At inception, it had a
peculiar administrative structure with a President as the Chief Executive Officer. The
Governor of the old Anambra State then being aware of the admission problem confronting
the people of old Anambra State, quickly decided to set up the Anambra State University
of Technology (ASUTECH) in line with the technological bent of the people. Within few
years of its founding, ASUTECH blazed the trail in the design and fabrication of the first
ever made in Nigeria computer system, the ASUTECH 801 series. A renowned scholar,
Professor Kenneth Onwuka Dike (of blessed memory) was appointed its first President.
17
The main campus was at the compound of the Institute of Management and Technology
(IMT) Independence Layout, Enugu while the other campuses were located at Awka,
Nnewi and Abakaliki.
The Enugu campus commenced lectures on 30th October, 1980. Formal lectures began at
Awka campus on 3rd February, 1981. The Nnewi and Abakaliki campuses could not
commence operation until 1987 due to logistic difficulties. In June 1985, the University
authorities saw the compelling need to expand the programmes to include the faculties of
Education, Environmental Sciences, Law, Social Sciences and Management Sciences. This
University edict of 1980 changed the administrative structure to the conventional system
of University administration in Nigeria with the Vice Chancellor as the Chief Executive.
Following the creation of Enugu State out of the old Anambra State in 1991 by the then
Military President, General Ibrahim Gbadamosi Babangida, ASUTECH metamorphosed
into Enugu State University of Science and Technology (ESUT) while the campuses at
Awka and Nnewi became the nucleus of the new Anambra State University, which would
later become Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. ESUT, however, adopted and retained
the identities of ASUTECH, including its motto, colour, logo, philosophy, aims and
objectives.
Four years after the creation of Enugu State, the young Enugu State had to forfeit the
Abakaliki campus to the newly created Ebonyi State. The College of Medicine had to be
moved to Nsukka and the College of Agriculture to Enugu as Faculty of Agriculture. In
August 2005, the College of Medicine at Nsukka relocated to Parklane Hospital premises
in Enugu. It is now housing a world class College of Medicine operating under ultra-
modern structures and facilities built by the then Governor of Enugu State, His Excellency
Dr. Chimaroke Nnamani.
The college has graduated four (4) sets of Medical Doctors. The first being in 2010.
Currently, all the arms of the preclinical and clinical departments are equipped for training
of medical doctors. Meanwhile both BSc Anatomy and BSc Medical Laboratory Science
programmes have taken off in the college. Also Post Graduate Programme in Anatomy has
gone a long way. A new Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences has been created in the college
and a new Dean has been appointed for the Faculty. A new programme for the award of
BSc Nursing will soon take off in the college. With this development, it is expected that
the college of Medicine will be renamed "College of Medicine and Health Sciences".
18
1.12.3 Ebonyi State University (EBSU), Abakaliki, Ebonyi
Ebonyi State University (EBSU) offers world class academic programmes targeted at
different levels of education starting from Pre-Degree to Doctorate programmes. At EBSU,
we will get provide opportunities for our students to get the best level of education
Academic Programmes...The Current administration of Ebonyi State University (EBSU) is
determined to improve the learning experience of every single student of this great citadel
of learning, as well as provide a very encouraging environment for the members of staff.
1.12.4 Olabisi Onabanjo University (OOU), Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State
Olabisi Onabanjo University (OOU) , Ago-Iwoye is a state owned situated in Ago-
Iwoye, Ogun State Nigeria. The university was founded July 7, 1982 as Ogun State
University and was renamed Olabisi Onabanjo University on May 29, 2001 in honour of
Chief (Dr.) Olabisi Onabanjo, whose efforts as the then civilian governor of Ogun State
gave birth to the university. The university at its inception started as a multi campus system
with the main campus at Ago iwoye while other campuses were located at Ikenne (College
of Health Sciences), Ayetoro (College of Agricultural Sciences) and Ibogun ( College of
Engineering and Technology).
With the coming of a military administration in December, 1983 the state military
government reviewed the multi campus system and decided, after the review, that the
university should run a unicampus system. The campuses already existing at Ayetoro and
Ikenne were therefore moved to Ago-iwoye. Ogun state government is wholly responsible
for the funding of the university. But with the establishment of the Ogun state university
development foundation and its expected influence and contributions, individuals,
industrial, commercial, and cultural bodies and associations both within and outside the
state have been making substantial contributions to the funding of the university. Another
noteworthy phenomenon in the development of the university is the establishment of
college/faculty advisory councils whose membership consist of eminent Nigerians who
have distinguished themselves in their chosen careers, senior government functionaries and
faculty members. Their primary objectives is to foster a strong and beneficial college or
faculty and public relationship and linkage and offer both moral and financial support to
the various colleges and faculties were remarkably demonstrated during the accreditation
exercise for medical and law programmes.
19
1.12.5 Rivers State University of Science and Technology
Rivers State University of Science and Technology (RUST) is a university located in
the Diobu area of Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. The university has staff strength of
3,000 and a student population of 22,400 as of 2017. It is one of the first technological
universities in Nigeria and also the first university to be situated within the Niger Delta. In
2014, it was rated as Nigeria’s best E-learning institution and was ranked as the 15th best
university in the country. The Rivers State University of Science and Technology was
established in 1972 as the College of Science and Technology. It was granted independent
university status in 1980 and was renamed from College of Science and Technology to
Rivers State University of Science and Technology. Rivers State University of Science and
Technology has seven faculties: Faculty of Agriculture, Engineering, Law, Management
Sciences, Environmental Sciences, Technical & Science Education, Sciences. The
university plans to begin a College of Medicine from 2018. It is the only university in
Nigeria that is accredited to offer degree programs in Marine Engineering.
20
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Preamble
The brain behind any scientific inquiry are the works of past scholars and authors on the
identified problem which is to be discussed. In other words, it is imperative to have a review
of what past scholars and authors have done as regards the subject matter. Having identified
the problem, objectives, and questions about the study, this section reviewed the works of
past authors on the variables and also provide theoretical underpinnings and empirical
clarifications for the study.
2.2 Conceptual Framework
2.2.1 An Overview of Work Environments
The concept of work environment is very important in the practice of human resource
management and in making the most of diverse human resources. The need to provide
enabling environments for staff is as old as the concept of personnel management. Thus,
the degree of organisational competence depends largely on the ability of management to
create environments where employees can work with vitality and provide opportunities that
foster the growth of self-motivated employees. Work environment consciously involves the
process of ensuring quality of life, improving the degree of satisfaction derived from the
work itself, providing opportunities for growth, creating safe and healthy workplaces,
increasing creative and critical use of initiatives, facilitating work life balance and
managing workplace stress. Even when all functions of management are judiciously put to
use, good plans put in place, good organisational structure with good people put on the right
job and good control plans established; all may fail to produce the expected results without
favourable work environments. According to Akinyele (2010), about 80% of low
performance is caused by the nature of work environments.
In this context, work environment comprises all factors that are related to a job and
organisation. These factors directly influence the relationship between employees, their
jobs and the organisation. Kohun (2012) defined work environments as the forces that are
21
currently and continually influencing performance, motivation and employment
relationship. Work environment comprises a total network of inter-relationship existing
among the stakeholders and the environment in which they operate. Knudsen, Bucks and
Lindt (2011) posited that work environments impact not only the commitment, satisfaction,
aptitude, and performance but also have long-term effect on employees’ health and
employment continuity. Interestingly, work environment focuses on the compensation
packages, training, job security, job enrichment, organisational culture and change, staffing
functions, promotion, etc., (Nolan, 2012). All of these serve as basis for attaining maximum
productivity.
2.2.2 Nature of Work Environments
Factors of workplace environment significantly contribute to increased staff performance
(Hafiza, Shah, Jamsheed & Zaman, 2011). Over the last decades, workspace and physical
work environment have become complex due to the changes in several factors such as the
social environment, information technology and work processes (Hashim & Mahmood,
2011). According to Govaerts, Kyndt, Dochy and Baert (2011), where workers are mentally
and ardently fit, their passion to work will be enhanced and their performance outcomes
will ultimately be amplified. Holmgren, Hensing and Dellve (2010) also stated that a proper
workplace environment reduces absenteeism and as a result strengthens employees’
satisfaction. Research indicated positive reactions to an enabling work environment
strategies such as the work processes, job designs, environment and facilities design (Joo
& Park, 2010).
Work environment are grouped into two; Internal environment and External environment.
These are explained below:
i. The External Work Environment
Nakpodia (2009) viewed external work environment as a result of factors such
as custom and laws of the community within which the business operates. It
includes the weather condition and policies outside the work environment. Mbah
and Ikemefuna (2012) also argued that external work environment are factors such
as political awareness, socio-economic issues, technology, and legal context which
have direct and indirect influence on the organisation and environment at large.
However, organisation makes clear its reasons for existence, what it will provide or
22
produce and whom it will serve, and its orientation in terms of its values. Hence,
organisations systematically investigate the technological, economic,
environmental, political and social forces that impact upon it. This environmental
scanning gives detailed information on the nature of the market the organisation is
competing in and will help with the identification of opportunities for developing
business.
ii. The Internal Work Environment:
Internal work environment is seen as the environment that focuses largely on the
operation of the organisation. Mohsan (2012) asserted that the internal work
environment consists of the buildings, furniture, layout, as well as the physical
conditions under which employees operate. The internal work environment largely
focused on the determination of specific goals and objectives aimed at fulfilling the
mission. Objectives are normally focused on performance and could specify desired
achievements. Importantly, organisations continually evaluate the changes that are
needed to achieve the objectives and goals. Some strategies relate to areas such as
finance and technology and are focused, for example, on the nature of investment.
Other strategies relate directly to HR policies such as what skills and training are
needed to bring the strategy into effect.
2.2.3 Factors Influencing Work environment
The dynamism of change is the most constant pattern of development ever found in human
history. The formal workplace itself that gave rise to the bureaucratic tool came to be as a
result of the evolutions that emerged in the period of the industrial revolutions. The
activities of the key players (government, other firms) in the industrial environment attracts
changes in the operation of the organisation (Nyakundi, Karanja, Charles & Bisobori,
2012). Change comprises of a transformation from one state or form to another.
Organisational change involves a process of restructuring which includes change in
technology, programmes of mergers or acquisitions and even change in the pattern of doing
job. Very often such change usually requires radical orientation in the way the organisation
operates (Nawab & Shafi, 2011; Osisioma, 2011 in Ogunbameru, 2011). Organisational
changes are effected by two major causes which are internal and external causes. Internal
causes are deliberate actions of the organisation such as adoption of technology; change in
23
mission; change in the way work is done and even change in leadership, leadership styles
and even leadership patterns. External causes is a combination of the environmental
influences and the totality of the structures that exists in the environment; with the Political
structure standing out among them.
The purpose of understanding the work environments is to explain, anticipate and plan for
the future through the analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.
Research has encapsulated the essence of understanding factors that can influence work
environment. These factors are presented below with a framework in figure 2.1:
i. Environmental Factors: These deal with technological (emerging technology,
R&D initiatives), economic, ecological (energy availability, climate change,
workforce health), political (tax policy and regulations, services, infrastructure),
and socio-cultural (demography, education, cultural norms, income distribution)
forces upon which an organisation operates its level of productivity. The economic
forces represent changes in the general health and well-being of the economy which
are reflected in the inflation rates, disposable and discretionary income, gross
domestic product, the value of the Naira, unemployment rates, interest rates and the
current monetary and fiscal policies. Changes in the economy pose both
opportunities and problems for government and managers because such changes
affect organisational activities and services (Nolan, 2012; Obateru2013). When the
economy is growing, many organisations will enjoy an increase in demand for their
products, and funds will be more easily and readily available for expansion and
other investments. However, when the economy shifts downward, for example
when there is a recession, demand will fall, unemployment will rise and profits will
shrink. Organisations continually monitor changes in their economic environment
to be able to decide what to do in retaining the best talent. It is very difficult for any
organisation to wholly control the environmental factors; therefore, the organisation
must always be flexible in adapting to these environmental factors. The
environmental factors influencing work environment is presented in Figure 2.1
24
Figure 2.1: Factors Influencing Work environment
Source: Warech and Tracey (2004)
ii. Organisational factors: An organisation culture, structure, technology, system and
climate influences its competence, output and decision. These insightful influences
can habitually be controlled and managed by the leaders or managers. The
organisational factors include: the workflow, work practices, task characteristics,
ergonomics, and technology. Task characteristics bring together a number of task
in a job and at the same time assesses the nature and level of influence an individual
worker has on the job. Work Practices focus on the arrangement and process of
workflow which differs from organisation to organisation depending. Technology
is the logical application of scientific or other structured knowledge to performing
certain tasks. This means that technology includes ideas and new knowledge, in
addition to equipment and machinery. Organisations and their managers must adapt
to changing technology to remain competitive. Technological forces require
management to keep abreast of the latest development and, where possible,
incorporate advancements to maintain the organisation’s competitiveness. Change
in technology is a critical issue inhibiting many organisations and institutions,
particularly those in high-technology, high-velocity institutions. This challenge is
made more difficult by the ever rapid pace of technological change (Lee & Brand,
2005). This problem is always recurring especially in the educational sector.
Institutions especially the state Universities are confronted with massive and
accelerating changes due to quest for global competitiveness.
iii. Managerial factor: Management is the process of accomplishing tasks through
people, therefore, it is important for managers to display a strong interest in the
continuing performance of the organisation, with an appropriate vision for the
25
future. Managers are largely responsible for setting the scene for change, managing
the change process and by actions reinforcing the existing corporate culture, if
appropriate, or reshaping it if not appropriate. This gives the managers the
opportunity to be proactive in increasing work flexibility, creativity and adapting to
changes that occur from time to time. The links between individual and group
performance and the achievements of the firm are now one of the central concerns
of HRM and of crucial importance is the employment quality. This can necessitate
a move from a belief in a hierarchical organisation to an acceptance of
organisational roles where greater responsibility and involvement become
prominent. Though there are salient factors that influence managerial decisions
which include: external contexts (structure of the industry, market growth rate,
nature of competitors, socio-economic constraints, product differentiation);
organisational characteristics (culture, size, resource allocation, socialisation); and
characteristics of the manager (communication skills, perseverance, problem-
solving skills, passion and commitment to work, purpose-driven skills). Therefore,
to increase output and increase global competitiveness, managers must continually
change the way they are organised and managed to avoid business failure.
iv. Employee-related factor: This relate to changing employees’ attitude and
behaviour so that they will strategically fit and conform with the emerging culture.
With increasing complexity in employees’ attitude, organisations formulate and
implement policies that help in the realisation of both individual(s) and
organisational objectives. Such policies deal with decisions involving company
policies, selection, career advancement, employment continuity, and other equal
employment opportunities. Understanding the kind of people the organisation needs
to find and keep takes an organisation one step closer to determining an effective
human resource strategy. As the work of Noordin and Jusoff, (2009) demonstrated
that the new experience will pose a challenge to the biased attitudes, leading to the
development of more appropriate attitudes.
26
2.2.4 Determinants of Work Environments
Organisational environments are turbulent and change is always present. The complexity
and diversity of the world of work have created many areas of employment where
individual workers are obliged to respond to the tune of management, often at the risk of
their own dignity and well-being. Consequently, the development of and adherence to a
friendly working environment and satisfaction of employees set the right direction for
positive retention outcomes. Without this, work may be less meaningful and ultimately the
employee will be less motivated to perform. Clearly, there is no one way of motivating
employees through a favourable work environment nor is there a single strategy for job
designs with equitable reward that stimulates employee and maintain maximum levels of
productivity. Therefore, it becomes imperative to identify the basic determinants of work
environment.
The basic determinants of work environments in this context is represented in Figure 2.2:
Figure 2.2: Predictors of Work Environment
Source: Asmui, Hussin and Paino (2012)
1. Physical workplace environment
The management of stress through the provision of physical environment requires one or
two different strategies (or both). First, the strategy requires an alteration of the physical
environment to lessen noise, increase ventilation and provide comfortable spatial
arrangement. Second, the strategy should centre on the protection of employees from
Physical
Factors:
Noise
Ventilation
Lighting
Spatial
Arrangement
Ergonomics
PREDICTORS OF WORK
ENVIRONMENTS
Reward
System:
Salary
Pay Incentives
Fringe Benefits
Promotion
Recognition
Training
Psychologi
cal
Factors:
Equity
Perception
Motives
Cognition
Learning
Attitudes
Personality
Traits
Job
Contents:
Job design
Task
Identity
Role Clarity
Skill
Variety
Task
Significance
Autonomy
Organisational
Climate:
Participation &
Involvement
Management
Style
Communication
Style\
Culture &
Climate
Job Security
QWL or WLB
27
hazardous environment by providing them with improved safety equipment. The physical
factors involve the interactions of employees with office space arrangement, computers,
chairs, tables, lighting, office temperature etc. that enhance employee’s comfortability
(Knudsen, Bucks & Lindt, 2011); safety, health, satisfaction and performance (Moran,
2010). Thus, to ensure employees’ satisfaction and workplace performance, organisations
must provide a suitable environment that is noise free (Bozeman & Gaughan, 2011),
adequate office spaces (Al-Anzi, 2009), appropriate work tools and furniture (Odunlade,
2012; Okebukola, 2002). Organisations are expected to identify areas where there is poor
ergonomics workstation that contribute to stress outcome such as employees’
dissatisfaction, poor performance, complaints and perhaps, intention to quit the organisation
as a result of stress (Okiki, 2013). Various workplace features exist with the degree of the
impact and variability in employee behaviours. Some of this workplace variables are
captured in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: Predictors of Physical Work Environment
Source: Holmgren, Hensing and Dellve (2010)
(i) Noise:
Noise is regarded as one of the major climates in an organisation that hinders employees’
concentration on the job (Joo & Park, 2010). An employee, in the process of discharging
some of his/her duties could be distracted by excessive noise and vibration in the workplace
which could affect his/her performance. This implies that where the sound is loud and
workers are exposed to it for long, their performance and commitment can be affected.
28
(ii) Air Quality:
The importance of air quality has become a fundamental aspect of physical work
environment in determining retention outcomes in any sector. In today’s environment and
with the level of competitive trend, organisations are built with air conditioning systems that
help to reduce suffocation and stimulate workers to stay longer in the offices (Oyekan,
2014). However, it is said that the ideal temperature in the offices should consider four (4)
major elements namely temperature, humidity, ventilation, and cleanliness (Holmgren,
Hensing & Dellve, 2010). A relaxed office work milieu should be characterized by the
elements where employees can perform efficiently and effectively. An office with the right
quantity and quality of temperature would aid employee comfort-ability and subsequent
performance.
(iii) Ergonomic Tools:
It is a systematic approach of arranging employees’ workstation and designing equipments
and systems to ensure continual comfort and increased productivity. Ergonomics is the
systematic process of designing, setting, organising and arranging workplaces furniture
(chairs, tables, and shelves), facility and machine used to fit the people who use them.
Ergonomics can further be seen as strategic methods designed to enhance employees’
comfort, health, welfare, safety and overall system performance (Khalid, Irshad &
Mahmood, 2012). The Ergonomic Handbook of the IBM Corporation (2010) in the USA
stresses the importance of job design which can be explained through the following:
(i) Posture: Central to ergonomic resources is the ability to integrate meaningful
job design to prevent protracted stillness which causes lethargy, exhaustion and
discomfort.
(ii) The back: Many employees suffer from back pain. Hence, in reducing back
injuries, organisations should design lifting tasks carefully by designing
arranging and providing workplaces furniture such as chairs, tables, shelves,
facility and machine that can be used to ease the performance of a given task.
It is of no doubt that the result of selecting improper office furniture can affect
employees' comfort and convenience. It is paramount that organisations should select
and use suitable ergonomic resources that will make workers more comfortable in their
jobs and perform their tasks efficiently (Prasetya & Kato, 2011).
29
2. Psychological factors
Irene (2010) adduced that psychological factor of work environment is a pattern of
reactions to a situation where job demands that are not compatible with employees’
competence, abilities or aptitudes, and which challenge their coping mechanism. The
psychological reactions could be a response to pressures, intensity, rigidity or
apprehensions arising from changes and situations in an individual’s life. Studies from
Kayastha and Kayastha (2012) revealed that factors such as perception, motives, learning,
attitudes and personality traits of the staff affects their psychological behaviours. Pouliakas
(2010 affirmed that the attitudes of the staff are mostly influenced by the use of pygmalion
effect. This effect becomes enhanced when organisations provide challenging goals with
which employees agree and compare their performance regularly with these goals. Asmui,
Hussin and Paino (2012) added that organisations should do this in a manner that is not
critical or demeaning. The changing demands of work ultimately affect the attitudes of
employees especially those working under a lot of pressure such as University academic
staff. The response changing demands to psychological factor reduces the productivity of
employees and this is when an employee is unclear as to his duties and responsibilities,
meaning that he does not know what duties are required of him. The predictors of
psychological factors are shown in Figure 2.4 below.
Figure 2.4: Predictors of Psychological Factors
Source: Pearce (2010)
30
(i) Perception:
A major goal of the psychological states is fairness or perceived equity, experienced
meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of results. Employees are also influenced
by their perception on how they are answerable and responsible for their performance
outcomes. Studies (Şenol, 2011; Siegel, Schraeder, et al., 2007) revealed that employees
are often affected by their perception on knowledge of results and equity. The knowledge
of result in this context means the degree to which employees determine and interpret their
own individual perception of compensation equity by using the formula espoused in equity
model. Equity model proposes that employees compare what they receive as reward (pay,
career development and advancement, recognition) from the job with their inputs
(education, experience, skill and efforts). The ratio is then compared to the ratios of others;
if the ratios are perceived as inequitable, dissatisfaction may result. Dissatisfaction
probably does not occur if positive inequity (the person feels over-rewarded) is the result
of the comparison. Research has shown that workers have been found to be happy when
they perceive they are paid more than they are worth (Pfeifer, 2012; Fapohunda, 2012).
Furthermore, when negative inequity (the person is under-rewarded) occurs, employees are
generally dissatisfied and de-motivated. This dissatisfaction may cause them to seek new
employment, to become less productive, or to be absent. Thus, the selective nature of
perception leads to the other two conditions.
Selective Distortion: this occurs when the individual changes or twists currently
received information into personal meanings and interpret it in a way that will support
rather than challenge his pre-conceptions.
Selective retention: this dictates that an individual tends to remember information
inputs that support personal feelings and beliefs and forget inputs that do not.
Organisations adopt numerous techniques to address the selective nature of perceived
equity. The process of establishing a secured perception that reduces tension while ensuring
external, internal, and procedural equity consists of five (5) steps namely:
(a) conduct a comparison wage survey to make certain external equity;
(b) provide a comprehensive job evaluation that specifies the value of jobs to make
certain internal equity.
(c) classify and organise related jobs into pay grades.
(d) with the use of a wave curve, value each pay grade
(e) evaluate, monitor and control the pay rates.
31
Perceptions of equitable treatment have become a fundamental and critical aspect of
retention. Adams (1963) observed that perception of equity is the degree to which an
employee recognises he is fairly treated and rewarded with other employees within and
outside the workstation. An employee’s perception begins by comparing his inputs
(skills)/outcomes (reward) ratio to that of others within and outside the establishment of
organisation. Seemingly, the inputs refer to all the values that the employee offers which
include knowledge, skill, ability, know-how, time, exertion, etc. While the outcomes
include the rewards (monetary and non-monetary) that the employee receives in exchange
of his contributions. Studies have assessed the role of employees’ perception of equity on
job satisfaction (Anvari. Amin, Ahmad & Seliman, 2011; Şenol, 2011). Therefore, the
factors that influence the perception of employees in any workstation is represented with a
diagram as presented in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: Factors that Influence Perception
Source: Şenol (2011)
Figure 2.5 shows that employees possess various perception towards their rewards in the
course of their employment relations. These perceptions are largely influenced by their
attitudes, motives, interests, experience and expectations. Importantly, employees are
intensely stimulated to increase performance and productivity only when they perceive a
balance between their inputs and their rewards. When pay disparities and discrepancies
arise, conflict becomes inevitable.
32
(ii) Motivation
The concept of motivations arises out of the concept of need. Motivation is the aspiration
and determination to perform excellently. It refers to the effort, reinforcement and
encouragement which enables individuals to perform their work. Motivation is the strategic
means of inspiring individual worker to achieve a desired result (Shin & Jung, 2013;
Armstrong, 2001). Motivation is the strategic process of creating organisational conditions
which propels and facilitates employee’s performance towards the achievement to
corporate objectives (Senturk, 2014; Bashir & Ramay, 2010). Where workers are inspired
towards appropriate goals then the possibility of organisational success will be improved.
The need for continuous improvement in job performance has become a source of concern
in the business world. Research have indicated that continuous improvement can be
achieved through motivational strategies. Employees’ motivation requires a flexible reward
strategy capable of reacting to issues that are internal (e.g. quality of competent staff,
resource availability and allocation) and external (e.g. government policy on the minimum
wage) in context with the rewards offered by competitors (Bloom & Van Reenen, 2011;
Armstrong, 2001). It becomes imperative to reiterate that motivational strategies which are
not malleable and dynamic are perilous and counterproductive (Umoh, Amah & Wokocha,
2014; Sofat, 2012; Griffin, 2012). A framework of motivation as prescribed by Griffin
(2012) is shown in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: The Motivation Framework
Source: Griffin (2012)
33
Griffin (2012) also identified four basic steps for motivating employees. They include
assessing issues needful for increased performance; establishing a network of motivating
strategies; deciding and applying motivators; and the feedback. Ostensibly, for
organisations to be successful and competitive, the 4P’s of motivation which include
promotion; praise; prestige; and pay cheques must also be highly considered for employees’
performance. Undoubtedly, a single theory cannot be used to explain and explore all the
motivational problems as displayed in Figure 2.6; however, something can be learned from
each theory.
(iii) Learning
Learning is a significant aspect of people management. Learning refers to an integrative
and continuous process through which dexterity, skill, talent, competence and knowledge
of an employee is enriched and improved (Sofat, 2012). Every learning programmes must
be need-based and must be well designed to achieve set targets and objectives. According
to the Chartered Institute of Personnel Development (CIPD), it is important to structure the
learning sufficiently in order to enhance mutual benefits for the employees and
organisation. Predictably, the importance of learning from confronting and solving
problems at work is undermined, whilst retaining the strategic perspective of business-
driven and individual-driven approaches (CIPD, 2007).
Climate within the learning organisation have a duty to infuse all collective activities (e.g.
meetings, conferences) where there is a severe understanding of what happens in the
organisation in terms of the underlying opportunities or threats. The success of this learning
depends on how it is linked to the strategic identification needs, culture change and
employee involvement. It is also important to adduce that the collection of learning
activities required for performing a function can be seen as occupational competencies.
Management, for example, is seen as an occupation since managers have a particular role
to play, and managerial competencies that relate to such specific roles have been defined.
Vocational competencies can be identified as the technical competencies required by a job
or occupation. These can change over time as the technology or work practices are altered
and as opportunities for further skill formation arise. On the other hand, Individual generic
competencies are those that are fundamentally inferred from performance in a given
situation. In addition to these competencies, interest is growing in other types of generic
34
competencies, such as the ability to: (1) find, process and use information; (2) solve
complex problems; and (3) use technology. Hence, the use of a competency-based approach
provides for integrated, flexible and responsive education and training and facilitates life-
long learning, the new international trend which is currently needed in Nigerian state
Universities.
(iv) Ability and Attitudes
Organisations that provide well-developed training and development programmes,
educational reimbursement plans, and state-of-the-art equipment can expect employees
with extremely high ability. Likewise, organisations with strong personnel policies with
respect to compensation, rewards, promotions and career development usually have
employees with positive attitudes toward their job and the organisation. Studies have
identified several ways to combat poor attitudes (Kaufman, Chapman & Allen, 2013;
Abdulkareem & Oyeniran, 2011). First, let employees know they matter and are important.
Second, keep vital information flowing freely. This gives the employee a sense of control
about how things are going. Third, give employees a stake or ownership in the
organisations. Finally, lighten it up. Humor is an excellent way to combat poor attitudes.
Abdulsalam and Mawoli (2012) advocated that effective HR policies can significantly
contribute to the attitude of employees towards their organisations/institutions. These
positive attitude reduces absenteeism and turnover thereby leading to greater fulfilment and
commitment of the employees. Ahmed, Usman and Rana (2011) indicated that no one
technique improves employees’ attitudes across the board. Instead, a combination of
motivational tools should be used. Also, it is important to remember that the tools must be
consistent with the organisational culture for them to be effective.
3. Job Contents
The concept of job content is one of the new variables that make up contemporary work
related issues. Job contents means the process of organising responsibilities into a
productive unit of work to enhance organisational efficiency and employee job satisfaction
(Culpepper, 2011). Job content is also the arrangement of the task, functions and
relationships among jobs towards the attainment of personal and organisational objectives
(Bashir & Ramay, 2010). The characteristics of the job and job holders influence a number
of personal and work outcomes. The work to be done and how it gets done have become a
35
concern for employers and employees (Iyoha et al., 2015; Olajide, 2010). Additionally, two
major approaches to job design are available for management of organisations: a
specialization –intensive approach and a motivation-intensive approach as shown in Figure
2.7.
Job Design Dimension Performance Outcomes
Figure 2.7: A Framework for Job Design
Source: Adapted from Hackman and Oldham (1976)
Strategic Guidelines for Job Contents
One of the most comprehensive frameworks for job design is the job characteristics model.
It proposes specific characteristics of jobs that can lead to important psychological states.
In turn, these psychological states lead to a number of positive and work outcomes as shown
in Figure 2.8. The Job Characteristics Model recognises that specific dimensions of the job
are intrinsically encouraging for some employees and sometimes these employees may
perceive and respond to the job characteristics in different ways. Hackman and Oldham
(1976; 2005) expressed that the relationship between the job dimensions and performance
outcomes can moderated by growth need strength. Growth need strength is the need to
acquire necessary skills, develop and be challenged. This means that employees who
perceive their jobs to be enriched and enlarged are likely to experience increased
psychological state. If employees perceive the psychological states from their work and
they have high growth need strength, ultimately their personal and work outcomes will be
enhanced. In essence, the model in Figure 2.8 works best for employees with a need to
learn, grow and be challenged (high growth need strength).
Job contents:
Task variety
Task autonomy
Task complexity
Task difficulty
Task identify
Job functions:
Responsibility
Authority
Information flow
Work methods
Co-ordination
requirements
Relationships:
Dealing with others
Friendship opportunities
Teamwork requirements
Feedback
Feedback
Task Accomplishment:
Productivity
Effectiveness
Efficiency
Worker Reaction:
Satisfaction
Absenteeism
Turnover
36
Figure 2.8: Motivation through the Design of Work
Source: Adapted from Hackman and Oldham (2005)
Hackman and Oldham (2005) identified five core job characteristics which are:
i. Task identity: this requires arranging a set of tasks with necessary information that
stimulates the operation, performance and accomplishment of the job (Mohsan,
2012)
ii. Task significance: the level at which the work itself impact on others (Olajide,
2010).
iii. Skill variety: the degree to which employees’ exercise different skills and abilities.
iv. Autonomy: This also refers to the amount of discretion, freedom and independence
employees enjoy in accomplishing a given task (Khan, Farooq & Ullah, 2010).
v. Feedback: the degree to which the job provides necessary and required information
to employees regarding performance and work outcomes.
Critical Psychological
States
Personal and Work
Outcomes
Core Job Characteristics/
Job Contents
Skill Variety
Experienced
Meaningfulness of the
Work
Experienced
Responsibility
Knowledge of Results
from Work Activities
Relationships are
Moderated by
Employee Growth
Need Strength
High Internal
Motivation
High Satisfaction
High Work
Quality
Task Identity
Autonomy
Feedback
Task Significance
37
4. Reward System
The approach to rewarding people at work is enduring significant changes and the word
reward is progressively being used for contemporary remuneration strategies and policies.
Reward includes pay, compensation and benefit. It is a managerial function that
incorporates financial and non-financial values to reward employees who add value to
achieve distinctive advantage (Danish & Usman, 2010). The use of reward has become
indispensable in stimulating staff performance. Reward which is interchangeably used with
compensation system has also played an indispensable role in encouraging staff physically,
emotional and psychological (Hafiza, Shah, Jamsheed & Zaman 2011; Kinicki & Williams,
2003). Adequate compensation often leads to greater commitment (Ogunbameru, 2012;
Pesik & Gounko, 2011). But in the recent times, effort to compensate and control salaries
has become a critical problem for organisations competing in the global marketplace
(Carrington, et al., 2012). Rewarding employees is to some extent as much an art as a
science as shown in Figure 2.9 below.
Figure 2.9: Components of Total Reward Strategy
Source: Armstrong (2001)
In every organisation, especially in the educational sectors, the use of pay, bonus,
compensation, profit sharing, etc has played a major role in motivating and retaining
workers for higher performance and commitments (Osibanjo, Adeniji, Falola, & Heirsmac,
2014). If all the remuneration packages (salary, fringe benefits and incentives) enumerated
are present in any organisation/institution, there is no doubt that there will be a high level
of satisfaction among the employees of such organisation, and this will enable them to
38
perform better in their respective jobs. In other words, reward and satisfaction go hand in
hand. However, the absence of rewards will cause dissatisfaction (Fredman & Doughney,
2012; Hashim & Mahmood, 2011). It is also important to note that this reward covers both
the extrinsic and intrinsic values which employees are entitled to as part of their
employment benefits. Therefore, Table 2.2 shows the total reward system (extrinsic and
intrinsic values) required for employment continuity. .
Table 2.2: Employees’ Total Reward System
Employees’
Reward System
Extrinsic
Rewards
Monetary
Rewards
Hourly wage
Salary
Bonuses
Commissions
Pay incentives
Benefits
Insurance
Retirement
Paid holidsys
Paid public holidays
Food services
Medical
Recreation
Intrinsic Rewards
Recognition
Promotion opportunities
Working conditions
Interesting work.
Source: Khan (2010)
To enhance academic staff retention in Nigerian tertiary institutions, the following must be
considered: the pay should be based on performance or related to workers’ productivity in
order to retain employees; the differences in the pay plan for jobs should reflect variations
in job requirements such as skills, abilities and responsibility and job conditions (Ozongwu,
2013); the pay must reflect increases in costs of living; employees’ earnings should be
adjusted over time so that they may be adequate for the employees to live and work well
(Udoh, 2000). Additionally, organisations should endeavour to make sure the pay system
is clearly defined and stated, adequately publicised and properly used without departures
from the established structure. Khan, et al., (2010) suggested sustainable development can
only be enhanced through an effective and consistent reward/compensation package which
subsequently lead to increasing employee loyalty.
39
Determinants of Reward System and staff Satisfaction
No organisation, whether profit making or a non-profit making can exist void of human
capital. Every organisation comprises of people who perform certain duties and
responsibility in order to ensure a smooth functioning of the organisation. Basically,
organisations have an end-result and desired goals they look forward to accomplishing.
Every organisation therefore has to strive towards the effective management of its human
capital, in ensuring that they stay satisfied at the work functions they perform, because the
employees in such an organisation are solely charged with the responsibility of translating
these goals and desired results into a visible reality (Chobelueh, 2013; Udoh, 2000).
Organisations should therefore, ensures a well-structured compensation package for their
employees, in motivating them to put in the required efforts towards the attainment of their
objectives.
Many researchers adduced that these factors that lead to job satisfaction have been a major
concern for management over the years. This was due to the power and principle of
individual differences that what motivates Mr. A for higher performance may not really
motivate Mr. B for organisational efficiency. Conversely, if what motivate Mr. A can also
motivates Mr. B then the road to job satisfaction will be guaranteed but if they have
differing needs, they must be motivated according to their needs, else increased
productivity will only become a dream. Studies revealed that when the basic needs of
employees are not fulfilled, job dissatisfaction tends to exist.
Studies have examined many determinants of reward system, fringe benefit and employee
welfare (Ozongwu, 2013; Ayeni, et al, 2008). Some of the major determinants are as
follows:
i. Labour Pool: Conditions in the labour market or demands and supply for labour in
the market should be considered in deciding on indirect remuneration packages. The
relationship between supply and demand in a given location or job can influence
remuneration to a great extent of there is a surplus of applications; pay rates will
remain relatively low.
40
ii. Economic Condition: cost of living, depending on boom, depression, inflation,
deflation in a given location also determines the administration of compensation that
managers need to attract and retain competent staff.
iii. Ability to pay: whether a particular labour or skill is scarce or plentiful, an
organisation will only hire it if has the capacity to pay such salary and benefit
attracted.
iv. Collective Bargaining Power: Any organisation with a well organised union law
negotiate with the union representatives for the workers. This criteria and methods
are very common within the private sector in Nigeria. A strong union with bargaining
power can always gain concessions for its members, subject however to the
organisation’s ability to pay and the level of productivity.
v. Nature of the organisations work: that is the relative worth of job e.g. banks, Oil
Company, ministry e.t.c, will be considered before given packages.
vi. Competitors: competitions are also major determinant of fringe and employee
welfare; in an environment where there is high level of competitions there will be
different kinds of packages in order to retain the incumbent worker.
vii. Technology: the skill or technological requirement of the job is also one of the
determinants of indirect remunerations packages.
Daneshfard and Ekvaniyan (2012) added that when the genuine needs and supplications of
the employees are not taken into cognizance and managed properly, then job dissatisfaction
takes effect and this facilitate undesirable feelings towards work. Houston, Meyer &
Paewai (2006) revealed that organisational performance is affected by the moment an
employee feels dissatisfied or discouraged about how things are being done. They argued
that organisations should put in practice mechanisms that will recognise the principle of
individual differences when it comes to satisfying their (employees) expectations and
demands. Several factors have been identified to influence the high job satisfaction in the
workplace. Amongst these are career development and progression, opportunities for
growth, communication, training and other work related issues (Dobbins & Knill, 2009).
Invariably, several studies have also revealed that low compensation was the most common
reason given for dissatisfaction. Ibrahim, Usman & Bagudu (2013) stated that employees
feel they are satisfied only when the work itself is challenging, interesting, and motivating.
41
Studies by Fredman and Doughney (2012); Danish, et al., (2010); Kamal and Normah-binti
(2012) indicated that there are different and dynamic ways of motivating worker for
efficiency and effectiveness. Amongst these are pay, interpersonal relationship, sense of
achievement, etc (Spector, 2008). In the analysis of Schultz and Schultz (1998), job
satisfaction has become a stimulus that influences the attitude and work of the employees
negatively or positively depending on the work-related characteristics, and demographic
characteristics such as age, sex, educational status and personal characteristics. Bashir and
Ramay (2010) stressed that people spend most of their hours in the work place for several
years with a revolving and routine work schedule which will later and eventually lead to
discouragement, discontentment and despondency; these feelings and attitudes are often
extended to families and later affect their social life, mental and psychological wellbeing.
The relationship between motivation and job satisfaction cannot be underestimated because
the two variables go together and react in different response to increased employees
involvement and retention, efficiency, commitment and working surroundings.
Going by the definition of Fredman and Doughney (2012), it should be noted that an
employee’s morale will be boosted as a result of what he contributes and gets from work.
Ubeku (1995) however, enumerated some ways through which worker’s loyalty can be
boosted as follows:
a) Wages and Salaries: Good adequate wages and salaries should be given to
employees to meet their basic needs. Once this is done, the average worker would
be able to contribute to the fulfillment of organisational objectives.
b) Job security: This boost the morale of individual workers in an organisation as they
feel secure in the performance of their duty. It also enables the workers to exert all
their efforts to achieve the objectives of the organisation.
c) Promotion: This serves as motivation, in that it allows the extent to which
individual performance is recognised. Any employee promoted puts in more efforts
in his work.
d) Job enrichment: this is when the task performed by many people is compressed
into one job, so as to enable one person to start and end the task. Job enrichment is
the vertical integration of various tasks into harmonious whole and assigning it to a
subordinate worker in such way that such a worker can see his finished product.
This goes a long in boosting the morale of an individual in an organisation.
42
e) Workers should be encouraged to take part in decision making. This will enable
them to talk about their interests, and giving them a sense of belonging.
Therefore, if all the aforementioned factors are put into consideration by an organisation,
it will boost the loyalty and morale of their employees, which will in turn enhance their
performance and make it easier for organisational goals and objectives to be achieved.
5. Organisational climate
The environment of every nation affords it the opportunity to exist, to survive and to
function. It is evident that organisations have intentionally established social tools that are
created out of the larger society (environment). They are consciously established to add to
the value of the larger environment through their daily activities. In evaluating the
workplace environment, one of the major variables to be considered is the organisational
climate. The climatic condition with which the organisation inhabits itself has a huge role
to play in organisational performance and in influencing workplace behaviours (Govaerts,
et al., 2011; Fletcher & Nusbaum, 2010). The climatic setting of the organisation comprised
variables such as social, economic or political that influences employee’s behaviour. Some
of these climatic conditions vary from the communication structure, the management style,
the pay system, the organisations room temperatures, workload among others. Put together,
the organisational climate and culture significantly affect performance (Holmgren, et al,
2010; Stansfeld & Candy, 2006). It is widely believed that this organisational variables that
are sometimes regarded as the culture adopted by the organisation enhances performance
and employees' behaviour.
Determinants of Organisational Climate
(i) Organisational Culture
Learning the culture of an organisation is an important step in the socialization process.
The culture of an organisation comprises of set of values (shared beliefs), history, custom
and artifacts that the group holds in common (Schneider, 2008). Culture is the cement or
glue that holds a group or organisation together. The process of acquiring the culture of an
organisation is known as acculturation (Skuza, 2007). Even though culture is represented
by art and artifacts. It is considered intangible, hidden, and not easily recognised. In the
past decades, the role of organisational culture has acquired wide acceptance. It serves as a
43
strategic means by which members of the organisation understand what it stands for, how
things are done, and what it considers important. The relationships are captured in Table
2.3 and Figure 2.10.
Figure 2.10: The Paradigm of Organisational Culture
Source: Adapted from Osibanjo and Adeniji (2013)
Table 2.3: Components and Meaning of Corporate Culture
Source: Asmui, Hussin and Paino (2012).
It can be inferred from Table 2.3 and Figure 2.10 that organisational culture has important
role in employee productivity. The culture of an organisation is made manifest to
employees in form of orientation programme. Orientation is familiarizing the employees
with its operations and culture. Orientation occurs in two ways: formally and informally
(Schneider, Salvaggio & Subirats, 2002). The formal orientation is conducted by the
organisation. Many organisations go to great lengths to ensure a match between information
provided formally and informally. This helped to reinforce corporate philosophy with
existing employees as well as new ones. This philosophy covers four (4) key points:
(a) Face to face communication of all performance figures with all employees is
critical;
(b) Training and the opportunity for development should be provided to all employees;
S/N COMPONENTS MEANING
1 Values Basic beliefs; strongly held attitudes about important ideas
2 Norms Accepted standards of behaviour
3 History and Tradition The historical or traditional way of doing and thinking above
things
4 Mores Customs or rituals that the society believes in and follows
5 Myths Common stories or folklore passed from one generation to
another.
6 Art and artifacts Art, symbols, weapons, pottery, and so on that are physical
representation of the culture.
Organisational
Culture
Symbols
Control Systems
The
Paradigm
Rituals &
Routines
Power Structure
Stories &
Myths
44
(c) Job security should be provided for all people;
(d) Incentive programmes based on ideas, suggestion, and hard work should be
established as a reward.
A short, simple straightforward statement, such as the one above, consistently emphasised
and communicated, can do much to ensure that the formal orientation strategy for
acculturation is reinforced on the job.
(ii) Leadership Style
Schneider (2008) argued that leadership is one of the most important means of directing
people. It is the process by which an executive influences the work and behaviour of
subordinates in choosing and attaining specific objectives. Braham (2005), who brought a
new perspective to the leadership issue, refers to it as ‘crisis of trust and confidence’ and
summarises employee’s evaluation of leaders into three fundamental questions. Leadership
is the process or activity concerned with influencing the behaviour of others and the
motivation efforts in a specific situation towards a goal (Ullah, 2012; Tsai, 2011).
Leadership Style defined
The studies in leadership styles established three experimental social conditions (autocratic,
democratic and Laissez-faire). These categories of leadership styles by Lewin (1939)
continued to be cited in works of institutional leadership.
Autocratic Leadership Style
According to Slusher, Van Dyke and Rose (1972), an autocratic leader has the central
power and the decision making structure concentrated in him alone. He takes full authority
and assumes full responsibility. In this kind of leadership style, followers maybe
uninformed, feel insecure and afraid of the leader’s authority. However, despite its
shortcoming, it can be positive because the leader can use power to dispense rewards to the
groups. This type of leader is regarded by Davis as a benevolent autocratic. Autocratic
leadership style can be used to achieve productivity and job performance in some situations.
It has also been discovered that leaders may also feel more effective when in autocratic,
feel more secured and when conflict occurs, they can take action that provides strong
motivation and reward for the leader and permit quick decision making because authority
is concentrated in just one person. However, people may dislike it if it is extreme and the
45
motivational style is negative. As a result, there may be frustration, conflict and low morale.
Followers may feel that they are producing because they are required to do so. Gibb (1971)
labels this style of leadership as defensive model, which according to him emanate from
fear and from the leaders feeling of insecurity, control and their behaviour.
Democratic Style of Leadership
The democratic style takes into consideration or accounts every member of the group.
Responsibilities and decisions making are based on consultation, deliberation and
participation among the group (Awan & Mahmood, 2010). In this kind of leadership style,
the employers and employees work cordially as a team to achieve some set of goals. The
employer can be said to derive his power and authority from employees whose basic needs,
rights and freedom are guaranteed. The employer always act on behalf of the group and
seek their consent or suggestion before taking decisions. Every member of this system feels
satisfied because they participate in the achievement of goals. He uses praises and blame
for work result and he is not sentimental. In this situation, the employer tends to understand
his work and at the same time enjoys it. There is open discussion in which members are
free to express their feelings. This tends to lead to a sense of resourcefulness, creativity,
discretion, autonomy and work quality.
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Followers of the laissez-faire leadership style believe that people are most productive when
they pursue their own interest without external restrictions. The laissez-faire style of
leadership connotes a situation where power is totally among the people. In this type, things
go better in the absence of the leader who is just a figurative head. Slusher and van Dyke
(1972) write that leaders do not believe in a laissez-faire style but instead take initiative in
seeing to it that members know what their responsibilities are and who has the authority to
make decisions on problems. The laissez-faire leader, according to Davis (1968), avoids
power and depends on the group to establish its own goal and solve its own problems. He
tends to permit different units of organisation to proceed at cross-purposes. This type of
situation has been found to degenerate into chaos. Here, the employer does not make use
of the power invested on him and tends to depend on the employees to decide and establish
goals.
46
Although democratic leadership style may prove to be the most effective, some situations
may call for autocratic or laissez-faire style. So the behaviour of leaders is dependent on
situations. Shadare and Hammed (2009) explains that leadership is concerned with the
implementation of those policies and decisions, which assist in directing and co-ordinating
the wok activities towards the attainment of corporate objectives
(iii) Mentoring
Mentoring has been discussed in various literatures as a process that aids talent retention
(Govaerts, Kyndt, Dochy & Baert, 2011). But hardly has it been described with regards to
the act and employees' commitment to work. Hence, simply put mentoring is the process
whereby an experienced individual puts another with lower experience, and in similar field,
through for the purpose of his development. It is against this background that managers
believed that a mentoring process for an employee should stimulate her to be dedicated and
passionate for a system that had provided the opportunity for career development because
this is the end product of mentorship. The growing competition in Nigeria, especially in the
educational industry has called for steady implementation of strategies for facilitating
employment relationship and continuity between the employer and employee through
proper mentoring programes. It is also argued that this relationship could influence
employees’ attitudes, commitment and involvement, which eventually result in retention
(Weiss, 2012; Taiwo, 2010; Wagner & Harter, 2006), leads to turnover intention (Robbins
&Judge, 2012), displeasure, tiredness, stress and low productivity (Kaufman, Chapman &
Allen, 2013). Conversely, Griffin (2012) also indicated that poor reciprocity of mentorship
programmes are essentially accompanied with incessant absenteeism, fatigue, emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization and intension of employees to leave their job; all of which
impacts on organisational performance. A committed employee will perform better, and a
performing employee will be efficient and effective which in turn create advantages for the
organisation in terms of performance. With the current trends of the high rate of labour
turnover, which is a summary of various employees deviant attitude to work, and with the
paucity of studies on mentoring and employees' commitment, this study finds a void to fill
in knowledge.
(iv) Employer-employee relations
Employee relation has commonly been used relatively in recent years to promote
employment relationship (Mike, 2008). The International Labour Organisation (ILO)
47
describes it as a legal notion to mean the relationship between a person called an employee
and another person called the employer. Employee relations are a rather wide-reaching
topic with many different angles it has grown in subject area and range of analysis
conducted (Fein, 2010). From this, it can be deduced that employee relations is concerned
with how to obtain people’s commitment towards achieving an organisation’s objective.
The term “employee relations” is described as the relationship between the employers,
employees and trade unions which represents the employees. It is also known as the
relationship between two parties (employee and employer) in which one party the
employees performs certain functions for the employer in return for pay, remuneration and
compensation. This employer-employee relationship begins from the moment a job is
offered by an employer and accepted by an employee with the terms and conditions of
employment. This relationship becomes terminated if the employee decides to resign or is
fired from the organisation. Above all, employee relations are highly crucial in any
organised institution in order to maintain a stable organisational growth. It is also to be
noted that employees play a vital role in the sustenance of growth in an organisation.
(v) Work Flexibility
According to Ogunbameru (2004), work is the human effort which creates useful goods.
Work could be in the form of rendering services or producing goods for man’s needs.
Various development strategies in areas of managing both work and people at work have
attracted attention on helpful studies on matters of division of labour, Total Quality
Management (TOM), Management By Objectives (MBO), Human Resource Management
(HRM) and flexibility management to mention a few (Kontz, O’Donnell & Weihrich, 2013;
Cole, 2007). These issues arising in the work place are profit driven and also beneficial for
both the employers’ and employees’. Flexibility management for instance have varieties
ranging from shift working, overtime, moonlighting (multiple job holding), and part time
work arrangement involving flex-times and so on. The new ideology, flexibility
management involves job flexibility, wage flexibility, work process flexibility and even
time flexibility; though intended on making more money by management to the exclusion
of the people; but not entirely disadvantageous to the employees (Fletcher & Nusbaum,
2010).
48
Flexibility management is a managerial strategy which tends towards protecting
management in times of business crisis. It also allows for such things as casualization,
contract work and multiple tasking. Oziengbe and Obhiosa (2014) explained that this
approach receives the support of those seeking cost efficiencies through control of staffing
numbers and development and so flexibility management is a management defensive
strategy for breaking more profit grounds; it has brought many advantages for the
employees’ while it allows management to be able to pay the workers conveniently.
Flexibility management gives the employees opportunities to manage their private
schedules and frees them from the rigid bureaucratic fixed time work arrangements;
through its flex-time work system. In this vein, employees decide the favourable work
times in as much as they are able to fulfil their contractual obligation in terms of hours
worked over a set period and organisation’s goals. Thus the working day is not rigidly
controlled (Fletcher & Nusbaum, 2010). Flexibility management affects wage flexibility
hence, an employee can decide on how much to be earned during a period of time and how
to go about it. It is strongly argued that flexitime work arrangement gives the employees
the freedom to choose hours of work to suit the constraints imposed by one’s life styles,
avoidance of rush travels hours, and engagement in other economic activities.
(vi) Promotion
The term promotion is one of the most emotionally charged practices of human resource
management. Organisations where promotion opportunities have declined and need for
flexibility and multiskilling have increased are more likely to benefits from broad banding.
For instance, if the general consensus is that the wrong person has been promoted, there
will be resentment and probably lack of cooperation from other members. Promotion can
be defined as progress, advancement or development in career and a reward for hard work
in an organisation (Fatimah, Noraishah, Nasir & Khairuddin, 2012). It enhances the level
of reward, benefits, authority and responsibilities which employees enjoy in organisational
context. Promotion in the workplace must be done objectively and it must be done to satisfy
the following features:
(a) opportunities for employee growth and development are provided;
(b) Equal opportunity or advancement to all employees is provided;
(c) Creating awareness and openness of opportunities known to all employees;
49
(d) Increasing the awareness of employees on what constitutes effective job
performance;
(e) Effective communication of corporate objectives and thus allow each individual the
opportunity to find a personal fit in the organisation. It is imperative that decisions
about promotions are based on reliable data.
A large number of organisations place significant importance on promotion. Available
research evidence has shown that overall employee satisfaction results from a mix of
rewards which include promotion (Cole, 2004; Armstrong, 2001; Onasanya, 1999; Arthur,
1995). Thus, it is pertinent to examine the relationship between promotion and job
productivity in an organisation.
(vii) Decision Making
Decision-making is a very important part of managerial and operational process function
in achieving organisational goal. Robbins and Judge (2012) defined decision making as
the act of making choices from two or more alternatives. Similarly, Ferguson and Reio,
(2010) sees decision making process as the selection of alternative course of action from
available alternatives in order to accomplish corporate goals. Ogunbameru, (2004)
identified four major steps involved in the decision-making process which include
identifying the problem; alternative solutions; evaluating and choosing from alternative
solutions and then implementing them. Hence, at any point in time employers or employees
must take a decision in other to perform an action in the organisation. Very often, decision-
making is a managerial function but subordinates will find themselves in situations that
demand them to take decisions. In a bureaucratic setting, making decision could be a task
that may not be achieved by employees; since actions of employees are already pre-
determined by the structure of bureaucracy. In the same way, Chobelueh (2013) indicated
that the importance of the environment, rank of employee and knowledge and experience
of an employee in the organisation significantly influences decision making in the operation
system of a purely bureaucratic establishment. The standardised written rules and
hierarchical down-flow control pattern of communication impedes on employees’ ability
to make decisions; make use of their initiatives or even make innovative moves in a
bureaucratic setting. Thus bureaucracy creates tension and fear most especially for those
on the bottom side of the ladder in its unintended effects, leading to indecisions that are
likely to affect the achievement of organisation’s goal; whose rules it is meant to protect.
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Decision-making enhances creativity (use of initiative and innovation). Through decision-
making, new ideas which could bring changes that are likely to create radical improvements
in the process of business come to take place. According to Rusli, Eileen and Sopian (2015),
there are two major types of decision-making-Programmed and un-programmed decision-
making and these depends on the type of problem emanating in the workplace. Explaining
further, he said programmed decision-making are usually structured, repetitive and routine
types with defined rules and procedures for operating them. Un-programmed decision-
making types are of accidental nature which arise out of some necessity on the job; and
could create opportunity for ‘change’ that can greatly influence employee’ performance
leading to organisation goal achievement.
2.2.5 Staff Loyalty
Staff loyalty can be best labelled in terms of a practice by which certain attitudes and
approaches give rise to specific behaviours (envisioned or real). Over the years, there have
been dramatic changes in business activities and workforce attitudes due to the competitive
nature of global environment. Historically, once employed an employee assumes it is a life
contract job and managers anticipated their generous loyalty to the organisation. In the
same way, employees used to be dedicated and committed to their employer. This spitting
image of engagement loyalty has slowly changed with the pace of “globalisation” and
“development”. Today, employees are faced with incessant occurrence of down-sizing,
restructuring or re-organisation, retrenchment and compulsory retirement. Employers are
breaking the rules, shared requirements are re-evaluated, life contract employment and
dedication is far from reality, moonlighting is considered to be a common practice, and
workers keeps demanding for increase in salaries, benefits or better working conditions.
Loyalty and reliance have turned out to be more challenging to acquire and offer in the
work place (Josée Bloemer & Odekerken-Schröder, 2006; Keller 2005). Loyalty can be
categorised into two (2) namely internal and external. The internal loyalty largely focuses
on emotional attachment or components which includes affection, recognition, respect, etc.
To enhance staff commitment, it becomes important for management to note that the
internal loyalty must be nurtured, fostered and fascinated. On the other hand, the external
loyalty has to do with components that manifest itself. The external loyalty are often
demonstrated to reflect conformity with organisational policies and compliance with
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management decisions. Certainly, the days of waiting for retirement age are long gone.
Organisations can also strategically formulate and implement friendly policies to earning
staff loyalty. This gives them the opportunity to attract, acquire and retain the best and the
brightest. It is evident that company’s and shareholder’s returns on investments are
unswervingly associated with the rates of staff retention. Happy workers equal happy
returns on investment. This implies that workers tend to be loyal to the organisation only
when they are happy with the provisions or benefits made available for the workforce.
2.5.6 Staff involvement
Staff involvement has become a fundamental issue and a growing concern to researchers,
academics, instructors, government, decision makers and human resources experts. The
issues in staff involvement focused on skill attraction and development, engagement, etc.
staff involvement is defined as “consistent and formalized efforts to increasing workers’
participation and heartening the yearnings and aspirations of employees’ and the
organisation’s needs (Mohsan, 2012). The concept of staff involvement can be considered
as a platform that supports staff to look beyond their present jobs and prepare for optimistic
future positions within organisations and sometimes outside the organisations. This
platforms gives organisations the opportunity to retain competent and efficient staff for
their growth and continued existence. Staff involvement is not a new or fancy issue, but
what makes it complex especially in the higher institutions is who should take responsibility
for its implementation? Should this be implemented solely by employees or the employers?
Similarly, Kaufman, Chapman and Allen (2013) recognised the need for staff involvement
in every organisation: “(i) to actively engage employees in the activities of the organisation;
(ii) to keep potential employees clearly informed about career paths within the organisation;
and (iii) to fully implement established human resource programmes that will help to
enhance the activities that select, allocate, improve, and manage individual careers with the
organisations’ plans.” The fundamental principles of staff involvement provide
expectations about factors involved in job-related development. The principles provide a
platform for improving and managing skills, abilities, expertise, experience, promotion,
values, recognition and reward (Mishra & Sachan, 2012).
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2.2.6 Staff commitment
In human resource management practices, organisational commitment is the individual's
psychological and emotional attachment to the organisation. The principle that underlies a
number of these studies was to discover methods to identify how workers feel about their
jobs and determine factors that influences their commitment to the organisations.
Organisational commitment envisages work variables such as labour turnover, staff
retention, and job satisfaction. Some factors such as role ambiguity, employment insecurity
and employability, organisational policies and culture, and management styles have been
linked to organisational commitment. Studies also indicated the significant relationship
between organisational commitment and job satisfaction. Therefore, it is not a gain saying
that attractive and adequate incentive package guarantee worker full commitment and
dedication to work activities which may in turn lead to organisational success. Ogunmaberu
(2012) added that sustenance of every organisation is a dependent factor on how they can
organise and provide adequate benefits/welfare packages that will motivate and stimulate
their employees to perform better with higher commitment and dedication. Organisations
should also take into cognizance the implications for design and re-design of jobs incentives
in order to ensure effective utilisation of human resources and controlling labour turn-over
rate.
Models of Commitment
Meyer and Allen (1991) identified three-component model of commitment. These
components are parallel to different psychological states. Meyer and Allen’s research in
1991 indicated that there are three "mind sets" which can illustrate commitment of
employees to the organisation:
(i) Affective Commitment
This means employee's emotional engagement with the organisation. Meyer and Allen
(1991) revealed that affection commitment is the positive desire of an employee to be
committed. A worker who is affectively committed intensely recognises and aligns with
the goals of the organisation and wishes to remain a part of the organisation. Workers are
committed to the organisation simply because they want to do so. This commitment are
often influenced by demographic variable such: gender, age, education, experience, etc but
53
these influences are neither sturdy nor reliable. The common challenge with these variables
is that they are visible but they cannot clearly be defined.
(ii) Continuance Commitment
Continuance Commitment refers to the “need” component of working with the
organisation. This component compares the strength of gains and losses that may occur
should an individual stay or leave an organisation. An employee may decide to be
committed to the organisation simply because he/she sees a high cost of losing
organisational membership (Tafida, 2008). The cost of losing organisational membership
may arise from economic costs and or social costs.
(iii) Normative Commitment
This refers to the feelings of individual worker to remain with an organisation. These
feelings are influenced by work related stress which may occur before and after joining an
organisation. For example, an institution may have invested resources in training an
academic staff to acquire M.Sc or Ph.D certificate who there and then feels a 'moral'
obligation to exert greater effort on the job and stay with the organisation to 'repay the debt.'
Such an academic staff stays with the organisation because he/she "ought to". Normative
commitment is practiced in organisations that appreciate loyalty and steadily stimulate
employees with adequate rewards, incentives and other strategies that can increase their
intention to stay. Normative commitment in employees becomes inevitable where such
employee sees habitual examples of the employer’s commitment to their welfare and well-
being. University lecturers with increased organisational commitment will largely
contribute to organisational success and will also derive job satisfaction (Chobelueh, 2013;
Udoh, 2000). When there is high job satisfaction, the rates of attrition, turnover and
absenteeism will reduce. This will also serve as a platform for increasing organisation’s
ability to attract, develop and retain talent.
2.2.7 Job Satisfaction
Traditionally, job satisfaction has been defined, measured and investigated from the
perspective of the individual employee. Feelings of job satisfaction tend to reflect more of
the appraisal of job experience in the present and past more than expected. It has to do with
the favourableness or un-favourableness with which employees view their work. It results
54
when there is a fit between job requirements and the desire of the job and the rewards that
the job provides. Abdulla, Djebarni and Mellahi (2010) described job satisfaction as the
extent to which workers feel their expectation are fulfilled by the reward or disregards
system in the workplace. Bentley, Coates, Dobson, Goedegebuure and Meek (2013) stated
that job satisfaction is conceptualized as a multi-dimensional variables that conveys how
the workers access expectations against reward and disregards taking into account other
available in the labour market. Kontz, O’Donnell and Weihrich (2013) confirmed that the
offer of fringe benefits to workers lead to job satisfaction which has been defined as the
individual state of mind that gives rise to wants.
Job satisfaction has been seen to have five major components. These include:
i. The attitude towards work group
ii. The general working condition
iii. The attitude towards the economy
iv. Monetary benefits
v. The attitude towards the supervision.
According to Kontz, O’Donnell and Weihrich (2013), the major apparatuses that could be
added to satisfaction are the individual worker's personality. Many studies have shown that
satisfied employees are motivated to improve on the performance of their job so as to bring
about higher productivity, reduction in absenteeism and turnover, increased productivity
are all achieved when a worker is satisfied.
Nature of Job Satisfaction
The process of defining job satisfaction leads to two different definitions. Bozeman and
Gaughan, 2011) adduced that “Job satisfaction is a strategic way of evaluating the value
and excitement employee places on their job. Job satisfaction is regarded as affective
feelings that explain employees’ arousal to work, physical condition, commitment,
prolonged existence and organisational outcome (Spector, 2008). Luthans and Stajkovic
(2000) identified the following job characteristics: the work itself; pay; promotion
opportunities; supervision; and co-workers. Basically, the level of satisfaction an employee
derives is mutually dependent on the socio cultural and economic circumstances
surrounding the given country. A banker who dresses corporate but cannot equitably get a
satisfactory pay will be faced with the problem of pilfering, theft, bankruptcy, etc. These
problems also exist when he/she receives a pay that is lower than his contributions. So
55
where all these exist, motivation becomes a useful tool for increasing the willingness to
work (Ozongwu, 2013; Khan, et al, 2010). Also, it becomes important to state that without
motivation, there can never be job satisfaction. The moments an employee observes that
what he/she is being paid is lower than his/her input or lower than what his/her counterpart
in other organisations receive, there is high tendency for such an employee to pose a
negative attitude to work. These factors can be explained with the help of Figure 2:12.
Figure 2.12: Sources and Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction
Source: Watts and Robertson (2011)
Conversely, it becomes important for management to imbibe the culture of motivating the
employees for higher performance and retention at the right time, else attrition and turnover
will increase. Studies have established the causes and factors responsible for influencing
job satisfaction (Mbah & Ikemefuna, 2012: Malik, Nawab, Naeem, & Danish, 2010). This
study also identified consistent correlation of certain variables with the job satisfaction.
2.2.8 University Education and its Status in Nigeria
University education is perhaps the most important and indispensable component in human
capital development in the building of a strong and sustainable economy. The pivotal aim
of any University, as the apex of a nation’s educational system, is to develop the whole
person mentally, morally, culturally and physically for the transformation of the economy,
hence the spectacular growth of Nigerian Universities which now stand at one hundred and
fifty three Universities (National Universities Commission, 2016) and yet are still unable
to accommodate the teaming millions yearning for higher education (Adeyeye, 2009;
56
Oziengbe & Obhiosa, 2014). Research, which is primarily the reason for the creation of
Universities, leading to the acquisition of new knowledge, engendering innovation,
enhancing teaching quality and increasing the economic value and reputation of the
institutions, has unfortunately suffered major decline in Nigeria beginning in the late 1980s
(Faborode, 2016). Before then, the National Universities Commission (NUC) noted that
the quantity and quality of research outputs in Nigerian tertiary institutions was the best in
sub-Saharan Africa (Karani, 1997). By the mid-90s the quantity and quality of research had
declined to an alarming low rate (Okebukola & Solowu, 2001). Nigeria university system
is fast losing its high esteem in the labour market and the industry. They added that
Nigeria’s total number of scientific publications in 1991 was 2862 but this number dropped
to 1031 by 2000. This is not unexpected as Nigeria was spending an average of 6% instead
of 26 percent recommended by the UNESCO. At the onset of the “holocaust” years, 1980
to 2000, the pertinent factors for outstanding research, such as experienced academics,
training, motivation, availability of equipment, funding and facilities, had more or less
faded away (Okebukola, 2002). What took over was a “vicious national dilemma of a badly
managed and plundered non-commodity economy and a self-afflicted and degraded
education system that ultimately lost its once vibrancy and global reputation” (Faborode,
2016).
It is a well-known fact that conflicts within the University system have also contributed
immensely to the problem of having low quality education (Alimba, 2016) and as a result,
dysfunctional or mismanaged conflicts have negatively imparted on the quality of graduates
from the Universities. According to Fatile and Adejuwon (2011), the results of these
conflicts do not only lead to extended academic sessions, destruction of life and properties
which renders the academic environments unsuitable and unsafe for serious academic
activities but also impede educational development as people are denied the capability to
develop new ideas, initiatives and innovations as they cannot engage in any meaningful
thinking or research in an environment fraught with conflict. Ojeifo (2014) argued that
Nigerian state Universities have high enrolments without the required quantity and quality
of academic staff. As a result, staff/student ratios have worsened and deteriorated to the
impairment of student learning and academic research. Okebukola (2002) enumerated other
factors contributing to the decline in quantity and quality of research which include frequent
industrial actions and poor research motivation. Indeed, for the quantity and quality of
57
research outputs to make the desired impacts on national development, University research
in Nigeria must achieve research focus, research motivation, integration of information
technology in teaching and research, as well as the commercialization of research results
(Faborode, 2016).
2.2.9 Problems and Prospectus of Management Education in Nigeria
National Universities Commission (NUC) has accepted the principle of quality control in
higher education. It is evident from then above that the NUC offers among other disciplines,
management education programmes have established very strong quality control measures
to ensure that their programmes meet the needs of the institutions and related
establishments they are employed to serve. More importantly, programmes of accreditation
are meant specifically to control the threats posed on management education by the
innumerable mushroom satellite campuses, consultant outfit, and continuing education
institutions. They are meant to save the country from the untold damage of accreditation,
with declined quality and quantity of academic standards.
NUC requires that approved education for administration and management programmes
provide students with a common body of knowledge. The common body of knowledge
helps to form the background upon which more specialised knowledge is hinged. There are
bright prospects for management education in Nigeria. Policy makers and indeed, well-
meaning Nigerians are of the opinion that the vital aspects of the economy should be
controlled by management education. All what NUC needs is combining human resources
with appropriate levels of finance to produce the much desired results. This does not,
however, happen fortuitously. It requires a total re-appraisal of the institutional framework
and re-ordering of priorities in favour of a dynamic economy capable of producing most of
the needs, rather than depending on massive importation of both durable and consumer
goods.
Management of University education from a global point is indispensable to the building
of a strong economy and society in all nations (World Bank, 2008; Adeyemi & Ekundayo,
2010). Importantly, it has become a cornerstone for noteworthy development which is
central to creating economically valuable intellectual resources and also to provide direct
in-out benefits for economic prosperity. With over hundred recognized federal, states and
private universities across the country, millions of Nigerian youths that are desirous of
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university education find it difficult to access higher education. The issue has been
attributed to the low carrying capacity of the universities. About 96% of the candidates who
sat for the Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination – UTME chose university as their
preferred institutions; 1.69% chose colleges of education while 1.9% settled for polytechnic
as their preferred institutions. The situation has given rise to the proliferation of illegal
degree meals, preying on the desperations of Nigerians for university education
(Chobelueh, 2013; Okiki, 2013). Most of them claim affiliation to established universities
in the United States, United Kingdom and Canada. Neighbouring countries have also
discovered Nigeria to be a fertile ground for the business of illegal universities. The issues
confronting a candidate who gained admission into any university are the challenges of cost
and quality. This doubt support the argument by labour market to question the quality of
graduate produced by the university system and some experts posited that the country
provides quantity rather than quality education. This supports the submission of Executive
Secretary of the Nigeria Universities’ Commission, Prof Abubakar Rasheed, says the
country needs an influx of private universities in order for it to measure up to the level of
other countries:
“The country is awash with candidates who are seeking admission yearly.
Only 20% of those who write UTME are admitted due to the non-availability
of the facility to cater for them and except we encourage the establishment of
more private universities, this backlog would continue to grow,” he said.
Abubakar (2016) pointed out that it is regrettable that a country, whose population currently
stands at over 190 million people only has less than 200 universities, meaning each of the
university would have to accommodate not less than 1.2 million students so as to fulfil its
education responsibility, a situation which he says is responsible for many of the issues
experienced in the education sector. In the mid- to late-1970s, every Nigerian university
was known for proficiency with high quality in specific programmes (Ozongwu, 2013).
Today, it is a different situation and this is thus as a result of massive ill-equipped students
whom the universities give admission without increasing the resources to meet specific
requirements. In spite of the existing 42 state Universities in Nigeria, there is need for
Nigerian Universities to transit from producing ordinary wellsprings of graduates, but
rather becoming engines of community development. Principal changes and reforms will
be required in the educational programmes and this will require community oriented efforts
by governments, educationists, business and civil society to re-examine the management
of University education in Nigeria.
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2.2.10 Public Universities and their Staff Unions in Nigeria
Public Universities in Nigeria are those set up by state and federal governments to provide
and promote educational requirements for various states and the country as a whole. These
public Universities have various staff unions that are recognised for effective functioning
of the system. Three (3) prominent unions are widely acknowledged within Nigerian public
universities. They include: Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU), Senior Staff
Association of Nigerian Universities (SSANU) and Non-Academic Staff Union (NASU).
The primary goal of these unions is to protect the interest and welfare of their members.
On ASUU, for example, Iyayi (2002) indicated that the union is a trade union, which like
trade unions is an "association of workers who come together to regulate the terms and
conditions of employment. In so doing, Iyayi (2002) laid out the driving force that guide
ASUU as a union. This includes:
i Integrity, diligence and responsibility;
ii Competence, Proficiency and objectivity;
iii Possibility mentality, capacity development and total commitment and;
iv Patriotism, internal democracy, collaboration and group cohesiveness.
In achieving these through the guiding principles, ASUU has been at loggerheads with both
the university authorities and government. At the level of government, the union has
consistently been agitating on three (3) noteworthy issues. These are:
1. Funding of the major activities in the University
2. University autonomy and academic freedom; and
3. Conditions of work environment
The issue of funding in Nigeria has been a growing concern and source of conflict in the
educational sector. Various labour unions, parents, civil societies, etc., have at different
times drawn the attention of the government and its agencies to the problem of poor funding
which has inhibit proper and quality education. This has also led to increase in brain drain,
an occurrence which has dwindled universities in Nigeria (Nwokolo, 2011; Ayeni,
Jaiyeoba, & Atanda, 2008). The nation has lost the majority of its erudite and great scholars
to other African nations, for example, Ghana, Rwanda, Kenya, South-Africa, and so on
(Okogie, 2004). The state and federal government support Universities by funding major
activities but surprisingly, this function of the government is hardly performed in the recent
years. Some state has whined about immense measure of cash it takes from the state month
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to month distribution for college subversion and staff compensations. The impact of these
cost has left many state Universities to source more than 40% of their allocation through
tuition and creation of developmental fees. The impact has cause sporadic increment in
educational cost for some state Universities in Nigeria. The issue of University autonomy
and academic freedom has often been a provoking issue between the governments and
ASUU particularly. The Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) had indicated that: first,
internal democracy and administration of every higher learning shall be its own particular
obligation; second, the issue of academic freedom for the institutions should center on the
following: selection of students for admission; appointment of staff; teaching and selection
of research areas; determination of the course(s) contents. Remarkably, government has
consistently specify its specific role, which says: "Government shall continue to recognise
this academic freedom as long as these areas are in accordance with the objectives of the
country". The question is: What characterises "consonance with national goals"?
These and many more have brought about incessant strikes to Nigeria’s University
education. In view of the fact earlier stated that conflict is inevitable in all human dealings,
Nigeria public Universities are plagued with series of conflicts involving students and
University management. This has become worrisome as these conflicts often result in
communication breakdowns that lead to violent protests which render the institution
ungovernable with all its attendant costs (Adeniji, 2011). Geofrey (2010) asserted that
though the University is an academic venture, a lot of administrative efficiency and
competency is required on the part of the University administrators for the effective
management of conflicts within the system.
The crux of the conflict between the ASUU and the Government has over the years, been
attributed to different factors. ASUU leadership decried the situation whereby funds are
made available for other sectors such as power, financial institutions, aviation, oil and gas,
and textile industry while the educational sector the bedrock of development has endlessly
being abandoned and ignored. Therefore, the objectives of the 2009 agreement were to
reposition the decay in the University System; reverse the level of brain drain by offering
equitable rewards; to bring back Nigerian Universities to a citadel of learning through
direct, massive and sustainable financial supports; and to stimulate unpretentious university
autonomy and academic freedom.
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However, in 2009, the Federal Government eventually signed a memorandum of
understanding (MoU) with the Union. The contents of the MoU included funding,
University autonomy, academic freedom, earned academic allowances and registration of
Universities Pension Management Company, review of retirement age, adequate funding,
progressive increase of budgetary allocations to education by 26 per cent etc. The signed
agreement, according to Onyeonoru (2011), was to be reviewed every three years in order
to reflect social and economic changes in the country but unfortunately the agreement
which was freely reached and signed by both the government and ASUU has however
become the source of regular conflict between the parties. There is hardly any year there is
no industrial conflict between the government and ASUU because of the non-
implementation of the agreement, usually on the part of government.
According to Ujumadu (2011), the Coordinator of the Nsukka branch of ASUU, Dr. Moses
Chendo, asserted that the impression of members of the Nigerian society is that ASUU was
only interested in the salary increase for its members. However, apart from salary increase,
the other part of the MoU yet to be implemented, according to him, was more important for
the improvement in the standard of education in the country. He further stated that the
essence of the 2009 agreement was to enable the Nigerian Universities to compete
favourably with other standard world Universities (Premium Times, 2013). Some other
conflicts between University staff, management and government from 1980 to 2015
showing the number of times ASUU went on strike are shown in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 ASUU Strikes (Between 1980 and 2015)
Year
1980 ASUU embarked on an industrial action because of the threat of termination of
lecturers from the University of Lagos.
1981 ASUU embarked on further strikes to demand consistent and appropriate
funding for the Universities system.
1983 There was negotiation on the Elongated University Salary Structure (EUSS)
and this resulted into industrial dispute in 1988 because implementation of
prior contractual agreement was far-fetched.
1984 ASUU embarked on strike to fight against the deregulation of the economy and
to resist military dictatorship.
1985 The Union embarked on strike to resist the military regime and its authoritarian
decree 16 of 1985.
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1986 ASUU embarked on strike to object the introduction of the Structural
Adjustment Programme (SAP) by the Ibrahim Babangida’s administration.
1987 ASUU protested for the implementation of the Elongated University Salary
Scale and to establish a joint negotiation committee between ASUU and the
Federal Government.
1988 Strike against the effects of imposed Structural Adjustment Programme.
1992 Went on strike due to the failure of negotiations between the Union and the
Federal Government over the working conditions in Nigerian Universities.
1993 ASUU was banned again because it refused the order of the Industrial
Arbitration Panel (IAP) to suspend industrial action and return to the
negotiation table.
1994 ASUU embarked again on a strike to demand renegotiation of agreements
reached in 1992, the reinstatement of over eighty lecturers whose appointments
were terminated.
1996 ASUU embarked on a strike due to the dismissal of the ASUU President, Dr.
Assisi Asobie.
2001 ASUU declared an industrial action on issues related to funding of Universities,
and also sought the reinstatement of 49 sacked lecturers at the University of
Ilorin for taking part in a previous industrial action in 2001.
2002 ASUU embarked on a strike to protest the failure of the government of
Obasanjo to implement the 2001 agreement.
2003 ASUU embarked on a further industrial action due to the non-implementation
of previous agreements, poor University funding and disparity in salary,
retirement age.
2007 It was the same agitation for salary increment and other reforms in the
education sector the ASUU cried out for in 2005 that led to the strike. In 2007,
ASUU went on another strike for three months.
2008 There was a two-week “warning strikes” to press on a range of demands,
including an improved salary scheme and re-instatement of 49 lecturers who
were dismissed many years ago.
2009 ASUU embarked on an indefinite strike over a disagreement with the Federal
Government on an earlier agreement reached. After three months of strike, in
October 2009, and MoU was signed and the strike was called off.
2013 July 1st, 2013 another industrial action started
2014 University staff strike nearly six months over a pay dispute between the
government and lecturers.
2015 Strike over pay and provision of enabling environment
Source: Statisense (2015) and Oni-Ojo (2015)
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While ASUU feels justified in carrying out industrial actions, members of the public and
the government opine that ASUU is not sensitive to the plight of the students who are
negatively affected by such actions (Obateru, 2013). Be that as it may, it is worthy of note
that when Universities are closed down for a long time due to protracted infrastructural
negligence and inequitable reward, academic activities are disputed. Some Universities
have lost one or two academic sessions as a result of strike actions embarked upon by trade
unions during disputes. The negative effects of these incessant strikes by ASUU have been
explained by Adesulu (2013):
(i) Drastic effect on students since courses curricula cannot be completed due to
time lost as a result of the strikes.
(ii) Bad image accorded graduates of Nigerian Universities by the international
community as they are considered half-baked.
(iii) Loss of revenue to the government as a result of potential students preferring to
school abroad or in neighbouring African countries’ Universities
(iv) Loss of internally generated revenue to the Universities
(v) Psychological trauma on the students who have stayed at home doing nothing
and prolonging the years they would have spent in school. This sometimes leads
to the students engaging in social vices like kidnapping and robbery which in
turn affect the society at large.
2.2.11 Wok Environment in Nigerian Public Universities
University continued existence and management in a rapidly changing world require the
process of acquiring and retaining staff with unique aptitude and propensity for excellence.
Nigerian Public Universities have played a substantial role in nation building and economic
affluence. Amazingly, these Universities today are subdued by limited access to resources,
infrastructure inadequacies, and massive rate of enrolment due to increasing number of
students seeking admission to higher education institutions (OECD, 2012). The main
concern is now how these public universities can subsist with the increasing massive
enrolment and creation of private universities in Nigeria (Adeyeye, 2009). Today, a
University degree has become a need and requirement and this is evident in the number of
enrolment and graduation from these Universities. This increase and agitation for the
degrees have fostered a competitive growth in the University education. The capabilities of
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higher education in developing countries especially in Nigeria to provide this obligation is
recurrently influenced by poor work environments, poor funding, delay and non-payment
of salary, over congestion, and dogmatic governance" (Ojeifo, 2014; Ogu, 2008). The
growing and changing nature of public universities has generated sturdy economic forces.
Inexplicably, the old-fashioned source of funding (federal and state) have not increased and
paved way for the growing demand. Therefore, disparity between demand and resources
available is intensified by increase in the number of students seeking admissions to the
universities. With this increase in students’ enrolment, staff of public Universities also
expect increase in their remunerations. Apparently, when the expectations are far from
reality, most talented academic staff have seized to abandon academia for better job
opportunities with greater remunerations and proportionate recognition (Obateru, 2013)
The public university must become a crucial tool for national development. Unfortunately,
in Nigeria, the Nigerian universities had become factories of unending crises, rather than
citadels of learning. In the past few decades, there has been a major agitation that the work
environments in Nigerian public universities have declined. Infrastructure, particularly
those required for teaching and learning have become shoddier. A significant number of
students are given admission without following due process and beyond what their capacity
in terms of facilities and academic staff strength can rationally accommodate. Apparently,
majority of the graduates are no longer equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills
to complement back their grades and degrees. Quite a lot of publications in Nigerian
newspaper contend that majority of these graduates of Nigerian Universities who wish to
reputable organisations and parastatals do not possess requisite skills and employment
abilities (The Punch Newspaper, January, 2013). Poor planning for physical work
environment, academic programmes and funding are parts of the problems many of these
institutions suffer in Nigeria, even when they have apparently met the NUC's prerequisite
for opening a University (Akinnaso, 2012). These and many more have contributed to the
weakening of the university system in Nigeria.
2.2.12 Staff Turnover in Nigerian Higher Institutions
In today’s environment, Scholars have attributed the prevalence of turnover menace to
many factors, even though there is convergence of opinions expressed in literature. Among
such factors are: poor funding of educational system, social unrest/conflicts, poor pay
65
package for lecturers, poor working environment, and inadequate research facilities in
educational institutions (Ibrahim, Usman and Bagudu, 2013); lack of conducive
environment for professional growth, poor social conditions, corruption, political
instability, unsatisfactory living/working conditions (Adefusika, 2010); poor conditions of
service, limited access to education (Abdulkareem and Oyeniran, 2011). In the light of the
multi-various causes, the basic fact is that a migrant has his/her reason (s) for wishing to
leave a country or a job for another.
It is a fact that staff turnover and brain drain are rampant in tertiary institutions in Nigeria.
This is influenced by factors, such as:
1. Inadequate Funds/Support for Researches:
In an ideal situation, one of the mandates of tertiary institution is to serve as research centre.
Academic staff are thus expected to carry out research on the challenges facing the country,
with a view to finding solution to them. Research needs fund for it to be carried out
effectively and achieve its objectives. The issue of research funding in tertiary institutions
in Nigeria, leaves much to be desired (Akinnaso, 2012). Many researches had been
abandoned due to inadequate funds which often demoralizes lecturers and forced them to
leave for foreign countries where opportunity for such, abound.
2. Abuse of power/too much concentration of power:
Many tertiary institutions’ administrators in Nigeria are „thin gods‟ in the campuses.
Students and staff dare not challenge them on any issue. Policies being implemented in
many tertiary institutions have also not been staff and students‟ friendly. Many lecturers
do consider the option of leaving their institutions for better job in the foreign countries
because of hostile work environment (Chobelueh, 2013; Ayeni, et al, 2008).
3. Incessant Student Unrest, Strike, and Cultism in Campuses:
Incessant cases of student unrest, strike, and cultism are features of tertiary institutions in
Nigeria, which had in the past led to the death of students and destruction of valuable
properties within and outside the institutions (Ige, 2010; Adewale, 2005). At times,
lecturers and their families are humiliated, assaulted or live under threats over issues such
as non-compromise with students in the award of good grade, competition with male
student (s) over relationship with female.
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4. Disciplinary Action(s) on Staff:
The issue of indiscipline of staff/teachers cuts across all the educational levels in Nigeria,
where tertiary institutions have been involved. Cases of indiscipline of staff/lecturers of
tertiary institutions abound in literature, such as: late/non-availability for lectures, extortion
of money from students, indulgence in examination malpractice, sexual harassment of
female students, sponsoring cult groups or belonging to cult groups, presentation of
fake/forged certificate for appointment, indulgence in admission fraud/racketeering, and
connivance with students during unrest, just to mention few (Moses, 2003). Over the years,
many lecturers of tertiary institutions had been dismissed from service,
rusticated/suspended from work, retired compulsorily, among other disciplinary measures.
Apart from the fact that those lecturers that are often dismissed are often sent packing from
the campuses This is a special issue that often leads to decrease in the number of staff of
tertiary institution, .makes students to lose their expertise in such institutions, some erring
lecturers that are suspended do consider the option of seeking for fresh job overseas, so as
to save their faces from disgrace/humiliation.
5. Non-Accreditation of Programmes/Courses:
In Nigeria, it is a norm for Government, either at the state of federal level to set up
accreditation panel to examine the courses in tertiary institutions, so as to detect whether
they are of the minimum standard or not. Reports of Accreditation Panels are often
submitted to Government for review and implementation. Negative report of Visitation
Panel at times, makes many distinguished academic staff in institution to leave for foreign
countries. Many lecturers are not usually disposed to working in an institution whose
majority of courses are unaccredited. The low ranking of universities in Nigeria over the
years has not been helping matter. Unfortunately, none of the universities in Nigeria ranked
among the first fifty in the world. This is shameful for a country that claims to be the giant
of Africa and hoping to achieve quality higher education. This is a wrong signal because it
discourages the staff of institutions and makes them to prefer to take up lecturing job in any
of the high-ranked institutions.
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6. Inadequate Funding of Education Sector:
It needs not be overemphasized that funding is paramount in educational institution. No
educational system can develop beyond the level of its funding. In an educational
institution, fund is required for the payment of remunerations and other benefits to staff,
purchase the needed facilities, construct and repair buildings and administer the institution
on daily basis. UNESCO declared that for effective funding of education, 26% of the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) of each country in the world must be allocated to education. The
case of Nigeria over the years however portends a non-compliance with this standard.
Allocation to education sector has been very low when compared to the annual budget and
this invariably affect employment relationship and continuity.
Table 2.5: Allocation to Education in Nigeria as % of Total Budget: 2000-2016
Year Educ. All as % of Total Budget
2000 8.36
2001 7.00
2002 5.9
2003 1.83
2004 10.5
2005 9.3
2006 11.0
2007 8.09
2008 13.0
2009 6.54
2010 6.40
2011 1.69
2012 10.0
2013 8.70
2014 9.12
2015 12.8
2016 8.0
Source: Central Bank of Nigeria, 2016
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Data in Table 2.5 shows that between 2000 and 2015, Federal Government’s allocation to
education relative to the total budget was between 1.69 % (in year 2011 ) and 13.0% (in
2008). One would have expected higher expenditure on education in view of its stupendous
roles in national development.
Table 2.6: Allocation to Education as % of GNP in Selected 20 Countries in the World,
including Nigeria, as at year 2012)
S/N Country % budget Allocated to
education
Rank
1 Ghana 31.0 1st
2 Cote d Iviore 30.0 2nd
3 Uganda 27.0 3rd
4 Morocco 26.4 4th
5 South Africa 25.8 5th
6 Swaziland 24.6 6th
7 Mexico 24.3 7th
8 Kenya 23.0 8th
9 United Arab Emirates 22.5 9th
10 Botswana 19.0 10th
11 Iran 17.7 11th
12 USA 17.1 12th
13 Tunisia 17.0 13th
14 Lesotho 17.0 14th
15 Burkina Faso 16.8 15th
16 Norway 16.2 16th
17 Colombia 15.6 17th
18 Nicaragua 15.0 18th
19 India 12.7 19th
20 Nigeria 8.4 20th
Source: World Bank (2012)
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It is indicated in Table 2.6 that while Nigeria spent 8.4 % of its GNP on education during
the period, Ghana spent 31.0 (the highest), followed by Cote d Ivoire (30.0%), Uganda
(27.0%), and Morocco (26.4). therefore, due to low allocation and expenditure on
education, educational institutions have not been getting substantial fund to put in place the
needed infrastructural facilities and for effective management of the institutions.
Consequently, what can be observed in many institutions these days are array of dilapidated
buildings, inadequate classrooms, and inadequate facilities, among others. Lecturers have
even been at the receiving end of the poor funding. On many occasions, the issue of fund
has been one of the root causes of several crises in the tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Many
staff of some tertiary institutions have had cause to leave for foreign countries due to
frustration.
7. Corruption/Mismanagement of Institution’s Funds:
Corruption has been the bane of the development of the economy of Nigeria. According
(Kpolovie and Obilor, 2013), as at 2013, Nigeria ranked 144th out of the 177 countries.
Educational institutions are not even spared in the issue of corrupt practices in Nigeria.
Many forms of corruption thrive in tertiary institutions in Nigeria, such as
favouritism/nepotism in the allocation of allowances, fellowships; collection of bribes;
collusion with contractors, by pass of allocation criteria (Adeyemi & Ekundayo, 2010).
Such cases of corrupt practices of the leaders do discourage staff many among who do take
solace in leaving their institutions for jobs in other countries.
8. Instability of Government
Nigeria is a country that had in the past experienced high level political instability.
Although there has been stability in the country since the advent of the democratic
government in 1999. The situation in the past where several military governments ruled the
country in quick succession could be described as unfortunate. One thing that can be noted
with military government is the draconian rules/laws they enact which are mostly
intolerable by the masses. Many academic staff of tertiary institutions have had cause to
leave the country during this period, because of instability in government, occasioned by
death of citizens and unstable economy.
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9. Growing Insecurity:
One of the basic needs of man is the guaranty of his/her security, that is, the security of all
citizens ought to be guaranteed by the government in power, whether at the state or federal
level. The situation in Nigeria over the years leaves much to be desired. Killing of innocent
citizens and destruction of properties have been rampant. There had also been wars and
demonstrations in villages, towns, and cities due to issues such as boundary dispute,
election, local government areas creation, and religion (Kpolovie & Obilor, 2013). The case
of Boko Haram insurgency which originated from the Northern part of Nigeria but now
spreading to other parts is disturbing. Many lives, including teachers and staff of tertiary
institutions, had been lost while properties destroyed through the activities of the
insurgents. Report (UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2007) indicates the list of casualties
arising from the activities of members of this sect including the killing of 150 citizens on
November 4, 2011; killing of 40 students and undisclosed staff of Federal Polytechnics
Mubi, Adamawa state. There is no doubt that many of the casualties are academic staff
which will send wrong signal to their counterparts in other campuses. Without mincing
words, kidnapping is now a lucrative business in Nigeria. What started in the Niger Delta
areas few years ago, as a weapon for protesting over-exploitation of Oil without
commensurate development in the region, has spread to every nooks and crannies of the
country including educational institutions. Cases of armed robbery involving loss of
innocent souls and valuable properties also abound in the print and electronic media. For
example, in (Ibeh, 2009), there was a report of the assault on a particular lecturer by soldiers
in a university in the Northern part of Nigeria. The crises in Nigeria now make the country
unsafe for the citizens and serving as impetus for many lecturers of tertiary institutions to
flee the country for safety.
10. Victimization of Staff:
There has been selective victimization of academic staff of tertiary institutions, especially
those who are not disposed to government’s programmes and policies, although there has
been improvement since the advent of the civilian government in 1999. During the military
era of the past, any staff of tertiary institution who dare criticise any of government’s
policies, would be victimized, occasioned by threat to his/her lives, arrest, detention, and
humiliation by the security agents, as well as delayed promotion, kidnapping, assassination
and damage to properties, by law enforcement agents. Many lecturers had been retired
while some dismissed from service unjustly. The case of forty four (44) lecturers of a
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particular university in Nigeria few years ago, which generated controversies and led to
strike in almost all the universities in Nigeria, is a reference point. Those lecturers were
dismissed for joining their colleagues in other tertiary institutions to embark on strike, to
press home their demand for increased welfare packages. Within the past decade, a
particular Head of State in Nigeria directed that any lecturer in any of the universities who
refused to resume from strike they embarked on then, should be ejected from their quarters.
What seemed to be a joke became reality when many lecturers were bitten by law
enforcement agents and their properties thrown out of their quarters. It took the intervention
of influential Nigerians to resolve the issue amicably. This action of government forced
many lecturers to exile where they felt their safety will be guaranteed.
11. Introduction/Implementation of Obnoxious Policies by Government:
Policies and programmes of Government do have impact on the living standard of the
citizens, which can be positive or negative. In the past, policies such as introduction of
tuition fee, cancellation of meal subsidy and free meal in tertiary institutions, introduction
of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), withdrawal of subsidy on petroleum products,
deregulation of downstream petroleum sector, acceptance of N120 million World bank loan
for development of universities, were rebuffed by the masses including staff and students
of tertiary institutions who could easily visualize their merits and demerits (Kpolovie &
Obilor, 2013). Many lecturers had thus in the past arrested, humiliated, assaulted, and
retired forcefully because of their grievances over government’s policies and programmes
(Ige, 2014). Many are thus forced to go on exile in other to avoid the embarrassing situation.
12. Interference of Government in Institutions’ Internal Affairs:
In Nigeria, Government pays the piper and thus dictates the tune of the education music.
Due to its commitment to the funding of education, government believes that it must
exercise full control of all activities in the public educational institutions, including the
tertiary, in spite of the age-long agitations for autonomy. Contests for leadership positions
often lead to fractionalization, hatred, conflicts, unrest, and strike in the campuses. These
days, it is a norm for each tertiary institution in Nigeria to be willing to be governed by
leader that studied or worked in the institution in the past, based on the belief that this will
guarantee effective leadership in the institution. On several occasions, Governing Council
of tertiary institutions in Nigeria had recommended best candidates among the contestants
to Government for ratification. Rather than appoint any of the candidates, Government
72
often impose candidates on tertiary institutions at will, against the interest of staff and
students, which has been encouraging conflicts and strikes among staff as well as
emigration of staff from their institutions.
In conclusion, for institutions to be effective, the working conditions or environments must
be suitable and conducive. Management must make sure that the working condition
encourages creativity and innovation to allow suggestions for improving the effectiveness
and quality of working life. Fletcher and Nusbaum (2010) added that the environment must
engage in providing employees with equitable reward system, challenging work and good
working conditions in an open and participatory environment marked by equal
opportunities for personal growth and development. Long, Perumal and Ajagbe (2012)
indicated that working conditions include providing a safe, clean and hygienic working
conditions for employees; maintaining good working conditions and safety, including
adequate ventilation, lighting, hygiene and heating (Asmui, Hussin & Paino, 2012). The
functions of labour, welfare and good working conditions include the provision of health
services, safety of workers, reasonable working hours, recreational facilities, housing,
sanitation, good lighting and ventilation, etc. Institutions, management and governments
who see these as excessive cost will surely find it difficult to satisfy and retain employees.
2.2.13 Consequences of Staff Turnover and Brain Drain in Nigerian Public
Universities
Studies have shown that turnover and brain drain have many consequences in tertiary
institution. These include:
1. Loss of Staff of Tertiary Institutions:
Inadequacy of high-level manpower has been a feature of Nigeria. Little can one wonder
that it has been a developing country when the indices of national development, are
considered. As brain drain continue in Nigeria, many professionals and intellectuals in the
ivory towers migrating due to poor rating of the universities among the other universities
in the world. Should the trend of brain drain also continue in Nigeria, there is tendency for
tertiary institutions to be filled with young and less experienced staff that lacks the
necessary mentors and role models to guide student. It is not a gainsaying that some
programmes are worst hit by dearth of lecturers. Presently, programmes such as medicine,
engineering and technical, among others had lost majority of their staff to the gulf states of
Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq and others such as USA, Great Britain.
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2. Production of Low Quality Graduates:
Ordinarily, the worth of an educational system can be measured by the quality of its
outputs. It is thus expected that the graduates of educational institutions would be able to
display quality skills and knowledge at their respective places of work. While it cannot be
contested that educational institutions in Nigeria had produced graduates in different fields
of science and technology, many among these graduates in various sectors of the economy,
are of poor quality. Many scholars (Kpolovie & Obilor, 2013; Ibeh, 2009; Ajayi &
Shofoyeke, 2003) had criticised the quality of education at the three levels of the
educational system in Nigeria, where all point to the fact that there is declining quality in
such education To the extent that the employers of labour are complaining over the inability
of those employed to perform. Many public and private establishments are thus spending
huge money to train and retrain their employees in order to meet standard. Presently,
graduates of tertiary institutions in Nigeria must pass aptitude tests before they can be
employed. Those seeking admission into tertiary institutions for further studies at national
and international levels, are either denied admission or subjected to tests due to loss of
confidence on their quality. Also, one of the goals of education is that through it, a child
would be able to obtain and develop requisite expertise, aptitudes and competence
(Dabaleen & Adekola, 2000). A graduate of educational institution is expected to be able
to communicate effectively among his/her colleagues in the public, by virtue of the level
of education received. Unfortunately, many graduates of science and technology in Nigeria
display poor quality in public conversations (Ajayi & Shofoyeke, 2003).
3. Low Rating of Institution/Non-Accreditation of Courses:
Many tertiary institutions and programmes may also suffer accreditation problem if this
persist. It is worthy of note that some higher institutions had resulted to the rationalization
of courses as a result of dearth of academic staff. The implication of this in a country that
is characterized by high level unsatisfied higher education admission demand will be
serious. This will indeed continue to aggravate the situation and makes tertiary education
elitist in Nigeria. Quite unfortunate is the fact that an online report in (Osaigbovo, 2000)
indicates that as at year 2015, no university in Nigeria is among the world best five hundred
(500) universities list. The best university from the Africa continent was university of Cape
Town, South Africa. In Africa, the best university from Nigeria (Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile Ife) ranked 44th while university of Ibadan and Benin ranked 65th and 69th
respectively.
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2.3 Theoretical Framework
The concept of work environment has become an important subject in management studies
due to the fact that an organisation’s corporate performance is a function of the performance
of its workforce. Modern organisations need to understand individuals and group behaviour
so that their needs can be met in order to make them happy at work and gear them up so
that they can be more productive. The major way to achieve this goal is the application of
the knowledge and understanding of the nature of man and motivation theory in the tertiary
institutions. For the purpose of understanding, several theories have been propounded about
human motivation and work environments. These theories have been used to explain the
relationships between the variables examined for this study.
For the purpose of this study, three (3) of the major theories were considered and they are:
2.3.1 Adams Equity Theory
2.3.2 Fredrick Herzberg Two Factor Theory
2.3.3 Expectancy Theory
2.3.1 Equity Theory
Equity theory of motivation by Adams (1963), is an all-inclusive theory for explaining and
understanding employee motivation. The equity theory argues that employees are not
concerned about what they are paid; rather they are more concerned about what others are
paid. More often than not, when an individual has a sense of inequality or when he/she
perceives that his/her reward is not commensurate with his/her contribution when compared
with that of other colleagues, it may lead to absenteeism, pilfering, dissatisfaction, etc. By
implications, incentive scheme should be equitable i.e. reward should be proportionate to
individual contribution, training and ability. The explanation is represented with the equity
equation in Figure 2.13:
EQUITY EQUATIONS
Overpayment Inequity
Outcomes (self) / Inputs (self) > Outcomes (other) / Inputs (other)
Underpayment Inequity
Outcomes (self) / Inputs (self) < Outcomes (other) / Inputs (other)
Equity
Outcomes (self) / Inputs (self) = Outcomes (other) / Inputs (other)
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Figure 2.13: Equity Equations
Source: Adams (1963)
From Figure 2.13, the equity theory explains the issue of ideal interaction between the
organisational environment and levels of motivation, as follows:
i. Expectations in terms of performance are translated into specific and hard goals that
are attainable.
ii. Employees are allowed to participate in the setting of these goals, and they have a
realistic appreciation of the link between effort and performance aimed at goal
attainment.
iii. Employees are endowed with the necessary competence and confidence to ensure
the effort made results in appropriate performance
iv. Jobs are designed in such a way as to offer employees’ variety, autonomy, and
frequent and clear feedback on their performance.
v. Control systems that regulate people’s work are only used as and when necessary.
By implications, it is important to note that rewards received by employees for successful
performance are geared towards their individual requirements and preferences, and are
perceived as equitable. Therefore management education stakeholders must ensure
equitable reward for the staff in order to have a promising products for sustainable
developments.
Scales “Calibrated” and measured against
comparable measures in
What I put into my job, time, effort,
ability, loyalty, tolerance, flexibility,
integrity, commitment, reliability, heart
and soul, personal sacrifice etc.
What I get from my job: pay, bonus,
pecks, benefits, security, recognition,
interest, development, reputation, praise,
responsibility, enjoyment etc.
INPUTS OUTPUTS
People are demotivated, reduced input and or seek
change/improvement whenever they feel their inputs are not being
fairly rewarded. Fairness is based on perceived market norms.
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2.3.2 Fredrick Herzberg Two Factor’s Theory
This theory propounded by Fredrick Herzberg is also called Herzberg's two factor theory
and is centred on job satisfaction at workplace. The theory identified certain factors leading
to job satisfaction while certain others in most cases led to dissatisfaction at work. The
factors that lead to satisfaction were branded motivators or satisfiers with those that lead to
dissatisfaction were called hygiene factors or dissatisfiers. Thereafter, the study was
extended to cover various categories of worker in manual and clerical calibres where the
outcomes were acknowledged as following a similar pattern.
From the Herzberg’s study, the most significant motivators revealed were achievement,
recognition, the work itself, responsibility and opportunity or workers’ advancement and
growth on their jobs. These factors were considered intimately related to the content or task
to be performed in a work process. On the other hand, the team of researchers, that is,
Herzberg and others agreed that the hygiene factors or dissatisfiers comprises
organisational policy and administration, supervision, relationships, salary administration,
personal life, status, security of employment and working conditions. Apparently, the
hygiene factors are said to be more related to the work environments than the job contents.
This indicated that motivators can only lead to positive satisfaction while the hygiene
factors can only be used to prevent dissatisfaction. By implication, where the motivators
are absent from the job, employees will ultimately experience low morale, productivity or
performance. On the other hand, where the hygiene factors are provided for, good health
will not only be achieved, but will also serve to prevent sickness.
The application of the theory to industry is reflected in the scientific management that
advocated for hygiene factors such as pay, benefits, suitable supervision and conditions of
work. The human relations school also placed significant emphasis on hygiene factors, i.e
interpersonal relations. However, it is crystal clear that the neo human relations school gave
priority to motivators as the key components in job satisfaction and worker performance.
The theory has also stimulated considerable research on job enrichment. This involves the
design of jobs in such a way that they contain appropriate and adequate number of
motivators. This is however, contrary to the effects of several years of Taylorism during
which work would normally be broken down into its elements or components, and
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responsibilities and control are removed from the workers while placing them with the
supervisors and manager.
However, Herzberg’s model has been given less attention by fellow social scientists owing
to its applicability to non-professional cadres and the perception of the term job satisfaction.
Again, the model has been challenged by many researchers and management philosophers.
According to Cheloha and Farr (1980), Herzberg’s hygiene factors were not linked to job
satisfaction. Koontz and Weihrich, (2013) also discovered that social environment and
interpersonal relations were significant motivators for staff. Despite all, Herzberg
motivation model served as landmark for further empirical studies on employees’ motives
at work. The model focused attention of researchers to the requirement for apprehension of
the significance of motivation in every organisation irrespective of the nature and scope.
Finally, the model allowed and encouraged managers and administrators to consider
thoroughly factors other than monetary compensation as possible tools and techniques for
improving corporate performance.
2.3.3 Victor Vroom and Lawler’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation
The expectancy theory of motivation emanated from the work of Victor Vroom and E. E.
Lawler in the 1960s. The most important point to note in this expectance approach to
motivation is that human behaviour depends on individual’s perception of ideal life style,
situations and environment. The pivotal component of the theory relates to how an
individual considers the relationship between human effort, job performance and the
rewards or compensation arising from such a process. The strength of the attraction of
specific results, benefits or rewards for an individual is known as valence. The degree of
belief that a specific behaviour will lead to a specific result is called expectancy. Both
valences and expectances are collectively a function of the perception of a circumstance by
an individual (Vroom, 1964). For instance, the prospect of promotion could be considered
a critical factor by a younger officer as a striking outlook or valence. However, individual’s
expectancy of being promoted may reduce if such individual perceives that promotion is
solely dependent on other factors apart from competence and performance. It is important
to note that efforts or motivated action takes place when an employee thinks that such action
or behaviour would lead to effective performance of activities or events that will also attract
rewards or compensations. However, this may not be possible through effort alone as other
78
factors such as workers personal traits like personality, knowledge, skills, ambition or
orientation and his perception of his roles serve as active criteria. Other environmental
conditions or variables which are hidden may also influence performance of an activity or
event (Houston, Meyer & Paewai, 2006). Examples of such environmental factors or
variables are constraints of the job, organisation style and structure, and leadership.
Consequently, effort does not always lead to effective performance as effective
performance may not necessarily lead to expected compensation. An employee’s
perception of compensation or rewards play a vital role in the expectancy model of
motivation. In this case, the compensation may be internal (intrinsic) or external (extrinsic).
Internal compensation concerns the rewards that emanate from the fulfilment of the
employee’s personal ambition or satisfaction while extrinsic or external compensation
involves the rewards that are provided by the organisation, and which are outside the
control of the individual employee. These include rewards like employee’s salary, his
promotion, attractive working environment and so on. Some empirical studies, however,
have suggested that the compensations connected with internal phenomena are more likely
to be considered as producers of job satisfaction by the employee. The extrinsic rewards
however, are not always come up to the level expected of the individual worker in an
organisation.
It is evident that the main features of the Vroom’s expectancy model as compared to other
models involves an-inclusive perception of the motivation process. It shows that employees
perform excellently when they have an equitable perception that their action will produce
the desired result. The theory emphasizes the significance of employees’ perception of
realities of their working environment in the motivation process (Lunenberg, 2011). Also,
the job satisfaction follows effective job performance rather following job satisfaction.
Finally, the expectancy theory has contributed largely to the developments of job redesign
through internal or intrinsic criteria like variety of work content, autonomy of employees,
task identity as well as information feedback.
The expectancy theory is particularly applicable to modern management and administrative
practice because it recognises the significance of employees’ needs and motivation that
bring about their behaviour and actions, and stresses the probability of variations in
motivational states among different workers in an organisation. The theory is more realistic
when compared to other theories as it recognises the fact that motivation is a complex
79
process of making workers to perform better. The assumption that motivation, values and
perceptions differ from persons to persons at different times and places is highly realistic,
accurate, adequate, valid and reliable theoretically, empirically and practically.
Consequently, management policies, programmes, procedures, strategies, plans and
practices should be designed and focused or directed towards establishing and reinforcing
employees’ perception and orientations towards the belief that high performance,
dedication and commitment to their responsibilities are the main antidotes for the
accomplishment of their individual objectives such as high pay, promotion, career
development, security of employment, recognition and self-respect.
2.4 Empirical studies
In view of the relevance of work environment in enhancing employee retention, it was
evident that in the literature that favourable work environment stimulates employee
performance. For instance, Bloom and Van Reenen (2011) submitted that quality working
conditions have an impact on employee satisfaction and motivation.
The first objective of this study is to determine the role of physical work environment and
employee commitment. Bozeman and Gaughan (2011) explored the impact of work
environment and physical environment and found out that the variables have positive and
significant relationship with nurses' commitment. The effect of physical environment on
individuals have been investigated mainly in marketing and organisational behaviour. A
large portion of the examination in social insurance decide the relationship between doctor's
facility configuration and patient results (Chandrasekar, 2011). There is much work on the
configuration of the office arrangement and its consequences for employees in hospitals,
banking sector, factories and telecommunication industry (Bushe, 2012; Bozeman &
Gaughan, 2011). In a study investigated in telecommunication, it was indicated that
physical work environment significantly affect group cohesiveness (Chandrasekar, 2011;
Adelola, 1999), intellectual ability (Fafunwa, 1974), emotional feeling (Osaigbovo, 2010;
Moja, 2000), high involvement (Omoifo, Badmus & Awanbor, 1997; Mustapha, 1995).
Hafiza, et al, (2011) in their study of workplace environment and workers' commitment in
Agro-based Industries uncovered that that physical environment, for example, reliable
communication channel, stress coping mechanisms, accessibility of power, and
occupational safety are significantly connected with workers' commitment, and thus
performance. Demet Leblebici (2012) in his study effect of workplace quality on worker's
80
productivity: contextual analysis of a bank in turkey demonstrates that while the workers
are troubled with the physical states of the working environment, they have remarkable
fulfillment and satisfaction with the workplace by having strong behavioural workplace
conditions. As indicated from the findings, it is demonstrated that physical environment
influences worker performance yet behavioural workplace environment has more
prominent impact on employees’ commitment.
Based on the second objective which is to investigate the effects of psychological factors
on employees’. The study by Ervin and Langkamer (2008); Deci and Ryan (2008) and;
Escribà-Agüir, Martín-Beena and Pérez-Hoyos (2006) demonstrated the correlations
between psychological factors and workers' retention using various sectors excluding the
tertiary institutions. Ervin and Langkamer (2008) analysed the relationship using 300
workers in the manufacturing sector and discovered a significant effect of psychological
factors (like promotion, recognition, self-actualisation, respect, autonomy) on employees’
intention to remain with their current employers. Deci and Ryan (2008) and Escribà-Agüir,
Martín-Beena and Pérez-Hoyos (2006) also indicated the same findings by using
employees in the automobiles industry and hospitals respectively. the study carried out by
using Accountants revealed that workers who are actively satisfied are positive with their
work, conscious of business environment, maintains team spirits, and always ready to
perform beyond expectation and thereby enhance productivity (Hyvonen, Feldt, Tolvenen,
& Kinnunen, 2010). The findings from various studies like Olajide (2010); Spector (2008);
Stansfeld and Candy (2006); Cook and Crossman (2004) pointed out that workers get
persuaded to work when they get incessant promotions as at when due and job security in
their work place. Be that as it may, when they are promoted as at when due, they turn out
to be profoundly energetic and keep on making extraordinary results possible in the
organisation (Osibanjo, et al., 2014; Torrington & Hall, 2009; Schneider, 2008). To brace
this, Skuza (2007) added that when management slights the role of promotion and job
security, the achievement and accomplishment of the organisational objectives become
elusive.
To ascertain the relationship between job contents and employees’ involvement, Abdali
(2011) demonstrated in his study of 250 employees in the banking sector that ability is the
result of capacity (skill, instruction, preparing and experience), combined with workers'
retention (engagement, improvement, test and wellbeing) and fulfillment. In examining
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how reward encourages satisfaction, findings from studies like Asmui, Hussin and Paino
(2012); Abejirinde (2009); Al-Anzi (2009); Aluko (2007) and; Abiodun-Oyebanji (2011)
discovered pay as a controlling factor towards job satisfaction. Anyim (2012); Deci and
Ryan (2008) and; Hackman and Lawler (1971) also indicated in their investigation that pay
is one of the greatest motivating factors and that organisations with an equitable reward
system creates attention and keep hold of their qualified personnel thereby reducing costs.
When workers are well paid, they become reluctant to change jobs (Hashim & Mahmood,
2011). So for organisation to survive and be productive, the employees must be attracted,
rewarded and retained (Gberevbie, 2010; Geofrey, 2010; Egbokhare, 2000). The survival
of every organisation depends on how best they can motivate and retain their workers’
efforts through a consistent reward system.
In assessing how organisational climate enhances staff performance, the study carried out
by Ibrahim et al. (2013); Litwin and Phan (2013); Houston et al. (2006); argued that
employees’ satisfaction is determined by the level of organisational climate which
communication flow, Mentorship/Supervision, participation & involvement, Leadership
style, Personnel Policies, etc. Meanwhile, Zaman, Hafiza, Shah & Jamsheed (2011)
indicated in their study using the public institutions that high level of academic staff
turnover could constitutes a major setback to the quality of services and the image of the
institution. Thus, it has been discovered that highly skilled academic staff hardly stay for
long in a University before moving to another University or other sectors (Watts &
Robertson, 2011; Adeniji et al, 2014). Evidently, the concluding remark of this study is in
line with the submission of Umoh et al, 2014; Zabrodska et al, 2013; Shin et al, 2013;
Armstrong (2001) findings who stressed that friendly organisational climate is fundamental
to an organisation’s ability to attract, develop, reward, deploy and retain highly skilled
employees for excellent job performance. Some studies added that mutual relationship and
understanding between employers and employees significantly contribute to employees’
motivation and this thereby help in reducing their intention to leave or absent from work
(Okiki, 2013; Onyeonoru, 2011; Olorode, 2001; Omoifo, Badmus & Awanbor, 1997).
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2.5 Conclusion and Gaps in the Literature
The degree of relationship between work environments and job satisfaction, employee
commitment, employee retention is provided with a conceptual model. Conversely, no
scientific and wide-ranging work has been done that collaborates all the facets viz. work
environments, staff retention, employee satisfaction, etc to contest the most blazing
challenge of the present times most especially among academic staff of Nigerian state
owned Universities. So there is the need to show this relation empirically.
Secondly, there is a need to conduct an empirical study to explore the psychological and
attitudinal effects of work environments on retention outcomes among academic staff in
Nigerian state owned Universities.
The bulk of empirical research, however, appears to have focused on the magnitudes of
work environment, both at the individual and organisational level. Given that work
environment today has achieved the status of an institutionalised norm, the relevant
question is not so much whether or why institutions/organisations should provide friendly
work environment, rather, this study tends to show how best to implement the process and
strategy in a way which will enable institutions/ organisations to amass benefits and
successfully create an environment that ultimately promotes job satisfaction and retention
efficacy. Therefore, it becomes an important research question to identify what aspects of
work environment contribute in determining employees’ retention. Despite the dispersed
efforts on retention among academic staff in the UK, Canada Australia, and New Zealand,
there is dearth or limited research in Nigeria, importantly in relation to quality work
environments, hence, this study is considered necessary at this time.
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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Preamble
This chapter focused on the procedure by which the study was carried out and also dealt
with the selection of methodology deemed appropriate for the study. This covers research
methods, research design, population of the study, sample and sampling techniques, sources
of data, research instruments and administration, validity and reliability of the study and
method of data analysis.
3.2 Research Methods
A mixed method was adopted for this study. This approach combines the use of quantitative
and qualitative approach to allow extraction of analytic, narrative and descriptive data to
explain the variations between work environment and retention outcomes. Specifically, the
use of Sequential Explanatory Approach was used. This approach allowed the researcher
to use the quantitative (questionnaire) data to validate the qualitative (in-depth interview
and observation) data. The adoption of both methods enabled the researcher tap the
advantages of both and to use the strength of one to support the weakness of the other. The
mixed method was deemed appropriate because the qualitative instruments would provide
more in-depth themes and perspectives on the issues which the quantitative instrument may
not.
3.3 Research Design
The descriptive (survey) design was adopted for the study. The choice of descriptive
research design was premised on its value and feasibility in addressing the research problem
raised in the study. Its applicability for collecting standardised data allowed the researcher
to create information for precisely answering the how, who, what, where and when
questions concerning the measurement and determinants of work environments and
retention outcomes. Besides, the data structures created from survey methods have
increased the researcher’s ability to make generalised inferences about the defined target
population as a whole. The use of descriptive survey research enabled the researcher to
assess the magnitude of the relationship between and among variables for the study.
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3.4 Study Population
The study population for this study comprised all the state Universities operating in
Southern Nigeria. This study was all-inclusive and all the state Universities in Southern
Nigeria were given an equal chance of participating in this study. The geo-political location
of the Universities to be covered in this study was presented in the table below.
Table 3.1 Population of the Study
S/N South-West South-South South-East
Name(s) of University Name(s) of University Name(s) of University
1 Ekiti State University
Year of Establishment: 1982* River State University of
Science & Technology Year of
Establishment: 1980*
Enugu State University of
Science & Technology
Year of Establishment: 1979*
2 Olabisi Onabanjo University,
Ogun
Year of Establishment: 1982*
Ambrose Alli University,
Ekpoma, Edo
Year of Establishment: 1981 *
Ebonyi State University
Year of Establishment: 1980*
3 Lagos State University
Year of Establishment: 1983
Delta State University
Year of Establishment: 1984
Abia State University
Year of Establishment: 1981
4 Ladoke Akintola University
of Technology, Osun.
Year of Establishment: 1987
Niger Delta University,
Bayelsa.
Year of Establishment: 2000
Imo State University
Year of Establishment: 1981
5 Adekunle Ajasin University,
Akungba, Ondo.
Year of Establishment: 1999
Cross-Rivers State University
of Science & Technology.
Year of Establishment: 2002
Evan Enuerem University,
Owerri
Year of Establishment: 1981
6 Tai Solarin University of
Education, Ijebu-Ode, Ogun.
Year of Establishment: 2005
Anambra State University
of Science & Technology.
Year of Establishment: 2000
7 Osun State University,
Oshogbo.
Year of Establishment: 2007
8 Ondo State University of
Science and Technology.
Year of Establishment: 2008
* Means the study population and they are selected based on years of establishment
Source: Ministry of Education (2016).
Defining the study population and geographic area poses a number of challenges for this
study. Although studies have identified various ways in determining the study population
which includes: performance, age, geographic mapping, etc. The population definition
reflected the population which is of interest and directly related to the behaviour that results
in the assessment of work environments and retention outcomes. This study therefore,
adopted the years (age) of establishment. This study focused on two oldest state
Universities in each of the Southern geo-political zone, Nigeria. These state Universities
85
were: Ekiti State University; Olabisi Onabanjo University (OOU); River State University
of Science & Technology; Ambrose Alli University; Enugu State University of Science &
Technology and; Ebonyi State University. Table 3.2 present the statistical information
regarding the selected academic staff in respective universities as of June, 2016.
Table 3.2: Study Population
Name of Sampled Universities Total Population of Academic staff
Ekiti State University 448
Olabisi Onabanjo University 528
River State University of Science & Technology 396
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo 449
Enugu State University of Science & Technology 421
Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Ebonyi State. 417
Total 2659
The target respondents were made up of all the members of the academic staff ranging from
the Professors, Associate Professors, Senior lecturers, Lecturers 1, Lecturers 2, Assistant
lecturers and Graduate Assistants of all the state Universities in Southern Nigeria. The
selected state Universities are known for a distinct/special feature. This selection is based
on the following:
1. Ekiti State University is chosen because it is the oldest state University in South-
West.
2. Olabisi Onabanjo University (OOU) is included because it is one of the oldest
institutions and recently rated No.1 state University in Nigeria (NUC, 2015).
3. River State University of Science & Technology is the oldest state University in
South-South.
4. Ambrose Alli University is also one of the oldest institutions in South-South.
5. Enugu State University of Science & Technology is the oldest state University in
South-East
6. Ebonyi State University is also selected because it is one of the oldest in South-East
and it has been ranked among the BEST in the use of ICT for its teaching, learning
and research activities.
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3.5 Sampling Frame and Sample Size Determination
The sample frame comprised a list of all the elements in the population from which the
sample was drawn while sample is a subset of the population under investigation. That is a
proportion of the population selected in a systematic way so that the elements or
characteristics of the population can be inferred from the findings. A truly representative
sample is the one whose characteristics are approximately the same as that of the population
under study. In this research work, the sampling frame for this study was drawn from
academic staff of six (6) oldest state Universities in Southern Nigeria. Guilford and
Fruchter (1973:47) postulated the formula below to determine the sample size for the study
of the Academic staff:
n = N .
∑ [(1+N (e)²]
Where;
n = the desired sample size to be determined
N = total population
e = accepted error limit (0.05) on the basis of 95% confidence level.
In our case: N= 2659 e=0.05 n=sample size
Therefore: n= 2659
1+2659(0.05)2
n = 2659
1+ 6.6475
n = ______ 2659
7.6475
n = 347.70
Approximately 400 Academic staff
Therefore, a sample size of 400 was used to represent the study population as computed
above. The distribution of the sample size was based on the proportion of academic staff in
the selected state Universities. The sample size was calculated based on proportionate
ration or proportional affixation criterion (PAC). This sample size adopted for estimating
and distributing proportion among the six (6) state Universities was calculated below:
Population of the sampled University multiply by Sample size
Total population
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Table 3.3: Population Distribution of Sampled Universities
Name of selected Universities in Southern
Nigeria
Population of
Academic staff
Distribution of
Questionnaire to
selected Universities
Ekiti State University 448 67
Olabisi Onabanjo University 528 79
River State University of Science &
Technology
396 60
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo 449 68
Enugu State University of Science &
Technology
421 63
Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Ebonyi
State.
417 63
Total
2659 400
3.6 Sampling Techniques
Triangulation method was adopted for the sampling. This includes multi-stage sampling
which comprises: non-probability sampling technique (purposive) and probability
sampling technique (stratified and simple random sampling techniques) was adopted for
this study. This method was appropriate because it helps to obtain satisfactory
representation of various subgroups within a population. At the first stage, a non-
probability sampling technique, purposive sampling technique, was employed in the
selection of the public (state) institutions across Southern Nigeria. The second stage is
stratified random sampling technique which was used and appropriate ensure adequacy and
equal representation of the sample. The population was divided into homogenous sub-
groups, then the third stage, a simple random sample was taken. The main characteristic of
a randomised procedure is that every academic staff in the selected Universities has an
equal chance of being selected. The simple random system was used to compliment the
stratified sampling to select samples from each level (stratum) and the number of academic
staff selected from a particular level was proportional to the stratum’s share of the total
population. The combination of the methods significantly helped to (a) amplify statistical
representation; (b) ensure adequacy of data for analysing the various sub populations or
strata; and (c) enabled the usage of different research methods and procedures for different
strata.
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3.7 Sources of Data
The study considered the sources on which to base and confirm their research and findings.
The sources adopted primary data and secondary sources and the use of both, which is
termed triangulation, or dual methodology. The primary data was collected through the use
of quantitative (questionnaires) data and qualitative (Interview & observation) data; while
the secondary data focused on the use already existed data extracted from previous
research, articles, journals, web information, historical data and information, NUC
brochures, etc.
3.8 Research Instruments
The researcher made use of a combination of two instruments for the purpose of data
collection and the sequential explanatory approach of the mixed method adapted from the
work of Creswell (2003) was employed.
3.8.1 Quantitative Data
The use of questionnaire was used to collect quantitative data on the assessment of work
environments and retention outcomes among University academic staff. Participants were
requested to respond to items in a self-administered, quick-answer, structured (close-ended)
and unstructured (open-ended) copies of questionnaire. Primary data were collected using
questionnaire. The questionnaire comprised of two sections, the demographics of the
participants and the section regarding the antecedents of work environments and retention
outcomes. Work Environment was measured using items adapted from studies of Mowday
(1979); Becker, Randal and Riegel (1995) and Wanous (1974). Some items related to job
security were adapted from the questionnaire used by Weissenberg and Gruenfeld (1968);
while pay satisfaction was measured by 5 items adapted from the works of Agarwala
(1978), Hoppock (1935); Kanungo (1979). Participation in decision making was measured
by items adapted from the questionnaire of Rabinowitz (1981), Rabinowitz and Hall,
(1977), and Rabinowitz and Hall (1981). The study adopted items from previous studies
(Locke, 1976; Rabinowitz, 1985; Batlis, 1978; Brief and Aldag, 1975; Gberevbie, 2008;
Adeniji, 2011) who successfully used survey questionnaire to measure job satisfaction
levels of librarians using physical environment & ICT infrastructure, personal growth,
organisational culture, social prestige, salary, promotion, nature of the work and
demographic profile respectively. This study adopted Karasek's Job Content Questionnaire
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(JCQ) version 1.8 (revised 2007), which was a self- administered instrument, designed to
measure social and psychological characteristics of jobs, that is,. as a tool for psychosocial
job assessment. All the items were measured using 5 Point Likert Scale ranged from
strongly disagreed (1) to strongly agreed (5). The questionnaire is shown in Appendix A.
The structured questionnaire was adopted mainly to enhance uniformity of response
bearing in mind that the degree of variations in behaviour is likely to be high when dealing
with such complex constructs like nature of work environment, retention and strategy. This
combination of methods was well suited for obtaining in-depth responses, especially for
providing broad insight into the nature of their work environment and with emphasis on the
retention outcome.
3.8.2 Qualitative data
This was also designed for gathering primary data needed for the study. Unstructured in-
depth interviews and observation were instruments used for gathering qualitative data for
the study. These methods were judged adequate because they helped provide in depth
information, knowledge and special insight into the topic examined. The Qualitative data
were collected through In-depth Interview (IDI) and observation.
3.8.2.1 In-depth Interview
In order to explore the individual meanings attached to retention outcome, twelve (12) in-
depth interviews were conducted. This implies that one member of management (this was
chosen from establishment/registry) and one (1) staff union (ASUU leadership) were
selected from each state University. Establishment/registry department and ASUU
leadership provided information on turnover rate, nature of work environments, staff record
and documentation. The IDIs involved face to face interactions between the researcher and
respondents with pre-determined structured and unstructured questions. The interactions
were recorded with the aid of tape recorder. The in-depth interviews gave room for
flexibility and provided opportunity to probe deeper on some aspects which the
questionnaire could not cover. Questions for IDI were the same for each respondent and
were directly linked to evaluation goals. The questions asked were in same order with
careful consideration given to the wording and order. The list of questions asked are shown
in Appendix. In addition, research assistants were recruited and trained on the study
instruments and data collection procedures.
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3.8.2.2 Observations
Observation (non-participant) method and the use of mechanical device (photo camera)
were employed. Non-participant observation refers to direct observation, where the
researcher is a neutral and passive external observer and is not involved in the phenomenon
of interest. This instrument was adopted as a fundamental and the basic method of getting
information on physical environment of the research settings. The researcher observed the
events, actions and things related to physical work settings such as office rooms, classrooms
and the teaching devices and methods used. The academic staff were observed deliberately
in different situational contexts.
3.8.3 Matrix of Research Instruments and Objectives
Table 3.4 shows the matrix indicating study objectives and methods for data collection.
Table 3.4 indicating Matrix of Research Instruments and Objectives
Objectives Structured
questionnaire
IDI Observation
1
2
3
4
5
3.9 Pre-distribution of research instruments
a. Instrument for data collection was pre-tested to ascertain their ability and strength
to capture the completeness and suitability of the questions, orderliness of the
questions, and aptness of the length of the interview and probable logistic problems
that may occur during the process.
b. A pilot study was conducted to establish the adequacy and reliability of the
instrument. A survey is reliable if it can be administered a number of times and still
produce the same results. This helps to carefully consider the wording of questions
and pretesting the survey invariably help to increase the reliability. Assistance of
specialist was sought to develop the instruments for face and content validity.
c. For the pilot survey, 20 copies of the questionnaire were given to academic staff
and statisticians from Lagos State University (LASU), Ojo, Lagos state to ensure
that the items were not only reliable but also valid.
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3.10 Data Collection Process
1. Quantitative Data (Questionnaire)
Data collection involves a combination of different activities. The first step was to recruit
and train Field Assistant (FA) to administer the questionnaire alongside the researcher. Two
(2) field assistants from each state were recruited and trained on the administration of
questionnaire and other social issues associated with it. The criteria for selection was that
field assistants reside in the state of the sampled Universities and the reason was basically
for convenience. Next, they were trained to understand the study questionnaire, the
processes necessary for successful administration, their allotment in the administration,
how to select participant and the probable challenges they may encounter. The training
ensured that all assistants have a thorough understanding of the concept, the place, the
people and the instrument before proceeding into the field. Each participant was given a
questionnaire to pre-test before actual administration.
2. Qualitative Data (IDIs)
In-depth interviews (IDIs) are unstructured, open-ended, discovery-oriented methods that
permit greater depth of meaning on issues to be discussed. The usefulness of this qualitative
instrument in research is the unfolding of how individuals view their work environments.
This qualitative instrument was conducted before the use of the quantitative instrument
because insight gained from it was useful for the administration of survey questionnaire.
The discussion guide for IDI was adapted and modified in line with the study problem. The
introductory part of the interview was to establish rapport and make participant willing to
start and complete the interview. Moreover, despite the explicit design of the discussion
guide, the interview was made informal and relaxing. The interview topics were facilitated
in a conversational flow that accord interviewees the freedom to discuss what they want
without any fear. This also ensured that discussants had the sense of being in control, free
to talk about topics in order they preferred, and comfortable in bringing up other issues at
their will. Probing techniques were applied to encourage discussants to give the fullest
answers possible. Hence, while notes were taken, all interview session was recorded with
audio tapes to avoid loss of data.
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3.11 Validity and Reliability of the instruments
Warwick and Linninger (1975) described the goal of research instruments as being able to
obtain information relevant to the purpose of the study; to collect information with maximal
reliability and validity. Consequently, content validity was adopted to authenticate that the
research instruments actually measured exactly what they were designed to measure. The
content validity ensured the items were certified valid by the supervisors and consultants
who were experts in this field of study. Also, to ensure the reliability of the instruments, a
pilot study was conducted by administering ten percent (10%) of the instruments to the
respondents. This allowed for proper review and modification of the instruments before the
final administration. Therefore, in determining the reliability of this research instrument,
the Cronbach’s Alpha was used to measure the reliability of the instrument taking into
consideration the rule of crobach’s alpha, which states that the result was reliable when the
research instrument yields a figure higher than 0.7. This was presented in the table below:
Table 3.5 Reliability Coefficients for the Variables in the Study
Construct/Variables Number of
Items
Cronbach’s Alpha
(Decision Rule)
Cronbach’s Alpha
(Results)
Physical setting
Staff commitment
8 > 0.7 0.74
(Reliable)
Psychological Work Milieu
Staff Loyalty
9 > 0.7 0.83
(Reliable)
Job contents
Staff involvement
9 > 0.7 0.76
(Reliable)
Reward structure
Staff satisfaction
10 > 0.7 0.71
(Reliable)
Organisational climate
Staff productivity
10 > 0.7 0.79
(Reliable)
A high value of Cronbach`s alpha test indicates that the stability, dependability and
predictability of the measuring instrument is very certain (Asika, 1991). The literature
reveals that acceptable reliability should fall between 0.50 – 0.60, although 0.70 and above
is desirable (Hair et al., 1998), also 0.70 is recommended by (Nunnally & Berstein, 1994
& Pallant, 2007). The result of the reliability analysis sum up in Table 3.5 revealed a high
internal consistency and reliability with Cronbach’s alpha values higher than the minimum
perimeter, (Cronbach’s alpha > 0.70). Thus, the internal consistency of the measure used
in this study is considered acceptable.
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3.12 Method of Data Analysis
Data analysis is not an end itself. Its purpose is to produce information that helps to address or
answer the research questions of the study. The data generated for this study were analysed
using two (2) folds namely:
(i) Quantitative Data
(ii) Qualitative Data
(1) Quantitative data:
The returned questionnaire were sorted and collated to check for and minimise errors. When
errors had been checked and reduced, the questionnaire with incomplete information were
discarded while completed ones were coded for analysis and inputted into SPSS Version 18.
The descriptive statistics was based on frequencies, means and standard deviations while
inferential method was used to measure the formulated hypotheses through the use of
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0, regression with Stata and
Structural Equation Modeling. Data analysis procedures were carried out using IBM SPSS
AMOS 22. Reponses were analysed in SPSS data format, while Structural Equation Modelling
(SEM) was used to explain complex relationships between variables, and to reduce the
relationships to visual representations. However, the results of the survey were analysed and
presented with managerial implications.
(2) Qualitative data:
Qualitative data emerged from IDIs. Texts from qualitative data were transcribed, identified
and analysed through thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is the systematic analysis of themes
(that is who says what, to whom, why, and to what extent and with what effects in a qualitative
manner. This was done through three stages:
1. Data assembly: field notes (notes taking during interview and observation),
researcher’s views and perceptions, audiotape redirecting and its transcription for
previous day were retrieved from research assistants before the commencement of work
for a new day. The data assembled were checked for proper recording and transcription.
94
2. Data Reduction: The data were sorted and organised to reduce error. Data were coded;
responses analysed in a thematic order, similar and different ideas were clarified on
issues.
3. Data Display: Data presentation was done following the study objectives and relevant
issues (themes) to the administration and implementation of strategies for employees’
retention.
The interviews were analysed on the basis of detailed descriptions, explanations, direct
quotations, and observations from the interview were provided as the foundation of the
analysis. Content analysis involves a process designed to condense raw data into categories or
themes based on valid inference and interpretation. Coded ideas, issues and expressions were
identified and thematized. Some aspects of the in-depth interviews were quoted verbatim to
bring out the essential points. Observations made on workplace environment and other
behavioural issues were concretised through photographs.
Thus, coding and grouping based on these ideas and themes were used as reference points for
the study. The IDIs were analysed manually by adopting Hawe, Degeling and Hall (1990) four
basic steps to analysing qualitative data. The first step organised the data by transcribing notes
from tape recording of IDI; particular attention was paid to phrases with contextual or special
connotations. It was thereafter reviewed by a competent third person to avoid alterations in
context and meaning. This gives an overall picture of the complete set of qualitative data. The
second step shaped the data information by assessing themes that emerge from the guides. This
was done by sorting and noting the different categories of responses found under topic
headings. The third step interpreted and summarised the information by looking at the range
of views expressed. The fourth step explained the findings from the qualitative data analysis.
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3.13 Ethical considerations
According to Babbie (1998), ethical principles comprise the consideration for voluntary
participation, anonymity and confidentiality. In compliance with these and other ethical
standards on research work involving human subjects, the researcher made every attempt to
uphold the principles which aim at protecting the dignity and privacy of every individual who
in the course of the research work was requested to provide valuable information for the study.
This anonymity and impersonality no doubt enhanced the rate of return of the questionnaire
and objective response. The principles were observed in the following areas. Permission to
conduct the research was obtained from the selected respondents (i.e. Informed consent). The
objectives of the study were clearly explained to them. It is incumbent on the researcher to
protect the rights, dignity and safety of the participants in the study. The consent of every
participant in the study was sought and the right of refusal and withdrawal of the participants
at any stage of the study were also emphasised prior and during the course of the study.
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CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Preamble
This chapter presents the data generated from respondents through the administered
questionnaires. The Objectives and hypotheses formulated for this study guides the
arrangement of the tables. An interpretation of the results of the analysis follows each of the
hypothesis and in addition where necessary, selected results from the demographic data
collected were used to support and contrast the results of the analysed hypotheses.
4.2 Data Presentation
The presentation of data for this study was divided into two. The demographic data, which is
the first section of the structured questionnaire, was presented in tables of frequency for
categorical data (sex, marital status, etc.). Also, cross-tabulation was used to further analyse
the demographical data with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software,
version 22, due to its suitability in primary studies. The more reason why cross-tabulation was
used was to test for significant differences in the way respondents had responded to the items
under the demographical section.
4.2.1 Response Rate of Questionnaire Administered
A total of four hundred (400) copies of questionnaire were randomly administered to the
academic staff of selected Universities in Southern Nigeria. Three hundred and eighty four
(384) copies of the questionnaire were retrieved, which amounted to 96% response rate (see
Table 4.3). Three hundred and eighty four (384) copies of the retrieved copies of the
questionnaire were found useable. Sixteen copies of the questionnaire representing 4% were
unusable because they were badly completed. This response rate is considered reasonably high
and better than the response rates in previous studies. Below are the tables showing the
frequency distribution of variables and responses to administered questions. Table 4.1a below
shows the respondents by the type of institutions.
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Table 4.1: Response Rate of Sampled Institutions (Comparative)
Region Institutions Academic
Staff
Strength
Questionnaire
Distributed
Questionnaire
Retrieved
Total % of
Questionnaire
Analysed
South-
West
Ekiti State Univ. 448 72 69 17.97
Olabisi Onabanjo Univ. 528 78 76 19.80
(1) Total 976 150 145 37.77
South-
East
Enugu State University
of Science & Tech.
421 60 57 14.84
Ebonyi State University,
Abakaliki, Ebonyi.
417 60 58 15.10
(2) Total 838 120 115 29.94
South-
South
River State University of
Science & Technology
396 62 60 15.62
Ambrose Alli
University, Ekpoma,
Edo
449 68 64 16.67
(3) Total 845 130 124 32.29
Overall Total 2659 400 384 100.0%
Source: Researcher‘s Field Survey Result (2016)
Figure 4.1: Response Rate of Institutions by % (Comparative)
Source: Researcher‘s Field Survey Result (2016)
Interpretation:
Table 4.1 shows that 145 or 37.77% of the population were from South-west (Ekiti State
University (17.97%) and Olabisi Onabanjo University (19.80%) respectively); 115 or 29.94%
of the population were from South-East (Enugu State University of Science & Technology
1819.8
14.9 15.1 15.6 16.7
0
5
10
15
20
25
EKSU OOU ENSUST EBSU RSUST AMBROSE ALLI
Perc
enta
ge
Response Rate of Institutions by %
98
(14.84%) and Ebonyi State University (15.10%) respectively); 124 or 32.29% of the population
were from South-South (River State University of Science & Technology (15.62%) and
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo (16.67%).
4.3.2 Biographical Characteristics of Respondents
This section describes the biographical characteristics of the respondents. Important variables
considered were gender, current rank/status, work experience and current University as
presented in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Biographical Characteristics of Respondents
DISTRIBUTION BY GENDER
Gender Frequency Percentage Cumulative Freq.
Male 236 61.5 61.5
Female 148 38.5 100.0
Total 384 100%
DISTRIBUTION BY STAFF STATUS
Staff Status Frequency Percentage Cumulative Freq.
Ass. Prof & prof. 18 4.7 4.7
Senior Lecturer 38 9.9 14.6
Lecturer 1 68 17.7 32.3
Lecturer 2 172 44.8 77.1
Graduate & Ass. lecturer 88 22.9 100.0
Total 384 100%
DISTRIBUTION BY YEARS OF SERVICE
Years of Service Frequency Percentage Cumulative Freq.
0 - 10 years 239 62.2 62.6
11 - 20 years 125 32.6 94.8
21 years and above 20 5.2 100.0
Total 384 100%
DISTRIBUTION BY HIGHEST EDUCATIONAL QUALI FICATION
Highest Educational
Qualification Frequency Percentage
Cumulative Freq.
Bachelor’s Degree 8 2.1 2.1
Master’s Degree 229 59.6 61.7
Doctoral Degree (Ph.D) 147 38.3 100.0
Total 384 100%
Source: Field Survey (2016)
99
a. Gender: Table 4.2a shows the frequency distribution of respondents’ biographical data.
The distribution of gender reveals that male respondents had a total frequency of 236
(61.5%) and females were 148 (38.5%). Despite the 23.0% difference between the two
genders, data obtained represent opinion of both genders. The information on gender in
Table 4.2a is shown in a bar chart as presented below.
Table 4.2a: Cross-Tabulation of Gender across Sampled Universities
Gender
Gender * University Cross-tabulation Total
Universities
Ekiti State
University
Olabisi
Onabanjo
University
Enugu
State
University
Ebonyi
State
University
River State
University
Ambrose
Alli
University
Male
Count 48 47 35 34 38 34 236
% within
Gender 20.3% 20.0% 14.8% 14.4% 16.1% 14.4% 100.0%
% within
University 69.6% 61.8% 61.4% 58.6% 63.3% 53.1% 61.5%
Female
Count 21 29 22 24 22 30 148
% within
Gender 14.2% 19.6% 14.9% 16.2% 14.9% 20.3% 100.0%
% within
University 30.4% 38.2% 38.6% 41.4% 36.7% 46.9% 38.5%
Total
Count 69 76 57 58 60 64 384
% within
Gender 18.0% 19.8% 14.8% 15.1% 15.6% 16.7% 100.0%
% within
University 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Source: Field Survey (2016)
Figure 4.2a: Cross-Tabulation of Gender across Sampled Universities
Source: Researcher‘s Field Survey Result (2016)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
EKSU OOU ENSU EBSU RISU AMAU
Freq
uenc
y
Gender
Male Female
100
b. Staff Status: The staff status distribution revealed that 18 (4.7%) are Associate Professors
and Professors, 38 (9.9%) are senior lecturers, 68 (17.7%) are Lecturer I, 172 (44.8%) are
Lecturer II and 88 (22.9%) falls under Graduate Assistant and Assistant Lecturers. This
implies that staff status in the selected institutions represents all the academic cadre. The
information on staff status in Table 4.2b is shown in a bar chart as presented below.
Table 4.2b Cross-Tabulation of Staff Status across Sampled Universities
Current Staff Status
Current Rank * University Cross-tabulation Total
Ekiti State
University
Olabisi
Onabanjo
University
Enugu
State
University
Ebonyi
State
University
River State
University
Ambrose
Alli
University
Prof. &
Associate
Prof.
Count 4 4 2 2 0 6 18
% within
Current Rank 22.2% 22.2% 11.1% 11.1% 0% 33.3% 100.0%
% within
University 5.8% 5.3% 3.5% 3.4% 0% 9.4% 4.7%
Senior
Lecturer
Count 4 10 4 4 9 7 38
% within
Current Rank 10.5% 26.3% 10.5% 10.5% 23.7% 18.5% 100.0%
% within
University 5.8% 13.2% 7.0% 6.9% 15.0% 10.9% 9.9%
Lecturer 1
Count 22 13 12 7 5 9 68
% within
Current Rank 32.4% 19.1% 17.6% 10.3% 7.4% 13.2% 100.0%
% within
University 31.9% 17.1% 21.1% 12.1% 8.3% 14.1% 17.7%
Lecturer 2
Count 30 25 22 29 37 29 172
% within
Current Rank 17.4% 14.5% 12.8% 16.9% 21.5% 16.9% 100.0%
% within
University 43.5% 32.9% 38.6% 50.0% 61.7% 45.3% 44.8%
Asst. Lect.
& Grad.
Asst.
Count 9 24 17 16 9 13 88
% within
Current Rank 10.2% 27.3% 19.3% 18.2% 10.2% 14.8% 100.0%
% within
University 13.0% 31.6% 29.8% 27.6% 15.0% 20.3% 22.9%
Total
Count 69 76 57 58 60 64 384
% within
Current Rank 18.0% 19.8% 14.8% 15.1% 15.6% 16.7% 100.0%
% within
University 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
101
Figure 4.2b: Cross-Tabulation of Staff Status across Sampled Universities
Source: Researcher‘s Field Survey Result (2016)
c. Years of Service: By years worked in the institution in Tables 4.2 and 4.2c, 239 (62.2%)
respondents of the staff had worked between the periods of 1 to 10 years, 125 (32.6%)
respondents had been in the institution for 11 to 20 years, 20 (5.2%) respondents worked
for more than 21years. The information on years worked in Table 4.2c is shown in a bar
chart as presented below:
Table 4.2c: Cross-Tabulation of Work Experience across Sampled Universities
Universities
Work Experience
Ekiti State
University
Olabisi
Onabanjo
Enugu
State Univ.
Ebonyi
State Uni.
River State
University
Ambrose
Alli Uni.
Total
1-10yrs
Count 35 51 38 40 36 39 239
% within Work
Experience 14.7% 21.3% 15.9% 16.7% 15.1% 16.3% 100.0%
% within University 50.7% 67.1% 66.7% 69.0% 60.0% 60.9% 62.2%
11-20yrs
Count 29 20 17 16 24 19 125
% within Work
Experience 23.2% 16.0% 13.6% 12.8% 19.2% 15.2% 100.0%
% within University 42.0% 26.3% 29.8% 27.6% 40.0% 29.7% 32.6%
21yrs-
Above
Count 5 5 2 2 0 6 20
% within Work
Experience 25.0% 25.0% 10.0% 10.0% 0% 30.0% 100.0%
% within University 7.3% 6.6% 3.5% 3.5% 0% 9.4% 5.2%
Total
Count 69 76 57 58 60 64 384
% within Work
Experience 18.0% 19.8% 14.8% 15.1% 15.6% 16.7% 100.0%
% within University 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
EKSU OOU ENSU EBSU RISU AMAU
Freq
uenc
y
Staff Status
Prof & AP SL L1 L2 AL & GA
102
Figure 4.2c: Cross-Tabulation of Work experience across Sampled Universities
Source: Researcher‘s Field Survey Result (2016)
d. Highest Educational Background: Information provided by respondents in Table 4.2d
on highest educational background shows that 8 (2.1%) had Bachelor’s Degree, 229
(59.6%) had Master’s Degree, while 147 (38.3%) had Doctoral Degree The information on
highest educational background in Table 4.2d is shown in a bar chart as presented below:
Table 4.2d: Cross-Tabulation of Educational Qualification across Universities
Universities
Highest Educational
Background
Ekiti State
University
Olabisi
Onabanjo
Enugu
State Univ.
Ebonyi
State Univ.
River
State Univ.
Ambrose
Alli Uni.
Total
Bachelor’s
Degree
Count 3 4 0 0 1 0 8
% within
Educational
Qualification
37.5% 50.0% 0.0% 0.0% 12.5% 0.0% 100.0%
% within Uni. 4.3% 5.3% 0.0% 0.0% 3.7% 0.0% 2.1%
Master’s
Degree
Count 38 42 31 42 40 36 229
% within
Educational
Qualification
16.6% 18.3% 13.5% 18.3% 17.5% 15.7% 100.0%
% within Uni. 55.1% 55.3% 54.4% 72.4% 66.7% 56.3% 59.6%
Doctoral
Degree
Count 28 30 26 16 19 28 147
% within
Educational
Qualification
19.1% 20.4% 17.7% 10.8% 12.9% 19.1% 100.0%
% within Uni. 40.6% 39.5% 45.6% 27.6% 31.7% 43.8% 38.3%
Total
Count 69 76 57 58 60 64 384
% within
Educational
Qualification
18.0% 19.8% 14.8% 15.1% 15.6% 16.7% 100.0%
% within
University 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
EKSU OOU ENSU EBSU RISU AMAU
Freq
uenc
y
Work Experience
1-10yrs 11-20yrs 21yrs +
103
Figure 4.2d: Cross-Tabulation of Educational Qualification across Sampled Universities
Source: Researcher‘s Field Survey Result (2016)
4.3 Cross-tabulation of Biographical Data by Gender
Table 4.3.1: Cross-tabulation of Staff Status by Gender
STATUS OF STAFF
Total Prof. & Ass.
Professors
Senior
Lecturer
Lecturer 1 Lecturer II Ass. Lecturer
& Graduate
GENDER
Male 13 23 40 107 53 236
% within
Staff Status 72.2% 60.5% 58.8% 62.2% 60.2% 61.5%
Female 5 15 28 65 35 148
% within
Staff Status 27.3% 39.5% 41.2% 37.8 39.8% 38.5%
Total 18 38 68 172 88 384
% within Current Staff
Status 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Source: Field Survey, 2016 (NB: Frequency is for available data)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
EKSU OOU ENSU EBSU RISU AMAU
Freq
uenc
y
Highest Educational Background
Bachelor’s Degree Master’s Degree Doctoral Degree
104
Figure 4.3.1: Cross Tabulation of Staff Status and Gender
Source: Researcher‘s Field Survey Result (2016)
The cross-tabulation of staff status by gender in Table 4.3.1 revealed that 384 academic staff
responded to gender and staff status classifications. From the total, 236 (62%) were males and
148 (38%) were females. In the “status of staff” rows, the table showed that for males, 13
(72.2%) were Associate Professors and Professors, 23 (60.5%) were Senior Lecturers, 40
(58.8%) were Lecturer I, 107 (62.2%) were Lecturer II, and 53 (60.2%) were Graduate
Assistant & Assistant Lecturers. For females, 5 (27.3%) were Associate Professors and
Professors, 15 (39.5%) were Senior Lecturers, 28 (41.2%) were Lecturer I, 65 (37.8%) were
Lecturer II, and 35 (39.8%) were Graduate Assistant & Assistant Lecturers. This implies that
there are more males in every academic status than females’ academic staff in the selected state
Universities in Southern Nigeria.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Prof. & Ass. Professors Senior Lecturer Lecturer 1 Lecturer II Ass. Lecturer &
Graduate
Perc
enta
ge
Cross-tabulation of Staff Status by Gender
Male Female
105
Table 4.3.2: Cross-tabulation of “Years of Service” by Gender
YEARS OF SERVICE
Total 0-10 yrs 11-20 yrs 21 yrs & above
GENDER
Male 145 77 14 236
% within
Years of service 60.7% 61.6% 70.0% 61.5%
Female 94 48 6 148
% within
Years of service 39.3% 38.4% 30.0% 38.5%
Total 239 125 20 384
% within Years of service 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Source: Field Survey, 2016 (NB: Frequency is for available data)
Figure 4.3.2: Respondents’ Years of Service and Gender
Source: Researcher‘s Field Survey Result (2016)
In Table 4.3.2, the cross-tabulation of years of service by gender is shown. It showed that 384
academic staff responded to years of service by gender classifications. Out of which, 236
(61.5%) were males and 148 (38.5%) were females. In the different categories of years of
service, the table showed that for males, 145 (60.7%) had spent between 0 to 10 years, 77
(61.6%) had spent between 11 years to 20 years, and 14 (70.0%) spent 21 years and above. For
females from the same table above, 94 (39.3%) had spent between 0 to 10 years, 48 (38.4%)
had spent between 11 years to 20 years, and 6 (30.0%) spent 21 years and above. This implied
that there were more males than females that had worked for years of service categories.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0-10 yrs 11-20 yrs 21 yrs & above
Freq
uenc
y
Cross-tabulation of “Years of Service” by Gender
Male Female
106
Table 4.3.3: Cross-tabulation of Highest Educational Qualification by Gender
EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT
Total Bachelor’s
Degree
Master’s
Degree
Doctoral
Degree (Ph.D)
GENDER
Male 6 145 85 236
% within
Educational Qualification 75.0% 63.3% 57.8 61.5%
Female 2 84 62 148
% within
Educational Qualification 25.0% 36.7% 42.2 38.5%
Total 8 229 147 384
% within Educational Qualification 100% 100% 100% 100%
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2016 (NB: Frequency is for available data)
Figure 4.3.1: Respondents’ Educational Qualification and Gender
Source: Researcher‘s Field Survey Result (2016)
Table 4.3.3 indicated that 384 academic staff of state Universities, Southern Nigeria responded
to educational qualification by gender classifications. Out of which, 236 (61.5%) were males
and 148 (38.5%) were females. In the different categories of highest educational qualification,
the table showed that for males, 6 (75%) had Bachelor’s Degree, 145 (63.3%) had Master’s
Degree and 85 (57.8%) had Doctoral Degree (Ph.D). For females from table 4.9 above, 2 (25%)
had Bachelor’s Degree, 84 (36.7%) had Master’s Degree and 62 (42.2%) had Doctoral Degree
(Ph.D.). This implied that there were more males than females that have BSc, MSc and Ph.D
working in the selected state Universities in Southern Nigeria.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Bachelor’s Degree Master’s Degree Doctoral Degree (Ph.D)
Freq
uenc
y
Cross-tabulation of Highest Educational Qualification by Gender
Male Female
107
4.4 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
VARIABLES BY UNIVERSITY NAME
Descriptive statistics were adopted to show the mean, standard deviation, level of skewness
and kurtosis. The mean scores were also obtained based on a five (5) point likert scale. These
range from strongly agree (representing 5 points) to strongly disagree represented (with I
point). The analysis showed the degree of responses by compiling the mean scores of each
item using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software.
Decision Criteria for Descriptive Statistics
If the mean scores value is greater than or equal to 3.00... Then one can accept the
statement with a 5 Likert scale.
If the mean scores value is less than 3.00... Then one can reject the statement or
proposition with a 5 Likert scale.
If the mean scores value is greater than or equal to 3.50... Then one can accept the
statement with a 7 Likert scale.
If the mean scores value is less than 3.50... Then one can reject the statement or
proposition with a 7 Likert scale.
4.4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH VARIABLES BY GENDER
Table 4.4.1a: Physical Work Settings by Gender
Items Male Female
The size of my office does not provide me enough space to
achieve performance expectation
3.50 3.32
The lightning in the office attracts me to stay long on the
job
2.54 2.34
The physical condition under which staff operates promote
workplace safety
3.14 3.22
The size of my office does not provide me enough space to
work comfortably
2.82 3.08
( Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2016
108
In reference to Table 4.4.1a, both categories of respondents replied certainly when asked if the
size of their office does not provide them enough space to achieve performance expectation.
Nevertheless, male respondents (3.501) agreed more from the table reading above. In addition,
Most of the respondent both male (2.543) and female (2.342) also slightly disagree that
lightning in the office attracts them to stay long on the job. In other words, both category of
respondents did not come to term with the statement ‘lightning in the office attracts me to stay
long on the job.
Table 4.4.1b: Psychological Work Milieu and Job Contents by Gender
Items Male Female
The University motivate lecturers by providing job-related training
with opportunity for growth
3.66 3.71
The degree of influence on the job as a lecturer gives opportunity
for career development and enrichment
3.19 3.65
The strategies put in place to motivate staff such as career
development and opportunity to earn promotion have helped to
retain competent staff for the realisation of organisational
fulfilment
2.86 2.51
The University’s use of recognition and appreciation has enhanced
my stay and bond with them
3.30 3.23
My institution gives the possibility of learning new things through
the work and gives high priority to job satisfaction
3.48 3.55
The University gives lecturers the opportunity to creatively
develop their own abilities
3.81 3.92
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2016
With reference to the Table 4.4.1b, the two categories of respondents replied positively when
asked if the University motivate lecturers by providing job-related training with opportunity
for growth. Interestingly, both male and female also affirmed positively to the fact that the
degree of influence on the job lecturers give opportunity for career development and
enrichment. Though, the categories of respondents slightly acclaimed that he strategies put in
109
place to motivate staff such as career development and opportunity to earn promotion have not
effectively helped to retain competent staff for the realisation of organisational fulfilment. This
could be as a result of increasing demand to meet and fulfil their expectations. However, all
the respondents irrespective of their gender affirmed that the institutions give the possibility of
learning new things and the opportunity to creatively develop their own abilities
Table 4.4.1c: Extent of Reward System by Gender
Items Male Female
The University’s reward system has increased my opportunities for
personal development satisfaction
2.37 2.30
The salary structure commensurate with lecturers current status and
thereby facilitate continuous employment relationship
2.25 2.12
Outstanding efforts are recognised and appreciated with remunerations
that stimulates job quality
2.72 2.76
Opportunities for advancement or promotion exist within the
University
1.88 1.64
Adequate provision of grants and funds increased my pay satisfaction. 3.86 3.96
The benefit package is a significant factor in my decision to stay with
the University
3.83 3.83
Compared with other related industries, the University salary package
is reasonable
4.07 3.84
institution is based on other factors than merit and this adversely affect
my dispositions to increasing commitment
3.71 3.53
The institution’s strategies for staff promotion are based on ‘whom you
know’ and this result in poor career satisfaction
3.64 3.64
I will continue to work for my institution to achieve its goals because
of the rewards and supervisory supports am currently enjoying.
3.22 3.25
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2016
110
With reference to Table 4.4.1c, both male and female slightly disagreed that the University’s
reward system has increased their opportunities for personal development satisfaction.
Interestingly, all the respondents in the categories affirmed strongly that the salary structure
does not commensurate with lecturers’ current status and opportunities for advancement or
promotion does not exist within the University. Though a few number of respondents disagreed
with the notion above. Surprising, categories of respondents strongly affirm that promotion in
the institution is based on other factors than merit and this adversely affect my dispositions to
increasing commitment. It was added by the same categories of respondents that institution’s
strategies for staff promotion are based on ‘whom you know’ and this result in poor career
satisfaction.
4.4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH VARIABLES BY STATUS
Table 4.4.2a: Physical Work Settings by Status
Items Prof. &
Ass. Prof
SL L1 LII AL &
GA
The size of my office does not provide me enough
space to achieve performance expectation
2.39 2.37 2.61 2.57 2.74
The lightning in the office attracts me to stay long
on the job
3.72 3.42 2.63 2.35 2.24
The physical condition under which staff operates
promote workplace safety
4.17 3.21 3.29 3.16 3.08
The size of my office does not provide me enough
space to work comfortably
2.83 3.18 2.87 2.94 2.84
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2016
*Prof. & Ass. Prof: Professors & Associate Professors
*SL: Senior Lecturer * L1: Lecturer 1
* L11: Lecturer 11 *AL & GA: Assistant Lecturer & Graduate Assistant
111
With reference to Table 4.4.2a, the professors, associate professors and senior lecturers replied
negatively when asked if the size of their office provide them enough space to achieve
performance expectation. They also affirmed that lightning in their offices attract them to stay
long on the job. Unexpectedly, all categories of the respondent replied certainly to the claim
that size of my office does not provide them enough space to achieve performance expectation.
However, those that negatively react to this may be as a result of their position/status that
requires greater performance expectation compared to those at the lower levels.
Table 4.4.2b: Psychological Work Milieu and Staff Loyalty by Status
Items Prof. &
Ass. Prof
SL L1 LII AL &
GA
The University motivate lecturers by providing job-
related training with opportunity for growth
4.72 2.95 2.71 2.59 2.69
The degree of influence on the job as a lecturer
gives opportunity for career development and
enrichment
4.22 3.39 3.28 3.16 3.35
The strategies put in place to motivate staff such as
career development and opportunity to earn
promotion have helped to retain competent staff for
the realisation of organisational fulfillment
3.33 2.34 2.32 2.59 2.47
The University’s use of recognition and
appreciation has enhanced my stay and bond
4.44 3.18 3.26 3.14 3.12
My institution gives the possibility of learning new
things through the work and gives high priority to
job satisfaction
3.33 3.12 3.17 3.18 3.09
The University gives lecturers the opportunity to
creatively develop their own abilities
4.00 4.11 4.15 3.73 3.73
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2016
*Prof. & Ass. Prof: Professors & Associate Professors
*SL: Senior Lecturer * L1: Lecturer 1
* L11: Lecturer 11 *AL & GA: Assistant Lecturer & Graduate Assistant
112
With reference to Table 4.4.2b, the professors and associate professors replied positively when
asked if the University motivate lecturers by providing job-related training with opportunity
for growth. While others slightly agree with the statement. Interestingly, all the respondents
also affirmed positively to the fact that the degree of influence on the job lecturers give
opportunity for career development and enrichment. Though, all the categories of respondents
except the professor and associate professors acclaimed that he strategies put in place to
motivate staff such as career development and opportunity to earn promotion have not
effectively helped to retain competent staff for the realisation of organisational fulfilment. This
could be as a result of increasing demand to meet and fulfil their expectations. However, all
the respondents irrespective of their status affirmed that the institutions give the possibility of
learning new things and the opportunity to creatively develop their own abilities.
Table 4.4.2c: Extent of Reward System by Status
Items (Reward System and Staff Satisfaction) Prof. &
Ass. Prof
SL L1 LII AL &
GA
The University’s reward system has increased my
opportunities for personal development satisfaction
3.39 3.13 2.73 2.33 2.10
The salary structure commensurate with lecturers
current status and thereby facilitate continuous
employment relationship
4.22 3.05 2.28 2.20 2.20
Outstanding efforts are recognised and appreciated with
remunerations that stimulates job quality
3.61 2.76 2.63 2.51 2.67
Opportunities for advancement or promotion exist
within the University
3.89 2.55 2.35 2.28 2.72
The benefit package is a significant factor in my
decision to stay with the University
3.89 3.17 2.96 2.81 2.69
Promotion in the institution is based on other factors
than merit and this adversely affect my dispositions to
increasing commitment
1.78 2.74 3.51 3.69 3.58
The institution’s strategies for staff promotion are based
on ‘whom you know’ and this result in poor career
satisfaction
1.61 3.53 3.60 3.61 3.78
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2016
*SL: Senior Lecturer * L1: Lecturer 1
*L11: Lecturer 11 *AL & GA: Assistant Lecturer & Graduate Assistant
113
With reference to Table 4.4.2c, the professors, associate professors and senior lecturers replied
positively The University’s reward system has increased my opportunities for personal
development satisfaction. While others slightly agree with the statement. Interestingly, all the
respondents in the categories of Lecturer 1, lecturer 11 and Assistant lecturers affirmed
strongly that the salary structure does not commensurate with lecturers’ current status and
opportunities for advancement or promotion does not exist within the University. Surprising,
categories of respondents (Lecturer 1, lecturer 11 and Assistant lecturers) strongly affirm that
Promotion in the institution is based on other factors than merit and this adversely affect my
dispositions to increasing commitment. It was added by the same categories of respondents
that institution’s strategies for staff promotion are based on ‘whom you know’ and this result
in poor career satisfaction. Though, the professors, associate professors and senior lecturers
strongly disagree with some of the issues.
4.4.3. PHYSICAL WORK ENVIRONMENT AND ACADEMIC STAFF
COMMITMENT
Organisations thrive to provide employees with an environment and office design, which fulfill
the employees’ needs and ensures job satisfaction (Davies, 2005:128). In order to establish the
significant role of physical settings in state Universities, this study set for itself the first
objective of examining the role of physical settings in promoting the commitment of academic
staff in Southern Nigeria. , i.e. “To determine the role of physical work environment in
enhancing commitment of academic staff in state owned Universities”.
In order to achieve this objective, the study raised the first research question:
114
RESEARCH QUESTION I: “What are the roles of workplace physical factors in
enhancing the commitment of academic staff in state owned Universities?
Table 4.4.3a: Mean Statistics of physical work milieu and staff commitment
Items MEAN STATISTICS
EKSU OOU ENSU EBSU RISU AMASU
N = 69 N = 76 N = 60 N = 64 N = 57 N = 58
Working in noise free environment increases my
job performance 3.872
4.325 3.923 4.638 4.739 4.527
The size of my office does not provide me enough
space to achieve performance expectation 3.435
3.873 3.993 4.176 3.173 4.101
The offices are well ventilated for service
improvement 4.026
3.623 3.819 4.002 3.933 3.729
The lightning in the office attracts me to stay long
on the job 2.462
2.211 3.003 2.391 2.193 2.419
Provision of ergonomic tool/furniture improves my
workplace health promotion 3.231
4.020 3.913 4.111 3.966 3.628
The office space arrangement induces my work
engagement 3.504
3.941 3.863 3.733 4.0733 3.633
The physical condition under which staff operates
promote workplace safety 3.776 4.004
3.523 4.010 4.005 4.072
The size of my office does not provide me enough
space to work comfortably 2.923 3.813
3.683 3.959 3.911 3.980
Source: Field Survey, 2016.
Table 4.4.3a reveals that when respondents were asked if working in noise free environment
increases their job performance, most of the respondents acknowledged positively to the
statement. Nonetheless both RISU and EBSU respondents admitted favourably to the
statement with (4.739) (4.638) respectively however respondents from EKSU (3.872) slightly
agreed. In addition, both respondents from EBSU and AMASU also agreed that the size of
their office does not provide them enough space to achieve performance expectation. The
findings from the table also indicated that when also interviewed, respondents from ENSU
slightly agreed that lightning in the office attracts them to stay long on the job while the
remaining sampled Universities (EKSU, OOU, EBSU, RISU, AMASU) strongly disagree.
This shows that the use of power (electricity) is a major problem in the sampled Universities.
The findings also indicated that respondents from OOU and EBSU (4.020 and 4.111) strongly
agreed that provision of ergonomic tool/furniture improves their workplace health promotion
while the remaining sampled Universities (EKSU, ENSU, RISU, AMASU) slightly agree. This
shows that the use of ergonomic resources such as tables, shelves, chair, etc. have significantly
115
improved workplace health promotion in the sampled Universities. All the sampled
Universities also concurred that the physical condition under which staff operates promote
workplace safety. Though respondents from EKSU and ENSU more or less concur with the
claim. Summarily, the findings indicated that the level of physical setting in the selected
institutions is encouraging but adversely influenced by lightning, noise and spatial
arrangement.
Analysis of Independent and Dependent Variables for each University
Table 4.4.3 analyses data generated through the administered questionnaire from respondents
in the selected state Universities, Southern Nigeria. The analysis for each University are
presented in the table using the correlation analysis. Correlation analysis is used to describe
the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables. The Universities
are represented below with alphabets and the procedure for interpreting the test statistics in use
are also presented Table 4.4.3(b) below.
Table 4.4.3b: Universities and their Alphabetical Representation
S/N Name of Universities Represented with:
1 Ekiti State University University (EKSU) A
2 Olabisi Onabanjo University University (OOU) B
3 Rivers State University of Science & Technology University (RISU) C
4 Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo University (AAU) D
5 Enugu State University of Science & Technology University (ESUT) E
6 Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Ebonyi State. University (EBSU) F
4.4.3(c). Analysis of Independent and Dependent Variables for each University
Table 4.4.3(c): Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Variables for each University
Descriptive Statistics * For University A, B, C, D, E, F
University A University B University C University D University E University F
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
PHYSETs 3.551 .783 3.398 .884 4.042 .706 3.281 .879 4.000 .779 3.289 .904
STAFFCOM 3.391 .899 3.039 1.00 4.067 .880 2.938 .978 4.184 .771 2.922 1.012
Freq = 69 Freq = 76 Freq = 60 Freq = 64 Freq = 57 Freq = 58
PHYSETs = Physical Settings (Noise, Lighting, Ergonomic & Spatial Arrangement, Temperature/Ventilation)
STAFFCOM = Staff Commitment
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2016
116
The mean values of physical settings on staff commitment for Ekiti State University are 3.5507
and 3.3913 (University A) respectively; 3.3980 and 3.0395 for Olabisi Onabanjo University
(University B); 4.0417 and 4.0667 for Rivers State University of Science & Technology
(University C); 3.2813 and 2.9375 for Ambrose Alli University (University D); 4.0000 and
4.1842 for Enugu State University of Science & Technology (University E); 3.2888 and
2.9224 for Ebonyi State University (University F) in that order. Since it was the five (5) points
Likert Scale that was adopted for this research, Table 4.4.3(c) shows that the mean values are
more than 3.0, it can be established that the respondents of the sampled Universities in
Southern Nigeria agreed that physical settings have significant effects on commitment of the
staff.
TEST OF HYPOTHESIS 1
Hypothesis 1: Physical work setting does not play any significant role in enhancing the
commitment of Academic staff
Statement of Test Statistics in Use
Given that the correlation co-efficient measures the degree to which two things vary together,
this model correlated two variables: physical work settings and staff commitment in testing
hypothesis one. In testing the first hypothesis, the Multiple Regression Analysis was employed
and presented in Table 4.3.3(d).
Decision Criteria for Regression Analysis
The level of significance below 0.05 shows the confidence of level of 95%. Therefore, under
such circumstance, we reject the null (H0) hypothesis once P-value is less than or equals to
0.05 while we accept the alternate (H1) hypothesis.
117
Table 4.4.3(d): Contributions of noise, ventilation, lightning, ergonomics equipment,
workplace arrangement & Moderate office to staff commitment using Stata (S.E 10)
Source | SS df MS Number of obs = 384
-------------+------------------------------ F(1, 382) = 426.56
Model | 158.915509 1 158.915509 Prob > F = 0.0000
Residual | 142.314797 382 .372551825 R-squared = 0.5276
-------------+------------------------------ Adj R-squared = 0.5263
Total | 301.230306 383 .786502104 Root MSE = .61037
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PhyFac | Coef. Std. Err. t P>|t| [95% Conf. Interval]
-------------+----------------------------------------------------------------
StaffComm | .5882292 .0284811 20.65 0.000 .5322298 .6442285
_cons | 1.594039 .1034816 15.40 0.000 1.390575 1.797504 a. Predictors: (Constant), Moderate office/room, Ergonomics equipment , Lightning , Noise , Workspace Arrangement , Ventilation
b. Dependent Variable: StaffComm
Source: Field Survey, 2016
This study revealed in model 1 of Table 4.3.3(d) that there is relationship between physical
work settings and staff commitment at r2=0.528. The r2 is the proportion of variance in the
dependent variable which can be predicted from the independent variable. This value indicated
that there is variance of 52.8% between physical work settings and staff commitment. The
significance of the F-change was assessed and yielded 426.56. This implies that the table is
statistically significant (Sig =.000) and the Fvalue (426.56) is greater than the Ttab1.96 which
represent 95% confidence level. Hence the null hypothesis should be rejected while alternate
hypothesis is therefore accepted.
118
Table 4.4.3(e): Coefficients of the effects of Physical Settings on Staff Commitment
Model Unstandardised
Coefficients
Standardised
Coefficients
t Sig. Collinearity Statistics
B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF
(Constant) 1.157 .341 3.397 .001
Lightning .361 .064 .283 5.617 .000 .706 1.416
Ventilation .330 .056 .302 5.915 .000 .688 1.453
Noise -.088 .051 -.074 -1.730 .000 .976 1.024
Ergonomics equipment .088 .058 .069 1.525 .000 .871 1.148
Workspace Arrangement .004 .056 .003 .070 .000 .841 1.189
Moderate office/room .152 .047 .140 3.213 .001 .947 1.056
a. Dependent Variable: StaffComm
Remark: Ventilation and Lightning are significant predictors of Staff Commitment
Source: Field Survey, 2016
Interpretation and Conclusion
Based on the results in model 1, Table 4.4.3(e) revealed the contributions of physical settings
in promoting staff commitment and which of the variables included in the model contributed
to the prediction of the dependent variable and their levels of significance (lighting β = .283;
t= 5.617; p<0.0001; ventilation β = .302; t= 5.915; p<0.0001; Noise β = -.074; t= -1.730;
p<0.0001; ergonomic resources β = .069; t= 1.525; p<0.0001; workspace arrangement β =
.003; t= .070; p<0.0001). Going by the variables with the highest value of β, it was evident that
ventilation (.302) and lightning (.283) are significant predictors of staff commitment. This
implies that increase in ventilation and power stability will ultimately lead to increase in staff
commitment. This findings corroborate with the works of Chandrasekar (2011) who indicated
that accessibility to consistent power supply impact on organisational performance in the
public sector. For noise (β = -.074; t= -1.730; p<0.0001), it was indicated that increase in noise
will significantly lead to decrease in staff commitment.
119
Decision and Discussion of Findings
The significance level of the variables are less than 0.01 and the F change (30.309) is high and
it is significant (0.0001). Based on the results revealed in Table 4.4.3(e), it was justified that
the alternate hypothesis should be accepted while the null hypothesis should be rejected. It can
therefore be concluded that physical settings have significant effects on staff commitment. This
implies that increase in ventilation and power stability will ultimately lead to increase in staff
commitment. This findings corroborate with the works of Akinyele (2010) who affirmed the
influence of physical milieu on workers’ productivity using the oil and gas industry. In the
same vein, Asmui, Hussin and Paino (2012) indicated the importance of physical environment
facilities on job performance in the public sector.
4.4.4. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR VARIABLES IN OBJECTIVE 2
The role of Psychological factors has been described as the pattern of reactions that occurs
when a staff perceived equity or inequality in treatment and opportunities, and which challenge
their intentions to stay or leave the organisation (Irene, 2010:74). In order to investigate the
effects of psychological work milieu in state Universities, this study set for itself the second
objective. i.e. “To investigate the effects of psychological work milieu on the loyalty of
academic staff in state Universities”.
In order to achieve this objective, the study raised the second research question which can be
restated as follows:
120
RESEARCH QUESTION 2: “How do psychological factors influence loyalty of academic
staff in state owned Universities?
Table 4.4.4(a): Statistics of Psychological factors and staff loyalty
Items
MEAN STATISTICS
EKSU OOU ENSU EBSU RISU AMASU
N = 69 N = 76 N = 60 N = 64 N = 57 N = 58
The University motivate lecturers by providing job-
related training with opportunity for growth 2.583 2.780 2.513 2.864 2.524 2.804
The degree of influence on the job as a lecturer gives
opportunity for career development and enrichment 3.225 3.553 3.112 3.142 3.003 3.411
The strategies put in place to motivate staff such as
career development and opportunity to earn promotion
have helped to retain competent staff for the realisation
of organisational fulfillment
3.975 2.624 2.744 2.954 3.403 3.281
Attitude toward relationships in the institution has put
lecturers in emotionally disturbing situations 3.234 3.090 3.474 2.982 3.550 3.752
My beliefs towards the institution’s mission and values
do not give room for personal growth 2.583 3.324 2.893 2.603 2.924 3.254
The University’s use of recognition and appreciation
has enhanced my stay and bond with them 3.322 2.881 3.813 3.901 3.420 3.703
My institution gives the possibility of learning new
things through the work and gives high priority to job
satisfaction
3.671 3.212 3.602 3.434 3.602 3.614
Management support for workplace health promotion
is not closely associated with employees’ perceptions
of their work environment as healthy and safe.
3.902 3.422 3.931 3.451 3.822 3.454
The University gives lecturers the opportunity to
creatively develop their own abilities 3.813 3.923 4.001 3.570 3.980 3.831
Source: Field Survey, 2016.
Table 4.4.4a reveals that the University motivate lecturers by providing job-related training with
opportunity for growth. All the sampled Universities slightly agreed. In addition, both
respondents from OOU and AMASU also agreed that the degree of influence on the job as a
lecturer gives opportunity for career development and enrichment. The findings from the table also
indicated that when also interviewed, respondents from EKSU strongly agreed that strategies
put in place to motivate staff such as career development and opportunity to earn promotion have helped
to retain competent staff for the realisation of organisational fulfilment while the remaining sampled
Universities (OOU, EBSU, ENSU, RISU, AMASU) slightly agreed. The findings also
121
indicated that respondents from EBSU and AMASU strongly agreed that the University’s use of
recognition and appreciation has enhanced my stay and bond with them while the remaining sampled
Universities (EKSU, OOU, ENSU, RISU) slightly agree. All the sampled Universities also
concurred that management support for workplace health promotion is not closely associated with
employees’ perceptions of their work environment as healthy and safe. Summarily, the findings
indicated that the University gives lecturers the opportunity to creatively develop their own abilities
Table 4.4.4(b): Descriptive Statistics of Psychological Work milieu for sampled
Universities
Descriptive Statistics * For University A, B, C, D, E, F
University A University B University C University D University E University F
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
PSYWKMIL 3.430 .589 2.945 .574 3.147 .614 3.333 .614 3.269 .508 3.167 .574
STAFFLOY 3.522 .715 3.373 .637 3.439 .581 3.359 .670 3.495 .591 3.293 .646
Freq = 69 Freq = 76 Freq = 60 Freq = 64 Freq = 57 Freq = 58
PSYWKMIL = Psychological Work-milieu (Motivation, Learning, Equity perception, Beliefs, Attitudes,
Relationship)
STAFFLOY = Staff Loyalty
Source: Field Survey, 2016
The mean values of psychological work milieu on staff loyalty for Ekiti State University are
3.4300 and 3.5217 (University A) respectively; 2.9452 and 3.3728 for Olabisi Onabanjo
University (University B); 3.1472 and 3.4389 for Rivers State University of Science &
Technology (University C); 3.3333 and 3.3594 for Ambrose Alli University (University D);
3.2690 and 3.4795 for Enugu State University of Science & Technology (University E); 3.1667
and 3.2931 for Ebonyi State University (University F) in that order. Since it was the five (5)
points Likert Scale that was adopted for this research, Table 4.4.4(b) shows that the mean
values are more than 3.0, it can be established that the respondents of the sampled Universities
in Southern Nigeria agreed that psychological work milieu has significant effect on loyalty of
the staff.
122
Table 4.4.4(c): Correlations of Variables for each University
Correlationsa
For each University
Pearson
Correlation
(r)
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Freq Remarks
PSYWKMIL and
STAFFLOY
Sig.
University A
Ekiti State University
.347** .000 69 Significant Medium
Relationship
University B
Olabisi Onabanjo University
.283** .000 76 Significant Weak
Relationship
University C
Rivers State University of Science
.487** .000 60 Significant Medium
Relationship
University D
Ambrose Alli University
.303** .000 64 Significant Medium
Relationship
University E
Enugu State University of Science
189** .000 57 Significant Weak
Relationship
University F
Ebonyi State University
167** .000 58 Significant Weak
Relationship
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Source: Field Survey, 2016
The findings show a significant positive relationship between these two variables-
psychological work milieu and staff loyalty and the Pearson Correlation using 2-tail test. The
Pearson Correlation at r= 0.347, n= 69, p>0.001 significant level and 68 degree of freedom for
Ekiti State University. This implies a significant and weak relationship which means that staff
loyalty would significantly influenced by psychological work milieu.
For Olabisi Onabanjo University, the Pearson Correlation using 2-tail test at r = 0.283, .000
significant level and 75 degree of freedom. Thus, the correlation is significant and this means
that there was weak and positive relationship between psychological work milieu and staff
loyalty of the sampled University.
For Rivers State University of Science and Technology, the findings show a significant
relationship using 2-tail test at r = 0.487, 0.01 significant level and 59 degree of freedom. The
p-value of 0.00 was obtained which is less than 0.01 (p<0.01). This implies a significant and
medium and positive relationship between psychological work milieu and staff loyalty of the
sampled University.
123
For Ambrose Alli University, the findings show the Pearson Correlation using 2-tail test at r =
0.303, 0.01 significant level and 63 degree of freedom. The p-value of 0.00 was obtained which
is less than 0.01 (p<0.01). The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), this means
that there was a medium and positive relationship between psychological work milieu and staff
loyalty of the sampled University.
For Enugu State University of Science, the findings show the Pearson Correlation using 2-tail
test at r = 0.189, 0.01 significant level and 56 degree of freedom. The p-value of 0.00 was
obtained which is less than 0.01 (p<0.01). This implies that the correlation is significant at the
0.01 level (2-tailed), this means that there was a weak and positive relationship between
psychological work milieu and staff loyalty of the sampled University.
For Ebonyi State University, the findings show a significant relationship and the Pearson
Correlation using 2-tail test at r = 0.167, 0.01 significant level and 56 degree of freedom. The
p-value of 0.00 was obtained which is less than 0.01 (p<0.01). This implies that the correlation
is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), this means that there was weak and positive
relationship between psychological work milieu and staff loyalty of the sampled University.
TEST OF HYPOTHESIS 2
Hypothesis 2: Psychological work milieu does not have significant effects on the loyalty of
academic staff
Statement of Test Statistics in Use
Given that the correlation co-efficient measures the degree to which two things vary together,
this present study correlated two variables: psychological work milieu and staff in testing
hypothesis two. In testing the second hypothesis, the study employed the use of Regression
Estimates (simple regression and multiple regression).
Decision Criteria
The level of significance below 0.05 shows the confidence of level of 95%. Therefore, under
such circumstance, we reject the null (H0) hypothesis once P-value is less than or equals to
0.05 while we accept the alternate (H1) hypothesis.
124
Table 4.4.4(d): Contributions of Psychological work milieu using Stata (S.E 10) and
Regression: (Independent Variable: Psychological work milieu)
Source | SS df MS Number of obs = 384
-------------+------------------------------ F( 1, 382) = 3.15
Model | 1.02424353 1 1.02424353 Prob > F = 43.524
Residual | 124.329851 382 .325470814 R-squared = 0.8232
-------------+------------------------------ Adj R-squared = 0.8225
Total | 125.354094 383 .327295285 Root MSE = .2032
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PsyFac | Coef. Std. Err. t P>|t| [95% Conf. Interval]
-------------+-------------------------------------------- -------------------
StaffLoy | .0835712 .0471098 1.77 0.077 -.0090557 .1761982
_cons | 2.848657 .1625643 17.52 0.000 2.529024 3.16829
Source: Field Survey, 2016
Table 4.4.4(e): Determinants of Psychological work milieu using ANOVA
Variables B-Coefficients t-values Sig
Career Path (motivation) 0.274* 12.122 0.000
Learning 0.193* 10.401 0.000
Equity Perception 0.332* 14.015 0.000
Attitude 0.280* 12.253 0.000
(Constant) 1.994 15.621
R2 0.825
Adjusted R2 0.823
F 43.524
Std Error of the estimate 0.20318
Sig of F 0.000
* Significant at 1% lever or beta Predictors: (Constant), Motivation, Career path, Learning, Equity perception, Beliefs, Attitudes,
Relationship) Dependent Variable: STAFFLOY
Source: Field Survey, 2016
125
Interpretation and Conclusion
The F statistic which tests the overall significance of the model has the value of 43.524. The
significance of F is 0.000 and as such the null hypothesis can be rejected at 1% level. The
results of the estimated coefficients indicate that the independent variable is psychological
work milieu, followed by the four estimated coefficients. These include .274, .193, .332 and
.280. The corresponding t- statistic for each of these factors include 12.122 for Career path,
10.401 for learning, 14.015 for equity perception and 12.253 for attitudes and relationships, all
of which have a significance level of 0.000. This means that all the explanatory variables are
statistically significant at 1% level. Therefore, it can be indicated that psychological work
milieu include career path, learning, equity perception, beliefs, attitudes and relationships.
Discussion of Findings
The coefficient of determination in Table 4.4.4(e) is the coefficient of determination and
referred to as R2. In this analysis, 82.5% of the variability in psychological work millieu can
be explained by career path, learning, equity perception and attitudes. The remaining 17.5% of
variability is due to other unexplained factors. This supports further retention of the alternate
hypothesis and the rejection of the null hypothesis. Thus, the finding supported the fact that
factors like career path, learning, equity perception and attitudes contribute significantly to
staff loyalty (82.5%). We can also rank the variables significant impact on staff loyalty.
Therefore, it can be concluded from the result that among the variables of psychological work
milieu, perception (i.e equity perception) is the most significant predictor of staff loyalty. This
implies that perception of a staff towards the organisational characteristics will determine
his/her strength and degree of loyalty; i.e increase in equity perception will significantly lead
to increase in loyalty. This finding is supported by several studies including Şenol (2011;
Zaman, Hafiza, Shah & Jamsheed (2011); Siegel, Schraeder & Morrison (2007); Galanou,
Sotiropoulos, Georgakopoulos & Vasilopoulos (2011) and; Abdulla, Djebarni & Mellahi,
2010; Abejirinde (2009).
126
4.4.5 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR VARIABLES IN OBJECTIVE 3
The characteristics of the job and job holders influence a number of personal and work
outcomes. In order to investigate the relationship between job contents and staff involvement
in state Universities, this study set for itself the third objective. i.e. “To ascertain the
relationship between job contents and staff involvement in academic excellence of state
owned Universities”.
In order to achieve this objective, the study raised the third research question which can be
restated as follows:
RESEARCH QUESTION 3: “In what ways has job content significantly contributed to staff
involvement in academic excellence of state owned Universities?
Table 4.4.5(a) Descriptive Statistics for Variables in Objective 3
Descriptive Statistics on Job Contents and Staff
Involvement
MEAN STATISTICS
EKSU OOU ENSU EBSU RISU AMASU
N = 69 N = 76 N = 60 N = 64 N = 57 N = 58
The job requires using variety of skills and talents which
gives personal satisfaction 3.813 2.932 4.211 2.763 4.251 2.771
Lecturers have pretty opportunities to learn new things
from their work and ensure a sense of worthwhile
accomplishment.
4.552 3.583 4.442 3.575 4.573 3.482
The job gives me considerable opportunity for
independence and greater achievement 3.754 4.054 4.044 2.744 4.102 2.813
My workload is often increased because my colleagues
are not doing their jobs properly 3.264 3.041 3.532 3.142 3.524 3.004
The job denies me any chance to use my personal
initiative and this affects my employment continuity 2.773 2.511 3.001 3.364 3.152 2.772
The institution provides job where there is constant
opportunity to be creative and innovative 3.192 3.013 3.634 2.832 3.553 2.893
The management provides job with a supervisor/HOD
who is very critical of you and your work in front of other
people.
3.492 2.682 2.740 2.934 3.124 3.594
The University offers tools and resources necessary for
the execution of my responsibilities. 3.721 3.624 3.951 3.762 3.670 3.703
The University provided work related facilities to
enhance effective teaching 3.140 3.033 3.774 3.450 3.802 3.5912
Source: Field Survey, 2016
127
Table 4.4.5a reveals that when respondents were asked if job requires using variety of skills
and talents which gives personal satisfaction, most of the respondents acknowledged positively
to the statement. Nonetheless both ENSU and RISU respondents admitted favourably to the
statement with (4.211) (4.251) respectively however respondents from other sampled
Universities slightly agreed. In addition, respondents from EKSU, ENSU and RISU also
agreed that the lecturers have pretty opportunities to learn new things from their work and
ensure a sense of worthwhile accomplishment. The findings from the table also indicated that
the job gives me considerable opportunity for independence and greater achievement. This was
strongly agreed by OOU, ENSU and RISU. While respondents from EKSU, EBSU and AMASU
slightly agreed. Almost all the sampled Universities strongly agreed that the institution provides
job where there is constant opportunity to be creative and innovative. The findings also indicated
that respondents from OOU and EBSU (4.020 and 4.111) strongly agreed that provision of
ergonomic tool/furniture improves their workplace health promotion while the remaining
sampled Universities (EKSU, ENSU, RISU, AMASU) slightly agree. This shows that the use
of ergonomic resources such as tables, shelves, chair, etc. have significantly improved
workplace health promotion in the sampled Universities. All the sampled Universities also
slightly concurred that the University offers tools and resources necessary for the execution of
their responsibilities.. Finally, the findings indicated that the University provided work related
facilities to enhance effective teaching. This was slightly agreed by the sampled Universities.
Table 4.4.5(b): Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Variables for sampled Universities
To ascertain the relationship between job contents and staff involvement in academic
excellence of state owned Universities.
Descriptive Statistics * For University A, B, C, D, E, F
University A University B University C University D University E University F
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
JOBCONT 3.478 .414 2.892 .656 3.408 .578 2.91 .628 3.37 .544 2.796 .631
STAFFINVOLV 3.425 .777 3.035 .745 3.756 .710 3.047 .734 3.69 .654 2.920 .691
Freq = 69 Freq = 76 Freq = 60 Freq = 64 Freq = 57 Freq = 58
JOBCONT = Job Contents (Skill Variety, Task Identity, Task Significance, Autonomy, creativity, Teaching
facilities)
STAFFINVOLV = Staff Involvement
Source: Field Survey, 2016
128
The mean values of job characteristics on staff loyalty for Ekiti State University are 3.4783
and 3.4251 (University A) respectively; 2.8925 and 3.0351 for Olabisi Onabanjo University
(University B); 3.4083 and 3.7556 for Rivers State University of Science & Technology
(University C); 2.9115 and 3.0469 for Ambrose Alli University (University D); 3.3713 and
3.6901 for Enugu State University of Science & Technology (University E); 2.7960 and
2.9195 for Ebonyi State University (University F) in that order. Since it was the five (5) points
Likert Scale that was adopted for this research, Table 4.4.5(b) shows that the mean values are
more than 3.0, it can be established that the respondents of the sampled Universities in
Southern Nigeria agreed that job contents/characteristics have significant effect on
involvement of the staff except Universities A and F with a mean score below 3.0.
CORRELATION OF VARIABLES FOR THE SAMPLED UNIVERSITIES
Decision Criteria: The Correlation Method
Determining the strength of relationship. Different authors suggest different interpretations,
however, Cohen (1988) suggests the following guidelines:
R= .010 to 0.29 indicates weak relationship or r= -0.10 to -0.29: weak negative relationship
R= .30 to .49 indicates medium relationship or r=-.30 to -.49: medium negative relationship
R= .50 to 1.0 indicates strong relationship or r= -.50 to -1.0: strong negative relationship
Table 4.4.5(c): Correlations of Variables for each University Correlationsa
Pearson Correlation
(r)
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Freq Remarks
For each University JOBCONT and
STAFFINVOLV
Sig
University A
Ekiti State University
.314** .001 69 Significant Medium
Relationship
University B
Olabisi Onabanjo University
.721** .000 76 Significant Strong
Relationship
University C
Rivers State University of Science
.667** .000 60 Significant Strong
Relationship
University D
Ambrose Alli University
.637** .001 64 Significant Strong
Relationship
University E
Enugu State University of Science
686** .000 57 Significant Strong
Relationship
University F
Ebonyi State University
770** .000 58 Significant Strong
Relationship
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Source: Field Survey, 2016
129
The findings show a significant positive relationship between these two variables- job
contents/characteristics and staff loyalty and the Pearson Correlation using 2-tail test. The
Pearson Correlation at r= 0.214, p>0.001 significant level and 68 degree of freedom for Ekiti
State University. This implies a significant and medium relationship which means that staff
involvement in academic excellence would significantly influenced by job
contents/characteristics.
For Olabisi Onabanjo University, the Pearson Correlation using 2-tail test at r = 0.721, .000
significant level and 75 degree of freedom. Thus, the correlation is significant and this means
that there was weak and positive relationship between job contents/characteristics and staff
involvement in academic excellence of the sampled University.
For Rivers State University of Science and Technology, the findings show a significant
relationship using 2-tail test at r = 0.667, 0.01 significant level and 59 degree of freedom. The
p-value of 0.00 was obtained which is less than 0.01 (p<0.01). This implies a significant and
strong and positive relationship between job contents/characteristics and staff involvement in
academic excellence of the sampled University.
For Ambrose Alli University, the findings show the Pearson Correlation using 2-tail test at r =
0.637, 0.01 significant level and 63 degree of freedom. The p-value of 0.00 was obtained which
is less than 0.01 (p<0.01). The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), this means
that there was a strong and positive relationship between job contents/characteristics and staff
involvement in academic excellence of the sampled University.
For Enugu State University of Science, the findings show the Pearson Correlation using 2-tail
test at r = 0.686, 0.01 significant level and 56 degree of freedom. The p-value of 0.00 was
obtained which is less than 0.01 (p<0.01). This implies that the correlation is significant at the
0.01 level (2-tailed), this means that there was a strong and positive relationship between job
contents/characteristics and staff involvement in academic excellence of the sampled
University.
For Ebonyi State University, the findings show a significant relationship and the Pearson
Correlation using 2-tail test at r = 0.770, 0.01 significant level and 56 degree of freedom. The
p-value of 0.00 was obtained which is less than 0.01 (p<0.01). This implies that the correlation
130
is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), this means that there was strong and positive
relationship between job contents/characteristics and staff involvement in academic excellence
of the sampled University.
TEST OF HYPOTHESIS 3
Hypothesis 3: There is no significant relationship between job contents and academic staff
involvement in the performance of state Universities
Statement of Test Statistics in Use
Given that the correlation co-efficient measures the degree to which two things vary together,
this present study correlated two variables: job contents and staff involvement in testing
hypothesis three. In testing the third hypothesis, the study employed the use of Correlation
analysis.
Decision Criteria: The Correlation Method
Determining the strength of relationship. Different authors suggest different interpretations,
however, Cohen (1988) suggests the following guidelines:
R= .010 to 0.29 indicates weak relationship or r= -0.10 to -0.29: weak negative relationship
R= .30 to .49 indicates medium relationship or r=-.30 to -.49: medium negative relationship
R= .50 to 1.0 indicates strong relationship or r= -.50 to -1.0: strong negative relationship
Table 4.4.5(d): Mean Statistics between Job Contents and Staff Involvement
Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
JobCont 3.0877 .64912 384
StaffInvolv 3.3134 .78009 384
131
Table 4.4.5(e): Relationship between Job Contents and Academic Staff Involvement in the
Performance of State Universities.
Correlations
JobCont StaffInvolv
JobCont
Pearson Correlation 1 .744**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
Sum of Squares and Cross-products 161.382 144.283
Covariance .421 .377
N 384 384
StaffInvolv
Pearson Correlation .744** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
Sum of Squares and Cross-products 144.283 233.069
Covariance .377 .609
N 384 384
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Source: Field Survey, 2016
Interpretation
As presented In Table 4.4.5(e), the correlation coefficient of 0.744 was obtained between job
contents and academic staff involvement in the performance of state Universities. This implies
that there is a strong relationship between job contents and academic staff involvement in the
performance of State Universities. The probability value is less than 0.00(p<0.05). This means
that there is significant strong relationship between job contents and academic staff
involvement. This led to the rejection of the null hypothesis. Therefore, there is a significant
strong relationship between job contents and academic staff involvement in the performance
of state Universities. This means that increase in job contents (skill variety, task significance
and identity and autonomy) with availabilities of learning/teaching facilities, the greater the
level of staff involvement. Thus, it should be noted that when an individual does not have the
right resources to meet up with the demand of a job there will be a demand-supply problem
(such as under performance, job stress, absenteeism) which will affect the actualisation the
organisational goal.
132
4.4.6. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR VARIABLES IN OBJECTIVE 4
The objective of reward systems is aimed primarily at attracting, motivating and retaining
employees (Collins, 2012:119). An organisation’s level of pay is a major attracting factor to
potential employees or recruits. The goal of reward system is to build employee loyalty and
commitment to the employer band consequently increase job satisfaction and reduce turnover,
absenteeism, complaints and grievances which could arise if pay levels are not competitive or
adequate. In order to investigate the effects of reward system in state Universities, this study
set for itself the fourth objective. i.e. “To examine how reward system encourages satisfaction
of academic staff in state owned Universities”. In order to achieve this objective, the study
raised the fourth research question which can be restated as follows:
RESEARCH QUESTION 4: “To what extent are the reward systems effective in enhancing
satisfaction of academic staff?
Table 4.4.6(a): Mean Statistics for Reward Systems and Staff Satisfaction
Descriptive Statistics on Reward System and Staff
Satisfaction
MEAN STATISTICS
EKSU OOU ENSU EBSU RISU AMASU
N = 69 N = 76 N = 60 N = 64 N = 57 N = 58
The University’s reward system has increased my
opportunities for personal development satisfaction 2.752 2.361 2.462 2.074 2.254 2.141
The salary structure commensurate with lecturers
current status and thereby facilitate continuous
employment relationship
2.613 2.222 2.2643 1.935 2.022 2.083
Outstanding efforts are recognised and appreciated
with bonuses that stimulates job quality 2.804 2.501 2.951 2.762 2.830 2.635
Opportunities for advancement or promotion exist
within the University 2.292 1.873 1.984 1.244 2.120 1.162
Adequate provision of grants and funds increased my
pay satisfaction. 4.033 3.631 4.002 4.175 3.284 4.314
The benefit package is a significant factor in my
decision to stay with the University 3.964 3.883 3.815 3.765 3.684 3.864
Compared with other related industries, the University
salary package is reasonable 4.55 3.641 4.474 3.332 4.632 3.311
The criteria for promotion in my institution is based on
other factors than merit and this adversely affect my
dispositions to increasing commitment
3.872 3.334 4.192 3.162 4.303 3.092
The institution’s strategies for staff promotion are
based on ‘whom you know’ and this result in poor
career satisfaction
3.931 3.556 4.044 3.290 3.702 3.344
Source: Field Survey, 2016.
133
Table 4.4.6a reveals that when respondents were asked if University’s reward system has
increased my opportunities for personal development satisfaction, most of the respondents
acknowledged negatively to the statement. In addition, all the sampled Universities strongly
disagree with the assertion that the salary structure commensurate with lecturers current status
and thereby facilitate continuous employment relationship. Nonetheless, respondents from
EBSU had the lowest value. The findings from respondents from the sampled Universities also
negated the statement that says opportunities for advancement or promotion exist within the
University. Unexpectedly, all the sampled Universities strongly agreed that the criteria for
promotion in my institution is based on other factors than merit and this adversely affect my
dispositions to increasing commitment. Finally, it was pointed out by the respondents from the
institutions that the institution’s strategies for staff promotion are based on ‘whom you know’
and this result in poor career satisfaction.
Table 4.4.6(b): Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Variables for University
To ascertain the relationship between reward system and staff satisfaction in academic
excellence of state owned Universities
Descriptive Statistics * For University A, B, C, D, E, F
University A University B University C University D University E University F
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
JOBCONT 3.475 .579 2.976 .514 3.247 .665 2.906 .553 3.432 .621 2.924 .515
STAFFINVOLV 3.333 .550 3.000 .721 3.200 .549 2.881 .545 3.333 .569 2.827 .534
Freq = 69 Freq = 76 Freq = 60 Freq = 64 Freq = 57 Freq = 58
REWSYST = Reward System (Salary, Fringe benefits (allowances), Bonuses, Awards, Promotion, Recognition)
STAFFSATIS = Staff Satisfaction
Source: Field Survey, 2016
The mean values of psychological work milieu on staff loyalty for Ekiti State University are
3.475 and 3.333 (University A) respectively; 2.976 and 3.000 for Olabisi Onabanjo University
(University B); 3.247 and 3.200 for Rivers State University of Science & Technology
(University C); 2.906 and 2.881 for Ambrose Alli University (University D); 3.432 and 3.333
for Enugu State University of Science & Technology (University E); 2.924 and 2.827 for
Ebonyi State University (University F) in that order. Since it was the five (5) points Likert
134
Scale that was adopted for this research, Table 4.4.6(b) shows that the mean values are more
than 2.5, it can be established that the respondents of the sampled Universities in Southern
Nigeria agreed that reward system has contributed significantly to staff satisfaction.
TEST OF HYPOTHESIS 4
Hypothesis 4: Reward system does not encourage the satisfaction of academic staff in state
Universities
Statement of Test Statistics in Use
Given that the correlation co-efficient measures the degree to which two things vary together,
this present study correlated two variables: reward system and staff satisfaction in testing
hypothesis four. In testing the fourth hypothesis, the study employed the use of Regression
analysis.
Decision Criteria: The Correlation Method
Determining the strength of relationship
Different authors suggest different interpretations, however, Cohen (1988) suggested the
following guidelines:
R= .010 to 0.29 indicates weak relationship or r= -0.10 to -0.29: weak negative relationship
R= .30 to .49 indicates medium relationship or r=-.30 to -.49: medium negative relationship
R= .50 to 1.0 indicates strong relationship or r= -.50 to -1.0: strong negative relationship
135
Table 4.4.6(c): Correlation co-efficient between Reward System and Staff Satisfaction
Correlationsa
Pearson Correlation
(r)
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Freq Remarks
For each University Reward System and
Staff Satisfaction
Sig
University A
Ekiti State University
.224** .000 69 Significant Weak
Relationship
University B
Olabisi Onabanjo University
.258** .000 76 Significant weak
Relationship
University C
Rivers State University of Science
.367** .000 60 Significant Medium
Relationship
University D
Ambrose Alli University
.337** .000 64 Significant Medium
Relationship
University E
Enugu State University of Science
386** .000 57 Significant Medium
Relationship
University F
Ebonyi State University
358** .000 58 Significant Medium
Relationship
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Source: Field Survey, 2016
TEST OF HYPOTHESIS 4
Table 4.4.6(d): Contributions of salary, benefits & incentives, promotion, grants/funds and
recognition to staff satisfaction using Multiple Regression
Model Summaryb Model R R Square Adjusted R
Square
Std. Error of
the Estimate
Change Statistics
R Square
Change
F Change df1 df2 Sig. F
Change
1 .587a .344 .343 .52341 .344 200.749 1 382 .000
a. Predictors: (Constant), RewSyst
b. Dependent Variable: StaffSatisf
Source: Field Survey, 2016
This study revealed in model 1 of Table 4.4.6(d) that there is relationship between reward
system and staff satisfaction at r=0.587, R-Square is the proportion of variance in the dependent
variable which can be predicted from the independent variable. This value indicated that there
is variance of 34.4% between reward system and staff satisfaction. The significance of the F-
change was assessed and it was significant (0.0001).
136
Table 4.4.6(e): Effects of Reward System on Staff Satisfaction using STATA (S.E 10) and
Regression
Source | SS df MS Number of obs = 384
-------------+------------------------------ F( 1, 382) = 200.75
Model | 48.4616867 1 48.4616867 Prob > F = 0.0000
Residual | 92.2166466 382 .241404834 R-squared = 0.3445
-------------+------------------------------ Adj R-squared = 0.3428
Total | 140.678333 383 .367306353 Root MSE = .49133
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RewSyst | Coef. Std. Err. t P>|t| [95% Conf. Interval]
-------------+----------------------------------------------------------------
StaffSatisf | .5509592 .038886 14.17 0.000 .4745019 .6274166
_cons | 1.42214 .1237809 11.49 0.000 1.178763 1.665517
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 4.4.6(e) has the results of the model. The model is about the effect of reward system on
staff satisfaction. The F-value is the Mean Square Regression (54.996) divided by the Mean
Square Residual (0.274), yielding F=200.749. From the results, the model 1 in this table is
statistically significant (Sig =.000). Hence the null hypothesis should be rejected while
alternate hypothesis is therefore accepted.
Table 4.4.6(f): Coefficients of the effects of Reward system on Staff satisfaction
Coefficientsa Model Unstandardised
Coefficients
Standardised
Coefficients
T Sig. Collinearity Statistics
B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF
1
(Constant) .721 .211 3.417 .002
Equitable Salary .278 .058 .333 4.793 .000 .715 1.399
Benefits & Incentives .316 .051 .198 6.196 .000 .691 1.447
Promotion .356 .111 .368 3.207 .001 .978 1.022
Grants/funds .072 .078 .158 .923 .004 .876 1.141
Recognition .074 .084 .221 .880 .003 .854 1.171
a. Dependent Variable: StaffSatis
Remark: Reward system is a significant predictor of Staff satisfaction
137
Interpretation and Conclusion
Table 4.4.6(f) shows a model summary. It reveals the extent to which the variance in the
dependent variable (staff satisfaction) is explained by the independent variables (salary,
benefits & incentives, promotion, grants/funds and recognition) is 51.2% i.e (R square =
0.5124). The table shows the assessment of the statistical significance of the result. The
ANOVA table tests the null hypothesis to determine if it is statistically significant. From the
results, the model in this table is statistically significant (sig = .000) and hence the null
hypothesis should be rejected because it is less than 0.05 significance level. The table also
indicated the simple model that expresses the extent to which reward system impacts staff
satisfaction and which of the variables included in the model contributed to the prediction of
the dependent variable. In this table, the beta co-efficient which relates to equitable salary is
0.333; the beta co-efficient which relates to benefits and incentives is 1.98; the beta co-efficient
which relates to promotion is 3.68; the beta co-efficient which relates to grants/funds is .158
and the beta co-efficient which relates to recognition is 0.221.
Discussion of Findings
Findings from this research, it was indicated that variables with the highest beta co-efficient
are the major predictors. Therefore, we can also rank the two significant impact on staff
satisfaction i.e promotion (.368) and equitable salary (.333) have the highest impact on staff
satisfaction followed by recognition with the (.221). Therefore, it can be concluded from the
result that among the variables of reward system, promotion and equitable salary are significant
predictors of staff satisfaction. This implies that increase in promotional opportunities and
equitable salary will ultimately lead to increase in staff satisfaction. This findings supported
the works of many scholars. Pfeifer (2012) and Abdulsalam and Mawoli (2012) adduced that
the level of compensation system determines the intention of employees to stay or leave the
organisation. To retain skilled staff, management/government must consider compensation
equity within the organisation (Depedri, Tortia & Carpita, 2010).
138
4.4.7 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR VARIABLES IN OBJECTIVE 5
The climatic setting of the organisation comprise of variables such as social, economic or
political that influences employee’s behaviour. Some of these climatic conditions vary from
the communication structure, the management style, the pay system, the organisations room
temperatures, workload among others (Armstrong, 2008: 214). In order to investigate the
effects of organisational climate in state Universities, this study set for itself the fifth objective.
i.e. “To assess how organisational climate enhances staff productivity in state owned
Universities”.
RESEARCH QUESTION 5: “What role do organisational climate play in facilitating
academic staff productivity in state owned Universities?
Table 4.4.7(a): Descriptive Statistics on Organisational Climate and Staff Productivity
Descriptive Statistics on Organisational Climate and
Staff Productivity
MEAN STATISTICS
EKSU OOU ENSU EBSU RISU AMASU
N = 69 N = 76 N = 60 N = 64 N = 57 N = 58
Management practice of the University only allow
lecturers to attend international and national conferences
as presenters not as participants.
3.70 2.92 3.79 3.09 3.38 3.17
Management and leadership style is sensitive and
supportive of lecturer‘s work schedule. 3.35 2.68 3.63 2.83 3.37 2.86
Management style allows for academic input in the
decision making process. 3.42 2.97 3.46 3.07 3.37 3.13
Management style do not encourage junior academic
career path and growth. 3.59 2.76 2.79 2.72 2.58 2.17
My participation in decision making enhance my ability
to provide organisational supports 3.49 2.55 2.47 2.83 2.18 2.20
The work schedules in the institution have not provided
opportunity for developing & improving technology skills 3.43 3.28 3.63 3.47 3.65 3.42
Communication between management of the University at
all levels and lecturers are often friendly and efficient 3.29 3.68 3.11 3.55 3.22 3.56
The institution devoid friendliness, warmth, empathy and
sense of respect for its academic staff 2.88 3.01 2.68 2.62 2.85 2.64
As a lecturer, what keeps me with the institution is not the
pay but rather the quality of work life balance 3.99 3.79 3.68 4.02 3.43 4.05
The University unlike other organisations do not have any
formal orientation programme for their new lecturers 2.90 2.72 2.67 2.53 2.55 2.69
Source: Field Survey, 2016
139
Table 4.4.7a reveals if management practice of the University only allow lecturers to attend
international and national conferences as presenters not as participants. Most of the
respondents acknowledged positively to the statement. Nonetheless both EKSU and ENSU
respondents admitted favourably to the statement however respondents from other sampled
Universities slightly agreed. In addition, all the respondents agreed that management and
leadership style is sensitive and supportive of lecturer‘s work schedule.. The findings from the
table also indicated that Communication between management of the University at all levels
and lecturers are often friendly and efficient. As a result of that, respondents from the sampled
Universities also indicated that what keeps me with the institution is not the pay but rather the
quality of work life balance.
Table 4.4.7(b): Descriptive Statistics on Organisational Climate and Staff Productivity for
sampled Universities
Descriptive Statistics * For University A, B, C, D, E, F
University
A
University
B
University
C
University
D
University
E
University
F
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
JOBCONT 3.455 .430 3.276 .565 3.250 .406 3.309 .526 3.343 .405 3.269 .528
STAFFINVOLV 3.354 .555 2.800 .599 2.867 .511 2.669 .392 3.038 .539 2.876 .574
Freq = 69 Freq = 76 Freq = 60 Freq = 64 Freq = 57 Freq = 58
REWSYST = Reward System (Salary, Fringe benefits (allowances), Bonuses, Awards, Promotion, Recognition)
STAFFSATIS = Staff Satisfaction
Source: Field Survey, 2016
140
TEST OF HYPOTHESIS 5
Statement of Hypothesis
Hypothesis 5: Organisational climate does not contribute significantly to staff productivity in
state Universities
Statement of Test Statistics in Use
Given that the correlation co-efficient measures the degree to which two things vary together,
this present study correlated two variables: organisational climates and staff productivity in
testing hypothesis five. In testing the fifth hypothesis, the study employed the use of simple
regression analysis.
Decision Criteria
The level of significance below 0.05 shows the confidence of level of 95%. Therefore, under
such circumstance, we reject the null (H0) hypothesis once P-value is less than or equals to
0.05 while we accept the alternate (H1) hypothesis.
Table 4.4.7(c): Contributions of Organisational Climate and Staff Productivity using STATA
(S.E 10 and Regression)
Source | SS df MS Number of obs = 384
-------------+------------------------------ F( 1, 382) = 21.85
Model | 4.9007683 1 4.9007683 Prob > F = 0.0000
Residual | 85.6842317 382 .224304271 R-squared = 0.0541
-------------+------------------------------ Adj R-squared = 0.0516
Total | 90.585 383 .23651436 Root MSE = .47361
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
OrgClim | Coef. Std. Err. t P>|t| [95% Conf. Interval]
-------------+----------------------------------------------------------------
StaffProd | .1962761 .0419908 4.67 0.000 .1137141 .2788381
_cons | 2.7427 .1255861 21.84 0.000 2.495774 2.989627
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Field Survey, 2016
141
Table 4.4.7(d): Correlation co-efficient of Organisational Climate and Staff Productivity
Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardised
Coefficients
Standardised
Coefficients
t Sig. Collinearity Statistics
B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF
1 (Constant) 2.020 .198 10.213 .000
OrgClim .276 .059 .233 4.674 .000 1.000 1.000
a. Dependent Variable: StaffProd
Interpretation
Table 4.4.7d shows a model summary. It reveals the extent to which the variance in the
dependent variable (staff productivity) is explained by the independent variables
(organisational climates) is 5.2% i.e (Adjusted R square = 0.052). The table shows the
assessment of the statistical significance of the result. The ANOVA table tests the null
hypothesis to determine if it is statistically significant. From the results, the model in this table
is statistically significant (sig = .000) and hence the null hypothesis should be rejected because
it is less than 0.05 significance level. Hence, organisational climate contribute significantly to
staff productivity in state Universities.
4.5 SUMMARY OF MULTIPLE REGRESSION FOR THE VARIABLES
Table 4.5.1(a) Contribution of physical setting, psychological well-being milieu, job content,
job structure and organisational climate on staff commitment using multiple regression.
Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardised
Coefficients
Standardised
Coefficients
t Sig. Collinearity Statistics
B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF
1
(Constant) 1.555 .317 4.899 .000
PhyFac .174 .067 .141 2.600 .010 .290 3.454
PsyFac .111 .056 .058 1.981 .048 .993 1.007
JobCont 1.131 .092 .670 12.236 .000 .284 3.523
RewSyst .153 .058 .085 2.655 .008 .834 1.199
OrgClim .020 .070 .159 .285 .776 .889 1.125
a. Dependent Variable: StaffComm
Source: Field Survey, 2016
142
Table 4.5.1(b): Model Summary for predicting Staff Commitment
Model Summaryb
Model R R
Square
Adjusted
R Square
Std. Error of
the Estimate
Change Statistics Durbin-
Watson R Square
Change
F Change df1 df2 Sig. F
Change
1 .823a .678 .674 .62556 .678 159.126 5 378 .000 .764
a. Predictors: (Constant), OrgClim, JobCont, PsyFac, RewSyst, PhyFac
b. Dependent Variable: StaffComm
Source: Field Survey, 2016
Result in Tables 4.5.1(a) and 4.5.1(b)shows that physical setting, psychological well-being
milieu, job content, structure of rewards and organisational climate explained 68 percent of
the variation in staff commitment ( r- square = 0.68). The F-value of 159.13 is greater than
the critical F-value of 1.97 at the 0.05 level of significance. This means that the five predator
variables jointly predict staff commitment. For the individual effect, organisational climate (t
calculated = 0.776, p<0.05); psychological work milieu (t calculated = .048, p<0.05); physical
factors (t calculated = 0.776, p<0.05); have significant contributions to staff commitment. Thus
the result confirms that job contents and reward system are mostly associated with staff
commitment.
The use of Structural equation model was adopted to confirm the level of variability and fitness
of the model to explain the relationship between the dimensions of work environment and staff
commitment as presented in Table 4.5.1(c) and Figure 4.4.
Table 4.5.1(c): Test of Model Fitness for predicting Staff Commitment
Estimate S.E. C.R.
Physical_fac <--- Staff_Commitmt .381 .049 7.775
Psycho_fac <--- Staff_Commitmt .347 .040 8.675
Job_contents <--- Staff_Commitmt .559 .038 14.710
Reward_systems <--- Staff_Commitmt .378 .058 6.517
Organiznal_clim <--- Staff_Commitmt .498 .050 9.960
143
Figure 4.4: Structural Equation Model for predicting Staff Loyalty
Source: Field Survey, 2016
The structural modelling indicates that when Physical_fac goes up by 1, Staff_Comm goes up
by 0.381. When Psycho_fac goes up by 1, Staff_Comm goes up by 0.347. When Job_contents
goes up by 1, Staff_Comm goes up by 0.559. When Reward_systems goes up by 1,
Staff_Comm goes up by 0.378. Finally, when Organiznal_clim goes up by 1, Staff_Comm
goes up by 0.498. This implies that the regression weight in the prediction of staff commitment
is significantly different from zero at the 0.001 level (two-tailed).
144
Table 4.5.2(a): Contribution of physical setting, psychological well-being milieu, job content,
structure of the reward, and organisational climate on staff loyalty using multiple regression
Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardised
Coefficients
Standardised
Coefficients
t Sig. Collinearity Statistics
B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF
1
(Constant) 2.075 .268 7.736 .000
PhyFac .484 .057 .693 8.542 .000 .290 3.454
PsyFac .074 .047 .069 1.572 .117 .993 1.007
JobCont -.194 .078 -.203 -2.482 .014 .284 3.523
RewSyst .105 .049 .103 2.145 .033 .834 1.199
OrgClim .078 .059 .061 1.317 .189 .889 1.125
a. Dependent Variable: StaffLoy
Source: Field Survey, 2016
Table 4.5.2(b): Model Summary for predicting Staff Loyalty
Model Summaryb
Model R R Square Adjusted R
Square
Std. Error of
the Estimate
Change Statistics Durbin-
Watson R Square
Change
F
Change
df1 df2 Sig. F
Change
1 .529a .280 .270 .52863 .280 9.359 5 378 .000 1.412
a. Predictors: (Constant), OrgClim, JobCont, PsyFac, RewSyst, PhyFac
b. Dependent Variable: StaffLoy
Source: Field Survey, 2016
Result in Tables 4.5.2(a) and 4.5.2(b) revealed that physical setting, psychological well-being
milieu, job content, structure of rewards and organisational climate accounted for 28% i.e
0.28 percent of the variation in staff loyalty ( r- square = 0.280). The F-value of 9.359 is greater
than the critical F-value of 1.97 at the 0.05 level of significance. This means that the five
predator variables did not jointly predict staff loyalty. Also, none of the explanatory variables
individually contribute significantly with staff loyalty (p>0.05). However, the result confirms
that physical settings, psychological well-being milieu and organisational climate are mostly
associated with staff loyalty.
145
The use of Structural equation model was also adopted to confirm the level of variability as
presented in Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5: Structural Equation Model for predicting Staff Loyalty
Source: Field Survey, 2016
Table 4.5.2(c): Model results & Regression Weights for predicting Staff Loyalty
Estimate S.E. C.R. P
StaffLoy <--- PhyFac .484 .056 8.599 ***
StaffLoy <--- PsyFac .074 .047 1.583 .114
StaffLoy <--- JobCont -.194 .078 -2.498 .012
StaffLoy <--- RewSyst .105 .048 2.159 .031
StaffLoy <--- OrgClim .078 .059 1.325 .185
RetOUTCMS <--- StaffLoy .435 .036 12.096 ***
As proposed by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007); Hu and Bentler (1999), the minimum
benchmark value for these indices is 0.9, however, results revealed that all the fit indices are
above the minimum value (NFI =.912; CFI = .952; IFI = .918). Therefore, the model can be
concluded to be a good fit. As presented in the table above, the strength of correlations that
exist between observed variables can be classified within low and strong.
146
The covariance between physical settings and staff loyalty is positive (moderate) and estimated
to be r=.435 (p<0.001). In addition, staff loyalty as a variable covaries positively with reward
system (r=.105, p<0.05); organisational climate (r=.078, p<0.01); psychological work_milieu
(r=.074, p<0.05); and negatively with job contents (r=- .018, p<0.05). However, job contents
should be seen as an important factor if only staff loyalty in to be achieve in the Public (state)
Universities. It is significant to note that increase in job contents (in terms of perception
towards equity, learning and motivation) can lead to decrease in staff loyalty.
Table 4.5.3(a): Contribution of physical setting, psychological well-being milieu, job content,
structure of the reward, and organisational climate on staff involvement using
multiple regression
Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardised
Coefficients
Standardised
Coefficients
t Sig. Collinearity Statistics
B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF
1
(Constant) .216 .242 .892 .373
PhyFac .392 .051 .446 7.677 .000 .290 3.454
PsyFac .132 .043 .097 3.079 .002 .993 1.007
JobCont .410 .071 .341 5.811 .000 .284 3.523
RewSyst .120 .044 .093 2.727 .007 .834 1.199
OrgClim .015 .053 .009 .282 .778 .889 1.125
a. Dependent Variable: StaffInvolv
Source: Field Survey, 2016
Table 4.5.3(b): Model Summary for predicting Staff Involvement
Model Summaryb
Model R R
Square
Adjusted R
Square
Std. Error of the
Estimate
Change Statistics Durbin-
Watson R Square
Change
F Change df1 df2 Sig. F
Change
1 .794a .631 .626 .47719 .631 12.103 5 378 .000 1.451
a. Predictors: (Constant), OrgClim, JobCont, PsyFac, RewSyst, PhyFac
b. Dependent Variable: StaffInvolv
Source: Field Survey, 2016
147
Result in Tables 4.5.3(a) and 4.5.3(b) shows that physical setting, psychological well-being
milieu, job content, structure of rewards and organisational climate explained for 63.1% of
the variation in staff involvement ( r- square = 0.631). The F-value of 12.103 is greater than
the critical F-value of 1.97 at the 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the five predictor variables
did not jointly predict staff involvement. In terms of the individual contribution, the result
reveals that only physical settings and job contents showed significant contribution to staff
involvement (p<0.05).
The use of Structural equation model was also adopted to confirm the level of variability as
presented in Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6: Structural equation model for predicting Staff Involvement
Source: Field Survey, 2016
As proposed by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007); Hu and Bentler (1999), the minimum
benchmark value for these indices is 0.9, however, results revealed that all the fit indices are
above the minimum value (NFI =.948; CFI = .961; IFI = .930). Therefore, the model can be
concluded to be a good fit. As presented in the table above, the strength of correlations that
exist between observed variables can be classified within low and strong. The covariance
between physical settings and staff involvement is positive (high) and estimated to be r=.558
148
(p<0.001). In addition, staff involvement as a variable covaries positively with physical work
milieu (r=.389, p<0.05); psychological work milieu (r=.134, p<0.05); reward system (r=.122,
p<0.05); job contents and; organisational climate (r=- .411, r= .01, p<0.05). However, job
contents and physical settings milieu have the highest regression weight and can be seen as the
significant predictors of staff involvement. It is important to note that as the job content with
work related facilities are increasing, staff involvement will also increase.
Table 4.5.4(a): Contribution of physical setting, psychological well-being milieu, job content,
structure of the reward, and organisational climate on staff satisfaction using multiple
regression
Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardised
Coefficients
Standardised
Coefficients
t Sig. Collinearity Statistics
B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF
1
(Constant) .314 .258 1.216 .225
PhyFac -.111 .055 -.152 -2.030 .043 .290 3.454
PsyFac .045 .046 .040 .990 .323 .993 1.007
JobCont .295 .075 .296 3.919 .000 .284 3.523
RewSyst .543 .047 .510 11.562 .000 .834 1.199
OrgClim .135 .057 .102 2.377 .018 .889 1.125
a. Dependent Variable: StaffSatisf
Source: Field Survey, 2016
Table 4.5.4(b): Model Summary for predicting Staff Satisfaction
Model Summaryb
Model R R Square Adjusted R
Square
Std. Error of
the Estimate
Change Statistics Durbin-
Watson R Square
Change
F
Change
df1 df2 Sig.
F Change
1 .622a .386 .378 .50905 .386 47.616 5 378 .000 .877
a. Predictors: (Constant), OrgClim, JobCont, PsyFac, RewSyst, PhyFac
b. Dependent Variable: StaffSatisf
Source: Field Survey, 2016
149
Data in the 4.5.4(b) revealed that physical setting, psychological well-being milieu, job
content, structure of rewards and organisational climate accounted for 38.6% of the variation
in staff satisfaction( r- square = .386). Also, F-value of 7.75 and p<0.05, this means that
physical setting, psychological well-being milieu, job content, structure of rewards and
organisational climate jointly predict staff satisfaction. This result indicates that psychological
well-being milieu, job content, structure of rewards and organisational climate jointly predict
staff satisfaction except for physical setting. The result also shows that structure of rewards
and job contents are the major predictors or factors that contribute most significantly with staff
satisfaction. This can further be explained using structural equation modelling as presented in
Figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7: Structural equation model for predicting Staff Satisfaction
Source: Field Survey, 2016
Table 4.5.4(c): Model results and Regression Weights for predicting Staff satisfaction
Estimate S.E. C.R. P
Staff_Satisfaction <--- Physical_Setting -.111 .054 -2.043 .041
Staff_Satisfaction <--- Psychological_Work .045 .045 .997 .319
Staff_Satisfaction <--- Job_Content .295 .075 3.945 ***
Staff_Satisfaction <--- Structure_of_Reward .543 .047 11.638 ***
Staff_Satisfaction <--- Organisational_Climate .135 .056 2.392 .017
RetOUTCMS <--- StaffSatisf .411 .041 .041 .041
Source: Field Survey, 2016
150
As proposed by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007); Hu and Bentler (1999), the minimum
benchmark value for these indices is 0.9, however, results revealed that all the fit indices are
above the minimum value (NFI =.951; CFI = .973; IFI = .942). Therefore, the model can be
concluded to be a good fit. As presented in the table above, the strength of correlations that
exist between observed variables can be classified to be moderate and strong. The covariance
between physical settings and staff satisfaction is positive (moderate) and estimated to be
r=.411 (p<0.001). In addition, staff satisfaction as a variable covaries positively with
psychological work milieu (r=.045, p<0.05); organisational climate (r=.135, p<0.05); reward
system (r=.543, p<0.05); job contents (r=.295, p<0.05); and negatively with physical setting
(r=- -.111, p<0.05). However, reward system, job content and organisational climate milieu
are seen as the major predictors of staff satisfaction with the highest regression weights. It is
important to note that as the reward system is equitable with favourable organisational climate,
staff satisfaction will also increase.
Table 4.5.5(a): Contribution of physical setting, psychological well-being milieu, job content,
structure of the reward, and organisational climate on staff productivity using Regression
Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardised Coefficients Standardised
Coefficients
t Sig. Collinearity Statistics
B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF
1
(Constant) 1.339 .279 4.795 .000
PhyFac .012 .059 .019 .205 .838 .290 3.454
PsyFac .032 .049 .031 .639 .523 .993 1.007
JobCont .084 .081 .095 1.037 .301 .284 3.523
RewSyst .149 .051 .157 2.936 .004 .834 1.199
OrgClim .218 .061 .184 3.556 .000 .889 1.125
a. Dependent Variable: StaffProd
Source: Field Survey, 2016
151
Table 4.5.5(b): Model Summary for predicting Staff Productivity
Model R R
Square
Adjusted
R Square
Std. Error of
the Estimate
Change Statistics Durbin-
Watson R Square
Change
F
Change
df1 df2 Sig.
F Change
1 .315a .099 .087 .55057 .099 8.334 5 378 .000 .978
a. Predictors: (Constant), OrgClim, JobCont, PsyFac, RewSyst, PhyFac
b. Dependent Variable: StaffProd
Source: Field Survey, 2016
Result in Tables 4.5.5(a) and 4.5.5(b)1 revealed that physical setting, psychological well-being
milieu, job content, structure of rewards and organisational climate accounted for 9.9% of
the variation in staff satisfaction( r- square = 0.099). The F-calculated of 8.3 was obtained and
p<0.05, this implies that physical setting, psychological well-being milieu, job content,
structure of rewards and organisational climate jointly predict staff productivity. The result
also shows that structure of rewards and organisational climate individually contribute
significantly to staff productivity (p<0.05).
The use of structural equation modelling was also adopted to show the influence as presented
in Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8: Structural equation model for predicting Staff Productivity
Source: Field Survey, 2016
152
Table 4.5.5(c): Model results and Regression Weights for predicting Staff Loyalty
Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label
Staff_Productivity <--- Physical_Setting .035 .036 .974 .330 Sig
Staff_Productivity <--- Psychological_Work .070 .033 2.113 .035 Sig
Staff_Productivity <--- Job_Content .056 .022 2.538 .011 Sig
Staff_Productivity <--- Structure_of_Reward .098 .038 -2.582 .010 Sig
Staff_Productivity <--- Organisational_Climate .269 .036 -7.442 *** Sig
Source: Field Survey, 2016
As proposed by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007); Hu and Bentler (1999), the minimum
benchmark value for these indices is 0.9, however, results revealed that all the fit indices are
above the minimum value (NFI =.971; CFI = .988; IFI = .980). Therefore, the model can be
concluded to be a good fit. As presented in the table above, the strength of correlations that
exist between observed variables can be classified within low and strong. The covariance
between job contents and staff productivity is positive and estimated to be r=.056 (p<0.001).
Expectedly, staff productivity as a variable covaries positively with physical settings (r=-.350,
p<0.05); psychological work milieu (r=-.070, p<0.05); reward system and organisational
climate (r=- .098, r= .269, p<0.05) respectively. However, physical settings, psychological
work milieu, reward system and organisational climate positively covaries with staff
productivity which is an evident of variables that best predict the productivity of staff. The
implication is that increase in the variables identified predisposes staff productivity.
153
Final Structure of the Work Environments (WE) Scale
The hierarchical factor model is selected for the work environments (WE) scale. It consists of
5 dimensions or subscales and 25 items of questions. As mentioned previously, these items
have been examined using employees’ dataset in the target universities in southern Nigeria.
The structure of the measurement model for this scale is shown in Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9: Hierarchical Factor Model of the Work Environments (WE) Scale
Source: Field Survey, 2016
154
Table 4.5.5(d): Factor loadings of the hierarchical factor model of Work environments (WEs) scale
Second Order
Factor
(Second Layer)
First Order
Factors
(First Layer)
Loadings Indicators Loadings
Work
Environments
Physical_Factors 0.38 PJERGONOMICS1 0.20
PJLIGHTING2 0.48
PJVENTILATN3 0.11
PFSPATIALARRANGE4 0.01
PFNOISE5 -0.22
Psychological
Work Millieu
0.35 PSYMOTIVATN6 0.34
PSYATTITUDE7 0.45
PSYLEARNING8 0.26
PSYBELIEF9 0.37
PSYRELATNSHIP10 0.15
Job_Contents 0.56 JCSKILLVAR11 0.41
JCTASKSIG12 0.01
JCTASKIDENTITY13 0.03
JCAUTONOMY14 0.38
JCFEEDBACK15 0.38
Reward_Systems 0.38 RSSALARY16 0.29
RSBENEFITS17 0.19
RSRECOGNITION18 0.39
RSPROMOTION19 0.12
RSGRANTS20 0.21
Organisational
Climate
0.50 OCMENTORN21 0.39
OCPARTICIPATN22 0.36
OCLEADSTYLE23 0.10
OCPERSONELPOLICY24 -0.15
OCCOMMSTYLE25 0.11
Employing the hierarchical model as explained earlier, all the five latent variables are regarded
as first order factors (first layer) and loaded onto a single second order factor (second layer) in
the model. The results of the analysis using the CFA procedure simultaneously estimate
loadings of the first layer factors and the items in the model as listed in table 6.10. It revealed
that all the first layer factors loaded significantly on the common factor (WE). However, all
the items are still considered to meet the minimum level of 0.30 (Hair, et al, 2010). Overall,
the standardised item loadings support a conclusion that the items (physical factors,
psychological work milieu, job contents, rewards system, and organisational climate) are good
reflectors of the five first order factor. Though, job contents and organisational climate load
155
very moderate with the factor loadings between 0.50-0.59. Followed by the other two factors,
physical factors and rewards system which significantly loaded onto the common factor with
the values between 0.38-0.45 respectively. Finally, there is 1 item that had the lowest loading
with the corresponding values Psychological Work Millieu (0.35).
Based on the results above, the schematic model proposed earlier is modified:
Figure 4.10: Modification of the Schematic Model proposed earlier
Source: Field Survey, 2016
WORK
ENVIRONMENTS
ORGANISATIONAL
CLIMATES STAFF
PRODUCTIVITY
PHYSICAL
SETTINGS
PSYCHOLOGICAL
WORK MILIEU
JOB CONTENTS
REWARD SYSTEM STAFF
SATISFACTION
STAFF
INVOLVEMENT
STAFF LOYALTY
STAFF
COMMITMENT
ASSESSING RETENTION
OUTCOMES
156
4.6 SUMMARY OF THE TESTED HYPOTHESES
The multiple regression shows the relationship between work environments and retention
outcomes of academic staff in southern Nigeria.
Table 4.6.1(a): Model Summary between work environments and retention outcomes
Model Summaryb
Model R R
Square
Adjusted
R Square
Std. Error of
the Estimate
Change Statistics
R Square
Change
F Change df1 df2 Sig. F Change
1 .796a .634 .633 .30985 .634 661.899 1 382 .000
a. Predictors: (Constant), WorkENVs
b. Dependent Variable: RetOUTCMS
Table 4.6.1(b): Correlation co-efficient of work environments and retention outcomes
Model Unstandardised
Coefficients
Standardised
Coefficients
t Sig. Correlations Collinearity Statistics
B Std. Error Beta Zero-order Partial Part Tolerance VIF
1
(Constant) .392 .145 2.701 .007
PhyFac** .190 .031 .330 6.221 .000 .744 .305 .178 .290 3.454
PsyFac .079 .026 .088 3.077 .002 .130 .156 .088 .993 1.007
JobCont* .345 .042 .438 8.179 .000 .770 .388 .233 .284 3.523
RewSyst*** .172 .026 .204 6.532 .000 .420 .318 .186 .834 1.199
OrgClim .093 .032 .088 2.924 .004 .139 .149 .083 .889 1.125
Source: Field Survey, 2016
Table 4.6.1(b) indicated that physical work setting, job content and rewards are the significant
predictors of staff retention outcomes. The table below displays the model fit summary for the
survey.
Bentler and Wu (2002); Bentler and Bonett (1980); and Kaplan (2000) argued that different
indicators of goodness-of-fit are usually adopted in various research concepts. Further, the
higher the number of the indices of indicators, the acceptable of a good fit such as Normed Fit
Index (NFI) =>.90; and Comparative Fit Index (CFI) acceptable value =>.90. Other
157
informative indices that measure the close association between the model and the data include
Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation (RMSEA); Goodness of fit (GFI); etc. This is
shown in Table 4.6.1(c).
Table 4.6.1(c): Model fit index of work environments and retention outcomes
Model-Fit Index Score Recommended Cut-off
Values
Chi-square/Degree of Freedom
(CMIN/DF)
9.647 Accepts value limit of less
than 5
Normed Fit Index (NFI) .913 => .90
Comparative Fit Index (CFI) .932 = > .90
Root Mean Squared Error of
Approximation (RMSEA)
.043 .05 or less = good
Goodness of Fit (GFI) .957 = > .90
The goodness of fit explains the close association that exists between the observed and
expected values. Obtained scores are therefore compared with the cut-off values (Bentler and
Wu (2002); Bentler and Bonett (1980) in order to establish the degree of fit. The fit index
shows that NFI = .913; CFI = .932; GFI = .957; CMIN/df = 9.647 and minimum score as
indicated in the cutoff values was achieved as shown in Table 4.6.1 while the Standardised
Estimates of Structural Model for Work Environments and Retention Outcomes is presented
in Figure 4.9.
158
Figure 4.11: Structural Equation Model for Work Environments and Retention Outcomes
Source: Field Survey, 2016
.
Figure 4.12: Standardised Estimates of Structural Model for Work Environments and Retention Outcomes
Source: Field Survey, 2016
159
Figure 4.12 depicts Standardised estimates of the structural model outlining the path coefficient
scores of the observed variables in the study. It is evident in the coefficient scores obtained
that close association exists amongst the tested variables (physical settings, psychological
factors, job contents, reward system and organisational climate), while the regression weights
are depicted in Figure 4.12 indicates that when job contents, reward system and organisational
climate goes up by 1 standard deviation, retention outcomes goes up by 0.95 standard
deviations. It indicated that reward plays a vital role in determining the significant performance
and it is positively associated with the process of motivation. Effective reward system motivate
employee to give their maximum efforts towards assigned work. Similarly, Bergmann and
Scarpello (2001) had long posited that compensation design attracts, motivates, and retains
employee to increase effort and output towards the achievement of organisational goals.
Hence, effective and just compensation policy can help an organisation achieve and sustain
competitive advantage.
4.6.2: Variation in Perception of Staff on the Relationship between Work environments and
Retention outcomes across Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Testa,b
Gender
Marital
Status
Staff
Status
Educational
Status
Years of
Service
Chi-Square 7.638 5.537 10.644 5.622 5.108
df 4 4 4 4 4
Asymp. Sig. .821 .563 .036 .015 .022
a. Kruskal Wallis Test
b. Grouping Variable: Retention_outcomes
Using retention outcomes as the dependent variables and the demographical characteristics
of the respondents (gender, marital status, staff status, educational background, and years
of experience) as the independent variables. Kruskal Wallis Test was carried out. The test
showed that difference in the perception of academic staff on the relationship between work
environments and retention outcomes by gender (λ2 = 7.638, df=4, P>0.05) and marital
160
status (λ2 = 5.537, df=4, P>0.05) are not statistically significant. This means that the
difference in the perception of academic staff on the relationship between work
environments and retention outcomes are not due to gender and marital status. The result
also revealed that the difference in the perception of academic staff on the relationship
between work environments and retention outcomes by staff status (λ2 = 10.644, df=4,
P<0.05), educational status (λ2 = 5.622, df = 4, P<0.05) and years of experience (λ2 = 5.108,
df=4, P<0.05) are statistically significant. This implies that the differences in the perception
of academic staff on the relationship between work environments and retention outcomes
can be linked to the status, education and years of experience of the staff.
Responses to the Open Ended Questions
Respondents were asked to indicate three other problems affecting their work environments.
They indicated the problems in their own words what they felt and their responses were
categorised into themes. The number and percentage of people that mentioned any particular
theme is given in the table below. They were categorised according to the six sampled
institutions. It is important to note that percentages are based on the total sample for each
school and not only on those who answered the questions. The responses are presented in the
table and figure below.
161
Table 4.6.3: Responses to the open-ended Questions about the problems affecting staff work
environments and retention outcomes.
S/N THEMES EKSU OOU RIVERS AMBROSE ENUGU EBONYI
1 Academic Politics and Schisms 19 32 25 11 10 15
2 Favouritism in Promotion 28 22 26 23 18 23
3 Environmental challenges & overload - - - - 12 7
4 Overlapping Activities 5 12 - 17 8 -
5 Erratic Power Supply 22 30 30 34 23 33
6 Poor Internet Connectivity 18 25 9 12 21 19
7 Poor Remunerations/ Compensation 21 27 28 19 27 25
8 Inadequate Funds & Grants 14 22 14 21 11 13
9 Poor Spatial Arrangement 7 5 - 10 12 10
10 Rigid Organisational policies - - - - - -
11 Noise 19 10 14 18 10 12
12 Inadequate Teaching Aids 32 17 13 28 19 22
Total 185 202 159 193 171 179
162
Degree of Work Environment Factors in the Sampled Universities
0
5
10
15
20
25
30 28
22
2623
18
23
Fre
qu
ency
Sampled Universities
2. Favouritism in Promotion
0
5
10
15
20
5
12
17
8
Fre
qu
ency
Sampled Universities
3. Overlapping Activities
0
10
20
30
40
22
30 3034
23
33F
req
uen
cy
Sampled Universities
4. Erratic Power Supply
0
10
20
30
18
25
912
21 19
Fre
qu
ency
Sampled Universities
5. Poor Internet Connectivity
0
10
20
30
21
27 28
19
27 25
Fre
qu
ency
Sampled Universities
6. Poor Remunerations/Compensation
0
10
20
30
40
19
32
25
11 1015
Fre
qu
ency
Sampled Universities
1. Academic Politics and
Schisms
163
Figure 4.13: Degree of Work Environment Factors in the Sampled Universities
Source: Field Survey, 2016
The table and bar chart in Table 4.6.3 and Figure 4.13 indicate the factors that militate
favourable work environments in the sampled Universities. Respondents indicated that though
the management and government are making effort but that a lot could still be done to improve
the degree of staff career development scheme compared to what is obtainable elsewhere.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
7
5
10
12
10
Fre
qu
ency
Sampled Universities
Poor Spatial Arrangement
0
5
10
15
20
25
14
22
14
21
1113
Fre
qu
ency
Sampled Universities
Inadequate Funds & Grants
0
5
10
15
20 19
10
14
18
10
12
Fre
qu
ency
Sampled Universities
Noise
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35 32
17
13
28
1922
Fre
qu
ency
Sampled Universities
Inadequate Teaching Aids
164
Table 4.6.4: Summary of Findings from Hypotheses Tested
Work Environments and Retention Outcomes among Academic Staff in Selected Public
Universities in Southern Nigeria
Hypotheses Variables Test Used Findings What literature Indicates
Hypothesis 1 Physical work setting does not
play any significant role in enhancing the commitment of Academic staff
For PhySET noise, ventilation, lightning, ergonomics equipment, workplace arrangement and moderate office/room
PPMC Coefficient was
used using 2 tail test
and 0.01 significant
level. The R-square
was at .716 which
indicated that physical
work milieu
contributes immensely
to staff commitment.
Noise and lighting
are predictors of
staff commitment
Literature indicates physical
condition of the institutions and
retention outcomes of their
staff vary together. That noise
and lighting had the greatest
impact on staff commitment.
This findings correlates with
studies by (Osibanjo &
Gberevbie, 2012;
Chandrasekar, 2011; Depedri,
Tortia and Carpita, 2010)
Research Hypothesis 2.
Psychological
work milieu does
not have
significant effects
on the loyalty of
academic staff
PSYWKMIL Motivation, Learning, Equity perception, Beliefs, Attitudes, Relationship.
Multiple Regression was adopted to assess the effect of psychological work milieu on staff commitment at r2=.825, df=383 at
0.000 significant level.
Results indicated
that 82.5% of the
variability in
psychological
factors were
described by
factors such as
equity perception
and attitudes.
Literature proposes that psychological work milieu dimensions are discreetly correlated with staff loyalty. The facets of psychological work milieu includes learning, equity perception, beliefs, attitudes, relationships. The management of the variables serve as a platform for motivating staff and influencing their loyalty. Relevant literature shows that absence of these facets may lead to some result effects like turnover and job dissatisfaction (Robbins and Judge, 2012).
Hypothesis 3
There is no
significant
relationship
between job
contents and
academic staff
involvement in
the performance
of state
Universities
The correlation
coefficient was
adopted
As presented in
Table, the
correlation
coefficient of 0.593
was obtained
between job
contents and
academic staff
involvement in the
performance of
state Universities.
The probability
value is less than
0.05(p<0.05).
This implies that there is a positive relationship between job contents and academic staff involvement in the performance of State Universities.
165
Research
Hypothesis 4
Reward system
does not
encourage the
satisfaction of
academic staff in
state Universities
Reward System (Salary,
Fringe benefits
(allowances), Bonuses,
Awards, Promotion,
Recognition)
STAFFSATIS
The result of regression shows that reward system include Salary, Fringe benefits (allowances), Bonuses, Awards, Promotion, Recognition. This is upheld at r2= .434, df= 383 at 0.000 significant level.
The F-value and t-
value of 18.81 and
4.34 were obtained
and p<0.05.
Pay and promotion
are seen as
predictors of staff
satisfaction.
This means that rewards system contribute to academic staff satisfaction in performance of state Universities. The findings supported the work of Siegel, Schraeder and Morrison, 2007; Kaufman, Chapman, and Allen, 2013. This was supported by Drive and reinforcement theories which argue that (Jerrell, Coggburn, Battaglio, and Bradbury, 2014) that retention can be achieved with equitable distribution of pay.
Research
Hypothesis 5
Organisational
climate does not
contribute
significantly to
staff productivity
in state
Universities
Management practices,
Employee relations,
Communication style,
Change orientation and
Culture
Multiple Regression
was used in analysing
This research
hypothesis is
upheld at r2=
.8364, df= 383 and
at 0.000
Literature indicates that
organisational climate
contributes to job satisfaction.
Thus, good organisational
climate will no doubt enhance
performance. This is also
logical that an environment
devoid of victimization is a
breeding ground for
progressive development.
(Manjunath and Rajesh, 2012;
Pearce, 2010; Rani and Mishra,
2012). In the same vein,
Halphin and Croft (1999)
asserted that the organisational
climate in enhances job
commitment. Source: Researcher‘s Field Survey Result (2016)
166
4.7 Qualitative Findings Based on Thematic Analysis
Themes associated with physical work environment, job contents, reward system and
organisational climate were captioned. The findings from these themes are discussed below.
4.7.1 Thematic Analysis of Physical Work Environment and Retention Outcomes
It should be mentioned that office management is part of the wider aspect of enterprise
management. The dimensions of office management are organisation (which is forming several
parts into an organised whole or to arrange); purpose (which assesses methods or procedure of
doing things in the office); personnel (the people who do the work in the office); means (which
relates to machines and equipment such as files, registers, furniture, etc. which are used in
carrying out the office tasks) and environment (which includes the physical environment of the
office such as lightning, ventilation and heating). Base on the aforementioned, the following
observations were made during the interview won physical work milieu:
I cannot seat longer than expected because my office chokes me as you have
observed. ASUU member
I feel the institution needs to expand the size of the institution to give room for fresh
air. ASUU member
Our major problem is erratic power supply ASUU member
I do most of my work at home because of the problem of electricity
ASUU member
The institution is trying but more efforts need to be exerted to assure academic
excellence through the provision of enabling environments. ASUU member
I feel consideration should be given to the factors relating to staff conveniences
such as proximity of postal services, transport, shops, restaurants and perhaps
recreation/sport facilities. ASUU member
There should be regularly reviewing of office machinery and equipment with a view
to their maintenance and replacement where necessary. ASUU member
We will try as much as possible to provide our staff with an enabling environment
to meet performance expectation Management staff
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4.7.2 Thematic Analysis of Psychological Work Milieu and Retention Outcomes
Personally, I still feel social requirement of employees should consistently be catered for by
encouraging regular management-employee meetings and communication as well as informal
or unofficial work relationships and groupings. It is only by this that incessant strike can be
curbed. ASUU member
“The primacy for working is to improve my career. My job should develop a deep
psychological feeling related to self-esteem and achievement which in turn affect the level of
my motivation and performance. Hence, institution must give room for career development,
employee motivation and competitive learning environment. Where these are ignored, the
possibility to develop intention to level will be high” ASUU member
Sometimes, I feel dissatisfied with the routine jobs. Taking the same courses every time
with any opportunity for review. Management must note that challenging, interesting,
enlarged and enriched jobs should be assigned to workers and these should be
commensurate with their status along the ladder of responsibility. ASUU member
4.7.3 Thematic Analysis of Job Contents and Retention Outcomes
“The greatest emphasis for this institution should be training. Training is going to
make a lot of difference to our retention. Employees can only be comfortable in a
place where they know what is expected of them and how to do it…..”
ASUU member
Employees should be given adequate opportunity to use their own intuition, ideas
and initiatives while doing the job which should be done with appropriate degree
of autonomy. Work should be fairly allocated so that no worker would feel/think
that he is unduly overloaded. The implication of this is that benefits and hardships
must distributed among staff. Furthermore, workers should be encouraged and
assisted to build organisational loyalty. This will allow them to be more committed
to accomplishment of the corporate goals. ASUU member
4.7.4 Thematic Analysis of Reward System and Retention Outcomes
It has been made clear that what motivates a person may demotivate the other. This points to
the saying that to some people monetary incentive is the best form of motivation. To others,
work status, title or participation in decision making is the key motivation tool. Yet, others still
consider things like very large office space, security of employment, job enrichment,
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appropriate health, safety and welfare facilities, etc as the best forms of motivation. But for
me, pay has become my driving force.
Employees should be well paid or compensated in some other ways in order to
enable them to satisfy their psychological, physiological and sociological needs.
It was found that reward system may lead to turnover. The strategic view of motivation from
time to time can be used to achieve corporate objectives by making sure that the pay practices
should be 'internal equitable and externally competitive'. This According to a respondent:
In my institution, rewards policies are formulated but not consistently
implemented in accordance with the changing needs. ASUU member
Though the level of turnover is gradually increasing as public institutions are
faced with non or delay in payment of salaries and other benefits but it is also
important for government to restructure the pay system and take account of the
competitive environment. ASUU member
As compensation (money) is the resource used to acquire the basic needs of man
(clothing, food, and shelter), it is therefore necessary that the employees shouldn’t
be deprived of this basic need as this can contribute to our emotional, and social
well-being in the institution. If the employees are adequately compensated it will
promote our relationship with other stakeholders. ASUU member
I strongly believe the institution still need to ensure a healthy relationship between
the employer and employees by creating conducive work environment and
encouraging productivity among academic staff. ASUU member
Management of the University system should therefore look into improving the
compensation package of the lecturers, as this we go a long way in boosting our
commitment. ASUU member
I have the intention to leave because I have been on the same position for years
(7 years to be precise). Now that responsibilities and expectations are increasing,
I also feel my career should also develop. ASUU member
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Turnover in public institutions has increased due to the pressure of market forces
and economic recessions which has stunned internal equity considerations
especially when academic staff with rare talents have to be recruited. Am sure if
the situation continues, I would rather look for a greener pasture….
ASUU member
Some respondents believed that reward should be consistently given based on individual’s
dispositions, requirements and wants.
“For state Universities to retain quality staff, I feel there is need for them to review
the pay structure. More so, the institution ensures the development of new
approaches to satisfy competitive pay decisions”. Management staff
“We often try to give competitive reward to our staff to keep them on the job.
Though, some of them still perceive inequality in the pay, but we are doing
everything possible to retain them. Management staff
The major problem with state Universities is there inability to have sound personnel
policies. There should be effective delegation of authority and assignment of
responsibility with concomitant fair promotion and career advancement policies,
and programmes could be used to satisfy worker’s need for self-esteem, recognition
and respect. ASUU member
Well from the side of the management, we make sure that regular information on
management policies and decisions are circulated to workers so that they are
informed of major changes especially those that are likely to affect them in the
institution(s).
Yes, despite the financial turbulence in our institution, we still strive to an extent as
an institution to provide employees with good working conditions in order to
provide their aesthetic needs.
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CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSIONS
Manpower in the right quantity and quality, are sine qua non to a nation’s development.
Unfortunately, dearth of manpower, characterized public institutions in Nigeria, which is
worsened by the problem of staff retention. The issue of retention outcomes was examined,
with a focus on factors influencing it, such as poor conditions of service, poor infrastructural
facilities, limited research funding among others. Government has however over the years
been committing resources on manpower production with the hope that the manpower will
serve the country in one way or another. Exodus of lecturers from state Universities in Nigeria
constitutes loss of resources invested on their training. The cost of replacing the academic
staff is also heavy and serves as burden to Government as well as threat to the limited finance
flow to the education sector. At present, it is disturbing that Nigeria’s Universities are rated
low in world ranking. One of the conditions for ranking Universities is the quantity and quality
of academic staff in stock. Due to its consequences, strategies for curbing this menace in state
Universities, such as creation of enabling environment, adequate funding of tertiary
education, non-interference of government in institution’s affairs, effective administration
and motivation of staff of tertiary institutions, among others were also discussed. It is hopeful
that if the strategies are adopted and implemented by Government and institutions’
administrators, the menace will become a thing of the past while the state of public
Universities will improve from the status quo in Nigeria.
5.1 Roles of Physical work setting in enhancing the commitment of Academic staff
The study determined the role of physical work environment in enhancing commitment of
academic staff in state owned Universities. Availability of classrooms, laboratories,
workshops, office space, library and other specialized rooms are required for impartation of
knowledge to students while adequate hostel spaces are needed for their habitation. The
findings indicated that the issue of inadequate and decay infrastructural facilities have been a
concern to the sampled Universities. It is unfortunate that available classrooms in the sampled
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Universities are inadequate for the population of students and for effective teaching and
learning. Staff office is germane in institutions because it serves as a place where a lecturer can
mark students‟ notes, assess their written works, prepare for the next day’s activities, as well
as rest after the day’s activities. In the sampled Universities, these are inadequate for the
available staff while those that are available are not spacious enough for comfort ability of staff
and even not adequately furnished. This situation, do discourage many academic staff
particularly when they compare themselves to their counterparts in the federal universities,
private universities and foreign countries.
The study found that many lecturers, including professors, shared offices that are dilapidated,
out of ventilation and poorly furnished. Lecture theatres were overcrowded and classrooms,
laboratories and workshops were shared by many programmes across different faculties. The
respondents also explained the deplorable state of most classrooms – the fundamental
teaching infrastructure of any learning institution. It was identified that fewer than one in the
six (6) sampled universities had video-conferencing facilities, less than 20% made use of
interactive boards, “and even the ones that are deployed are found in less than 10% of lecture
rooms and theatres”. Fewer than half of universities used public address systems in lecture
halls.
This findings corroborate with the works of Chandrasekar (2011) who indicated that
accessibility to infrastructure, equipment, and facilities impact on organisational performance.
Depedri, Tortia and Carpita, (2010) indicated that physical characteristics of an organisation
and job performance of their employees vary together. That noise and lightning had the
greatest impact on commitment with ventilation and appreciable spatial arrangement in the
organisation. Manjunath and Rajesh, (2012) studied 117 employees from two different
manufacturing sectors. They found physical characteristics to be moderately and strongly
related to job engagement.
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5.2: Contributions of Psychological work milieu does not have significant effects on the
loyalty of academic staff
This study investigate the effects of psychological work milieu on the loyalty of academic
staff in state Universities. The results of the four estimated coefficients include .274, .193,
.332 and .280, all of which have a significance level of 0.000. This means that all the
explanatory variables are statistically significant at 1% level. Therefore, it can be indicated
that psychological work milieu include career path, learning, equity perception, beliefs,
attitudes and relationships.
It is the desire of each academic staff of tertiary institution to rise to top position within
institution. Situation where there are too much senior staff in an institution will encourage
competitions where the junior Staff will not have better chances to rise to the top positions.
At present, there are many professors in many universities in Nigeria while there are those
already due for professorial position. Those with PhD and other lower qualifications might
thus not have the chance to grab any opportunity where these senior staff exists. Since the
junior staff wish to rise to the positions, many often leave for other tertiary institutions where
they have better opportunity/chances. What can be noticed is the rate in which lecturers are
leaving the state controlled institutions to private and federal universities in Nigeria because
of better opportunities to rise to top positions in such institutions. This implies that perception
of a staff towards the organisational characteristics will determine his/her strength and degree
of loyalty; i.e increase in equity perception will significantly lead to increase in loyalty. This
finding is supported by several studies. Studies conducted (Şenol, 2011; Zaman, Hafiza, Shah
& Jamsheed, 2011; Siegel, Schraeder & Morrison, 2007) also revealed that employees are
often affected by their perception on knowledge of results and equity. The knowledge of result
in this context means the degree to which employees know and understand how well they are
performing on the job. Studies (Galanou, Sotiropoulos, Georgakopoulos & Vasilopoulos,
2011; Abdulla, Djebarni & Mellahi, 2010; Abejirinde, 2009) have shown that workers have
been found to be happy when they perceive they are paid more than they are worth. Further,
when negative inequity (the person is under-rewarded) occurs, employees are generally
dissatisfied and de-motivated.
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5.3 The significant relationship between job contents and academic staff involvement in
the performance of state Universities
As presented in the analysis, the correlation coefficient of 0.744 was obtained between job
contents and academic staff involvement in the performance of state Universities. This implies
that there is a strong relationship between job contents and academic staff involvement in the
performance of State Universities. This means that increase in job contents (skill variety, task
significance and identity and autonomy) with availabilities of learning/teaching facilities, the
greater the level of staff involvement. Ordinarily, academic staff in the sampled universities
especially those in the area of science and technology requires adequate laboratory equipment
and other facilities to be able to achieve the goal of effective teaching of the students.
Unfortunately, the findings indicate that these are not readily available in many campuses and
where they are available, they are in state of disrepair. Such situation serves as discouragement,
which often encourage them to leave their place of work for another institution with better
equipment/facilities.
The perennial problem of having enough academics to teach an ever-growing student
population was closely examined. This was expected, because almost all the sampled
institutions have endured lecturer shortages. There is also a growing disparity in the ratio
between teaching staff and students. There were insufficient numbers of professors holding
PhDs, and a number of these sampled universities had become increasingly dependent on
visiting lecturers and ‘inbred’ academics, which the study observed was counter-productive.
Thus, it should be noted that when an individual does not have the right resources to meet up
with the demand of a job there will be a demand supply problem such as under performance,
job stress, absenteeism) which will affect the actualisation the organisational goal.
In the sum, learning and teaching in the sampled institutions require the ability to undertake a
focused review of: – student load, demand and student ‐staff ratios – student success &
retention (pass rates, completions & grade distributions) – current student satisfaction and
graduate destinations & satisfaction. Taking account of teaching in appointment and
promotion decisions – in contrast to research impact and quality, teaching effectiveness is not
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given a great deal of attention in appointment and promotion decisions. Hence, there is a
greater need to genuinely show that teaching excellence is taken into account and that there are
career trajectories in both the teaching and research space. Encouraging collaboration and
scholarship in teaching, evaluation of programmes, and experimentation with new methods –
in contrast, to research, teaching is often a solitary activity – until recently, lack of research
and scholarship on teaching and student outcomes. According to Bok (2006), need to provide
support for & build culture of inquiry and evidence to improve academic programmes can be
moved beyond the “extent of school/faculty engagement in the scholarship of teaching impacts
on subsequent student outcomes (Hashim & Mahmood, 2011). Offering training programmes
and empirical support linking better teaching skills to increased student achievement has also
become unabated.
Therefore, to succeed in a dynamic environment and reduce turnover intentions, institutions
need to develop an understanding of holistic learning (intellectual, social and emotional
components); Internationalisation of education; Greater emphasis on self-directed learning;
Greater understanding of diversity in HE and its impact on approaches to teaching/learning;
Focus on classroom research (action research) to gain a greater understanding of learning
strategies; More research needed on learning styles; Enhanced understanding of collaborative
learning; HE management must become more aware and accept the needs of enhanced learning
and teaching; Increased use of technology
The works of Ahmed, Usman and Rana (2011), Olajide (2010) and Bashir and Ramay (2010)
supported the findings that greater accomplishment, greater job satisfaction, less absenteeism,
fewer grievances and less attrition (turnover) rate can only be achieved by worker’s favourable
reaction to job design. Bentley, Coates, Dobson, Goedegebuure and Meek (2013) also
confirmed that organisational success can be determined by the impact the employees’ work
has on others within or outside the organisation (Olajide, 2010). Abiodun, Oyeniyi and
Osibanjo (2013) also pointed out that job satisfaction can be achieved based on the degree to
which employees are able to do a number of different tasks using many different skills, abilities
and talents.
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5.4 Contributions of Reward system on the satisfaction of academic staff in state
Universities
The analysis shows the extent at which the variance in the dependent variable (staff
satisfaction) is explained by the independent variables (salary, benefits & incentives,
promotion, grants/funds and recognition). The result indicate the simple model that expresses
the extent to which reward system impacts staff satisfaction and which of the variables included
in the model contributed to the prediction of the dependent variable. Therefore, we can also
rank the two significant impact on staff satisfaction i.e promotion and equitable salary have the
highest impact on staff satisfaction followed by recognition. The issue of research funding
leaves much to be desired. Though most of the respondents were not happy with the
compensation packages and promotional opportunities in the sampled Universities. It was
indicated that promotion opportunities are given on the basis of favouritism and godfatherism.
This is one of the factors that affect their retention outcomes. Many researches had been
abandoned due to inadequate funds which often demoralizes lecturers and forced them to leave
for foreign countries where opportunity for such, abound. In an ideal situation, staff of tertiary
institution who are qualified for promotion, supposes to be promoted and when due.
Surprisingly, the findings indicate the situations where staff of sampled institutions will not be
promoted due to one reason or the other, particularly when he/she is having an axe to grind
with management. These often lead to staff leaving their institutions for another where their
regular promotion can be guaranteed.
It was observed from the structured interview that many academic staff, who are due for
promotion in the sampled institutions are denied, are often wooed by private tertiary
institutions with shortage of staff. Such staff are often promised extra allowance and
opportunities apart from their regular promotion. It was indicated that the state Universities did
not consider the following benefits that are highly considered in the private Universities. This
deprivation includes free medical services for staff, spouse and four children, payment of end
of year bonus to staff, good and regular monthly salaries to staff, maternity leave with full pay
to female staff, interest-free housing and car loans to staff, outstanding performance award to
staff, provision of free meal to staff at work, robust outstation allowance, annual increment of
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staff salaries based on appraisal, clothing allowance, profit sharing, long service award to
deserving staff, provision of children education scholarship scheme to staff wards, health
insurance scheme to staff, and provision of staff buses free of charge.
The crisis facing the sampled universities can be solved if, among other things, the federal and
state governments increase considerably the funding of public universities. This is a
knowledge-driven century. Nigerian universities can help drive the Nigerian economy by
creating qualified manpower only if they are adequately funded. It can therefore be summarised
that government should be having upward review of the monthly salary of staff of tertiary
institutions in Nigeria in line with the situation in other developing and developed countries.
Research grant should be released promptly to the lecturers of tertiary institutions to be able to
carry out regular researches. Therefore, it can be concluded from the result that among the
variables of reward system, promotion and equitable salary are significant predictors of staff
satisfaction. This implies that increase in promotional opportunities and equitable salary will
ultimately lead to increase in staff satisfaction. This findings supported the works of many
scholars. Pfeifer (2012) and Abdulsalam and Mawoli (2012) adduced that the level of
compensation system determines the intention of employees to stay or leave the organisation.
To retain skilled staff, management/government must consider compensation equity within the
organisation (Depedri, Tortia & Carpita, 2010).
5.5 Contributions of Organisational climate on staff productivity in state Universities
The analysis indicated organisational climate contribute significantly to staff productivity in
state Universities. Organizational climate can be captured from the perspectives of university’s
characteristics, personnel policies, curriculum, facility, teaching content, interactions with
colleagues, and other collegiate experiences. This observation gave insight into management
practice that trust must be built among academic staff as it promotes acceptability of
institutional initiatives by academic staff who prove same through their organization-facilitated
development, work life balance, health and safety as well as through the degree of flexibility
management gives them. It was revealed from the sampled institutions that it is needful for
processes and procedures to be clearly set out and communicated to employees, avoiding
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ambiguity in order to satisfy the principles of informational justice. It is important for sampled
institutions to deliberately entrench fairness in the outcome allocation system and also work
out ways of improving and sustaining good manager-associate relationship as it promotes staff
commitment. Good horizontal relationship must be encouraged as it promotes cordiality and
mutual respect within a diverse and multi-cultural workforce as well as group cohesion; this
leads to commitment at the end.
The significance of organisational justice in fostering a mutually beneficial employer-
employee relationship through staff’ commitment and superior performance cannot be
overemphasized as it is a crucial factor that determines organisational success in an ever-
dynamic and competitive business environment. This means that uncommunicated or vaguely
communicated procedure is inimical to performance; thus managers must be able to
communicate effectively to enable academic staff perform optimally and by so doing produce
desire results. In essence properly communicated procedure will enhance employee
performance; while poorly communicated processes and procedures will result in poor
performance and increased turnover intentions. Chandranshu and Sinha (2012) carried out a
study that asserted that communication is a component of quality of work life which improves
work related outcomes that include performance (Wright and Bonett 2007; Warr 2005, and
Croppanzano, 2004).
5.6 Contributions of Work Environments on Retention Outcomes
The correlation that exists in this study between variables of work environments and retention
outcomes correspond with findings of Bashir and Ramay (2010) who reported that favourable
work environments improve the efficiency, performance and satisfaction of workers. The result
also agrees with Bloom and Van-Reenen (2011), who reported that certain motivational factors
like friendly management style, fair compensation packages, promotion, etc contribute to the
prediction of job commitment. Bloom and Van-Reenen (2011) report that a close association
exists between reward and organisational fulfilment, and Blau (1985) finds that the
commitment of staff to their job depends on the level of reward provided. The result obtained
in this study shows that junior and senior staff have the same perceived work environments if
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given the same opportunities and incentives required. Issue of appointment into positions
should be left for institution to handle and this should be done objectively to achieve the
expected results. Promotion of staff of institutions should be effected as at when due while the
welfare of staff should be accorded high priority. More staff quarters and offices should be
built in the sampled institutions while those available in the institutions should be renovated.
It can be established from the findings that work environments positively impact on the
retention outcomes of academic staff in Nigerian state Universities. Based on the variation
perception, it was revealed that the difference in the perception of academic staff on the
relationship between work environments and retention outcomes are not due to gender and
marital status. The result also revealed that the difference in the perception of academic staff
on the relationship between work environments and retention outcomes by staff status,
educational status and years of experience are statistically significant. This implies that the
differences in the perception of academic staff on the relationship between work environments
and retention outcomes can be linked to the status, education and years of experience of the
staff.
5.7 Summary
The research has shown that work environments significantly contribute to retention outcomes
of academic staff in Nigerian State Universities. On the other hand, it was indicated that job
contents, rewards and organisational climate are the significant predictors of staff retention
outcomes. It is evident from this study that provision of enabling work environment will
eventually lead to staff satisfaction, loyalty, productivity, commitment and involvement in the
educational sector. The structural equation model was also obtain to confirm the results from
multiple regression, it. The parameter estimate as depicted in Figure 4.12 and Figure 4.13
indicates that when job contents, reward system and organisational climate goes up by 1
standard deviation, retention outcomes goes up by 0.95 standard deviations. It indicated that
reward plays a vital role in determining the significant performance and it is positively
associated with the process of motivation. Effective reward system motivate employee to give
their maximum efforts towards assigned work. Similarly, Bashir and Ramay (2010) had long
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posited that compensation design attracts, motivates, and retains employee to increase effort
and output towards the achievement of organisational goals. Hence, effective and just
compensation policy can help an organisation achieve and sustain competitive advantage.
From the open ended questions, the study identified the causes of industrial conflict between
Academic Staffs Union of Universities and the Government. Findings revealed that the causes
of industrial conflict includes wages and salaries issues, working condition issues, non-
implementation of Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) made before, depletion of
educational facilities, nonstandard nature of Universities and lack of respect between parties.
This was similar to the findings of Hashim and Mahmood (2011) who opined that wage
disputes are the catalyst of almost all worker strikes and wage negotiations are pivotal when
it comes to speedy resolution. These findings also corroborate the argument of Ajayi and
Ekundayo (2010) who was of the opinion that unions in Nigerian Universities often embark
on industrial strike because of their perception on poor working conditions such as obsolete
laboratory equipment, inadequate offices, and lack of research grants and shortage of power
supply. These findings also corroborate the assertions of Gberevbie (2010) who opined that
the factor is failure on the part of the government to implement agreement signed with ASUU.
Some labour agitations also involve allegations regarding the refusal of one of the parties
involved to stick to the terms of the agreement reached by the parties. The allowances were
part of the agreement which the union had with the Federal Government in 2009. Therefore,
inability of the federal and state government to implement the collective agreement ultimately
influences staff retention outcomes.
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CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The primary objective of this study was to examine the roles of customer experience
management and loyalty in healthcare sector: a study of selected private hospitals in Lagos
State. However, this chapter is concerned about the summary of findings, conclusion and the
recommendations of the research study. The summary of findings include that theoretical and
the empirical framework. The hypotheses formulated for the study guided the procedure of the
discussions. Afterward, conclusions were drawn from findings of the research study,
appropriate recommendations, research limitation, suggestions for further study and
contribution to knowledge.
6.1 Summary of the Thesis
This thesis is divided into five chapters. It begins with chapter one comprising background to
the study through to the definition of terms. The general objective of this study focused on the
contributions of work environments and retention outcomes among academic staff of state
Universities, Southern Nigeria. The specific objectives were to determine the role of physical
work environment in facilitating commitment of academic staff in state owned Universities;
investigate the effects of psychological work milieu on the loyalty of academic staff in state
Universities; ascertain the relationship between job contents and staff involvement in academic
excellence of state owned Universities; examine the effect of reward system on the satisfaction
of academic staff in state owned Universities; assess how organisational climate facilitates staff
productivity in state owned Universities. determine the roles of functional clues in eliciting
repeat purchase actions from consumers of Aside from the research objectives, chapter one
includes the research problem, research questions, research hypotheses, significance of the
study, scope of the study and definitions of operational terms.
Chapter two contains a comprehensive review of relevant literature on the variables and also
provide conceptual clarifications, theoretical underpinnings and empirical clarifications for the
study. This study provides a background to the state of University system in Nigeria and
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particularly in Nigeria and Africa as a whole. For the purpose of understanding, several theories
have been propounded about human motivation and work environments. These theories have
been used to explain the relationships between the variables examined for this study.
The chapter three presents the methodology which centers on the research design, instruments
and strategies to be adopted in carrying out the research. A mixed method was adopted for this
study. This approach combines the use of quantitative and qualitative approach to allow
extraction of analytic, narrative and descriptive data to explain the variations between work
environment and retention outcomes. Specifically, the use of Sequential Explanatory Approach
was used. This approach allowed the researcher to use the quantitative (questionnaire) data to
validate the qualitative (in-depth interview and observation) data. The adoption of both
methods enabled the researcher tap the advantages of both and to use the strength of one to
support the weakness of the other. Again, the questionnaire was employed in order to gather
the necessary data for the study. The questionnaires were administered to academic staff in the
sampled institutions. A total of four hundred (400) copies of questionnaire were randomly
administered to the academic staff of selected Universities in Southern Nigeria. Three hundred
and eighty four (384) copies of the questionnaire were retrieved, which amounted to 96%
response rate (see Table 4.3). Three hundred and eighty four (384) copies of the retrieved
copies of the questionnaire were found useable. Sixteen copies of the questionnaire
representing 4% were unusable because they were badly completed. This response rate is
considered reasonably high and better than the response rates in previous studies.
The chapter four presents the analysis of data collected and test of hypotheses, tables and charts
were employed to illustrate the data gathered for this study, the data were analyzed using the
descriptive statistics based on the research objectives and the hypotheses formulated for the
study. The stated hypotheses and literature review guided the presentation of the findings
discussed in this chapter. The hypotheses formulated were tested through the use of multiple
regression (categorical regression) and the hierarchical multiple regression.
Chapter five discusses the results of the analysis and chapter six focuses on the summary of
findings, conclusions, recommendations limitation of the study, suggestions for further studies
and contributions to knowledge are presented.
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6.2 Summary of Research Findings
The research findings of this research study were presented in two folds namely: (i)
Theoretical findings and (ii) Empirical findings
6.2.1 Summary of Theoretical Findings
Review of extant literature revealed that enabling work environment is a retention strategy
mostly targeted at curbing brain drain and absenteeism among staff of Universities. Therefore
various determinants of work environments such as; physical and psychological work milieu,
reward system, job characteristics as well as organisational climate may have implications for
behavioural and affective outcomes such as staff loyalty, productivity, commitment,
satisfaction and performance. Modern day organisations place the work at utmost importance
and build the basis on which corporate objectives are met, as well the success of the
organisation as a whole.
The expectancy and equity theories explained the relationship between jobs related attitude as
a result of the satisfaction derived from the work itself and job performance. The theories
supported the findings in some areas: First, employee has an expected end, which they look
forward to be met by the institution they work for. They believe therefore, that sufficient efforts
have to be put into their work for those expectations to be achieved, and this
expectations/rewards received are intrinsic in terms of the satisfaction derived from their work,
and also extrinsic in relation to the monetary pay received. The individual employee has an
inherent expectation, which he/she believes should be received on putting in some efforts or
rendering by certain services. These rewards provided by the institution is in exchange of the
performance and productivity of the employees. Second, Fredrick Herzberg’s to-factor theory
affirmed that working environment creates a platform and an opportunity for socialization
between different people. Socialisation is one integral part of the worker’s life and it represents
a major factor that keeps the employees to feel the spirit of teamwork in the organisation, which
increases their performance, as they work in teams. In Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs,
the social need which represents the third level of needs, explains the need of employees to be
affiliated; i.e. to be loved and accepted by people (Galanou, et al, 2011).
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The application of the theories was premised on the four (4) basic assumptions about human
behaviour, which includes;
i. As stated about, this expectancy model is a Multivariate one; meaning it is made up of
two or more variables. It deduces that, human behaviour is as a result of a combination
of factors, both in the individual and in the environment in which the individual is
situated.
ii. Individuals are rational beings, who consciously make decisions about their behaviour
in the organisation.
iii. As various individuals in the organisation differ, so are their individual goals desires,
needs and goals different from each other.
iv. Individuals in the organisation choose between alternate behaviours, based on their
individual expectations, and the behaviour decided on, brings about a desired outcome.
Institutions in an attempt to meet this need, encourage their employees to participate in the
formulation and implementation of policies and strategies. The theories indicate that job itself
as an individual meaning for each employee and has helped to provide the necessary skills
needed to perform effectively; once workers know that they have these skills required, they
could be internally motivated to do their jobs which could later lead them to be committed to
their job. Hence, the usage of strikes has been rampant in the Nigerian education system which
is usually viewed by workers as a means to get the attention of the government and other
relevant bodies to ensure that they are adequately compensated for work done, thus, it becomes
important for the management of these tertiary schools either private or public to take the issue
of compensation seriously, and also other aspects of compensation aside salaries. By
implications, employees who perceive they are being treated inequitable may try to address the
issue by exhibiting some of the following behaviours: putting in less efforts to their jobs,
reporting to management concerning dissatisfaction with pay, and quitting their jobs.
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6.2.2 Summary of Empirical Findings
6.2.2.1 Summary of Quantitative Findings
This study has revealed that every organization or institution faces some kind of challenges (be
it major, average or minor). Universities are not an exemption to challenges or problems.
Although Nigerian universities have recorded success stories and breakthroughs, but they have
their teething problems or challenges which tend to impede their position on the world
education league table. Since the universities in Nigeria has to act fast with a view to come up
on the same development and education wavelength with other countries of the world, six
pressing challenges have been identified and discussed on. In addressing these challenges, four
management competency areas have been advocated. Moreover, Nigerian government and
university management must strongly reaffirm their commitment to the growth and
development of university education in Nigeria. This reaffirmation should be accompanied by
policies aimed at refocusing, re-engineering and redynamizing university education in Nigeria.
A collaborative effort of school management, parents, private individuals, and government will
facilitate the identification of the real problems that challenges the sustenance of the school, as
well as a better way of addressing the problems. Through a framework of proactive policies,
originating from a round-table discussion among stakeholders, nurtured through improved
school-community relations, the universities can be helped to come out of the blues from their
many challenging problems. Improved accountability in university management. School
managements have lost their credibility in the eyes of the society due largely to corrupt
practices. They are no longer accountable to the society and thus, compelling the society to
stay aloof and unconcerned about the situation in the universities. There is high level corruption
in Nigeria. Presently, the federal government of Nigeria under the leadership of President
Buhari is concentrating on the fight against corruption which have bastardised the Nigerian
economy. Employment of lecturers are done strictly on favouratism and “god-fatherism” .
The consequence of this in the educational industry is that unqualified lecturers are given
opportunities at the expense of qualified hands. Funds are stolen by corrupt leaders in the
higher institutions, leaving the schools in shamble of poor infrastructure and equipment. Little
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provisions are made towards research and staff development. The situations in the sampled
Nigerian universities have compelled many academics to leave the country and seek
employment in foreign countries in what is termed “brain-drain”. Galanou, et al, (2011) opined
that the practice of accountability which is a result-oriented strategy will check any drop in the
quality of education and enhances the attainment of educational goals of any given country.
Again, improved accountability will further boost the confidence of the society in the provision
of funds for university development, teaching and learning. Improved financial management.
University education requires high level of funding. It calls for heavy supply of money to
administer each university effectively.
Much as the National budget provides statutory revenue for university administration,
universities management should develop the competencies necessary to seek alternative
sources of revenue generation to supplement government allocations. Universities must tap
additional funds from the private sector, technical aids from foreign countries, parents,
business ventures, payment for university services, consultancy services, endowment funds,
alumni associations, and many others. The funds generated from these sources should be
prudently used to service the needs of the institution.
Improved enabling environment for teaching and research, learning and community service.
The triple mandates of tertiary institutions are teaching, learning and research. The quality of
teaching-learning in any society is a determinant of success in the educational goal and
objectives of that society. The major actors in the teaching-learning process are the teachers
and students. While the teachers are expected to have the competences and skills in curriculum
delivery, the students are expected to show high level commitment to learning. Culpepper
(2011) lamented on the dearth of competent and qualified teachers in Nigerian schools and
recommended the need to formally instil the principles of teaching in all academics. The
success of every school programme, especially teaching-learning, is dependent on the
availability of the right type of physical facilities, including the right quality and caliber of
teachers (Hafiza, et al, 2012). Research is knowledge-oriented and knowledge-bound.
Osaigbovo (2000) remarked that research is central to academic concerns and that the value of
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a university is measured interms of the quantity and quality of research carried out by the
university. University management therefore requires competences in the management of
funds, facilities, staff and student personnel. This should include building the capacity for
research and teaching activities at an international standard.
6.2.2.2 Summary of Qualitative Findings
Based on the interview conducted, the following findings were reached. It was evident that
work environments of the selected six (6) tertiary institutions in Southern Nigeria had not been
evaluated since the inception of the public schools in Nigeria. The results disclosed the degree
of inestimable efforts by the state government in ensuring employment continuity among the
academic staff of their various Universities. The findings gave an impression that University
academic staff were dissatisfied with the employment conditions and relationships which
ranges from ethnic chauvinism and favouritism, incessant industrial action, under-funding and
shortage of facilities and equipment and most especially crises of conditions of service which
had led to multiple industrial unrest, brain-drain and turnover of highly skilled academics from
one University to another. The findings, for example, showed that: (1) The lecturers
complained that the criteria for promotion in their institution is based on other factors than
merit and this adversely affect their dispositions to increasing commitment (2) The lightning
in the office did not attract staff to stay long on the job. (3) The physical condition under which
staff operates do not satisfactorily promote their commitments especially the problem of noise.
(4) lecturers complained that their workload is often increased but their rewards remain de-
stimulating (5) The work schedules in the institution have not provided opportunity for
developing and improving technology skills; (6) The degree of influence on the job as lecturers
give opportunity for career development and enrichment (7) As lecturers, what keeps them
with the institution is not the pay but rather the quality of work life balance and finally (6) The
University unlike other organisations do not have any formal orientation programme for their
new lecturers.
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6.3 Conclusion
The relationships found between work environments and retention outcomes correspond with
what is reported in literature. The current research study reveals that work environments and
employee satisfaction can affect their retention outcomes. For developing and maximising staff
competencies and abilities, schools/institutions and organisations can use the provision of
conducive and favourable work environments as a method for enhancing staff commitment
and satisfaction with the institutions/organisations. Findings of the study also indicated that
public institutions can increase the degree staff loyalty and productivity by enhancing job
satisfaction with compensation and work conditions. It is important to reiterate that this staff
commitment can be enhanced through favourable physical settings like working in a noise free
environment, uninterrupted supply of power, provision of ergonomic resources and spatial
arrangement; maintenance of equity perception, clear understanding of the institution’s
mission and vision statement. Facilitation of consistent promotional opportunities, equitable
and competitive salary structure, staff participation in decision making, implementation of
collective agreement and favourable work environment can be adopted to improve staff
performance and reduce attrition. Also, it was found out from the study that adequate reward
systems are a sine-qua-non for job satisfaction on the part of employees whether in public or
private sector. Establishment of new universities without adequate funding would be fruitless
and argued that current universities can be expanded with necessary resources to realise the
same corporate objective. Without exclusion, all the established public universities controlled
by the state and federal governments are extremely in terrible financial distress.
Government needs to fund education adequately. The 26 % of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
recommended by United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisations
(UNESCO) by every country in the world should be allocated to education in Nigeria to enable
the educational institutions get substantial fund that can enable them to provide the needed
infrastructures and facilities for effective teaching of students. Government should also reach
out to International Organisations to continue to support it in one way or the other in the
funding of tertiary education in Nigeria In view of the fact that researches could proffer
solutions to most of the problems of the country, there is need for government to allocate
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substantial fund for researches in the tertiary institutions while National Universities
Commission (NUC) and tertiary institutions administrators should ensure that fund allocated
for researches in their institutions, ate judiciously utilized for the purpose. This finding
reinforces the outcome of the study by Heneman and Judge (2000) in which they posited that
for organisation to have attraction and retention power, its reward systems must be unique and
unlikely to be provided by competitors or else the organisation will find it difficult to retain its
staff in the long run, particularly in a competitive business environment.
6.4 Recommendations of the Study
Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were proffered:
1. Institutions should endeavor to invest more in creating physical work environment. The
problem of erratic power supply should be looked into with a stimulating spatial
arrangement. Attention must also be given to the provision of basic infrastructures such
as buildings, classrooms, laboratories, workshops, administrative blocks, furniture and
work benches.
2. Institutions should integrate staff behaviours and attitude by building psychological
links between organisational and staff goals. In other words, focus must be on
increasing committed staff who are efficient and effective in using discretionary and
creative skills in performing assigned tasks.
3. On promotional system, the study recommends that management of University
education should consistently show greater concern for academic career advancement
programmes as observed by the junior staff. All academic staff irrespective of their
size, tribe, education and experience should be given a fair opportunity to develop.
Management of the Universities should wholly avoid the use of mediocrity and
favouritism for promotion and career advancement. The institutions can adopt an
objective performance appraisal as a basis for granting merit, increasing pay of
employee as well as promoting employee with the view to increasing their level of
productivity.
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4. Management team should often inform, educate and communicate policies and
opportunities regarding career development to all the staff through various programmes
and communication channel such as circular/memos and meetings. The management
should continually organise workshops, or seminars with work-related facilities to
update their staff skills, knowledge, abilities and competencies.
5. The management team of the organisation should strive to introduce a satisfactory
motivational package that will stimulate commitment and performance of academic
staff. Government should allocate sufficient fund to education, at least to meet up to
26% recommended by UNESCO.
6. Finally, the Ministry of Labour, Employment and Productivity should device various
alternatives to resolve pressing issues between the unions (ASUU) in the Universities
and governments in order to prevent recurring labour unrest. The management team
should endeavour to adopt a participative governance in order to promote peaceful co-
existence and industrial harmony.
7. Management should make certain that compensation packages for University lecturers
are equitable, impartial and competitive. Management of these tertiary institutions
should consistently take the issue of compensation totally and other aspects of
compensation aside salaries, for example other aspects such as benefits and incentives
should be implemented by the management of tertiary schools to foster the retention
outcome.
6.5 Contributions to Knowledge
This research study adds up a new dimension for the researchers in the area of human resource
management and organisational behaviour to investigate how different work environment
variables can influence retention outcomes like job commitment, staff loyalty, staff
involvement, staff satisfaction to staff productivity within the sampled institutions. In specific
terms, the thesis has contributed to academic and professional knowledge in the following
areas/respects, to mention just a few:
190
a) The study offers valuable context of ideas, facts and figures that can be adopted by
researchers, practitioners, government, NUC, and other stakeholders in
management education in exploring the dynamics and resultant-effects of work
environments on retention outcomes.
b) This thesis stands out as one of the rather few, original, empirical and latest
accounts of the practical correlation between work-environments (or employment
contingencies) and employee retention, especially within the context of a
developing society/economy - Nigeria. This type of rigorous and robust research
output is highly desirable and required or needed for the continuous, necessary
propagation of the school of thought and practice of strategic human resource
management (SHRM), also particularly in a developing country and emerging
market like Nigeria.
c) This thesis output has appreciably and commendably contributed to the expansion
of frontiers of existing academic and professional knowledge on the direct work-
organizational interface between structural factors and staff (human capital)
retention as well as its utilization for the logical fulfillment of founding goals and
the achievement of sustainable organizational development.
d) The findings of candidate’s research/thesis have added valuable tool and
professional knowledge that is practically indispensable for the strategic
management of tertiary educational institutions in Nigeria – especially, also, given
the primacy of education as one of the critical drivers of national economic
development.
e) The study also offered differences in the perceptions of work environments among
academic staff ranging from Professors, Associate Professors, Senior lecturers,
Lecturers 1, Lecturers 2, Assistant lecturers and Graduate Assistants in the
University.
f) Above all, adoptable policies, practices and strategies for modifying organisational
correlates of staff turnover and attrition were recommended/ preferred.
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6.6 Policy and Managerial Implications
The major policy implications of the findings for institutions in this study are
identified as follow:
A. Institutional policies tailored towards ensuring proper reward systems could
bring about higher satisfaction and productivity of the tertiary institutions.
Particularly because provision of adequate reward systems serve as stimulating
factor and predictor for staff commitment, satisfaction and productivity.
B. Policies on infrastructural should be targeted at enhancing favourable physical
work settings facilitate commitment of competent staff. However, if it is not
taken into consideration, it could lead to job dissatisfaction and low
productivity.
6.7 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Studies
(i) The sample from which the population was drawn comprised nineteen public (state)
Universities in southern Nigeria (NUC, September 2015). Because this population
study was restricted to southern Nigeria, it can be suggested that other public (state
Universities) institutions in Northern Nigeria, etc can further be studied.
(ii) Studies can also be conducted using the federal Universities within southern or northern
Nigeria. Future research can explore the relationship between work environments and
retention outcomes using private and federal Universities in Nigeria. This will also help
to compare the perceptions of the University lecturers in the two categories of schools.
(iii) This study employed mixed methods for data collection and semi structured interviews
were used as qualitative data collection approach. Further studies could employ in-
depth interviews as qualitative data collection process to enrich the data collection
process.
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(iv) Further research can carry out a similar study in foreign and private tertiary institutions
to determine the degree of reward system on retention outcomes. Finally, future
researchers can attempts to explore the causal-effects of variables (work environments
and retention outcomes) using all the geopolitical zones in Nigeria.
(v) Finally, the quantitative aspect of this research adopted survey method of data
collection other studies could consider carrying a study involving a longitudinal data
collection process to provide a reliable confirmation of the relationships identified in
this thesis.
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RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE
Department of Business Management
Industrial Relations and Human Resource Management Programme
Covenant University, P.M.B. 1023, Ota, Ogun State.
Dear Respondent,
I am a Doctoral candidate from the above named institution conducting a research on “Work
Environments and Retention Outcomes of state Universities in Southern Nigeria. Kindly
respond appropriately to each section of the questionnaire. Feel free to give your sincere
opinion and feelings as demanded by each question. Your response will be kept in absolute
confidence. It is purely for academic purpose.
Thank you.
Signed
SECTION A: SOCIO DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS
Instruction: Kindly tick ( ) and fill where applicable.
1. Name of Institution: ______________________________________________________
2. Gender: Male ( ) Female ( )
3. Status of Staff: Ass. Prof & Professor ( ) Senior lecturer ( ) Lecturer 1 ( ) Lecturer 2 ( )
Graduate & Asst. Lecturer ( )
4. Years of Service: 0 – 10 ( ), 11 – 20 ( ), 21years and above ( )
5. Highest Educational Qualification: Bachelor’s Degree ( ) Master’s Degree ( ) Ph.D ( )
6. Department/College/Faculty: ______________________________________________
7. Gross Annual Income/Pay: =N= 2,000,000 and below ( ), =N= 2,001,000 and above ( )
219
SECTION A: ROLE OF PHYSICAL SETTING IN ENHANCING STAFF COMMITMENT
Instruction: Please indicate on a scale of 1 to 5; If you Strongly Agree (SA), for instance, tick
5, or if you Strongly Disagree (SD), please tick 1. We are interested in the number that best
shows your views.
Items SA A U D SD
Q1 Working in noise free environment increases my job performance 5 4 3 2 1
Q2 The size of my office does not provide me enough space to achieve
performance expectation
5 4 3 2 1
Q3 The classrooms and offices are well ventilated for service
improvement
5 4 3 2 1
Q4 The lightning in the office attracts me to stay long on the job 5 4 3 2 1
Q5 Provision of ergonomic tool/furniture improves my workplace health
promotion
5 4 3 2 1
Q6 The office space arrangement induces my work engagement 5 4 3 2 1
Q7 The physical condition under which staff operates promote workplace
safety
5 4 3 2 1
Q8 The size of my office does not provide me enough space to work
comfortably
5 4 3 2 1
This section focuses on the characteristics of physical work environment in your
institution. To the best of your knowledge. Please circle the number or point that
represents your view on the physical factors.
S/N ITEMS Lowest
1-20%
Lower
21-40%
Middle
41-60%
Close
61-80%
Top
81-100%
1 Noise
2 Ventilation
3 Lightning
4 Ergonomics equipment
5 Workspace Arrangement
6 Moderate office/room
220
PSYCHOLOGICAL WORK MILIEU AND STAFF LOYALTY SA A U D SD
Q1 The University motivate lecturers by providing job-related
training with opportunity for growth
5 4 3 2 1
Q2 The degree of influence on the job as a lecturer gives
opportunity for career development and enrichment
5 4 3 2 1
Q3 The strategies put in place to motivate staff such as career
development and opportunity to earn promotion have helped to
retain competent staff for the realisation of organisational
fulfillment
5 4 3 2 1
Q4 Attitude toward relationships in the institution has put lecturers
in emotionally disturbing situations
5 4 3 2 1
Q5 My beliefs towards the institution’s mission and values do not
give room for personal growth
5 4 3 2 1
Q6 The University’s use of recognition and appreciation has
enhanced my stay and bond with them
5 4 3 2 1
Q7 My institution gives the possibility of learning new things
through the work and gives high priority to job satisfaction
5 4 3 2 1
Q8 Management support for workplace health promotion is not
closely associated with employees’ perceptions of their work
environment as healthy and safe.
5 4 3 2 1
Q9 The University gives lecturers the opportunity to creatively
develop their own abilities
5 4 3 2 1
ASSESSMENT OF JOB CONTENTS AND STAFF
INVOLVEMENT
SA A U D SD
Q1 The job requires using variety of skills and talents which gives
personal satisfaction
5 4 3 2 1
Q2 Lecturers have pretty opportunities to learn new things from
their work and ensure a sense of worthwhile accomplishment.
5 4 3 2 1
Q3 The job gives me considerable opportunity for independence
and quick
5 4 3 2 1
Q4 My workload is often increased because my colleagues are not
doing their jobs properly
5 4 3 2 1
Q5 The job denies me any chance to use my personal initiative and
this affects my employment continuity
5 4 3 2 1
Q6 The institution provides job where there is constant opportunity
to be creative and innovative
5 4 3 2 1
221
Q7 The management provides job with a supervisor/HOD who is
very critical of you and your work in front of other people.
5 4 3 2 1
Q8 The University provides the equipment and resources necessary
for me to execute my responsibilities.
5 4 3 2 1
Q9 The University provided work related facilities to enhance
effective teaching
5 4 3 2 1
THE STRUCTURE OF REWARD SYSTEM AND
STAFF SATISFACTION
SA A U D SD
Q1 The University’s reward system has increased my opportunities
for personal development satisfaction
5 4 3 2 1
Q2 The salary structure commensurate with lecturers current status
and thereby facilitate continuous employment relationship
5 4 3 2 1
Q3 Outstanding efforts are recognised and appreciated with
remunerations that stimulates job quality
5 4 3 2 1
Q4 Opportunities for advancement or promotion exist within the
University
5 4 3 2 1
Q5 Adequate provision of grants and funds increased my pay
satisfaction.
5 4 3 2 1
SA A U D SD
Q6 The benefit package is a significant factor in my decision to stay
with the University
5 4 3 2 1
Q7 Compared with other related industries, the University salary
package is fair
5 4 3 2 1
Q8 The criteria for promotion in my institution is based on other
factors than merit and this adversely affect my dispositions to
increasing commitment
5 4 3 2 1
Q9 The institution’s strategies for staff promotion are based on
‘whom you know’ and this result in poor career satisfaction
5 4 3 2 1
Q10 I will continue to work for my institution to achieve its goals
because of the rewards and supervisory supports am currently
enjoying.
5 4 3 2 1
222
ORGANISATIONAL CLIMATE AND STAFF PRODUCTIVITY SA A U D SD
Q1 Management practice of the University only allow lecturers to
attend international and national conferences as presenters not as
participants.
5 4 3 2 1
Q2 Management and leadership style is sensitive and supportive of
lecturer‘s work schedule.
5 4 3 2 1
Q3 Management style does not allow for academic input in the
decision making process.
5 4 3 2 1
Q4 Management style encourages junior academic career path and
growth.
5 4 3 2 1
Q5 My participation in decision making enhance my ability to
provide organisational supports
5 4 3 2 1
Q6 The work schedules in the institution have not provided
opportunity for developing and improving technology skills
5 4 3 2 1
Q7 Communication between management of the University at all
levels and lecturers are often friendly and efficient
5 4 3 2 1
Q8 The institution devoid friendliness, warmth, empathy and sense
of respect for its academic staff
5 4 3 2 1
Q9 As a lecturer, what keeps me with the institution is not the pay
but rather the quality of work life balance
5 4 3 2 1
Q10 The University unlike other organisations do not have any formal
orientation programme for their new lecturers
5 4 3 2 1
SECTION C
OPEN-ENDED QUESTION
Instruction: Please give precise answer to the following questions. You may give practical
examples where possible.
1. Please indicate three (3) other problems affecting your work environment.
a. ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
b. ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
c. …………………………………………………………………………….………
…………………………………………………………………………………….
223
2. Please to the three (3) problems above, kindly indicate how management could resolve them.
a. ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
b. ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
c. …………………………………………………………………………….………
…………………………………………………………………………………….
224
APPENDIX II
IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR ASUU EXECUTIVES/MEMBERS
COVENANT UNIVERSITY, CANAAN LAND, KM.10 IDIROKO ROAD, P.M.B.1023,
OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
WORK ENVIRONMENTS AND RETENTION OUTCOMES OF ACADEMIC STAFF
I thank you very much for accepting to participate in this study. I want to crave your indulgence
to record our session today. This will enable me to analyse this session for the purpose of
generalising the results.
There are few questions I would like to ask and I will be happy if you can be as open as possible
and be confident that your responses shall be kept confidential.
1. How do you feel with workplace environment the institution provides?
2. How would you rate the physical work setting of the institution?
3. How would you rate the compensation and benefit of the institution?
4. How would you rate the promotional system of the institution?
5. How would you describe the level of research support/grants and teaching facilities in
your institution?
6. Identify specific aspects in this institution that your Union would like to change in order
to improve the working conditions?
7. Can you identify the barriers that affect your working conditions?
8. What has been the role of the union in finding solutions to problems which will satisfy
members’ expectations
9. Can you tell me the retentions strategy put in place by your institution?
225
APPENDIX III
IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR MANAGEMENT
COVENANT UNIVERSITY, CANAAN LAND, KM.10 IDIROKO ROAD, P.M.B.1023,
OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
WORK ENVIRONMENTS AND RETENTION OUTCOMES OF ACADEMIC STAFF
I thank you very much for accepting to participate in this study. I want to crave your indulgence
to record our session today. This will enable me to analyse this session for the purpose of
generalising the results.
There are few questions I would like to ask and I will be happy if you can be as open as possible
and be confident that your responses shall be kept confidential.
1. How would you describe the work environment provided for the staff in the institution?
2. In what ways have you tried to satisfy the needs of the staff?
3. How would you rate the compensation and benefit of the academic staff?
4. How would you rate the promotional system of the institution?
5. How would you describe the level of research support/grants and teaching facilities
made available for staff in your institution?
6. Can you identify the major barriers affecting the retention outcomes in your institution?
7. What has been the role of management in finding solutions to problems which will
satisfy members’ expectations
8. Can you tell me the retentions strategy put in place to retain talent in your institution?
226
APPENDIX IV
Find below the list of State Universities in Nigeria
University Name City State Website
Abia State University Uturu Abia State http://www.absuu.net
Adamawa State University Mubi Adamawa
State
http://www.adamawastateuni.com
Adekunle Ajasin
University, Akungba
Akungba Ondo State http://www.ajasin.edu.ng
Ambrose Alli University,
Ekpoma
Ekpoma Edo State http://www.aauekpoma.edu.ng
Anambra State University
of Science & Technology
Uli Anambara
State
http://www.ansu-edu.net
Bauchi State University,
Gadau
Gadau Bauchi
State
Offline
Benue State University,
Makurdi
Makurdi Benue
State
Offline
Bukar Abba Ibrahim
University, Damaturu
Damaturu Yobe State http://www.baiu.edu.ng
Cross River State
University of Science &
Technology
Calabar Cross
River State
Offline
Delta State University
Abraka
Abraka Delta State Offline
Ebonyi State University,
Abakaliki
Abakaliki Ebonyi
State
http://www.ebsu-edu.net
Ekiti State University Ado Ekiti Ekiti State http://eksu.edu.ng
Ekiti State University of
Science and Technology
Ado Ekiti Ekiti State Offline
Enugu State University of
Science and Technology
Enugu Enugu
State
http://www.esut.edu.ng
Evan Enwerem University,
Owerri
Owerri Imo State http://www.imsu.edu.ng
Gombe State Univeristy,
Gombe
Gombe Gombe
State
http://gombestateuniversity.academ
ia.edu
Ibrahim Badamasi
Babangida University,
Lapai
Lapai Niger
State
http://www.ibbuniversity.com/
Kaduna State University,
Kaduna
Kaduna Kaduna
State
http://www.kasuportal.net
Kano University of Science
& Technology, Wudil
Wudil Kano State http://kustportal.edu.ng
227
Kebbi State University,
Kebbi
Kebbi Kebbi
State
http://www.ksusta.edu.ng
Kogi State University
Anyigba
Anyigba Kogi State http://myksuportal.com
Kwara State University,
Ilorin
Ilorin Kwara
State
http://www.kwasu.edu.ng
Ladoke Akintola
University of Technology,
Ogbomoso Osun State http://www.lautech.edu.ng
Lagos State University Ojo Ojo Lagos
State
http://www.lasunigeria.org
Nasarawa State University,
Keffi
Keffi Nasarawa
State
http://www.nsukonline.net
Niger Delta Unversity,
Yenagoa
Yenagoa Bayelsa
State
http://ndu.edu.ng.tripod.com
Olabisi Onabanjo
University Ago-Iwoye
Ago-Iwoye Ogun State http://www.oou-ng.com
Ondo State University of
Science & Technology
Okitipupa Ondo State http://www.osustech.edu.ng
Osun State University,
Oshogbo
Oshogbo Osun State http://uniosun.edu.ng
Plateau State University,
Bokkos
Bokkos Plateau
State
http://www.plasu.edu.ng
Rivers State University of
Science & Technology
Oroworuk
wo
Rivers
State
http://www.ust.edu.ng/
Sokoto State University,
Sokoto
Sokoto Sokoto
State
Offine
Tai Solarin Univ. of
Education, Ijebu-Ode
Ijebu-Ode Ogun State http://www.tasu.edu.ng
Taraba State University,
Jalingo
Jalingo Taraba
State
Offline
Umaru Musa Yar'Adua
University, Katsina
Katsina Katsina
State
http://www.umyu.edu.ng/
University of Education,
Ikere Ekiti
Ikere Ekiti Ekiti State Offline
228
APPENDIX V
CATREG Quantifications/Plot/Transformation for University A
Residuals
229
CATREG Quantifications/Plot/Transformation for University B
Residuals
230
CATREG Quantifications/Plot/Transformation for University C
Residuals
231
CATREG Quantifications/Plot/Transformation for University D
Residuals
232
CATREG Quantifications/Plot/Transformation for University E
Residuals
233
CATREG Quantifications/Plot/Transformation for University F
Residuals