1.

SAINT ROBERT OF KNARESBOROUGH

Dr Frank Bottomley

1993

PREFACE

The Life of St Robert provides us with a fascinating picture of heroic Christian endeavour at a time when faith and superstition were almost inextricably mingled. The subject is no plaster-saint but a real person who, on occasion can lay about lustily with a stick, can boldly beard tyrants and throughout his life offers unceasing consolation to both the poor in spirit and those lacking worldly goods. He is the friend and defender of social outcasts and so identified with them that the powers of law and order can accuse him of encouraging criminality. We see him falling asleep at his devotions through utter exhaustion, laughing at the strange ways of Providence, and displaying, like many ascetics, remarkable powers over wild creatures. We are given glimpses of the harshness and corruption of life at the turn of C12/Cl3: thieves are hanged, retainers are threatened with losing their eyes, and the recalcitrant may be burned alive inside their houses. We are introduced to an arrogant noble, a venal rector and a lax community of monks. But, on the other hand, the characters include a son who forswears his inheritance to follow a vocation, his rich brother who is prepared to abandon the chief citizenship of York for an obscure life in the cloister and an illiterate lay brother with a reputation for holy wisdom. The spirituality of the period comes over not only through the story itself but in the way in which it is recorded. A nightmare may be misinterpreted as a divine visitation, but nevertheless produces a real searching of conscience. A wandering tramp who maliciously interrupts devout prayers might be taken for an emissary of the Devil but there is no mistake about the prayers and devotion that have been disturbed. The deprivation and suffering is real, whether it is the result of external circumstance or voluntarly embraced for some greater good. We do not forget Robert sacrificing his sleep in order to seek divine assistance in giving wise spiritual advice or the bruised and frozen feet of lvo as he begs on behalf of the poor in the wintry streets of York. Real too are the values: the devoted care and willing sacrifice to relieve the crying needs of the poor but the even greater concern for the spiritual good of everyone. The best teaching is by example and the real Robert, like Chaucer's (fictional?) poor parson of the town, taught the law of Christ but first he followed it himself. This life is translated from the Latin biography written c.1250 by a Trinitarian friar of the priory which succeeded Robert's hermitage. It exists·in the British Museum ms. Egerton 3143 which contains other related material including the notable ''Life'' in English verse. The Latin text is printed as Appendix Bin E.E.T.S. Publications (London 1953): 'The Metrica l Life of St. Robert of Knaresborough'.

1. St. Robert of Knaresborough, an Englishman by birth, came of distinguished parentage. He was born in the city of York of a father named Took Flower1 and of a mother called Siminima, both of whom were numbered among the upper classes of the said city, and they saw to it that he was brought up in a most Christian fashion. They bestowed the name Robert on this son whom they had begotten and they brought him up to be both well-mannered and virtuous. When he was grown, they continued to improve his general knowledge and morality together with particular excellences, so that his character was well-formed. Robert afforded his mind no opportunity for the growth of lust or inordinate affection, for he occupied himself in frequent prayer and every other pursuit of holiness. He never once succcumbed to sexual pleasure. This young man was so well equipped with every virtue and so illumined and inspired by the indwelling grace of the Holy Spirit that he was set on the way to perfection in the fullness of God.

Robert was in the habit of frequenting churches and even more often spending time in monasteries2 and the chosen youth had the intention of serving God more fervently in the office of the priesthood. I am totally ignorant of what made him withdraw from this initial intention and therefore we entirely commit this question to God, from whom no secret is hidden, rather than make a rash attempt to explain something about which we know nothing. Anyway, this devout man, turning to the bishop, persistently asked for ordination to the subdiaconate and the bishop willingly agreed to his request. However, when he had been raised to this minor order by the hand of the bishop, he withdrew from proceeding to major orders.

2. When some time had passed, Robert journeyed into the westem3 parts of the country and there withdrew into a certain Cistercian monastery called Newminster4 where there was a lay-brother who, though quite unlettered, was outstanding in the religious life. When Robert and the lay-brother of that house had greeted each other, the monk said: ''It is time to commit yourself to climbing the ladder of perfe ction5 and virtue in a place where you may learn the spiritual rules andthe holy training of the saints."

When he had heard this salutary counsel, Robert sought and received acceptance among the brethren from the abbot of that place. During his time there, the abbot of Newminster, seeing that his manner of life was most accomplished and observing the miracles which God considered worth demonstrating through him, said: ''Monks, pay attention to the way that the birds of the air are obedient to this man and notice how Robert vexes his flesh and turns aside from all worldly pleasures!'' WhenRobert had stayed there four months and fifteen days6, he (in obedience to the revelation of the Holy Spirit) went back to his natural parents.

3.

A few days after his return, without consulting his parents, the man of God (summoned by a divine call) took refuge in Knaresborough where a hermit was living the solitary life under a crag and Robert chose to live in his company. When the hermit saw him, he gave Robert the welcome he deserved and said: ''I thank Almighty God who has condescended to send me a doughty and most devout companion." Not very long afterwards, the hermit-knight7 - at the instigation of the Devil - returned to his wife and children as a dog returns to its vomit and Robert was left alone, deprived of every human solace, where he vexed his flesh with remark­ able austerities. But later, Robert went to a devout matron8 who lived not far from his cell and was held in high repute by many people. Of her Robert sought alms in these words: ''Woman, devoted to God, of your largesse vouchsafe to grant me a generous gift from your property." She replied: ''I make you a grant of the chapel of St. Hilda the Virgin9 and as much of the adjacent land as it may please you to till." So Robert accepted the alms and remained in that place as a solitary for almost a year during which he afflicted his body with continual

austerities. Now he had the time for divine contemplation and the- practice of other virtues, and he found much favour with God. 4. However, on one occasion, as the man of God was passing the night immoveable in prayers and other holy meditations, thieves10 came across him, broke into his cell and stole the food of the poor i.e. bread, cheese and suchlike things. Having done this, the thieves endeavoured to make their getaway as fast as they could. The man of God was not perturbed by this, knowing that the compassion of God is always at hand in temptation, but chose rather to call to mind the passage in the Gospel which says: ''If they persecute you in one city, flee to another''11 So Robert decided to leave that place and go to the village of Spofforth12 There he stayed for some time, persisting even more zealously in the practice of prayer and other disciplines. As the report of his holiness spread, a multitude from the surrounding countryside flocked to him in crowds and offered him praise and honour as though he were a saint. Thereupon, the holy man, always spurning vainglory, had no more desire to stay in that place and departed from it unobserved. When the monks of Hedley13 heard of his departure from Spofforth, they earnestly besought him to come and stay with them. The man of God accepted their invitation modestly and humbly joined their community, subjecting himself to their spiritual regulations. Now the only clothing with which that most unprodigal man was vested was a white cowl which was of more use to cover his nakedness than to keep his body warm14 He made his bread from four parts of wheat and a fifth of sieved ashes and he was quick to reject meat, whether roast or boiled, the moment he detected its taste.15 He seasoned his own food with the uncooked leaves of vegetables or a few beans with some added salt, but once a week he mixed in a little meal.

‘O you who live in comfort and from vanity seek out every kind of dress: you who not only fill, but over-dilate, your bellies with refined food and drink: set before your mental vision this holy man with his simple cloth­ ing and untasty food!' Eventually, the humble and modest Robert became totally displeasing to those who were perverse and dissolute. His manner of life seemed to be with the heavenly law-givers, for he was wise about heavenly matters but, not about those of earth. He remembered that text of Paul: 'If I should please men, I would not be a servant of Christ'.16 His conduct was an implicit criticism of the monks' shortcomings and therefore he came under attack from those whose lives were dissolute and who envied his most holy manner of life. Therefore, he returned again to the chapel of St. Hilda the Virgin where he had lived before, for he preferred to live by himself along with wild beasts in their fury than to dwell with brethren who assailed him with ill-will since, as Paul remarks, there is danger in false brethren.17

6. Robert, then, returned to the place where he had lived before and to the same blessed matron whom we mentioned earlier. She greatly rejoiced at his glorious arrival and, without delay, assembled builders and all necessary materials for barns to store the fruits of the earth.18 Robert discouraged any kind of idle talk among his guests and servants, especially when he was taking a meal19. He often spent the entire night in prayer and vigils and when he took his limited sleep it was prostrate on the hard floor. He had four servants: two were set on farming work and a third was kept for all the other necessary jobs out in the fields. The fourth he retained by his side as he walked about the neighbourhood begging alms from the faithful on behalf of the poor and needy who gathered round his cell.

7. It happened one day that Robert fell asleep among the sweet-smelling flowers of a pleasant meadow and he dreamed that he saw his mother who had lately died. She appeared utterly sad, pale and unkempt, and informed her son that, because of her usury and other crimes of short measure which she hadcommitted during her life time20 she was sentenced to the most grievous punishment unless Robert would condescend to assist her by pouring out the most devoted prayers on her behalf. Robert, greatly moved by his mother's distress, promised to do this for her. So, for almost a whole year, Robert poured out tears and prayers for his mother until at last God heard him favourably in accordance with the Lord's saying to his disciples: 'Whatsoever you ask in my name, that will be given you.'21 Thus, on another occasion as we are told, Robert's mother appeared to him as he slept but, this time, with a calm face and joyful appearance. She announced, amid much thanksgiving and blessings to God and her son, she was now going to her eternal rest.

8. So, as has been said before, Robert the man of God is proved worthy in every respect and yet there was further evidence that divine providence was clearly working on him in accordance with the text that says 'He who loves his son will beat him with many blows'22 for he was subjected to even further testing. Although Robert continued to discipline himself with unbelievable fasting and abstinence and though he pursued his watching and prayer by day and night, yet trials persisted. One day it happened that a certain Sir William Stuteville23 the lord of that area, came by accident upon Robert's cell. When he saw these [new] buildings, Stuteville made diligent enquiry as to whom they belonged, and his servants told him that a hermit, called Robert, dwelt in that place and that he was most devoted to God. Stuteville, pricked on by diabolical ill-will, was extremely angry and said: ''That is not the case at all! This man is an abettor and harbourer of thieves and robbers!''24 and he made an oath by the eyes of God25 that Robert should be cast out from his forest nor would he be allowed any further lodging in that place. So, full of threats, he burst out in fury to his servants: ''Dependants,26

throw out this hypocritical Robert as quick as you can and, at the same time, tear down his buildings to their foundations. If he should have the arrogance not to clear out, then be sure to burn him alive along with his buildings!''

When William had gone away, his followers were unwilling to execute the immoderate orders of their lord but pretended that they had done so. However, a few days later that same William came back, fuming like a lion in his furious rage, and saw that his servants had done little to carry out his commands and had produced not the smallest effect. ''By the eyes of God!'', he swore, ''I will tear out your eyes if my authority is ignored any longer!'' So his followers, in fear of their lord's retribution, levelled with the ground the buildings that were the property of Robert, that most blessed servant of God. The humble hermit saw that his trials and tribulations were being multiplied by the Devil's action because it was that cunning enemy of the human race who had roused Stuteville against him and brought about the destruction of his buildings. His passion erupted in these words to the servants: ''Go back to your lord and tell him that willy, nilly, my resting-place will be next to his tower27 for ever. I am not in the least afraid either of his malice or his threats. Because the Lord is my protector I have no fear of what man may do to me!''28 9. [From his destroyed site] Robert went down to the place near Knaresborough where he had his first hermitage but found nowhere to live there except the chapel of St. Egidius. In the same place he constructed a modest shelter for himself from small branches and bushes growing from the rock. There, in quietude and far from the madding crowd, he occupied himself in the contemplation of God.

Many things could be told of this remarkable father30 but much must be omitted because it is impossible for one man to know all the works which God wrought through him. He was indeed a true and shining light31, visible enough in recent times - a light placed on a mountain and not under a bushel, so that those who come near might gaze without impediment on the light of truth. So the report of Robert's holiness was spread far and wide in the county so that there flowed to him a stream of nobles and commoners of either sex. They came bringing a variety of offerings and went away more rooted in the love of Christ and rejoicing that they had seen Robert's face and had 'been edified by converse with him. Because of his saintliness, the people handed over to the man of God the little field between the rock and the river so that he could cultivate it with his own ploughs.32

Shortly after this time, as some worthy of trust assert, Robert heard a demon shouting in a wretched voice: ''Alas, alack! I have hurled man down from the joys of paradise but I do not have the power to overcome this Robert though he is weak and unarmed." So the enemy of man's salvation mourned that he could not prevail against this disciple and had been vanquished so often by this feeble body because the devil is better at wiles and subtle power than at the display of plain strength. Therefore, reader, what is it about Robert to which our attention is drawn by this incident? Is it really possible that a man could resist unclean spirits by clear discernment unless he had been taught by the outpouring of the Holy Spirit and His superabundant grace?

10. The devil himself, unable to endure or tolerate at any price the patient endurance of Robert in whom he could discover no weakness, (changed tactics). By diabolical strategems and evil cunning and because it is his nature to move rapidly, the devil left the hermit and, as he had done before, stirred up the aforesaid Sir William against the Lord's servant Robert so that in this way he might slyly undo him. It was not long before William de Stuteville returned from the South33 and one day, penetrating by chance into the neighbourhood of Robert's little cave34, saw smoke rising into the sky from the fire in the house which Robert had recently built. Deeply concerned, the lord enquired about the smoke's origin. Those standing near replied that it came from the little house where Robert the hermit dwelt in holiness. ''Is this'', asked William, ''that same man whose buildings I laid low and whom I drove out of my forest?'' They replied, ''That is so''. Then, in great wrath, William swore: ''By God's eyes! I will not give rest to my own eyes until I have utterly overthrown the shelter of this Robert!'' But, because of the onset of darkness, he was not able then to fulfil his vow and so, having returned to his castle and warmed himself with strong wine, he reiterated his oath that on the morrow Robert should be utterly driven out from his dwelling. When William had gone to sleep in his bed he had a nightmare in which three men, of fearful and horrible aspect and blacker than soot, appeared. Two of them pulled an iron sledge, flaming with fire and filled with very sharp and glowing spikes which they drove into the side of the sleeper. The third, a man of great height, bore in his hands two iron maces and, rushing up to the knight's bed, shouted: ''You cruel ruler and devil's instrument, get up quickly and take up the other mace to defend your own neck on account of the injuries which you intend to inflict on the man of God, since I am sent here to take up the cudgels on his behalf." 35 William was not only astonished but terrified and, extending his hands to heaven, cried out: ''Man, have pity on me and spare my soul! I promise that I will put right as quickly as possible all wrongs that I have committed and I will never repeat them." Immediately the entire terrifying vision of the dreadful men disappeared from sight. William gave careful thought to the significance of this godsent vision in relation to the irresponsible power which he had proposed to exercise against Robert the servant of God. But he gave unmeasured thanks to God because this terrifying apparition had prevented him from carrying out his intention. In this way the baron was seized by divine power: the wolf was transformed into a lamb, the persecutor into a protector and the one who had once been an assailant now revered Robert on bended knee.36

When morning had come, William rose and with all speed went to the little house of the man of God and there entered Robert's presence with humility and devotion. When he set eyes on God's servant, William knelt and, raising his hands to heaven, said with a sigh: ''Robert, beloved of God, do not remember the evils which I unworthily performed earlier when I was ignorant of your saintliness. Forgive me, since I ask your pardon and promise to make good in full the evil that I have done37 Then he gave the man of God a full account of the vision described above, and Robert said: ''May God who grants pardon and indulgence forgive you whatever harm you have done to me." Then he raised William from the ground with the words: '' Accept the kiss of peace'' and this was bestowed. After this, William wholeheartedly transferred into Robert's hands in perpetual alms all the land lying between his cliff and Grimbald Kirkstone. So that the ground might not lie untilled, he also provided him with two oxen, two horses and the same number of cows. William also gave Robert a yearly grant, from Christmas to the morrow of the Epiphany, of enough food to support thirty needy paupers as well as unlimited alms to alleviate the needs of poor people weighed down by their poverty38

What a remarkable change (was wrought) by the right hand of the Most High! Because Robert served God in holiness and humility, a tyrant was transformed into a defender, a derider into a supporter and a persecutor into a protector and fellow-worker with Robert the servant of God. 11. Since he was firm in rebuke and attractive in his homilies when crowds flocked to him, Robert (under the tuition of the Holy Spirit) was able to draw from his hearers their own dispositions and, with the spirit of pride removed, enable the Holy Spirit to find a better place (within them).'Robert gave scarcely any attention to the bodily needs of pilgrims (except for the very poor) and, in fact, directed his total energies to spiritual matters: following the (teaching of) the divine scriptures and the leadership of Christ.

At that time, when Robert's fame was rapidly spreading far and wide, his brother Walter (mayor of the city of York) came to see him because of the many things he had heard. He discovered even greater things about Robert because of the teaching of the Holy Spirit who was at work within him. Consequently, Walter addressed him as follows: ''Dear brother, your dwelling is altogether too constricted and inadequate, and it is entirely lacking in every kind of amenity. Therefore, you ought not to remain in it any longer. If you are willing to take my advice and go away from here to join a regular community in any place you choose, I will (in all sincerity) join you there." The man of God, completely consistent in sticking to what he had begun, replied: ''This is my abiding-place for ever; here shall I dwell, because this is the place I have chosen''.38 When Walter saw his brother's obduracy and recognised that in no way was Robert going to agree with him, he returned to York. From there sent workmen, skilled in various crafts, so that by their efforts a little chapel of the Holy Cross might be constructed where Robert had settled.39. Its foundation was laid in Christ Jesus as the apostle says: 'A foundation is laid which is Christ Jesus'. Little by little the building rose, made from the living rock and from well­cut and polished stone. The hermitage was extended so that it could receive the poor and the pilgrims making a voluntary journey as well as those hastening to the heavenly Jerusalem.4

0

Even so, there was no lack of temptations from the Enemy and ambushes by the opposing foe who worked to pull up what had been planted, to remove the foundations, to scatter what had been gathered and to hand over to death those who had been scattered. He laboured with every kind of ruse and every type of cunning.

12. All that has gone before is just a selection from the many things that Robert accomplished before he gathered a fellow-worker41 and there are very many things outstanding which I have preserved through the word of God and the grace of the Holy Spirit42 Some time after the building of the new chapel, having travelled some little distance away (from his hermitage), Robert saw someone called Yvo43, a humble and meek person, and said to him: ''Follow me, and I will make you a steward of the Lord and Saviour." Ivo replied: ''I will leave everything and come to you as fast as I can."44 Robert put this man in charge of gathering the alms devoted to the poor.

Thus the saint accepted the new situation of having an assistant (which is what he had asked God for) but, lest lvo should falter under the great harshness of his self-discipline, Robert discussed this danger with him at great length and gave him much advice. Also, lest lvo should shrink from poverty, Robert set before him many examples from (the lives of) the saints with the intention that, little by little, Ivo should be able to turn his back on the aridity caused by worldly heat and, instead, quench his thirst in the sweet refreshment of the heavenly spring45. Robert assured lvo that, this reward had been promised by Truth himself in the words: 'He who drinks from this spring will never thirst again'.46 He also taught Ivo the way by which a sinner should approach God and be reconciled to him.47 He further instructed him in the nature of the works, endeavours and virtues by which a righteous man might attain the company of the blessed spirits: how humility, building on righteousness, would bring him to heaven. He expounded the kind of simplicity by which he might get there; the sort of obedience that would bring acquaintance with the hidden things of God: the kind of repentance and strength of soul by which he might be possessed; the nature of that chastity that brings one near to God47, of that virginity that walks with Christ and of that poverty which brings possession of the kingdom of heaven.49 These, and similar matters, the God-filled man rehearsed to lvo many times and from one day to another in order to give him encouragement.50.

13. As the shepherd continued his instruction, the envious wolf (unable to overcome the shepherd) attempted to devour the sheep by machinations against the sheepfold. There can be no doubt that the wolf with his ravening jaws contrived pitfalls for the sheep. I would describe these diabolic strategems truly as lethal traps because the method proceeded by breaking down the enclosure of the sheepfold , entering secretly, then making them shake with terror and when they were terrified he struck them down with the hammer of his tail.51 Once brought down they are slain and, when dead, he chews them up with his gaping mouth and brings them to perdition.52 Because his pride is greater than his courage53, the Tempter approached Ivo and, as far as lay in his power, greatly goaded him with thoughts of failure. As a result, Ivo lacked the strength to endure the subtlety and variety of these temptations and decided to leave the hermitage secretly. It happened that, as he walked carelessly through the wood, he accidentally fell, breaking his shin on the branch of a tree and falling headlong into a pit. The man of God became aware in the spirit of this happening and ran quickly to the assistance of the man whom he habitually supported in every trial. When he found Ivo, the latter was complaining bitterly about the pain in his leg but then, with the trace of a smile, he said to Robert: '''What's happening to that regular sermon of yours about rejoicing with those who rejoice and weeping with those who weep?54 That should be affecting your reactions now!'' Robert replied, ''I'm laughing out loud, because your misfortune stems from the merciful dispensation of God. It is not intended to be a spiritual mortification but an aid to your improvement. Remember the words of Him who said: 'No man who looks back after putting his hand to the plough is worthy of the kingdom of God''.'55 Then with his holy hand, Robert blessed the copiously bleeding leg and made it whole and unharmed as it had been before, and so he brought the restored Ivo quickly back to his cell. Thus that Serpent was scotched and went away. (By 'serpent', I mean that most ancient and malign foe who lacks all honesty and truth, and is the source of every evil).

14. So, as was mentioned earlier, Ivo remained as a true companion56 to Robert, bound to him in unfeigned charity and the indissoluble bond of love. This loyalty persisted to the end of Ivo's life which was always marked by tranquility, peace and holiness. Some time after his accident, Ivo travelled barefoot to York, seeking alms for the poor57, and his devotion was manifest to all from the marks on his blood-stained feet which were further reddened by the ice and freezing cold. About this time, five thieves were put to death by the strong and avenging hand of man. These were the criminals who had robbed Robert of bread and cheese and suchlike things when he was living at the chapel of St. Hilda. Thus, as the prophet says, the most wretched death of evil-doers came upon them58.

Throughout the period during which the above things (of which I can speak credibly) were taking place, Robert continued to be patient in vigils, industrious in spiritual works, gentle in word and gracious in his outward manner, kindly to the simple but harsh towards enemies and evildoers. He did not allow others to prepare a meal for him or even set up a table. More often than not, the ground was his bench and his knees provided the table. A dish of salt, and nothing else, gave savour to his food; for drink he had water and bread was the only filling for his belly. Meat, when he rec­ ognised its smell, he entirely refused to eat.

15. If we recounted the whole truth (about Robert's life) and kept to the order of things as they actually happened, it should not in any way cause distaste or complaint among either readers or listeners, even if some grudging people might find certain things tedious or unnecessary. In fact, we shall only record truths that are attested by people who actually saw or heard them. Such evidence cannot be passed over and events set out in any other way than in the order of their occurence cannot give satisfaction to those who wish to know about them. In particular, there is one remarkable happening which the Creator chose to manifest through the agency of St. Robert that we simply must not leave out. On a certain occasion the hermit presented himself most humbly to the lord of Knaresborough59 and asked directly that he should be given a cow for the benefit of the needy who were suffering through their extreme poverty. Without any ado, the lord willingly granted this petition since he had in his forest a most ferocious wild cow whom none of his servants durst approach. (I do not know with what intention or in what spirit the lord made this grant but he did freely give Robert permissionto take away this cow.) When Robert had made his way as quickly as possible into the depths of the forest, he caught the cow by twining his hands about her neck and, without delay, he took her - quiet as a pet lamb – back to the house whence he had set out. While everyone in the vicinity was standing still, unable to take their eyes away from this incredible marvel, one of the lord's servants burst out to his master: ''Will you allow me immediately to recover from Robert that cow which you gave him so generously?'' The lord replied: ''No! I do not give my approval to such an action." But that liegeman, ignoring the sound advice of his lord, covered his livery and usual costume with the clothes of a poor man and pretended to be a squinting cripple with palsied fingers. He ran into Robert's path and, in a mournful voice with many groans and tears asked (for the cow in) alms for himself and his children who, he claimed, were crushed by starvation.

Though St. Robert recognised inwardly that the man's actions were a pretence, he amicably surrendered the cow with these words: ''It was God who gave her and to God she belongs, but may the condition which you have mimicked fall in reality on you." When the liegeman attempted to withdraw and take the cow with him, though he wanted to move, he remained stockstill. He really was a cripple. When he realised that a divine judgement had fallen upon him because he was making sport of the man of God, he shooed the cow away and called out to Robert's back: ''Man of God, vouchsafe

in your mercy to forgive the wrong I have doned you!'' In response, the saint unassumingly and kindly granted his forgiveness and the man, restored to his former well-being, returned in joy and gladness to his proper condition.

16. The Lord showed his esteem for his chosen servant, Robert, by frequent and unprecendented miraculous tokens. Day by day, He increased his servant's title to sainthood and made his reputation ever more exalted as He added great things to greater. Miracle followed on miracle so that he was a manifestation of holiness and an idea of all that is good to everyone living in the neighbourhood as a result of the wonderful works which God deignedto displaythroughhim.60

Robert shonewithmanymiracles which, on account of their number, the time available and the extension (of this work) which their inclusion would require, cannot be related here. Nevertheless, among them all, there is one which I am unwilling to pass over. It concerns the deer which often came from the Forest and invaded the saint's crops, trampling them down and eating them.

Robert went to the lord of Knaresborough and made a heartfelt complaint about the damage which the deer had caused and besought him to take measures for their secure confinement. The lord replied: ''Robert, I grant you full authority to shut them up in your barn until you receive full satisfaction for the damage that they have done."61 The saint went from his presence into the field and caught the deer in the standing corn near him. By waving a stick in their direction in the same way in which he used to drive tame lambs, Robert herded the deer to his barn and locked them up securely in accordance with the principles of justice. Then he returned to the lord and gave a clear account of what he had done, emphasising at the same time that the lord should quickly remove the deer from the place where Robert had impounded them. When the lord realised that Robert had achieved the incredible, he marvelled inwardly and said: ''I give and freely grant to you the ownership of those deer that you have caught in your com. You may harness them to your plough62 or make use of them in fieldwork in whatever way seems to you best and convenient." Robert expressed his gratitude and returned to his hermitage. What happened next? He brought the deer from his barn and harnessed them together to his plough. Throughout the following days he used them as draught animals, as though they were oxen, to cultivate his land. Those who were about at the time and some who took their place were witnesses to this remarkable procedure. But those who come after will see even greater things, as Truth himself testifies: ''The works that I do, he will do also, and greater works than these''63 and he says in another place: ''If you believe, you will see greater things than these.''64

17. On one occasion, Robert the man of God proposed to spend the whole of the ensuing night without sleep and, in his worship of God, to ask Him who is the giver of good counsel and supporter of meritorious works to give him assistance (according to His good pleasure) by guiding his counsel and aiding his endeavours.65 He thus passed the night in prayer but at daybreak his chin slipped from his supporting hand and he fell asleep. Lo! that Enemy who is the source of all evil was immediately on hand in the hope that he might have some influence, never previously possible, on those members which the saint had previously used against him.66 Mocking and abusive, he spoke as follows: ''Well! Well! You have attempted a great many things but what result do you hope to achieve when you cannot persevere for a single night in what you set out to do?'' Then that evil spirit presumed to touch with his most foul hands every single one of thesaint's (food) containers: of relish, of bread, and suchlike things.67 The saint replied: ''Get out, you wretched creature! Get out! Do not dare to trouble me, for I am not going to put up with your tricks any longer!'' The evil spirit was so confounded that he withdrew. Thus, without any outside help and supported only by God's assistance, the saint applied

himself to the recitation of prayers and psalms without cessation. Standing absolute against worldly vanity and desire he applied himself to heavenly contemplation. 18. But this treacherous and malicious spirit is never satisfied and it were no wonder if he were to absorb the sea or even attempt to suck up the river Jordan in its entirety. Though he was unable to bring down the saint completely, he did not hesitate to return audaciously when he had acquired more arcane strategems. For, on another occasion, this accomplished dissembler devised another kind of deception by coming before Robert in the guise of a very dark-skinned peasant, blacker than soot and grinding his teeth. He set himself opposite Robert, trying to hinder him when he began his prayers but the saint, little fearing the attacks which he had endured so frequently, seized an aspergil68 and threw holy water at the demon who was insulting him. In no way able to endure this, the demon rapidly evacuated the chapel, leaving behind him a horrible stench.69 Robert shouted after him: ''Wretched and unhappy being, lowest of all creatures, you - I say - who once had something of the likeness of God and lost knowledge of the truth through your pride, will deserve your sentence of eternal damnation through persisting in your rebelliousness." 19. But on the subject of the devil, we must not pass over the fact that he continued to attack and insult the man of God as he had so often done before. For instance, he again appeared when Robert was on his knees in the middle of his prayers. He took the form of a twelve-year-old boy who, with derisive laughter and loud noise, hindered Robert from receiving the benefit of his devotions. When the little devil saw that he was not succeeding in keeping the saint from perseverance in prayer, he collected all the straw in the chapel70 and threw the whole lot on the fire in the hermitage in an attempt to burn it down. But Robert made the sign of the cross and the heat and smoke were reduced to nothing. On another occasion, Satan transformed himself into the likeness of a boy of sixteen in an attempt to frighten Robert71 but he did not succeed as the saint laid about him with a stick in accordance with his custom72 and so thrashed him and drove him out (of the hermitage). So the unclean spirit, without any delay, fled away and left only the filthy traces of his most foul urine. Robert endured many other kinds of trial from the Old Serpent which were devised with great cunning but, because of their number, we cannot enumerate them in this book. There is no doubt that Robert, the chosen man of God, was able with divine help to cast him forth from his cell and cause him to depart. 20. Because Robert was entirely committed to God's business, he regarded all earthly things as worthless when compared with those of heaven. So, since for him God was the source of all grace and favour, he achieved his request that, in whatever he did, nothing that was due should be remitted either to the Supreme King or to his earthly prince. Under the guidance of God, he so weighed and balanced these obligations that he always put sacred things in their proper order; first rendering to Caesar what was Caesar's and to God what was God 's73. Accordingly, we might offer a specific example (of the application) of these general principles of the saint. The famous king, John, who had heard of Robert's reputation (which was spoken of throughout his kingdom) condescended, at the instance of the local lord - Sir Brian74 - to go with his escort down to the hermitage. When they entered the little chapel they found the man of God prostrate in prayer before the altar. In spite of the great noise of their entry, Robert, having begun his orisons, was unwilling that they should be broken off although he was aware of the honour represented by the arrival of his king. When Sir Brian saw that he did not stand up for the king nor show him the proper respect, he said: ''Brother Robert! Get up quickly! Our lord, king John, is here!'' Rising immediately, Robert said to Brian: ''Show! me which of these men is my king?''75 Brian, with a gesture, replied: ''This

is my sovereign: John, most famous of kings." Then the man of God, taking up an ear of com, held it out to the king with this question: ''Is your power such, my lord king, that you can make something like this out of nothing?'' Then some of the bystanders said: ''This man is not right in the head and his behaviour is obvious evidence of that stupid ity."76 But others retorted: ''Not at all! for this servant of God is a man of wisdom and prudence because in him dwells the Holy Spirit: that Spirit in whom is contained all the wisdom of God." The king, gazing at the chosen of the Lord and the worshipper of the Holy Trinity77was unaffected by these remarks and said: ''Robert, ask me for anything you need and I will not delay in granting whatever you request." Robert replied: ''I have all transitory goods in abundance and I have no need of money. The Christian needs to seek nothing except Christ." Then the king and his entourage departed and made their way back to their own place. When Ivo heard that Robert had not sought alms for the poor from the king he reproved him, saying that it was blameworthy in Robert not to request, with dutiful petitions, aid from the king for the benefit of the poor. Consequently, Robert went back to the king and said: ''My sovereign lord, remember that you are mortal and that you ought to make, by the dutiful giving of alms, some recompense for your offences. Therefore, for charity's sake, will you condescend to disburse alms for my poor and needy folk?'' To this request the king replied: ''I have a neighbouring woodland and I will give you, in perpetual alms, as much land there as you can bring into cultivation with one plough.''78 How empowered with singular grace must a man be to unnerve dread despots in whose presence even princes are wont to hold their tongues! Robert gave no thought to his own vulnerability and powerlessness but fearlessly admonished king John, a man to be held in awe. 21. Wondrous is the power of God and wondrous is the grace bestowed on man! In a brief period the spirit and attitude of William de Stuteville, lord of Knaresborough, had been greatly mellowed from its previous state of unbridled savagery. He was grievously offended by the advent of the man of God but as soon as Robert had given him the kiss of peace, William treated him with due honour and respect and generously gave him alms. Among many other notable anecdotes about the man of God, one comes to mind which I cannot pass over without mentioning it.

The saint had cultivated for the benefit of the poor the whole of that arable land which had come to him from the gifts and concessions of magnates. It had been sown and when it had brought forth its ripe harvest, Robert reaped it and was proposing to lead it into his barn when the rector of Knaresborough came to him in great haste to demand a tithe79 of all the produce. Robert rejected his claim, saying that in no way ought he to take a tithe either from the new assarts or from the first-fruits, since both were the alms of the poor. ''Pay attention'', said Robert (to those around), ''to the way in which this legal expert80 utterly lost in the law, prefers gifts to God, pelf to piety and considers nothing preferable to coin. Thus he presumes - at the Devil's persuasion - to exact tithes from my harvest! The rector replied: ''You, Robert, shall answer to me for my tithes, whether you want to or not!'' To this the hermit retorted: ''You take the tithes from me by force and then I will lay on you the curse of God and of his poor! These goods have been sought for, and granted, to keep poor folk alive by way of charity and yet you dare to grab them from the needy! Mend your ways and put a curb on that tongue of yours which threatens legal action!'' It came to pass that the rector's intemperate tongue, by which he had so frequently vituperated the distinguished man of God, became (by God's vengeance) dreadfully split. The consequence was that the rector, who had endeavoured to take over and make his own the property of others, was (by God's righteous judgement) deprived of the ability to dispose of his own when on the point of departing his life.81

God's most devoted servant increased in holiness, harrying or denouncing troublemakers and sowers of discord, gathering the good to himself, comforting the forsaken, and supporting the poor, orphans

and widows. He showed himself equally at ease among the high and those of low estate, and was never unmindful of the generosity and grace of God. Every single day he was (in the habit of) making an offering to the Lord God of his awareness of his own reputation and of his interior sweet delight.82

22. How great is the goodness, the kindness and the grace of God! What quantity of grace descends from heaven to earth! A great desire for doing good (as manifested in Robert) is an antidote to the evils of our time when in these last days83 the world's supernatural love grows cold as does the age itself. In this situation, the merits and examples of the saints rekindle a cooling faith and make it burst into flame again. Through the intercession of the saints a lamp is lit against the failure of Charity.84

With the help of God's gentle kindness, I have tried to describe the signs, virtues, merits and some of the miracles which our Lord has deigned should be brought to pass for the merit of Robert, our remarkable patron.

I have used plain words and an unpolished style and I will try to continue as I began. (In recording) the many praise-worthy deeds of our patron and in the collection of his good works and acts which ought to be made known, I have decided that I should not keep silence about the way in which our Saviour, who is always wondrous among his holy ones, made St. Robert illustrious by granting him the gift of prophecy.

Sir Brian (of whom we have spoken earlier), at the command of his lord the king, had to journey south where he was to deal with a number of affairs and causes arising from the king's business. So that his mission might have a good outcome, he made a detour to call on Robert. He humbly sought the boon of the saint's blessing and counsel and committed himself entirely to the protection of Robert's devout prayers. The saint, unwearied (in the service of God), gave his blessing to the knight and then uttered the following prophecy: ''You andyour company will assuredly reach your destination in peace and without disturbance. All your business will be brought to a good outcome but you yourself will never come back to your own home."

Brian departed in sadness and everything happened as the saint had foretold. His duties well done and with many acts of almsgiving completed, the knight went peacefully to his rest during a halt on the return journey. I also think worth noting, among other things that the man of God prophesied before his death, the following. He foretold that when his breath had scarcely left his body, the monks of Fountains85 would come with much speed and demand, with great insistence, his lifeless body so that they could take it away from the hermitage and give it honourable burial in their abbey.86 He ordered his followers87 to resist such an attempt - if necessary with the secular arm - because it was his will that his body should remain for ever88 in that place where it breathed its last. This prophecy was also fulfilled. Eventually, the body of this ascetic became worn out by the long and burdensome penitential exercises to which it had been subjected. But it was even more enfeebled by the toil of his journeyings89 , the anxieties stemming from the responsibilities of his household, the changes and chances that every day brought and the continual disturbance of his peace.90

It is not possible for any single person to put down in writing everything which God condescended to do through his instrumentality. Nor is it possible for anyone to know about them at first hand or learn about them from others.

23. When, as a result of the deeds and behaviour that have been mentioned, and others like them, the saint had increased in honour and attraction on earth, he was shortly taken from among us lest, somehow or other, he might change for the worse.91 He had become sorely weakened and physically incapacitated by ill-health and, eventually, when his sickness grew worse he realised that his last days were drawing near. He asked that the Viaticum92 should be brought to him and he made ready his wedding-lamp93 so that as he went to meet God he might be well-prepared. Long ago the words of the Gospel94 had testified (to him) the importance of that lamp and the value of the oil which was concealed within. When the monks of Fountains heard that this distinguished man was passing away, they came as fast as they could and brought with them a Cistercian habit with which to vest the body so that it might be buried in it. The dying saint rejected it with the words: ''My own clothing is adequate and I have no desire for any other." As Robert's death drew nearer, lvo who, along with the others, was in tears, sobbed: '' Father95 we beseech you, bestow the boon of your blessing upon us." So Robert blessed all those that were in the hermitage. Then,·without delay, since he was so severely weakened by his illness, this outstanding man cast aside all human concerns and joyfully left his life to go to the Lord. Then lvo and all those standing by, in voices choked with sobs, cried out: ''Alas! Alas! to whom shall we go now whenever we are assailed by strain or distress?96 Thus died our advocate and patron97 Father Robert of blessed and glorious memory. When his soul had been called to an eternity of the highest bliss, Ivo, with the utmost care, prepared for burial the holy body of him whose spirit had departed. 24, But when the body of ourmost blessed patron had been laid on: its bier with all due respect and the news of this event had been spread throughout the country, the monks of Fountains came again and clothed the saint in the Cistercian habit - an action for which they could not gain Robert's permission while he was still alive. Furthermore,just as the saint had foretold, the same monks endeavoured to steal his body98 by force and take it away with them for burial at Fountains. They were only prevented from doing this by the opposition of a considerable force of armed men from Knaresborough castle.99

Still the Cistercians argued that it would be much more fitting and decent for the body of such an outstanding man to be buried in a more religious environment100 instead of in a barren, and almost desolate, location. But the others rejected this proposal, pointing out that in his lifetime Robert had given them specific instructions in the matter and by the fullest expression of his will had made clear that it was right that he should be buried and rest among those brothers and sisters101 whom, in his lifetime, he had brought out of their poverty through God and his Word. Such was the debate: the arguments put forward by both sides and the reasons given by which a proper conclusion might be reached.102 Eventually, the defeated Cistercians sadly returned to their abbey of Fountains. The funeral rites were completed in every respect and the body carried with the greatest honour to the chapel of the Holy Cross. This was the oratory which Robert's brother, William, had built for him and there the saint was buried in a tomb near the altar; a place where no-one had previously been interred.103 There, in a tomb carefully and appropriately104 designed, Robert awaits the Last Day in certain hope of resurrection and glory.

25. People came from every direction to take part in the solemn funeral rites. There were numberless

groups of the needy, there were rich and poor, processions of monks, and layfolk of both sexes. Their grief was unrestrained because all had been deprived of the presence of such a holy pastor who so often had provided consolation in every kind of distress. But there was even more joy than sorrow because (they knew) someone had made his way to heaven and, as their patron, would there for ever intercede to God for them by his prayers.105

Who can describe the number of pilgrims, men and women, who sought the relics of St. Robert once they were placed in the chapel?106 They came in troops to kiss the bier and draw near the sacred body. As a result of their laudable confidence and devotion, a crowd of people streamed there, making offerings of gold and silver, though he was not yet buried, nor had there yet been the display and confirmation of his sainthood by signs and miracles (at his tomb)107 So great a throng, of both men and women, streamed into the chapel that, pressed as they were on every side, it was scarcely possible to find a foothold either inside or outside the building.108

Those suffering from some specific affliction or cast down by a particular illness came to his glorious tomb and, by the prayers of the saint, were granted relief from heaven. God honoured his saint by the token of various miracles, as the inscriptions and paintings109 hanging all round the tomb make plain for those with eyes to see. After his death Robert, the renowned confessor110 of the Lord, began to sparkle with unheard-of miracles: the restoration of sight to the blind, mobility to the lame, hearing to the deaf, speech to the dumb.111 Furthermore, lepers were cleansed, paralytics made whole, people were cured of dropsy and of a variety of untreatable conditions effecting their bodily parts.112 The dead were raised and every kind of demon and elemental was marvellously brought to order as Robert extended his hand (to show) unusual and unprecendented signs of his power.

So both clergy and laity, in great numbers, gave public honour to God.113 Both by their offerings and their words they extolled the wonders of so great a God, saying such things as: ''Wondrous is God in his saints and mighty is He in his works'' or ''The Lord is great and worthy of all praise; there is no limit to His greatness''. ''Reaching mightily from bound to bound, He disposes all things at His good pleasure''. ''He lives and overcomes; He is king and emperor, world without end. Amen."114

NOTES

1. The Flowers, possibly of Norse extraction, were prominent citizens of the northern metropolis and are said to have provided the city with 'mayors'.

2. There were three monasteries in York: the great abbey of St Mary (f.1089 from which a zealous contingent left in 1132 to found Fountains); Holy Trinity which was a priory cell of the French abbey of Marmoutier; and Fishergate which was a small dependency of Whitby. The Gilbertines had a house in Clementhorpe. f. about 1200 and therefore presumably after Robert's time.

3. Newminster is hardly in the ''western parts'' of England but might well be described as north-west of Knaresborough. Perhaps the inaccuracy suggests that the (foreign?) author was unfamiliar with local geography.

4. Newminster, near Morpeth, was founded in January 1138 as a 'daughter' of the Cistercian abbey of Fountains. Its first abbot was the canonised Robert who ruled from 1138 to 1159. The Northumbrian house soon became one of the largest Cistercian abbeys in the north of England and, between 1143 and 1148 was able, in its tum, to found new houses at Pipewell, Sawley and Roche.

5. The 'ladder of perfection' is a metaphor for the arduous ascent of the soul towards holiness and was the title of a later classic on the spiritual life by the Cl4 mystic, Walter Hilton. It is interesting that an unlettered lay-brother at Newminster had a reputation as a spiritual director.

6. In view of the general vagueness of chronology in the 'Life', this precision is remarkable and one wonders about its significance. The abbot of Newminster from c.1159 to c.1180 (during which Robert's short stay is most likely to have taken place) was William who succeeded the sainted first abbot, Robert, William resigned c.1180 to take up the abbacy of Fountains, which he ruled until 1190. In view of the enthusiastic testimonial which he gave Robert at Newminster, he might well have brought knowledge of this remarkable person to Fountains and aroused there a continuing interest in his subsequent career.

7. This is the first reference to the social rank of Robert's predecessor who, according to the 'metrical life', had incurred the leonine wrath of Richard I and for his own safety had sought obscurity as a solitary. Richard's death in April 1199 removed the threat and allowed the knight to return home to his wife, family and estate, leaving Robert not only alone but without the material resources to support him. Eremitism was an accepted and esteemed form of the religious life: some 14 hermitages are recorded in Yorkshire in C12, and there may have been more. It was regarded as a vocation and therefore to abandon .it was a kind of 'apostasy', hence the harsh judgement on the knight in the 'Lives' of St Robert. A life devoted to prayer still needed the material means of subsistence, and a bishop needed assurance of that provision before he formally enclosed an anchorite (the more rigorous form of the solitary life). The knight was presumably in receipt of means, brought somehow from his patrimony, which he shared with Robert.

8. The lady appears to have been Juliana de Warwick, a connection of one of the prominent local families (perhaps the Percys or the Plumptons). She appears to have been widowed and was probably living the devout life of a 'vowess': a nun-like existence in her own home, precluding re-marriage and committed to a life of prayer and good works. Other sources give her name as Helen which might be the 'religious' name she adopted when taking her vows.

9. The chapel of St Hilda was at Rudfarlington (c. two miles S. of Knaresborough). The place was then a substantial township with its chapel in the gift of the lord of the manor but is now reduced to a single farm. In Cl3 it was part of Juliana's estate and became involved in a land dispute which she lost

in 1213. Only field names indicate the former existence of the chapel whose remaining stones are said to have been used for the building of the post-Reformation Catholic chapel in Knaresborough.

10. It is possible that the 'thieves' were freebooters attached to the Plumpton faction pursing a family quarrel with Juliana which involved the land dispute mentioned above. The 'food of the poor' represented the ample supplies of basic foodstuffs which Robert kept for the characteristic work of poor-relief in which he was already engaged. It was not only worth stealing but its loss was catastrophic, and the metrical 'Life' suggests that the disaster brought Robert to the brink of abandoning his chosen life as a solitary concerned with the care of the poor.

11. Matt.x,23, The citation seems to imply that the unpleasantness was, or likely to be, repeated.

12. Spofforth is' about five miles south of Knaresborough. It was dominated by the Percy family who were to receive a licence to crenellate their manor house there in 1308, (Its ruins survive). Robert seems to have intended to make a new start (still supported by his patroness) in a safer locality but found this more populous place distracting (one source suggests that women were a temptation).

13. Hedley or Headley (3m. SW of Tadcaster and c.14m. from Spofforth) was founded in the reign of Henry I (1100-1135) and was a small priory dependent on Holy Trinity priory, York (itself a dependency of the very ancient abbey of Mar1nuutier in France).

14. The threadbare white habit is presumably that with which Robert was clothed as a Cistercian novice at Newminster. The White Monks had adopted it as an outward sign of their stand against the laxity which had developed among the Black Monks (Benedictines).

15. The strict Cistercian rule, among other austerities, confined the meagre diet to a simple vegetarian regime.

16. Gal,i,10. The text is presumably cited to explain what might be construed as an unmannerly breach of hospitality and communal peace,

17. II Cor.xi,26. To someone touched by the Cistercian or other reforming spirit of the early Cl2, any Benedictine house of the time was likely to appear lax (the situation at Sr. Mary's York had led to the exodus of the more ardent spirits and the subsequent foundation at Fountains). It is likely that a small alien house would be even less observant than a greater abbey but Hedley had offered Robert a refuge, and perhaps we should not interpret 'per verse and dissolute' to mean more than 'lax'. Brethren who were 'false' to their high calling would undoubtedly form a danger and impediment to one ardently striving for extremely exalted standards. In spite of his 'humility and modesty', Robert must have made an uneasy guest.

18. The erection of new, and presumably more secure buildings was a precaution against a repetition of the disaster which had caused Robert to leave this site,

19. The Latin is difficult (and not only here!). I take it that Robert is now established with a regular staff and constant 'clientele' and that he has imposed a quasi-monastic discipline which, among other things, prohibits frivolous chatter at all times and even requires silence during the meal in the manner of a monastic refectory.

20. Mrs. Flower's crimes of 'short measure' indicate that she was involved in trade on her own account and, coupled with 'usury', suggests that she was in a big way of business. Short measure is, of course, the sin of theft. Usury (money-lending at interest) was more debatable, but it had been formally forbidden to Christians in 1179 by the Third Lateran Council. One wonders if the Flowers were early examples of those prominent York capitalists who would later combine to form the Merchant Adventurers' Guild whose Hall still survives in the city.

21. Matt.xxi,22; John xiv,13. Belief in the power of prayer in general, of a saint's intercession in particular, and the efficacy of prayer on behalf of those in Purgatory are fundamental in medieval piety.

22. I cannot locate this exact quotation, but there are plenty of Scriptural texts to the same effect e.g. Deut.viii,5; Eccles.xxx,2.

23. Sir William (de) Stuteville was appointed Constable of Knaresborough Castle in 1174. He was in good odour with King John who made him Sheriff of York in 1201. Sir William is also known as a patron of the Cistercian order and his generosity earned him the privilege .of burial within the precincts of Fountains abbey. An important part of his responsibilities as the king's representatives was the oversight of the royal Forest of Knaresborough which was subject to the draconian Forest Law. He was Constable of Knaresborough until 1202 and died the following year. The metrical 'Life' states that Sir William discovered Robert's intrusion on an occasion when he was hunting in the Forest.

24. The great forests of medieval England were a common refuge for outlaws and lordless men, cf. the well-known example of Sherwood as the haunt of Robin Hood and his Merry Men. There was some justification for Sir William's assessment of the hermit for, according to a fuller account of Robert's life, his philanthropic support for those on the fringe of society was interpreted by some as supporting ne'er-do-wells and encouraging them by being the host of a thieves' kitchen.

25. The Norman aristocracy was addicted to colourful oaths; the Conqueror's own favourite was ''By the splendour of God!'' It is probably significant that Sir William is not recorded as swearing after his 'conversion' by his dream or vision.

26. The Latin is 'satellites' - the lesser beings who circle round and are dependent upon a greater. The feudal lord is addressing his 'meinie' - the vassal-knights who form his bodyguard, accompany him in battle and have the privilege of hunting with him.

27. 'Tower' or 'donjon' is the usual medieval word for a castle of which it is the most obvious feature. It was more than a fortification and symbolised the strength and power of the overlord. Stuteville's 'tower' is Knaresborough castle of which considerable ruins survive. It was a royal stronghold and a favourite resort of king John who came there for the hunting.

28. cf. Psalm xxvii,1. Here and elsewhere, there is an implicit contrast between 'dominum' and 'Dominum', between human and divine authority.

29. Juliana had completely lost control-of Rudfarlington and its chapel by 1213 and at this earlier date she may well have felt insufficiently secure to support Robert there quite apart from Stuteville's opposition. So Robert returns to the place where he began his life as a hermit to find things have changed. The old hut which he shared with the knight has gone, destroyed or collapsed, but he does find a rude chapel of Egidius, better known as St Giles. St Giles was a forest-hermit of C7 who later established a monastery near the mouth of the Rhone. His cult became very popular in the Middle Ages and there were 160 churches named after him in England alone. He was the patron saint of cripples, beggars and lepers and credited with particular sympathy for wild creatures. Doubtless, Robert would feel some affinity with this earlier recluse. There are no identifiable remains of this chapel.

30. The title ' Father', here used for the first time, might indicate that, after all, Robert had proceeded to the priesthood. But there is no evidence for this and it is more likely that this is an honorific for a master of the spiritual life.

31. Cf.Matt.v, 14-16.

32. If the citizens of Knaresborough had the right to make this bequest, it must have been part of their common land and, even so, must have required considerable negotiation and some legal procedures. That it was possible at all argues strongly for the high place that Robert must have occupied in the common heart of the local community. The strip of land between the river and the rock face is generally quite narrow though it does widen out downstream towards the subsequent site of the Trinitarian priory. (It is of course possible that the course of the Nidd has changed somewhat in the last 700 years or so.) The plural 'ploughs' indicates that Robert had some sort of per1r,anent labour-force at his disposal (perhaps poor men working simply for their keep). It is a mistake to interpret 'solitary' strictly: the word is related to the nature of this particular form of spirituality- ‘the lone to the Alone' as distinct from the communal way of religious orders. Servants are quite frequently reported in association with hermitages and particularly among anchoresses. Robert's earlier holding at Rudfarlington presupposed the ability to work the land and he could hardly have done this single-handed and given the necessary time to prayer and vigils.

33. It was presumably during de Stuteville's absence in the south, doubtless fulfilling his duties at the royal court, that Robert re-established himself .

34. Robert had made for himself a dry, but dark, habitation by enlarging or excavating a cave in the rock of the neighbouring cliff-face. It still exists and measures nearly 17' (c.5m) from east to west, is about 8' (c.2.5m) at its widest, and nearly 6' high (c.l.75m). At the NE corner is a recess 3'9'' long (a little over lm.). There is no natural light except what is admitted through the low entrance near which a long bench has been cut in the rock outside. There are put-log holes cut in the face of the rock, indicating the former existence of supple mentary lean-to shelters of wood. It was presumably in one of these that Robert lit the fire which attracted the attention of Sir William when he was again out hunting in the Forest.

35. The dream is explicable in ter1ns of indigestion, over-indulgence in mulled wine and an uneasy conscience. Its imagery is derived from the contemporary practice of 'trial by combat' where the aggrieved could recruit a champion to fight on his behalf. The outcome of the battle was believed to express the judgement of God.

36. Besides the transfo1111ation in William's attitude to Robert, there is another reversal of roles in the feudal lord doing obeisance 'on bended knee' to one who, in secular terms, was a mere commoner.

37. The sacrament of penance (Confession), whose use was much encouraged by the Lateran Council of 1215, required for the granting of absolution: honest confession, sincere repentance and (where applicable) reparation. William fulfils all these conditions. The reparation included a formal grant in perpetuity of the land between Robert's hermitage and Grimbald Kirkstone. Grimbald is perpetuated in the name of the bridge which now carries the B1614 over the Nidd about half a mile SE of the town of Kirkstone hints at some earlier ecclesiastical association with the site. (There was an Anglo-Saxon saint called Grimbald (c. 825-901 ) whose festival was observed in the York calendar.)

38. The editorial comment about Robert's consistency in continuing what he h.ad begun seems somewhat at odds with the preceding narrative as we remember several instances of his apparent failure to persevere (e.g. his approach to the priesthood, time at Newminster). Perhaps we are to see these as false starts and the final establishment of his institution at Knares­borough as representing his true calling in which he would indeed persevere. Robert's answer to Walter is in the nature of a double quotation: it not only has biblical reminiscences but also recalls the antiphon sung at the solemn service when an anchorite was about to be immured in his/her lifelong retreat. Perhaps it should also be seen as echoing the old Benedictine vow of 'stabilitas' - the monk's commitment to reside for ever in the house to which he had been first received as a brother.

39. In the vicinity of the cave-hermitage some Norman herringbone masonry survives which may represent remains of the work done as a result of Walter's generous support of his brother. This new chapel presumably replaced the original one of St Giles and its title is interesting, as the Trinitarians had a particular devotion to the cross and they bore a red and blue cross on their distinctive habit. On the other hand, they were only founded c.1197 and their rule required their churches to be dedicated to the Holy and Undivided Trinity. The Biblical quotation is a reference to I Cor.iii,11.

40. It is difficult to see how the hermitage, on its very constricted site, could be extended to accommodate the much enlarged hospitality that is implied here. Perhaps there was an 'annexe' on the site later to be occupied by the Trinitarian priory. Nor is it clear for whom precisely this hospitality was provided. The poor and even the pilgrims are clear enough and both were commonly received in many medieval hospices but for the rest the Latin is obscure. I have taken it to mean that the 'hospital' catered for two kinds of pilgrims: those who had voluntarily set out for some earthly shrine and those who, willy-nilly, were on their way out of this life i.e. the dying.

41. The recruitment of Ives of Ivo is seen as a milestone in Robert's work. The previous paragraph with its many Biblical reminiscences seems to indicate a series of setbacks, probably particularly related to Robert's failure to establish a community. Apparently he had no permanent success in gathering like-minded men to assist him before the arrival of Ivo. Clearly, he had always received assistance of various kinds (mainly manual) and of varying duration. He may have persuaded some men to stay with him and share his life more closely but sooner or later they found it too hard. Ivo is the first to deserve the title of 'socius', a fellow in the apostolic work (cf.II Cor.viii,23 &c.).

42. It is fairly easy to see how a pious author might associate the preservation of material relating to a saint with the work of the Holy Spirit, but the exact function of the 'word of God' in this respect is somewhat obscure. Perhaps the author means that the associations of some Scriptural texts acted as a sort of 'aide-memoire' or perhaps 'Word of God' is used as a title of the Christ who helped to recall the deeds of His servant.

43. Ives, of which Ivo was a variant, was a very popular Anglo-Norman name (it was even acquired by towns!). This Ivo, so carefully trained by Robert, became his successor and, according to some accounts, the prior of the Trinitarian convent which eventually inherited the hermitage and enshrined the body of St Robert. He seems to have been a perfect complement to his master and apparently was more practical and realistic and therefore eminently suitable for financial responsibility (cf. his persuading Robert to take up king John's offer).

44. The deliberate parallelism between Robert's call of Ivo and Christ's call of his first disciples (cf. Mark i,17) is noteworthy and therefore the differences may be significant. Christ turns his fishemen into 'fishers of men', Robert promises to make Ivo into 'a steward of Christ' which rather implies that his present occupation is that of a secular steward. To leave such a post would require some rearrangement or deputisation, hence Ivo's promise to join Robert as quickly as he could. The administrative experience of being a steward would make Ivo eminently equipped for the financial responsibility and administration of poor relief which Robert made his special responsibility (or 'obedience', in monastic terminology). It may be significant that the separation of two thirds of the house's income for works of charity was characteristic of the Trinitarian rule.

45. The transition from the security and comparative luxury of a great household to the rigour and deprivation of Robert's way of life would have been traumatic and there would indeed have been much faltering and a very real danger of failing to make the transition. Robert therefore takes great pains over the spiritual formation of this coadjutor', as he combines the sensitive and demanding functions of both spiritual director and novice-master.

46. John iv,14.

47. The instruction on 'reconciliation with God' again raises the question whether or not Robert was in priest's orders. The accepted way by which 'a sinner should approach God and be reconciled with Him' was through the sacrament of Penance which required a priest for its valid administration. If Robert was not a priest, we must assume that the chapel of the Holy Cross was provided with a permanent or occasional chaplain.

48. One gets the impression from this summary that Robert is expounding his version of the eremetical 'Rule of Life' of which other examples survive in written for1n e.g. the early C13· 'Ancrene Wisse' or the'Ancrene Riwle' (c.1190-1230). Robert's 'Rule' embraces the traditional three-fold committal to poverty, chastity and obedience with a foundation in righteousness and great emphasis on humility and simplicity. It is further evident that his regimen was highly ascetic. We also gain an impression of Robert's spiritual insight from his careful discrimination between true and false virginity, profitable and unprofitable simplicity etc..

49. The reference is to the 'Beatitudes', specifically Matt.v,3. Few could be more aware than Robert that there was a poverty to be avoided or remedied as well as a kind of poverty that was to be sought voluntarily.

50. The reiteration implies either that Robert had a difficult task in educating Ivo in the spiritual life or that he was taking particular pains over his instruction in order to prepare him for his special role (as coadjutor and/or eventual successor?)

51. The repeated references to 'sheepfold' in this paragraph carry overtones of the 'enclosure' (both physical and mental) which was considered necessary to protect the spiritual life from the distractions of the secular world. The fox's 'brush' has received much symbolic attention, but I am not aware of any other reference crediting it with the power to strike down sheep!

52. This graphic picture of the depredation of the diabolic fox seems to be conflated with another image of the devil who, as a roaring lion, seeks whom he may devour and who can only be resisted by those steadfast in the faith (cf.I Peter v,8).

53. In medieval moral theology, Pride was the chief of the capital (or deadly) sins, whereas Courage (or Fortitude) was one of the Four Cardinal ('hinge') Virtues. Spiritual writers are therefore unwilling to credit the devil with courage. The point here seems to be that the devil considers Ivo a less formidable adversary than Robert whose mettle he has already tested.

54. It is pleasant to find a touch of humour in the midst of all the hard ascetic endeavour and serious business of soul-making. The reference is to Rom.xii,15.

55. Luke ix,62.

56. The vocabulary is feudal and ultimately heroic. The 'comes' (companion, paladin) was the brother-in-arms, the true comrade, faithful unto death and bound by a military oath of loyalty. Robert and Ivo are soldiers of Christ, members of the 'militia Christiana' (as St Bernard had called the Cistercians and, later, the Knights Templar). The lord to whom they owe fealty is Christ, their bond is that of supernatural love (Charity), their loyalty is a matter of supernatural Faith which unites them to each other through their Leader (and their Hope is for the coming of His kingdom on earth). The fruits of this intense spiritual combat (the Psychomachia pictured on contemporary church murals) are, paradoxically, calm, peace and sanctity. The military metaphor is as old as Christianity (e.g. Ephes.vi,llff.).

57. The collection and disbursement of alms for the poor was Ivo's particular responsibility (see n.44 above), but it is a far cry from comfortably collecting revenues brought by underlings to you as steward of a great house and personally collecting them barefoot in the frozen streets of York.

58. I cannot identify the exact text referred to, though there are plenty proclaiming the evil that will come upon malefactors e.g. Jer. ii,3: 'All that devour him shall offend, evil shall come upon them.’

59. I.e. Stuteville. The story of the cow was such a popular anecdote that it was the subject of a stained glass window placed in Knaresborough parish church in 1473 and destroyed during the Commonwealth. It also produced a local proverb: '' As freely as St Robert gave his cow." The stag story was also commemorated in stained glass. An example is known to have existed in the refectory of Dale Abbey. It was rescued at the Dissolution and re-erected in the N. aisle of St Matthew's church in Morley, Derbyshire. It survives, next to a contemporary (but much restored) window in honour of the Holy Cross.

60. The Latin is somewhat obscure. Perhaps its tenor is that essential holiness lies in a life hidden with God but that sometimes God reveals this secret sanctity by visible signs and miracles worked through the saint.

61. The gift of this particular cow probably represents Stuteville's ambivalent attitude to St Robert. It seems to be of the nature of a jest or 'tease' or practical joke. Holy men are frequently regarded as 'touched' or 'simple' and become the butt of various kinds of jokes. The matter of the deer is a continuation of this attitude. Robert, like many other far1ners, suffered from the depredations of the deer which were protected so that they could provide sport for the king and some of his privileged subjects. The Forest which had its particular and very harsh Law was described c.1179 as ''the sanctuary and special delight of kings where, laying aside their cares, they withdrew to refresh themselves with a little hunting; there, away from the turmoils inherent in court, they breathe the pleasure of natural freedom." The discomfort of the peasant counted little against providing for the royal pleasure. Robert reasonably asks that the deer should be adequately fenced within their own domain so that they do not trespass. But the confinement of such agile beasts is not an easy matter and Stuteville (again ambivalently) gives Robert authority to usurp the prerogatives of the game-wardens and even impound the royal beasts until he received full compensation. It is highly unlikely that de Stuteville's own authority extended thus far but as the whole matter, to his mind, rested on a hypothetical impossibility, legal niceties could be ignored and the joke enjoyed.

62. The joke rebounds when Robert achieves the apparently impossible and, 'in accordance with the demands of justice', asks the lord to take charge of the impounded deer and, presumably, to pay the promised compensation. The king's constable is now in a quandary: compensation would be an unthinkable precedent, yet he has given his word. He escapes from his dilemma by a kind of legal fraud. ''I give and freely grant.'' is a legal formula but the grant is implicitly and explicitly highly limited. He is not giving the deer absolutely to Robert so that he can butcher them and feed his hungry poor on venison*. That would be 'ultra vires' for they are royal beasts, so he offers an unlikely compensation: permission to use them as draught animals! The jest continues. *In spite of his own rigid vegetarianism, Robert (according to the metrical 'Life' ), fed his dependents on ''fysshe and flesche''. He doubtless acquired the former from the nearby river and at least some of the latter from his own livestock.

63. John xiv,12.

64. John i,50.

65. This seems to imply that Robert's ministry, as often with recluses of reputed sanity, included what we would call spiritual direction and earlier times described as 'ghostly counsel'. Hermits were often the 'gurus' of the Middle Ages and also gave wise general advice. The importance which Robert attached to his work as spiritual director is indicated by the fact that he was prepared to spend an entire night in prayer seeking divine help in this task.

66. This rather obscure sentence perhaps means no more than that the Devil used the weakness of the flesh as a means whereby he might undo some of the good which Robert had achieved through his exhausting labours which had over-ridden the body's natural needs for rest.

67. It appears that Robert's meagre stock of food, reserved for his own sparing use, had become tainted and this misfortune is attributed to diabolical malice.

68. The aspergil was the instrument used for sprinkling (or 'aspersing') holy water. It is very easy to rationalise this and the following ' visitations'.

69. A roughly clothed and unkempt eccentric (as Robert doubtless appeared to the general public) was as likely to be perceived as a madman as seen as a saint and, among the insensitive, attract ridicule and teasing. This particular visitor to the hermitage was probably an exceedingly dirty tramp or vagabond and probably mentally defective - hence the incessant teeth-grinding. It is not perhaps surprising that he fled after receiving a douche of cold water in his face nor even that he left a very unpleasant smell behind him.

70. This mischievous adolescent collects all the straw which would have served, in the common medieval practice, for floor-covering in the chapel. The account implies that the hermitage possessed a fireplace and that it was located near the chapel (entrance ?).

71. This youth was older and presumably more dangerous as his behaviour was calculated to be frightening.

72. There are indications elsewhere in this narrative that Robert was well capable of (righteous) anger and the implication that the hermit was not unaccustomed to lay about him with a stick is revealing. (It is likely that the 'stick' was the (walking) staff which seems to have been an attribute of many hermits and friars).

73. Matt.xii,21.

74. King John was addicted to hunting and frequently came to his castle at Knaresborough to enjoy this sport in the extensive royal Forest of which it was the centre. Visits are recorded in 1206, 1209, 1210, 1212 (twice), 1213 and 1216. It was during his visit in February of this last year that he must have met St Robert, for the grant of the land in Swinesco is dated 26.ii.1216. Brian de Insulis (de l'Isle) was appointed Warden/Justiciar of the Forest and Constable of the Castle in 1204, a year after the death of William de Stuteville. He was a creature of King John, supporting him against the barons, and had an evil reputation for plunder and rapine which continued after John's death in October 1216. Nevertheless, probably because of his proven loyalty to the Crown, he was again appointed to high office by Henry III after he had made his submission to the new king. He died after Robert and before September 1234.

75. It is difficult to see why the king was not instantly recognisable by his costume. Perhaps the royal party were clad in similar hunting garb or perhaps Robert is simply making a point.

76. Again we notice that not everyone was impressed by Robert and many took him to be more or less insane.

77. This description of Robert as a 'worshipper of the Trinity' is doubtless related to the affiliation of the author of this biography, but it might also be taken as an indication of Robert's own increasing approach to the Order which was to count him among its saints. The original prime object of the Trinitarians was the redemption of prisoners (particularly those in Moslem hands) as their full designation indicates. They were also concerned with poor relief and usually had a hospital/hospice attached to their houses. We have seen how close to Robert's heart were both these works of mercy. It is interesting that the practical lvo (who is said to have become a Trinitarian), whose chief

responsibility is collecting alms for the poor, is quick to correct Robert's failure to gather support from any source for this good work.

78. The phraseology is formal and legal. The amount of land which could be tilled in one year by a single plough was variously called a Hide, Carucate or Ploughland. Its extent varied between 60 and 180 acres according to the quality of the soil. There is a record (dated 26 Feb.1216) which orders Brian de Insula to give Brother Robert the Hermit half a carucate of land in the wood of Swinesco ''where it may be of most profit to him but to the least harm of our Forest and as near as possible to the hermitage which we gave him”. Brian is to select the actual parcel of land. There seems to be a discrepancy here unless the gift of the ‘hermitage’ included a substantial piece of land as part of its messuage (in which case, before this grant, Robert was presumably a trespasser on royal property).

79. By legislation dating as far back as AD 900, the rector was entitled to one tenth of the parish's produce. This was intended to provide him with a stipend and resources for almsgiving as well as for the maintenance and furnishing of the chancel of the parish church. The major contribution ('great tithes') came from the major crops: wheat, oats etc.. Though, theoretically, all land in England was subject to tithe, for varying reasons many lands were discharged from this obligation and tithes were entirely abolished in C20. When a rectory was appropriated and replaced by a vicarage, the vicar was endowed only with the 'small' tithes’ and a portion of the church land (glebe).

80. According to the Lanercost Chronicle, the rector of Knaresborough was instigated to claim his full legal rights by the canon lawyer Alexander Dorset who, after Robert's death, was given temporary charge of the hermitage.

81. Presumably the rector's speech impediment prevented the dictation of his last will and testament, a procedure which was usually delayed until the testator felt that death was near.

82. This somewhat obscure passage probably indicates that Robert gave daily thanks to God for two gifts: the external good name which he and his followers had acquired to God's glory and the interior spiritual consolations which had been granted to him personally.

83. The rather apocalyptic tone adopted here by the Trinitarian author seems to indicate a contemporary period of spiritual decadence when faith and charity were in decline and hope must rest on the evidence of the past.

84. In view of the devaluation of the word 'Charity', it must be pointed out that here, and in Christian thought generally, Charity (like Faith and Hope) was conceived as a supernatural virtue; specifically, that exalted Love ''by which we entirely surrender ourselves to God as the sovereign Good, so that by doing His will we may please Him and be united with Him." From this follows a concern for our neighbour's good, irrespective of whether we like, much less 'love', him or not.

85. There was a double association between Knaresborough and Fountains. The Stutevilles were friends and patrons of the Cistercians (William seems to have been buried at Fountains) and Robert was drawn to the Order, trying his vocation at Newminster and apparently continuing to wear their white habit after he had left.

86. Fountains abbey is, as the crow flies, about 10 miles (16 km.) from the site of Robert's hermitage.•

87. 'Followers' or disciples seems to indicate some kind of community of which Robert was the head.

88. Robert's tomb was deeply cut in the rock just in front of the altar step of the 'chancel of the Holy Cross and was recessed to provide for a covering-slab flush with the floor, in the characteristic manner of the time for an important burial. It is about 2m. (6' 5'') long with a width varying from c.35 to c.53 cm. (14'' - 21''). At the bottom of the excavation, and almost in its centre, is a curious

rectangular hole measuring c.3·7x c.15 ems (15'' x 16''). (This is no longer visible as the tomb has recently been filled up level with the floor.) In spite of his dying wishes, Robert's relics did not remain there undisturbed for long, because by 1252 (but seemingly after his life was written) they had apparently been translated to the nearby Trinitarian priory which henceforth bore his name. The gravestone of Sir Henry Slingsby in Knaresborough parish church is said to bear an inscription stating that it once covered Robert's tomb. As its shape is quite different from the tomb in Holy Cross chapel, the claim must relate to his later sepulchre in the priory, demolished in 1539.

89. We have no information about the nature, extent or purpose of these wearisome journeyings but we have already seen Ivo making a footsore return journey of about 35m. (56 km.) to York in pursuit of alms.

90. Similarly, there are no details about what continually disturbed Robert's peace. It must imply more than the recorded episodes when·his prayers were interrupted by allegedly demonic intruders. We can reasonably assume importunate beggars, agitated souls seeking counsel, and·the like. Perhaps there were disturbances within the community, possibly related to the changes that were to transform it from a hemitage into a regular religious order.

91. The meaning seems to be that once Robert reached the heights of his spirituality, there remained only the possibility of decline, perhaps brought about by senility and the accompanying mental degeneration.

92. The Viaticum ('food for the journey') refers to the Last Communion which was usually associated with a final Confession and the administration of what was then called Extreme Unction (now 'the Anointing of the Sick').

93. This continues the imagery of a 'night journey' with reference to the Gospel parable (Matt. xxv,1-13) concerning readiness to meet the Bridegroom. Robert was, both technically and vocationally, a virgin. The preparation of his 'wedding lamp' is a metaphor for all the wise procedures: practical, psychological and sacramental for meeting death, (and therefore, for a Christian, Christ the Saviour-Judge).

94. i.e. the passage in St Matthew's Gospel referred to above. The implication is that the whole of Robert's life had been a preparation for its consummation in a good death. The distinction between 'oil' and 'lamp' may refer to soul and body or be intended to draw out the Biblical associations of oil which include light, healing, purity and gladness. The generally accepted date of Robert's death is 24 September 1218 but it may have been in a later year. The 24th September is his Feast Day in communities which celebrate it.

95. 'Father' would be an appropriate title for the superior of a community of friars (brethren) among whom the Trinitarians count themselves, but it may be no more than an affectionate recognition of Robert's paternal care and guidance. Ivo succeeded Robert as prior and in 1227 king Henry III confirmed John's grant of 40 acres in Swinesco to Ivo as Robert's legitimate heir.

96. This heartfelt complaint testifies to Robert's unique function as spiritual and personal counsellor to the community.

97. ''our advocate and patron'' would seem to indicate that the author of this life was not only a Trinitarian but regarded St Robert as one too.

98. The stealing of relics, sometimes called Holy Theft, was a paradoxical activity of the devout Middle Ages. The Venetians abstracted the body of St Mark from Alexandria and, nearer to home, the hermit-monk Benedict stole the finger of St Germanus and brought it to Selby - to give but two examples.

The clothing of an 'outsider' in a monastic habit was seen as sign of honorary membership (technically called 'confraternity' and bestowing spiritual privileges). King John is said to have been clothed in the habit of the Black Monks before his burial in the presbytery of the Benedictine abbey (now cathedral) at Worcester.

99. The apparent involvement of part of the garrison of the royal castle of Knaresborough in the protection of Robert's dead body may seem somewhat strange, but they were probably only acting as a kind of police force to maintain 'the king's peace' in a somewhat fraught situation.

100. The Cistercians of Fountains may have had in mind the situation at their sister house at Rievaulx, where the relics of their sainted abbot William (d.1145) had just been translated to an elaborate shrine (whose fragments remain) in the chapter-house. A unique ambulatory had been provided round this building, (where the even more famous St Ailred had been buried in 1167), for the better access of pilgrims to this resting-place of saints. In spite of its great fame and wealth, Fountains possessed no canonised saint of its own and the body of Robert (which had once worn the Cistercian habit) would have been a worthy ornament of the house at a time when the possession of major relics was not only a kind of status symbol but also a source of revenue from pilgrims. Weight should also be given to the argument of the Cistercian delegates that the hallowed precincts of Fountains would indeed seem a more sacred and dignified resting-place than the cramped and humble chapel in an obscure location.

101. The argument might well be seen as an expression of the changing religiosity of the period. Hitherto, the formal 'religious life' had been conceived as requiring enclosure - separation from the world; the new spirit, as represented particularly by the friars, saw it more as an involvement in the workaday world - a matter of town mission rather than rural withdrawal. Weighty theological and sociological symbolism was also involved in the argument: St Robert's corporal presence was to remain where he had lived out his ministry. (For the concept of the saint's body as a direct channel of communication with the heavenly realm, see P. Brown: The Cult of the Saints [Chicago 1981]).

102. One gets the impression of a formal debate, comparable to the pleading of a lawsuit. Each side puts its cause within an order maintained by the royal troops and then a judgment is given (very probably by the king's representative (justiciar), the Constable of the royal castle).

103. There is a deliberate analogy here between the 'virgin' tomb of Robert and the Holy Sepulchre of Christ himself (cf. John xix.41). The usual medieval practice was to reuse burial sites (hence grave-digger scene in Shakespeare's Hamlet).

104. _See n.88 above. The text at this point is corrupt, introducing the non-word 'spertinintate' for which a suggested emendation is 'super (or 'supra') trinitate'. Translation is still difficult ('graced by the Triune God above'?) but at least the reference to the Trinity would be interesting in this context (cf. n.77 above).

105. The conviction that Robert's heavenly intercession will be even more efficacious than the help he gave while on earth speaks volumes about medieval belief in the power of prayer.

106. It would appear that there was a fairly prolonged 'lying in stage' between the death of Robert and his burial. This seems to have taken place in the chapel of the Holy Cross but the account is a little confused because the author seems to switch, without notice, from a description of contemporary events to subsequent ones. He also suggests that there was an immediate popular 'canonisation' as the normal consequences of formal canonisation (pilgrimages, offerings at the shrine &c.), in the case of Robert, took place beforehand. In fact, the 'cause' of Robert was never submitted to the centralised process of canonisation at Rome which slowly became universal in the Western church. Liturgical material for his 'Office' was gathered in anticipation and the papal records of 1252 (following his 'translation') entitle him 'saint'. Implicit

approval was given to the local cult but his name was never added to the official Register of the Saints (Canon Sanctorum).

107. Miracles were expected at the tomb of a canonised saint; miracles at the tomb of an uncanonised person were taken as a divine vindication of his sanctity and were expected to result in formal canonisation.

108. The surviving remains indicate a very small chapel and the site itself is very restricted with the river Nidd only a few metres away, so that it is hardly surprising that a great throng could scarce find foothold either inside or outside the building.

109. The author is describing the scene in his own time when the tomb has become surrounded by the customary votive offerings and memorials that aggregate to a popular place of pilgrimage. The 'inscriptions and paintings' may be the result of individual pious offerings or they may refer to a scheme of captioned wall-paintings put up by the Trinitarians to commemorate the more famous incidents in the life of the saint. Such 'visual aids,' executed in the glass of windows or in paintings on the wall, were a common feature of medieval churches large and small. (Cf.n.59 above).

110. ''Confessor'' was the formal title given to those saints who witnessed to the Faith by their markedly holy life in distinction to the martyrs who witnessed by a heroic death. King Edward of England, who subsequently became its patron saint (until 'ousted' by St George), was formally declared a Confessor by Pope Alexander III in 1161.

111. ''Unheard of'' is the rhetorical equivalent of 'inconceivable' or even 'extraordinary'. The list is general and conventional (based on Biblical precedents) and probably is not meant to convey more than the general fact that Robert was credited with a very wide range of cures.

112. There.is a tradition of a healing spring or medicinal waters associated originally with the Trinitarian priory and St Robert's shrine. Later the connection seems to have shifted to Mother Shipton's Cave in Knaresborough and eventually to the spa waters of Harrogate! Matthew Paris, writing about the middle of C13, mentions cures at St Robert's tomb due to 'an abundant flow of medicinal oil from his sepulchre' (cujus tumba oleum medicinale fertur abundanter emisisse).

113. The attentive reader will have noticed that, thought the 'Life', a careful distinction is made by which the miracles and achievements of Robert are described as 'through' him as an instrument and not 'by' him as the prime agent. Their sole author is God.

114. These cries of the pilgrims, derived mainly from the Bible but concluding with the great acclamation: '':Christus vincit", suggest that they have been acquired from liturgical sources, probably from their use as anthems or other parts of the service used on St Robert's Feast Day (24th September).

In 1227 King John's land-grant to Robert was legally transferred to his successor, Ivo, and became part of the endowment of the Trinitarian foundation at Knaresborough. Ivo granted the hermitage to Coverham abbey (about 30 miles, 48 km., away), presumably after the translation of Robert's body. Coverham had its own hermitage (chapel of SS Simon and Jude) in a more convenient location in Coverdale but the date of its establishment is unknown. Certainly, the Knaresborough hermitage fell into disuse and neglect for a time until it was (again) taken over by the Trinitarians.

The establishment of the Trinitarian priory seems to have been a slow (and confused) affair and had to be encouraged by a papal indulgence in 1252 by which time some building had been completed on the priory site, including its chapel to which the body of Robert had been translated. As a result of this translation, the Trinitarian house was (irregularly) known as St Robert's (a usage dating at least from 1255).

Its original endowment (transferred from the hermitage) was substantially increased in 1257 by Richard, earl of Cornwall. In 1291 the Trinitarians seem to have been supporting a House of Studies in Oxford, but the Order remained poor and the income of the Knaresborough house was assessed at only £35 p.a. in 1535. This assessment refers to what we might call ''guaranteed income'' from real estate. The Trinitarians, like other friars, were mendicants; that is to say that they relied for their everyday needs, and even more of the much greater needs of the large numbers who depended on them, on the spontaneous generosity of those from whom they begged alms. The Dissolution documents show that their kitchen was the best equipped room in the house and probably the largest. The priory was dissolved and St Robert's shrine destroyed in 1538.