RUSSIA – CHANGING REALITIES

Czars, Ideas, and Out of Isolation

At times, Russia has been torn between the East and the West, sometimes buffering the two

It has also been a pot of enormous ethnic diversity

The result has been a mixture of east and west

After all, Russia has always been a nation “standing” on two continents: Europe and Asia

THE “THIRD ROME” When the Turks conquered

Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire fell, the center of Orthodox Christianity moved northward to Moscow, which was called the “Third Rome” (after Rome itself and then Constantinople)

At around the same time, Russian leaders were overthrowing the Mongols

In 1480, Ivan III of Moscow refused to pay tribute to the Mongols and declared Russia free of Mongol rule

He, and later his grandson Ivan IV, established absolute rule in Russia, uniting it and expanding it ever eastward

They recruited peasants and offered them freedom from their feudal lords if they agreed to settle in new lands to the east

The catch was that these peasants had to conquer the land themselves

Known as Cossacks, these peasant-soldiers expanded Russian territories in the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries well into Siberia and southward to the Caspian Sea

IVAN THE TERRIBLE Ivan IV was such a strong leader and held

such absolute power that he became known as Ivan the Terrible (as in formidable or impressive not necessarily bad)

Taking on the title of czar (Russian for “Caesar”), Ivan the Terrible expanded Russia’s holding, but not without cost to the Russian people

By the 1560s, he ruled under a reign of terror, regularly executing anyone whom he perceived as a threat to his power

He even executed his own son in 1580

After the death of Ivan IV in 1584, Russia’s feudal lords continually battled over who should rule the empire

The situation grew especially messy from 1604 to 1613, a period that historians refer to as the Time of Troubles, because one pretender to the throne would be killed by another pretender and yet another

In 1613, the madness subsided when Michael Romanov was elected czar by the feudal lords

The Romanov Dynasty added stability to the empire

It ruled until 1917

THE ROMANOVS Like the Ivans, the Romanovs

consolidated power and often ruled ruthlessly

The peasants, now serfs, were practically slaves

By the late 1600s, the Romanovs had expanded the empire, with the help of the Cossacks, eastward through Siberia

By 1689, Russian territory spread from the Ukraine to the Pacific Ocean, north of Manchuria

PETER THE GREAT At around this same time, Peter the

Great, who ruled from 1682 through 1725, came to power

He was convinced he needed to westernize Russia

He built Russia’s first navy and founded St. Petersburg on the Baltic Sea as his new capital

The “window to the west,” St. Petersburg became the home to hundreds of western European engineers, scientists, architects, and artists who were recruited specifically to westernize Russia

At the beginning of Peter’s reign, Russia was backward by comparison with the countries of western Europe

This backwardness inhibited foreign policy and even put Russia’s national independence in danger

Peter’s aim, therefore, was to overtake the developed countries of western Europe as soon as possible, in order both to promote the national economy and to ensure victory in his wars for access to the seas

Breaking the resistance of the boyars, or members of the ancient landed aristocracy, and of the clergy and severely punishing all other opposition to his projects, he initiated a series of reforms that affected, in the course of 25 years, every field of the national life—administration, industry, commerce, technology, and culture

Peter established a regular army on completely modern lines for Russia in the place of the unreliable streltsy and the militia of the gentry

While he drew his officers from the nobility, he conscripted peasants and townspeople into the other ranks

Service was for life The troops were equipped with flintlock

firearms and bayonets of Russian make; uniforms were provided; and regular drilling was introduced

For the artillery, obsolete cannons were replaced with new mortars and guns designed by Russian specialists or even by Peter himself (he drew up projects of his own for multicannon warships, fortresses, and ordnance or munitions)

Peter was the first ruler of Russia to sponsor education on secular lines and to bring an element of state control into that field

Various secular schools were opened; and since too few pupils came from the nobility, the children of soldiers, officials, and churchmen were admitted to them

In many cases, compulsory service to the state was preceded by compulsory education for it… Russians were also permitted to go abroad for their education and indeed were often compelled to do so (at the state’s expense)

The translation of books from western European languages was actively promoted…The first Russian newspaper, Vedomosti (“Records”), appeared in 1703

The Russian Academy of Sciences was instituted in 1724

Beside his useful measures, Peter often enforced superficial Europeanization rather brutally; for example, when he decreed that beards should be shorn off and Western dress worn

He personally cut the beards of his boyars and the skirts of their long coats (kaftany)

The Raskolniki (Old Believers) and merchants who insisted on keeping their beards had to pay a special tax, but peasants and the Orthodox clergy were allowed to remain bearded

Women of the nobility were forced to dress in western fashions

Men were forced to shave their beards

Most of the hard labor of building the great new city was accomplished, of course, by serfs turned slaves

In 1721, in order to subject the Orthodox Church of Russia to the state, Peter abolished the Patriarchate of Moscow

Thenceforward the patriarch’s place as head of the church was taken by a spiritual college, namely the Holy Synod, consisting of representatives of the hierarchy obedient to the tsar’s will

A secular official—the ober-prokuror, or chief procurator—was appointed by the tsar to supervise the Holy Synod’s activities

The Holy Synod ferociously persecuted all dissenters and conducted a censorship of all publications

Priests officiating in churches were obliged by Peter to deliver sermons and exhortations that were intended to make the peasantry “listen to reason” and to teach such prayers to children that everyone would grow up “in fear of God” and in awe of the tsar

The regular clergy were forbidden to allow men under 30 years old or serfs to take vows as monks

The church was thus transformed into a pillar of the absolutist regime

Partly in the interests of the nobility, the extent of land owned by the church was restricted; Peter disposed of ecclesiastical and monastic property and revenues at his own discretion, for state purposes

Peter’s internal policy served to protect the interest of Russia’s ruling class—the landowners and the nascent bourgeoisie

The material position of the landed nobility was strengthened considerably under Peter

Almost 100,000 acres of land and 175,000 serfs were allotted to it in the first half of the reign alone

Moreover, a decree of 1714 that instituted succession by primogeniture and so prevented the breaking up of large properties also removed the old distinction between pomestya (lands granted by the tsar to the nobility in return for service) and votchiny (patrimonial or allodial lands) so that all such property became hereditary

CATHERINE THE GREAT Under Catherine the Great,

who ruled from 1762 until 1796, more enlightened policies of education and western culture were implemented

Catherine the Great was considered an Enlightened Despot because she incorporated some ideas of the European Enlightenment into her rule but would not part with her absolute power

A disciple of the English and French liberal philosophers, she saw very quickly that the reforms advocated by Montesquieu or Jean-Jacques Rousseau, which were difficult enough to put into practice in Europe, did not at all correspond to the realities of an anarchic and backward Russia

In 1767 she convened a commission composed of delegates from all the provinces and from all social classes (except the serfs) for the purpose of ascertaining the true wishes of her people and framing a constitution

The debates went on for months and came to nothing

Catherine’s Instruction to the commission was a draft of a constitution and a code of laws

It was considered too liberal for publication in France and remained a dead letter in Russia

Before her accession to power, Catherine had planned to emancipate the serfs, on whom the economy of Russia, which was 95 percent agricultural, was based

The serf was the property of the master, and the fortune of a noble was evaluated not in lands but in the “souls” he owned

When confronted with the realities of power, however, Catherine saw very quickly that emancipation of the serfs would never be tolerated by the owners, whom she depended upon for support, and who would throw the country into disorder once they lost their means of support

Reconciling herself to an unavoidable evil without much difficulty, Catherine turned her attention to organizing and strengthening a system that she herself had condemned as inhuman

She imposed serfdom on the Ukrainians who had until then been free

By distributing the so-called crown lands to her favorites and ministers, she worsened the lot of the peasants, who had enjoyed a certain autonomy

At the end of her reign, there was scarcely a free peasant left in Russia, and, because of more systematized control, the condition of the serf was worse than it had been before Catherine’s rule

Russia suffered because Catherine fiercely enforced repressive serfdom and limited the growth of the merchant class

Catherine continued the aggressive westward territorial expansion, gaining ground in Poland and, most significantly, territory on the Black Sea

This advance ensured Russia’s access to the Mediterranean to its south and west

WESTERNIZATION Both Peter and Catherine

are important because they positioned Russia for engagement with the rest of the world, particularly the Western world

By the late eighteenth century, Russia was in a significantly different position than it had been at the beginning of that century

Russia had gained access to the west by both the Baltic and the Black Seas, and it gained cultural access to the West by actively seeking interaction

Unlike China and Japan, who repelled the West from their shores in the same time period, the Russians wanted to engage and emulate the West

COMPARISONS TO WESTERN EUROPE But despite the centralization of

authority under the Ivans, Russia remained very much a feudal arrangement, with local lords exercising considerable power

While western Europe basked in the glow of the Renaissance, explored and expanded its influence across oceans, and debated about religion, science, and government in a series of movements, Russia remained isolated from the west and pushed eastward instead

Its growth was territorial, but not intellectual or artistic

During the fifteenth, sixteenth, and most of the seventeenth centuries, it had nothing that could be labeled a Renaissance or Enlightenment

It wasn’t part of the Renaissance because it was under the control of the Mongols at the time

And it wasn’t part of the Reformation because it wasn’t part of the Catholic Church in the first place

So even though today we often see Russia as a European power, its history progressed along a very different path

It wasn’t until the late seventeenth century that Russia turned its eyes westward

For more than a millennium, Russia has struggled with issues and ideas that have altered and shaped its culture

From the West came religion, military prowess, radical ideas, architectural forms, art, and music

To the West Russia gave ethereal icons, beautiful art and churches, haunting music, brilliant prose and poetry, supreme athletes and dancers, and path-breaking cinema

With the collapse of the Soviet Union and its Communist alliance in 1991, Russia is again undergoing great changes, attempting to blend traditional ways with ideas from abroad

SERFS Russia’s attempts to control a large land

mass relied on the forced labor of the peasants or serfs

The essential additional mark of serfdom was the lack of many of the personal liberties that were held by freedmen

Chief among these was the serf’s lack of freedom of movement; he could not permanently leave his holding or his village without his lord’s permission

Neither could the serf marry, change his occupation, or dispose of his property without his lord’s permission

He was bound to his designated plot of land and could be transferred along with that land to a new lord

Serfs were often harshly treated and had little legal redress against the actions of their lords

A serf could become a freedman only through manumission, enfranchisement, or escape

Peasant conditions there in the 14th century do not seem to have been worse than those of the west, and in some ways they were better, because the colonization of forestlands in eastern Germany, Poland, Bohemia, Moravia, and Hungary had led to the establishment of many free-peasant communities

But a combination of political and economic circumstances reversed these developments

The chief reason was that the wars that devastated eastern Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries tended to increase the power of the nobility at the expense of the central governments

In eastern Germany, Prussia, Poland, and Russia, this development coincided with an increased demand for grain from western Europe

To profit from this demand, nobles and other landlords took back peasant holdings, expanded their own cultivation, and made heavy demands for peasant labor services

Peasant status from eastern Germany to Muscovy consequently deteriorated sharply

Not until the late 18th century were the peasants of the Austro-Hungarian Empire freed from serfdom, thus recovering their freedom of movement and marriage and the right to learn a profession according to personal choice

The serfs of Russia were not given their personal freedom and their own allotments of land until Alexander II’s Edict of Emancipation of 1861