running head: sex-segregation, gender...

Sex-Segregation, Gender Stereotypes, and Emotional Labor:

And The Effects It Has Women In The Workplace

Crystal Redmon

Texas A & M University

Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR

Abstract

Culture is the determining factor on what societies value and deem appropriate behavior.

Cultural perceptions influence gender stereotypes in the workplace and can guide the

career paths for individuals. This particular aspect of culture largely influences women in

the workplace and can contribute to the emotional strain placed on women. Although

societies ideas on what jobs women should partake in has changed over the years, women

still face challenges in their careers. Following the twentieth century there was a rise in the

number of female employees (Erickson & Ritter, 2001). This rise in women workers has

changed the dynamics of the workplace. Women are more prevalent in the labor force and

have stepped out of their traditional role as caretaker. Even though women account for

more of the workforce than in past years, they are still not given the same opportunities as

men (Erickson & Ritter, 2001). Sex segregation, emotional labor and stereotypes have

played a part in the devaluing of women in the workplace and have lead women to

experience emotional “burnout”. These factors are impeding the advancement of women

up the corporate ladder. Organizations and HRD professionals must implement programs

in order to combat the barriers that prevent women from achieving the same amount of

success as men, and must introduce ways women can overcome issues pertaining to

emotional labor.

1


Sex-Segregation, Gender Stereotypes, and Emotional Labor:

And The Effects It Has on Women In The Workplace

Although women have been present in the workforce for many years their position

in the workforce and society are still typically lower than their male counter parts. The

reason for this may be due to the fact that employers assign sex specific roles. Employers

tend to save upper level positions for men and place women in lower level positions. This

placement is due in part to stereotypes about workers and the jobs each sex is best suited

for (Reskin, 1984). Stereotypes are still prevalent in today’s society and although they may

be more indirect, their effects are still damaging. The outcome gender stereotypes and sex

segregation have on women workers is detrimental to society and tends to go unnoticed.

Since stereotypes about gender roles have become part of our culture, it is adopted as truth

and overlooked (Reskin, 1984). These stereotypes are absorbed by society and are

replicated through the socialization process. The beliefs and replication of gender

stereotypes has helped perpetuate sex-segregation in the workplace. Stereotypes prevent

women from obtaining jobs based on their education or experience, and women are

instead compartmentalized due to their sex. Although some women may find a way to

break through the stereotypes and move up the corporate ladder the challenges they face

are immense.

Understanding the implications sex segregation and stereotypes have on the

workforce will eliminate the improper placement of women based on their ascribed sex.

Women are not only unfairly placed based on their sex, but they are also forced to endure

enormous amounts of emotional labor due to sex segregation of labor. The ideals held

2


about women and their potential in the workplace are formed by cultural beliefs. Every

culture values women differently and in American culture strong stereotypes and

reservations about women have impacted their earning power and social status. The

purpose of this paper is to examine the implications gender stereotypes, sex segregation,

and emotional labor have on women in the workplace.

Gender Stereotypes and The Workplace

Today’s women are very different than the women of past centuries. In previous

years women were primarily found in the domestic sphere, while men were assigned to the

professional sphere. Men would work and gain prestige from their economic status and

occupation, while women gained power and recognition through their family (Wolf &

Fligstein, 1979). The segregation of men and women has been a staple in American culture.

Women were viewed as the caretakers of domestic life and men as the financial providers.

These traditional roles were assigned by culture and have recently begun to change.

Women are now more prevalent in the workplace and have been able to make the

transition from the domestic sphere to the professional sphere. This shift has allowed

women to rely less on their male counter parts and more on their own abilities to generate

income. The shift from the domestic sphere has also increased the social status of women,

but women have yet to catch up with men (Wolf & Fligstein, 1979).

Although women have emerged as economic contributors and are now participants

of paid labor, women are still less likely to hold positions of power. The fact that women

are less likely to hold positions of power impacts their earning abilities. Women are placed

in jobs that typically payless than their male counterparts and stereotypes play a major

role in this placement (Erickson & Ritter, 2001). Stereotypes are a perceived belief about an

3


individual based on a particular attribute that describes the individual in question. Stereotypes

about women are often perpetuated through the use of media. Television is a main source of

acculturation of these stereotypes. Although women have made huge strides in the paid labor

force they are still depicted by the media in domestic and subservient roles. Commercials and

televisions shows are notorious for representing women in traditional roles. These types of

depictions help create a culture that devalues the work of women in the labor force and

recognizes them only in the domestic sphere (Coltrane & Adams, 1997).

This depiction and devaluing of women has a negative impact on women in the

workplace. Due to the depictions of women by mass media, society is made to believe that

women are not capable of participating in the business world. These Stereotypes infer that

women are inferior to men in the workplace and should be in subservient roles. Even when

women produce the same work as men, their work is devalued (Heilman, 2001). Stereotypes

about women have lead to gendered work and have allowed employers to place women in

marginal roles. Stereotypes about women and their abilities put women at a disadvantage in

terms of acquiring managerial positions. The stereotypes about women imply that they are better

at being managed rather than being in management (Wolf & Fligstein, 1979).

Depictions created by mass media of women in stereotypical gender roles perpetuate the

belief that women are better suited for the domestic sphere. This depiction is detrimental to

women and continues to prolong the belief that men are better suited for the paid workforce.

These media depictions of women in domestic roles and societies stereotypical beliefs about

women have helped shaped the type of job employers find suitable for women.

Stereotypes about women along with media depictions have lead employers and society

to view women as having greater emotional control and are seen as better caretakers. Although

4


this presumption might be seen at first as a positive trait, this is not the case in the workforce.

This assumption allows employers to segregate employees based on sex stereotypes. Women

tend to be placed in positions of lower social status that require more emotional labor. The

assumption that women are able to perform more diverse forms of emotional labor is what puts

them at a disadvantage. Women are depicted and stereotyped as having high levels of emotional

control and are seen as having the ability to suppress negative emotions.

This idea focuses on the fact that women are seen as having a better handle on negative

emotions such as anger and hostility. This depiction of emotional control is what keeps women

in lower positions within organizations. Women are stereotyped as being so good at controlling

their feelings of anger that they are strategically placed in lower status positions. The placement

of women in lower positions is primarily due to the fact that men in higher positions are valued

for being able to express their feelings of anger and frustration. Since men in upper positions are

expressing such negative feelings, women are supposed to “grin and bear it” (Erickson & Ritter,

2001). Women are often placed in lower positions, so that the higher positions typically held

by men have an outlet for their anger. Since women are believed to have greater emotional

control they are thought to be good at taking the negative emotions in stride. Since society and

the media depict women as subservient caretakers, our cultural beliefs about women are shaped

by those depictions. The perceived idea that women are able to control their negative emotions

has hindered women from advancing up the corporate ladder.

Stereotypes about women depicted in the media continue to interrupt the advancement of

women in the workplace. The devaluing of women in the workplace has allowed employers and

members of society to interpret the same behaviors displayed by men and women differently

(Heilman, 2001). It is the depiction and assumptions placed on women by society that creates a

5


dichotomous way of thinking. One behavior depicted by two actors will be perceived in two

different ways. The social constraints society places on emotion is what helps shape the way

society views emotions and in what context emotion is appropriate for each gender (Hochschild,

1979). This presumption in conjunction with cultural stereotypes aids in the devaluing of

women’s work and prevents women from achieving a higher status in society (Heilman, 2001).

Sex-Segregation, Emotional Labor and The Wage Gap

Stereotypes are part of the reason women are placed in certain work roles, but another

reason why women are primarily found in certain positions is due to the amount of emotional

labor it takes to perform the job requirements (Guy & Newman, 2004). This type of segregation

creates “gendered work”. Gendered work is when certain jobs are primarily held by one

particular gender. Many women in the workforce hold positions that require frequent interactions

with individuals. These interactions may include face-to-face interactions or voice-to-voice

interactions. These types of positions generally require high intense levels of emotional labor.

Such jobs include teachers, health care workers, clerical workers, customer service

representatives, social workers and jobs that place a heavy emphasis on assisting other

individuals (Guy & Newman, 2004).

Jobs that require high levels of emotional labor are predominantly held by women and

tend to be occupations at the lower end of the pay scale. Men tend to occupy jobs that require

less emotional labor and can be found at the higher end of the pay scale (Guy & Newman, 2004).

Gendered work creates a labor market that places a lower emphasis on jobs held by women. This

type of devaluing and discrimination of women in the workplace leads to a significant wage gap

between the earnings of men and women (Petersen & Morgan, 1995). Both men and women

partake in emotional labor, but women are expected to perform emotional labor to a greater

6


extent than men (Pugliesi, 1999). The link between emotional labor and gendered work points

out the fact that women’s jobs are typically devalued (Petersen & Morgan, 1995).

Women workers who engage in emotional labor are seen as having an inherent ability to

care for others. This idea that women have an inherent ability to care for others is what

contributes to their lower pay. The emotional labor provided by women in the workplace is not

seen as additional work. It is seen as a “women being a women”. The perceived ability that

emotional labor is natural for women is what hinders them from receiving additional pay for the

emotional labor they provide. Since this is seen as “natural” ability, women who do not provide

good emotional labor and support are seen as not doing their job correctly (Guy & Newman,

2004).

This assumption that women have a natural ability to care is why employers do not

recognize emotional labor as a skill requirement. Since it is not considered a skill women are not

recognized for the amount of emotional labor they contribute to a job. Therefore, additional pay

is not provided. The idea that women inherently provide emotional labor is what encourages sex

segregation in the workforce, and creates a wage gap between men and women (Guy &

Newman, 2004). Gendered work is prevalent in today’s society, and it is justified by the belief

that women are better at providing emotional labor. Women are thought to be better at

expressing happy emotions and keeping negative emotions internalized, whereas men are

rewarded and perceived as being strong if they display negative emotions such as anger

(Erickson & Ritter, 2001). Gender stereotypes and perceived beliefs about women are what have

helped perpetuate the wage gap and have created sex segregation in the workplace. `

7


Women in Upper Management and Emotions

Although women are less likely to be found in upper management positions due to

stereotypes, sex-segregation, and acculturation there are some women who have made it up the

corporate ladder (Heilman, 2001). Those women, who are in upper management and have

advanced up the corporate ladder, still seem to struggle with the implications of emotions.

Emotional expression is a part of leadership and women who are in leadership roles are

constantly battling this aspect of the role. A good leader must not only focus on tasks, but must

also be a good people person (Callahan, Hasler & Tolson, 2005). Having good interpersonal

skills is what distinguishes a good leader. The role emotion plays in interpersonal skills and

leadership is very instrumental. Followers view individuals who are able to express their

emotions and recognize emotions in others as more authentic leaders (Iszsatt-White, 2009).

This perception should put women at a slight advantage when it comes to leadership and

emotional consciousness; however, even in this aspect men seem to have a slight advantage.

Since women are plagued by stereotypes of being good caretakers and are seen as better

undertakers of emotional labor, women have a challenge when they reach upper management.

Women in management positions tend to adapt to what they perceive as being “manly” traits.

They try to detach themselves from the stereotypes surrounding women. Since the qualities that

describe good leaders are those qualities that stereotypically describe males, women are

constantly trying to act “like a man” (Heilman, 2001). The idea that women must act like a man

in order to be successful is part of the reason women leaders have a hard time expressing

emotions. Women are not being true to themselves, but are instead trying to live up to perceived

expectations of leadership.

8


Since men are typically not valued for their emotional labor and are usually found in less

emotional labor-intensive jobs, once women acquire the same social status as men they try to

emulate those traits. A large emphasis is placed on the leader follower relationship and the

outcome of this relationship equates to good leadership. There is a huge interplay of emotions

that takes place between leaders and followers. Followers look to leaders for support in the

workplace and sometimes that support or guidance requires emotional feedback. Emotional labor

is an important part of the leadership role and both men and women in leadership roles must deal

with the aspects of emotional labor (Glaso & Stale, 2008).

Although both women and men in leadership roles have to deal with emotional labor and

emotional expression at some point, men in leadership roles tend to report higher levels of

emotional expression (Callahan et. al, 2005). This finding underlines the challenges women in

upper management face. Women in upper management are reporting lower levels of emotional

expression than their male counterparts and in turn could be jeopardizing their authenticity as

leaders (Callahan et. al, 2005). Women in leadership roles are made to feel that expression of

emotion is a women’s thing, yet men in leadership roles own up to their emotional expression.

Women are so plagued with gender stereotypes that focus on emotions and submissive roles that

they try and suppress emotional expression when placed in leadership roles.

The suppression of emotion leads to intense emotional labor and actually puts leaders at a

disadvantage in terms of being authentic leaders (Iszatt-White, 2009). Women in leadership roles

are faced with the challenge of trying to live up to the male dominated role, while simultaneously

expressing emotions in order to be viewed by followers as authentic. The role emotions play in

leadership positions are felt by everyone who fills these roles. Women are not only conscience of

the fact that leadership roles are predominately occupied by males, they are also aware of the

9


stereotypes surrounding women in general. These circumstances challenge women in leadership

roles, causing them to display even greater emotional labor. The intense challenge of expressing

emotions and overcoming stereotypes create emotional dissonance. Women must find a balance

of emotions in order to satisfy the leader follower role, yet deviate from the perceived

stereotypes about women.

The Effects of Emotional Labor

As previously discussed women in leadership roles are forced to manage their emotions

and understand the implications their emotions have on their performance at work. Emotional

labor is a theme that is prevalent in many job descriptions; especially those that require close

interactions with other individuals (Puglies, 1999). Women in the workforce tend to experience

emotional labor in two forms. They are usually exposed to explicit emotions such as anger and

disgust and are also expected to hide their own emotions (Erickson & Ritter, 2001). The

simultaneous requirements of managing ones emotions and absorbing others emotions puts a

strain on women workers.

This exertion of emotions can lead women to feel an emotional “burnout”. According to

Schaufeli (1995), “burnout is described as a psychological syndrome of emotional exhaustion,

and depersonalization that occurs among individuals who work with people in some capacity” (p.

11). Women are at a higher risk of experiencing “burnout”, because they usually fill jobs that

require more interpersonal interactions (Bierema, 2008). These interpersonal interactions can

require an excessive amount of emotional labor. Women are not only expected to partake in

emotional labor at work, but also may experience emotional labor at home.

Women are more likely to feel the effects of emotional “burnout” because they are

encouraged by society and gendered job roles to partake in emotional labor (Bierema, 2008).

10


Women in jobs that require emotional labor are forced to regulate their emotions in order to

satisfy the organizational policies. This type of emotional regulation can create internal conflicts

with workers. When employees emotions do not coincide with the appropriate emotion the

organization or customer expects, workers experience emotional dissonance and this can lead to

“burnout” (Martinez-Inigo, Totterdell, Alcover & Holman, 2007).

“Burnout” is a cause of emotional dissonance and when employees are unable to express

their true feelings, stress and pressure create role-conflict. Since women experience pressure

from organizations to engage in emotional labor they often face emotional dissonance. Women

must either conform to the appropriate emotions warranted by the organization or they will be

pressured to do so or could even be fired (Abraham, 1999). Negative emotions can lead to

dissatisfaction in the workplace and this leads to unhappy and uncommitted workers. The strain

emotional labor puts on women in organizations is not only detrimental to them, but the

organization also suffers.

Women who experience high levels of emotional dissonance and negative emotions that

pertain to the organization, also have lower levels of commitment. Lower commitment levels

lead to high turn over rates (Abraham, 1999). Elevated turnover rates are not good for

organizations because they must spend time and money on the training and development of new

employees. The emotional strain placed on women is due in part to gender stereotypes and sex

segregation in the workplace.

Since Women have been strategically placed in jobs that require emotional labor they are

typically more exposed to it and their chances of experiencing “burnout” are higher than their

male counterparts. Another important factor to consider when looking at the differences sex

makes in comparison to emotional “burnout” is the fact that men are viewed by society in a

11


different light. Society is more accepting of emotional outburst from men. Men who express

explicit emotions are not only accepted by society, but they are actually rewarded.

These types of emotional expressions are seen as “manly” and coincide with what culture

deems appropriate behavior for men (Erickson & Ritter, 2001). If a women were to express her

emotions in such an explicit and blunt manner a women would be frowned upon by society.

Women are bound by cultural stereotypes that place them strategically in certain areas of the

labor force, and due to these stereotypes women are more likely to experience emotional

“burnout”. Stress brought on by emotional labor can have an impact on a women’s wellbeing.

Although more research is needed in order to determine the long-term effects emotional labor

has on women in the workplace, it is clear that emotional labor puts strain on employees.

Implications for HRD Professionals

In order for women to be seen as equals and have the same opportunities as their male

counterparts, HRD professionals must be aware of the stereotypes surrounding women in the

workplace and implement strategies to combat those stereotypes. HRD professionals can help

create more female leaders, by implementing training and development opportunities. These

training and development courses can emphasize the role of emotions in leadership and can

empower women to utilize more emotion in their management. The training and development

courses can help create more authentic leaders by providing women with more self-awareness.

Focusing on self-awareness will empower women to embrace their true selves and will

help empower them to use emotions in their leadership style (Morgeson & Nahrgang, 2005). The

increased expression of emotion will help followers see women as more authentic and can lead

followers to except women as equal leaders to men. This type of empowerment will not only

enhance the leader follower relationship, but will also emphasize the importance of emotion in

12


leadership. Addressing the importance of emotions in leadership and providing tools for women

leaders to feel comfortable expressing emotions will enhance their confidence as leaders.

Not only can HRD professional implement courses that stress the importance of

emotions, but also they can help create a culture that values emotions. HRD professionals can do

this by acknowledging those jobs that require more emotional labor. Acknowledging jobs that

require more emotional labor can include a pay increase. This would allow workers to see that

emotional labor is a skill set that deserves recognition and validation. Increasing pay for women

who partake in emotional labor will help create a culture that acknowledges emotional labor, and

rewards emotional labor. By increasing the pay for women who perform emotional labor

organizations will help increase the social status of women and will help close the wage gap.

Women will not only be valued for the emotional labor they perform, but they will also be

rewarded for it.

Another implication for HRD professionals to acknowledge emotional labor and

implement cultural change is by acknowledging its existence by implementing stress reduction

programs (Higgins, 1986). By implementing stress reduction programs HRD professionals will

validate the importance and presence of emotional labor and the effects emotional labor has on

workers. Stress reduction programs will benefit employees who may be suffering from “burnout”

due to intense emotional labor. HRD professionals can implement stress reduction programs and

coping mechanism to manage stress. A possible coping mechanisms that HRD professionals can

provide women to help lower stress is Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction.

This type of stress reduction incorporates yoga, and meditation (Chiesa & Serretti, 2009).

MBSR is something that HRD professionals can implement and teach employees to use in their

13


daily lives. According to Chiesa & Serretti (2009), “the MBSR program consists of participants

engaging in a curriculum that incorporates yoga practices such as simple breathing, stretches and

posture designed to relax the musculoskeletal system” (p. 593-594). The program tends to last

about 8 weeks and participants must implement the practices for 45 minutes a day 6 days a week

(Chiesa & Serretti, 2009, p. 593). MBSR programs can help lower stress levels among

participants and can provide life long coping skills to combat emotional labor.

Another implementation that could be introduced for stress reduction is massage therapy.

Massages can be given once or twice a year during employee appreciation week or as an after

work activity. The combination of the two stress reduction methods will help employees gain the

knowledge needed to help lower stress levels on their own, and will also provide instant relief

from stress (Higgins, 1986). Introducing programs that require employees to acknowledge and

understand their use of emotions in the workplace will better equip employees to deal with

emotional labor. It will also help create a culture that understands and acknowledges the role of

emotional labor. Creating a culture that acknowledges and rewards emotional labor and uses

methods to combat stress will help women avoid “burnout”.

Providing techniques to help prevent “burnout” is important for organizations and women

in the workplace alike. In addition to stress reducing techniques HRD professionals can

introduce mentorship programs in order to further the advancement of women in leadership

roles. Mentorships have the ability to improve chances of advancement and equip women with

the proper tools needed for leadership. Mentorships are a great career development tool and can

provide that extra push women need to make it in the male dominated world of upper

management (Hunt & Michael, 1983). Mentorships have been found to be one of the best career

development tools. Being that there is a lack of women in upper management and very little

14


cross-gender mentorships occur in organizations, HRD professionals will need to provide

training and guidelines in order to have a successful program. There is a lot of stigma

surrounding cross-gender mentorships due to gossip and the potential for an inappropriate

working relationship (Clawson & Kram, 1984). So if the organization is lacking women in upper

management positions, HRD professionals must help implement a cross-gender mentorship

relationship.

In order for HRD professionals to introduce such a program they must offer on the job

training for both the mentee and mentor, and also boundaries must be set for both parties

(Clawson & Kram, 1984). Providing the proper training and overseeing the working relationship

will not only be rewarding for the mentee but also the mentor, and can lead to the advancement

of women in leadership roles. Implementing mentorships will not only help women by allowing

them to enhance their career development, but will also improve the chances of women filling

leadership positions in the future. If there are more women in leadership positions more women

will be available to serve as mentors. This will help close the gap that gender stereotyping

creates and will allow more opportunities for women in the workforce. Creating more

opportunities for women in the workplace will also provide women with other career options,

and may allow women to fill jobs that require less emotional labor. Mentorships will benefit

employees by providing them with new opportunities for development, and will help

organizations create a committed labor force.

Conclusion

Women in the workplace are surrounded by detrimental stereotypes that challenge their

ability as workers and leaders. These stereotypes have influenced segregation in the workplace

and have created additional challenges for women to overcome. Women are faced with the

15


challenge of overcoming the emphasis society places on emotions and emotional expressions.

Women are defined and segregated based on their so-called superior emotional management and

their education and expertise go unnoticed. The idea that women are better placed in roles that

require emotional labor is one of the reasons the wage gap is preserved.

The perpetuation of gender related stereotypes continue to leave women behind men in

social status, and prevent women from advancing up the corporate ladder. Women who have

been able to advance into upper management positions are still plagued by the role of emotions

in the workplace. Women in upper management must walk a fine line when it comes to the

display of emotions. If a women displays too much emotion she is living up to the stereotypes,

but if she doesn’t display enough emotion she is not seen as an authentic leader.

Women who struggle with job related emotions often face emotional dissonance and

emotional “burnout”. These two issues pertaining to women and emotional labor can create

lower levels of commitment and job dissatisfaction. HRD professionals can help elevate some of

the pressures emotional labor places on women by providing training and development courses

that emphasize the importance of emotional labor. These education courses will help members of

the organization understand that emotional labor is a skill requirement and women who perform

this skill are valued for their work. Not only can HRD professionals provide incentives such as

pay increases they can also introduce stress management techniques to help alleviate some of the

stress emotional labor places on employees.

Once organizations acknowledge that sex-segregation and gender stereotypes are still

prevalent in society today, as a culture we can start moving in a more positive direction. Women

will become equal to men in their social status and can avoid sex-segregation due to stereotypes

and assumptions about emotional labor. Although women in the workplace have come along way

16


women are still devalued for their work and are placed in marginal roles due to their sex and

stereotypes surrounding gender. Although women have made strides in the workplace they are

behind men in terms of leadership positions and wages in the workplace.

17


Resources

Abraham, R. (1999). The impact of emotional dissonance on organizational commitment and

intention to turnover. The Journal of psychology, 133(4), 441-455. Retrieved from

http://lib-ezproxy.tamu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.lib-

ezproxy.tamu.edu:2048/docview/213832924?accountid=7082

Bierema, L. L. (2008). Adult learning in the workplace: Emotion work or emotion learning?.

New Directions For Adult And Counting Education, 120, 55-64. doi: 10.1002/ace.316

Chiesa, A., & Serretti, A. (2009). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for stress management in

healthy people: A review and meta-analysis. The Journal of Alternative and

complementary Medicine, 15(5), 593–600. doi: 10.1089=acm.2008.0495

Clawson, J. G., & Kram, K. E. (1984). Managing cross-gender mentoring. Business Horizons,

27(3), 22–32. Retrieved from 10.1016/0007-6813(84)90021-1

Coltrane, S., & Adams, M. (1997). Work–family imagery and gender stereotypes: Television and

the reproduction of difference. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50(2), 323-347.

Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org.lib-ezproxy.tamu.edu:2048/10.1006/jvbe.1996.1575

Erickson, R. J., & Ritter, C. (2001). Emotional labor, burnout, and inauthenticity: Does gender

matter?. Social Psychology Quarterly, 64(2), 146-163. Retrieved from

http://www.jstor.org/stable/3090130

Glaso, L. & Einarson, S. (2008). Emotion regulation in leader-follower relationships.

European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 17(4), 482-500.

18


Guy, E. M., & Newman, M. A. (2004). Women's jobs, men's jobs: Sex segregation and

emotional labor. Public Administration Review, 64(3), 289-298. Retrieved from

http://www.jstor.org/stable/3542594

Heilman, M. E. (2001). Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women’s

ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 657–674. doi:

10.1111/0022-4537.00234

Higgins, N. C. (1986). Occupational stress and working women: The effectiveness of two stress

reduction programs. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29(1), 66-78. Retrieved from

http://dx.doi.org.lib-ezproxy.tamu.edu:2048/10.1016/0001-8791(86)90030-8

Hochschild, A. R. (1979). Emotion work, feeling rules, and social structure. American Journal of

Sociology, 85(3), 1979. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2778583

Hunt, D. M., & Michael, C. (1983). Mentorship: A career training and development tool. The

Academy of Management Review, 8(3), 475-485. Retrieved from

http://www.jstor.org/stable/257836.

Iszatt-White, M. (2009). Leadership as emotional labour: The effortful accomplishment of

valuing practices. Leadership, 5(4), 447-467

Martinez-Inigo, D., Totterdell, P., Alcover, C. M., & Holman, D. (2007). Emotional labour and

emotional exhaustion: Interpersonal and intrapersonal mechanisms. Work & Stress, 21(1),

30-47. doi: 10.1080/02678370701234274

Morgeson, F. P., & Nahrgang, J. D. (2005). Authentic leadership and eudaemonic well-being:

Understanding leader–follower outcomes. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 373–394.

doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.002

19


Petersen, T., & Morgan, L. A. (1995). Separate and unequal: Occupation-establishment sex

segregation and the gender wage gap. American Journal of Sociology, 101(2), 329-365.

Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2782431

Pugliesi, K. (1999). The consequences of emotional labor: Effects on work stress, job

satisfaction, and well-being. Motivation and Emotion, 23(2), 125-154. doi:

10.1023/A:1021329112679

Reskin, B. F. (1984). Sex segregation in the workplace: trends, explanations, remedies. (Vol.

19). Washington, DC: he National Academies Press. Retrieved from

http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=58

Schaufeli, W. B. (1995). The evaluation of a burnout workshop for community nurses. Journal

of Health and Human Services Administration, 18(1), 11-30. Retrieved from

www.fss.uu.nl/sop/Schaufeli/073.pdf

Wolf, W. C., & Fligstein, N. D. (1979). Sex and authority in the workplace: The causes of sexual

inequality. American Sociological Review, 44(2), 235-252. Retrieved from

http://www.jstor.org/stable/2094507.

20

running head: sex-segregation, gender...

Documents