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Error Analysis

Running head: ERROR ANALYSIS: ARABIC SPEAKERS’ ENGLISH WRITINGS

An Analysis of Errors in Arabic Speakers’ English Writings

Nada AbiSamra

American University of Beirut

Instructor: Dr. Kassim Shaaban

Second Language Acquisition

Education 345

January 2003

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Table of Contents

A. Introduction: p.3

1. Importance of communication

2. Communicative competence

3. Oral & Written communication

4. Emphasis on written communication, the more difficult component

5. Native Speakers of English vs. Non-Native Speakers (Arabic speakers)

6. Mistake vs. Error => self-correctability factor

7. Rationale of study : Problems relating to the teaching of English as a First language to Arabic speakers are understudied.

8. Aim of paper : Attempt to identify, describe, categorize, and diagnose Arabic speakers’ errors in English essay writing + suggest some solutions.

9. Research Question : Is negative L1 transfer/interference the major cause for errors in the English writings of Brevet students?

B. Theoretical Background: p.6

1. Error Analysis

2. Models for Error Analysis

3. Sources of Errors

C. Procedures p.12

1. Error/Data Collection2. Error Identification and Categorization & Taxonomy Adopted

D. Results p.14 E. Implications p.20 F. Limitations & Suggestions for future research p.22 G. Conclusion p.22 H. References p.24 I. Appendixes p.32

1. General List of Abbreviations2. School mission statement (soon)3. Student Survey

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4. Arabic: General Language Characteristics5. ESL Tip Sheet 1: Arabic (Sofer & Raimes, 2002)6. Table 1: Error Categories & Sources + Abbreviations7. Table 2: Categorizing & Diagnosing Errors8. Table 3: Categorizing & Diagnosing Errors- Interlingual / Transfer Errors9. Table 4: Categorizing & Diagnosing Errors- Intralingual / Dev. errors10. Table 5: Error Sources & Numbers Compared11. Oral & Written Presentations: Guidelines & Expectations12. Error Analysis Exercises & Objective Tests for Remediation

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Introduction

“My purpose in being Part in the goverment is Change. I want to change the world. Change in the means of War, Freedom, and equalness. Also as being part of the government, One should have self-confidence, can stand-up for self, and others, and at the same time have a degree in a great proffession.Then How am I working now, I’am participation in every activity Possible, that has to do with improving our community today. On top of that, I always keep in mind that to work hard, and keep my self on the right track.”

Written by a Brevet student.December 2002

Communication, "a process by which information is exchanged between individuals

through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior" (Merriam-Webster Online,

2003), is at the heart of all human interactions; it is the basis of life.

No one can live alone. By the word "live" I do not just mean "survive" or "subsist",

but "have a life rich in experience" (Merriam-Webster Online, 2003).

"Communicative competence involves communicating in accordance with that

fundamental system of rules that adult subjects master to the extent that they can

fulfill the conditions for a happy employment of sentences in utterances" (Habermas,

1979). As we all know, we communicate orally and/or in writing. Our focus in this

paper is on the written part. "In spoken conversations with others, we make sense of

the dialogue in a complex back-and-forth process of negotiation of meaning between

speakers. In written texts, this back-and-forth negotiation is not possible; there is only

'one passÃ.' The sentence is written and it is read. Because there is no possibility of

negotiating meaning of written documents, the inevitable problems of

misunderstandings are exacerbated" (Penman, 1998).

Hence, we can say that writing is an “intricate” and complex task; it is the “most

difficult of the language abilities to acquire” (Allen & Corder, 1974, p. 177). Its level

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of difficulty varies between native speakers (NS) who think in the language used (in

our case it will be English) and non-native speakers (NNS) who think in their own

native language (in this case it will be Arabic). While writing, non-native speakers

have, in general, to think about all those rules they need to apply, rules that native

speakers are supposed to have automatized. Therefore, non-native speakers are more

prone to making mistakes and/or committing errors.

It is essential here to make a distinction between mistake and error; both Corder

(1967, 1971) and James (1998) reveal a criterion that helps us to do so: it is the self-

correctability criterion. A mistake can be self-corrected, but an error cannot. Errors

are “systematic,” i.e. likely to occur repeatedly and not recognized by the learner.

Hence, only the teacher or researcher would locate them, the learner wouldn’t (Gass

& Selinker, 1994). And it is in this light that I choose to focus on students’ errors not

mistakes.

As an English teacher, I am well aware of the fact that my Arabic speaking students in

grade 9, brevet section, commit a lot of errors in essay writing. You can tell from the

quotation with which I begin this paper. These students have been studying English

their whole lives and still, their errors are numerous. Hence, I have decided to conduct

an error analysis--the best tool for describing and explaining errors made by speakers

of other languages (Johanson, 1975)-- in order to know the sources of these errors and

the reasons behind their continued occurrence year after year with different groups of

learners. I need to familiarize myself with the types of errors that my students make in

order to determine the sequence and emphasis of instruction.

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Error Analysis

“Very surprisingly there are few published descriptions of how or what children learn.

(There... is) little about what mistakes the children made and how these can be

explained, or what generalizations and learning strategies the children seem to be

developing” (Richards, 1974, p. 181).

After having reviewed the literature, I noticed that no study had been done (that I

knew of, at least!) which involves Arabic speaking students who have been studying

English since nursery; students who are studying English integratively, as a FIRST

language. However, it is essential here to mention the fact that the language these

students speak at home is mainly Arabic, not English (see appendix 3); hence, we can

venture to say that they are ESL students, however immersed in English they might be

at school.

“To use two languages familiarly and without contaminating one by the other, is very

difficult,” said Samuel Johnson in 1761.

Can this fact account for our problems? Is my students’ native language (L1)

“contaminating” their English (L2)? If this were to be true, then we could say that the

reason behind all those errors is Negative L1 transfer/Mother Tongue interference.

And the best way to discover such a transfer is through error analysis (Sridhar, 1980).

However, can transfer alone justify all the errors made?

Our research question is then:

“Is negative L1 transfer/interference the major cause for errors in

the English writings of Brevet students?”

This paper will attempt to do the following:

1. Provide a theoretical background for: a) Error Analysis, b) Models for Error

Analysis, & c) Sources of Errors. (It will also examine related terms such as

interlingual errors, negative L1 transfer/interference, interlanguage, and

intralingual errors);

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2. Identify, describe, categorize, and diagnose Arabic speakers’ errors in English

essay writing in order to find the sources of those errors and a way for

remediation;

3. Cover the implications of the findings for teaching ESL/English to Arabic

speaking students; and, finally,

4. Discuss the limitations of this study and propose future areas of research.

Theoretical Background

Error Analysis

Systematically analyzing errors made by language learners makes it possible to

determine areas that need reinforcement in teaching (Corder, 1974).

Error analysis is a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners make.

It consists of a comparison between the errors made in the Target Language (TL) and

that TL itself. Pit Corder is the “Father” of Error Analysis (the EA with the “new

look”). It was with his article entitled “The significance of Learner Errors” (1967) that

EA took a new turn. Errors used to be “flaws” that needed to be eradicated. Corder

presented a completely different point of view. He contended that those errors are

“important in and of themselves.” For learners themselves, errors are 'indispensable,'

since the making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in order to

learn. In 1994, Gass & Selinker defined errors as “red flags” that provide evidence of

the learner’s knowledge of the second language. Researchers are interested in errors

because they are believed to contain valuable information on the strategies that people

use to acquire a language (Richards, 1974; Taylor, 1975; Dulay and Burt, 1974).

Moreover, according to Richards and Sampson (1974, p. 15), “At the level of

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pragmatic classroom experience, error analysis will continue to provide one means by

which the teacher assesses learning and teaching and determines priorities for future

effort.” According to Corder (1974), error analysis has two objects: one theoretical

and another applied. The theoretical object serves to “elucidate what and how a

learner learns when he studies a second language.” And the applied object serves to

enable the learner “to learn more efficiently by exploiting our knowledge of his

dialect for pedagogical purposes.”

The investigation of errors can be at the same time diagnostic and prognostic. It is

diagnostic because it can tell us the learner's state of the language (Corder, 1967) at a

given point during the learning process, and prognostic because it can tell course

organizers to reorient language learning materials on the basis of the learners' current

problems.

Before we proceed, it is essential here to define a few terms that we shall use in this

paper:

Interlingual/Transfer errors: those attributed to the native language (NL). There

are interlingual errors when the learner’s L1 habits (patterns, systems or rules)

interfere or prevent him/her, to some extent, from acquiring the patterns and rules

of the second language (Corder, 1971). Interference (negative transfer) is the

negative influence of the mother language (L1) on the performance of the target

language learner (L2) (Lado, 1964). It is 'those instances of deviation from the

norms of either language which occur in the speech of bilinguals as a result of

their familiarity with more than one language' (Weinreich, 1953, p.1).

Error analysis emphasizes “the significance of errors in learners’ interlanguage

system” (Brown 1994, p. 204). The term interlanguage, introduced by Selinker

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(1972), refers to the systematic knowledge of an L2 which is independent of both

the learner’s L1 and the target language. Nemser (1974, p. 55) referred to it as the

Approximate System, and Corder (1967) as the Idiosyncratic Dialect or

Transitional Competence.

Intralingual/Developmental errors: those due to the language being learned

(TL), independent of the native language. According to Richards (1970) they are

“items produced by the learner which reflect not the structure of the mother

tongue, but generalizations based on partial exposure to the target language. The

learner, in this case, tries to “derive the rules behind the data to which he/she has

been exposed, and may develop hypotheses that correspond neither to the mother

tongue nor to the target language” (Richards, 1970, p. 6).

Models for Error Analysis

Corder (1967 & 1974) identified a model for error analysis which included three

stages:

1. Data collection: Recognition of idiosyncracy

2. Description: Accounting for idiosyncratic dialect

3. Explanation (the ultimate object of error analysis).

Brown (1994, pp. 207-211) and Ellis (1995, pp. 51-52) elaborated on this model. Ellis

(1997, pp. 15-20) and Hubbard et al. (1996, pp. 135-141) gave practical advice and

provided clear examples of how to identify and analyze learners’ errors. The initial

step requires the selection of a corpus of language followed by the identification of

errors. The errors are then classified. The next step, after giving a grammatical

analysis of each error, demands an explanation of different types of errors.

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Moreover, Gass & Selinker (1994, p. 67) identified 6 steps followed in conducting an

error analysis: Collecting data, Identifying errors, Classifying errors, Quantifying

errors, Analyzing source of error, and Remediating for errors.

Sources of Errors

In 1972, Selinker (in Richards, 1974, p. 37) reported five sources of errors:

1. Language transfer

2. Transfer of training

3. Strategies of second language learning

4. Strategies of second language communication, and

5. Overgeneralization of TL linguistic material.

In 1974 Corder (in Allen & Corder, p. 130) identified three sources of errors:

Language Transfer, Overgeneralization or analogy, & Methods or Materials used in

the Teaching (teaching-induced error).

In the paper titled “The Study of Learner English” that Richards and Simpson wrote

in 1974, they exposed seven sources of errors:

1. Language transfer , to which one third of the deviant sentences from second

language learners could be attributed (George, 1971).

2. Intralingual interference : In 1970, Richards exposed four types and causes for

intralingual errors:

a. overgeneralization (p. 174): it is associated with redundancy reduction.

It covers instances where the learner creates a deviant structure on the

basis of his experience of other structures in the target language. It may

be the result of the learner reducing his linguistic burden.

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Error Analysis

b. ignorance of rule restrictions: i.e. applying rules to contexts to which

they do not apply.

c. incomplete application of rules

d. semantic errors such as building false concepts/systems: i.e. faulty

comprehension of distinctions in the TL.

3. Sociolinguistic situation: motivation (instrumental or integrative) and settings

for language learning (compound or co-ordinate bilingualism) may affect

second language learning.

4. Modality: modality of exposure to the TL and modality of production.

5. Age : learning capacities vary with age.

6. Successions of approximative systems: since the circumstances of language

learning vary from a person to another, so does the acquisition of new lexical,

phonological, and syntactic items.

7. Universal hierarchy of difficulty : this factor has received little attention in the

literature of 2nd language acquisition. It is concerned with the inherent

difficulty for man of certain phonological, syntactic, or semantic items or

structures. Some forms may be inherently difficult to learn no matter what the

background of the learner.

James (1998, p. 178) exposed three main diagnosis-based categories of error:

1. Interlingual: interference happens when “an item or structure in the second

language manifests some degree of difference from, and some degree of

similarity with the equivalent item or structure in the learner’s first language”

(Jackson, 1987: 101).

2. Intralingual:

a. Learning strategy-based errors:

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Error Analysis

i. false analogy

ii. misanalysis

iii. incomplete rule application

iv. exploiting redundancy

v. overlooking cooccurrence restrictions

vi. hypercorrection (monitor overuse)

vii. overgeneralization or system simplification

b. Communication strategy-based errors:

i. holistic strategies: e.g. approximation, language switch, calque

ii. analytic strategies: circumlocution (expressing the concept

indirectly, by allusion rather than by direct reference.

3. Induced errors: they “result more from the classroom situation than from

either the student’s incomplete competence in English grammar (intralingual

errors) or first language interference (interlingual errors) (Stenson, 1983, p.

256):

a. Material induced errors

b. Teacher-talk induced errors

c. Exercise-based induced errors

d. Errors induced by pedagogical priorities

e. Look-up errors

According to Dulay & Burt (1974), there are four types of “goofs”:

1. Interference-like goofs

2. L1 Developmental goofs

3. Ambiguous goofs (either interference-like or L1 developmental goofs)

4. Unique goofs (neither interference-like nor L1 developmental goofs)

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The studies relating to the process of language transfer and overgeneralization

received considerable attention in the literature. Swan and Smith (1995, p. ix) gave a

detailed account of errors made by speakers of nineteen different L1 backgrounds in

relation to their native languages. Diab (1996) also conducted a study in order to

show through error analysis the interference of the mother-tongue, Arabic, in the

English writings of EFL students at the American University of Beirut. Okuma (1999)

studied the L1 transfer in the EFL writings of Japanese students.

Work on over-generalization errors, on the other hand, is reported by Richards (1974,

pp. 174-188), Jain (in Richards, 1974, pp. 208-214) and Taylor (1975). Furthermore,

Farooq (1998) identified and analyzed two error patterns in written texts of upper-

basic Japanese learners, in an EFL context. He focused on both transfer and

overgeneralization errors. Habash (1982) studied common errors in the use of English

prepositions in the written work of UNRWA students at the end of the preparatory

cycle in the Jerusalem area and found out that more errors were attributable to

interference from Arabic than to other learning problems.

All these studies focused on Transfer &/or Overgeneralization errors, however, none

of them dealt with “ESL” students who have been studying English as a First

Language. The reason why I called them ESL students is that, at home, they speak

mainly Arabic.

Procedures

1- Error/Data Collection:

For the selection of a corpus of language, following the guidelines offered by Ellis

(1995, pp. 51-52), a sample of written work was collected from 10 students. Those

students are in grade 9, Brevet section (cf. appendix 2). They have been studying

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English since nursery (cf. appendix 3), and have been taught English mainly by

American & Canadian teachers. However, there is a point that needs to be mentioned

here, and it is the fact that most of them speak Arabic at home with their parents and

at school with their friends. (cf. appendix 3).

These students were provided with the topic ‘What are your plans for the future?’

and were asked to write on it in 200 to 250 words. They were given sufficient time to

write (Ellis 1997, p. 114). They had to start with an outline, then a first draft and a

final draft. This was their mid-term examination at school, in December 2003.

2- Error Identification & Categorization:

As a first step, we developed, based on the literature (Corder, 1974; Richards, 1974;

James, 1998; Selinker, 1972 in Richards, 1974; Richards & Sampson, 1974), a

Taxonomy for Error Analysis including the following categories and sub-categories:

grammatical (prepositions, articles, reported speech, singular/plural, adjectives,

relative clauses, irregular verbs, tenses, and possessive case), syntactic (coordination,

sentence structure, nouns and pronouns, and word order), lexical (word choice),

semantic, & substance (mechanics: punctuation & capitalization, and spelling). As

for the organizational/discourse errors, we shall mention them but will not quantify

them since, first, it is difficult to do so, and, second, we had trained our students, prior

to the exam, to write a well-organized essay (thesis statement, restatement of the

thesis, and the use of transition words).

After setting the categories, we chose, also based on the literature, the error sources

that we wanted to study, and they are mainly Interlingual (negative L1 Transfer) &

Intralingual (Developmental).

Please refer to table # 1 in the appendix for further details.

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So, the errors were explained in grammatical terms, and thoroughly examined to find

their sources, paying particular attention to negative L1 transfer, since we needed to

address our research question: “Is negative L1 transfer/interference the major cause

for errors in the English writings of Brevet students?” Being myself a native Arabic

speaker holding a master’s degree in translation (from/to Arabic, French, & English)

and based on the literature (refer to appendix 5), I was able to perceive and pinpoint

the errors due to L1 (Arabic) Transfer. (However, we should not forget that some

errors are caused by interference from standard Arabic and others by interference

from colloquial Arabic.)

In addition, since I have been teaching English as a second language for over 12

years, and since I have finished the coursework for my second master’s in Teaching

English as a Foreign/Second Language, I was able to detect the developmental errors

in my students’ essays, and these are listed in detail in table # 2 in the appendix.

Results:

The total number of errors that we found in the 10 essays we studied was 214. Here

they are, in the graph below, divided according to the different categories:

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29 grammatical, 35 syntactic, 26 lexical, 3 semantic, and 120 substance (mechanics &

spelling) errors.

Graph number 2 shows the percentage of Transfer vs. Developmental errors for each

category. The total percentage of Transfer/Interlingual errors was 35.9%, whereas the

total percentage of Developmental/Intralingual errors was 64.1%. Based on this graph

we can tell that the highest percentage of Transfer errors was in Semantics & Lexis,

respectively 100% & 73% (refer to table 3 in the appendix). As for the highest

percentage of Developmental errors, it was, by far, in Substance (mainly spelling;

refer to table 4 in the appendix).

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Graph number 3 shows the number of Transfer vs. Developmental errors for each

category. The total number of Transfer/Interlingual errors was 77, whereas the total

number of Developmental/Intralingual errors was 137.

Based on these findings we can tell that Brevet students do commit errors

because of Negative L1 transfer, however, their biggest number of errors is due

to Developmental/Intralingual reasons.

Examples of Negative L1 transfer Errors: (table # 3 in the appendix)

1. Grammatical errors:

A. I would like to follow in my father’s footsteps. ( أبي خطى (على

Prepositions pose a great difficulty for an ESL learner since there are various

prepositions in English that have the same function. As a result, when students are

not sure which preposition to use in a certain sentence, they often compare that

sentence with its Arabic equivalence, giving a literal translation of that Arabic

preposition in English. However, "prepositions seldom have a one to one

correspondence between English and Arabic. An Arabic preposition may be

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Error Analysis

translated by several English prepositions while an English usage may have several

Arabic translations" (Scott and Tucker, 1974, p. 85).

B. Evil is▼ force that can enter a person’s soul and conquer it. ( قوة <= (الشر

omission of the article in Arabic ( refer to appendix 5)

C. When the evil comes ( الشر يأتي (use of article in Arabic <= عندما

In English, abstract words referring to ideas, attributes, or qualities are used

without the article 'the' to refer to that idea or attribute, etc. which belongs to

everybody or everything. In Arabic, however, such abstract words are preceded by a

definite article equivalent to 'the' in English. Hence, errors pertaining to the misuse

of the article 'the' occur (Diab, 1996).

D. I wonder what god has written for me, what’s my destiny?

( مصيري هو ما (أتساءل

E. Calling others kids to come ( اآلخرين األوالد (مناداة

“In Arabic, adjectives agree in number with the nouns they modify. As a result,

agreement errors of this type occur in the English writings of Lebanese students”

(Diab, 1996).

2. Syntactic errors:

A. For, them not to hate me they need to respect me and realize how much I love

them and how hard I work for them. (repetition of “wa”)

“In English, items in a series are separated by commas, and the coordinate

conjunction 'and' is used just before the last word. On the other hand, in Arabic,

each item in a series is preceded by the conjunction 'wa' which is equivalent to

'and'” (Diab, 1996).

B. I have learned a lesson in my life, that you should never ever give up ( تعلمت

وهو ، تي حيا في (... درسا

C. What I want to be? ( ؟ أكون أن أريد ( ما

D. I have a lot of people in my family that are computer engineers. (colloquial

Arabic)

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E. That, I have been doing since a long time ago. ( طويل وقت (منذ

F. ...most people when they grow up ( يكبرون الناسحين also) (... معظم

colloquial)

In Arabic, personal pronouns are often added to verbs.

3. Lexical Errors:

A. If I hit an animal it would loose trust in me and stay on irritating me while

curing it. (colloquial)

B. Some animals are nice pets to have, when they have the right health and

medications. ( الجيدة ( الصحة

C. They should have veterinarians around them in case they get sick or any

strong disease stricked them. (حولهم)

D. They should have veterinarians around them in case they get sick or any

strong disease stricked them. ( شديد ( مرض

E. Animals are usually very afraid of high sounds. ( عالية ( أصوات

F. For me acheiving these goals makes me happy. ( لي (... بالنسبة

G. How ever each person must succeed to his ability. ( قدرته (حسب

H. You never know what god has installed for you. ( لك ( وضع

I. For me to be counted as a one of a kind mother I need to take ( Jعد (... أ

J. In my free time I will practice on improving my basketball fundamentals.(

على ( أتمرن

4. Semantic Errors: (Literal translation)

a. When I secure a job my goal is to become partner and have a quarter office.

عمال أؤمن عندما

b. By accomplishing these plans I will insure myself an outstanding life.

لنفسي أؤمن

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c. Architecture works my brain. عقلي ((تشغل

5. Substance (Mechanics + Spelling):

A. Punctuation

i. However▼evil has its shapes and forms. ( الشر (...لكن

ii. As a result, I intend to get a good education, and job, which will

allow me to raise a family in a suitable enviroment. عمآل و

iii. Obtaining a good job will be a crucial part of my life for various

reasons. One of which, is that it enables me to have a stable income.

iv. It is known to be, that a person would be more appreaciated, and

treated better▼ if he were an educated individual than a failure. ( من

أن (...المعروف

v. Personally▼ I beleive that you can never be sure. ( أظن (...شخصيا

vi. When I get to university▼ I will try my best to get high honors in

architecture. ( ل جهدي سأبذل الجامعة أدخل (... حين

B. Capitalization (No capital letters in Arabic)

i. last but not least, if I was giving an animal a shot I have to make sure

that I am giving it in the right place.

ii. Afterwards I want to get a university level education in the united

states.

iii. Next I move to wall street.

iv. arabs

Lack of capitalization in the Arabic alphabet and very different punctuation

conventions. No distinction is made between upper and lower case (Sofer &

Raimes, 2002).

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Examples of Interlingual / Transfer Errors: (Please refer to table # 4 in the appendix where all the errors are transcribed)

I would just like to mention here the problem of spelling. It has nothing to do with L1

transfer since Arabic is extremely different from English.

“The general question of how bad or good English children are at spelling was investigated by

the National Foundation for Educational Research (Brooks et al, 1993), who looked at essays

written by 1492 secondary school children in England at the two ages of 11 and 15. One measure

was how many mistakes children made in the first ten lines of an essay. At the age of 11, only two

children out of ten had no mistakes; two out of ten had five or more. By 15, four children out of

ten had no mistakes; one out of ten had five or more. To quote the report, 'A good deal of

improvement occurs between the ages of 11 and 15. However, even by age 15 there is still a

minority of pupils who have relatively severe problems with spelling, to the extent that their

ability to communicate in writing is seriously handicapped.'

The NFER research classified spelling mistakes into five major categories:- -

- insertion of extra letters, such as the <l> added to 'untill';

- omission of letters, such as the <r> missing from 'occuring';

- substitution of different letters, such as <a> instead of <i> in 'definate';

- transposition of two letters, such as <ei> for <ie> in 'freind';

- grapheme substitution involving more than two letters but only a single cause, for example

when an equivalent according to sound correspondence rules is substituted for the usual form, as

in 'thort' for 'thought'” (Cook, 2002).

Hence, we can say that our students are not the only ones to make so many spelling

mistakes. However, this does not mean that we should not train them to write

properly.

Implications:

“We cannot really teach language, we can only create conditionsin which it will develop spontaneously in the mind in its own way”

Von Humboldt (Corder, 1967).

Brevet students are, according to this study, facing two kinds of problems in essay

writing: Translation from Arabic, their mother tongue & Incomplete learning of essay

writing rules and conventions. What should we, teachers, do then?

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Error Analysis

First, it would be very useful to increase the number of assignments for the sake of

which the students would have to do a lot of research during their free time, hence

they would be reading a lot of English material and thinking in English, especially if

they have to make oral presentations for their work. (cf. appendix 11 for “Oral &

Written Presentations: Guidelines & Expectations”). In addition, if we implement

Team Work in class (http://nadabs.tripod.com/team.html --there are some useful

guidelines on this site) and we get the students to work in groups on their projects,

they would have to practice together for their oral presentations, and speak English

with each other instead of Arabic. Besides, they would, hopefully, correct each other’s

mistakes.

As for the writing rules and conventions, these need to be “enforced” much earlier.

All teachers (from grade 1 and on) would need to get together in order to try to solve

this problem. In the meantime, I can suggest a few error analysis exercises and

objective tests (Appendix 12) that would help the students be more accurate, but still,

nothing can replace Essay Writing itself in order to improve writing. The

aforementioned project/presentation assignments are good, but they are not enough.

The students need to write in class, at home, in their journals... They need to be given

some well defined Essay Writing Rules (for the thesis statement, introduction,

conclusion, transition words, etc...), and some samples of their writings need to be

transcribed and distributed to them for correction and analysis: they would be learning

from their mistakes!

In brief, we definitely have to adapt ourselves and our curriculum to their needs.

22

http://nadabs.tripod.com/team.html

Error Analysis

Limitations & Suggestions for Further studies

“We should be aware that different types of written material may produce a different

distribution of error or a different set of error types” (Corder, 1974, p. 126).

“The recognition of error ... depends crucially upon the analyst making a correct

interpretation of the learner’s intended meaning of the context” (Corder, 1974, p. 127).

“It has already been noted that learners often appear inconsistent in their production of

errors” (Corder, 1974, p. 131).

We need to keep all these facts in mind when conducting an error analysis and

reaching conclusions on which we would base all our teaching. Besides, this study

was conducted on a small number of students, and also on a very limited number of

essays. Therefore, the conclusions reached are far from being decisive.

We consider this study a preliminary one that just “gives an idea” of those

brevet students’ sources of errors. It should set the pace for other studies which

would be much more comprehensive, covering a bigger number of students and

a wider range of materials; we hope to be able to conduct one ourselves in the

near future.

Conclusion:

“Humans are prone not only to commit language errors themselves but also to err in their

judgements of those errors committed by others”

(James, 1998, p. 204).

We need to be careful when conducting an error analysis study.

This study attempted to identify, describe, categorize, and diagnose the errors in

English essay writing of the Arabic speaking Brevet students. Just as George (1972),

Lance (1969), Richards (1971), and Brudhiprabha (1972) found that only one-third of

the second language learner’s errors can be attributed to NL language transfer, this is

what this study came up with. Most of the errors are caused by an overapplication of

23

Error Analysis

L2. We do need to incite our students to speak English at home and with their friends

in order to reduce the number of mistakes due to Negative L1 transfer, but we also

need to try to teach more effectively the rules and conventions of writing.

However, when trying to solve these problems, we need to bear in mind that

“L2 users’ knowledge of a second language is not the same as that of native speakers even at advanced levels. L2 users’ knowledge of their first language (L1) is not the same as that of monolingual native speakers. L2 users think in different ways to monolinguals. ... Trying to get students to be like native speakers is ineffective; their minds and their knowledge of language will inevitably be different. The benefits of learning a second language are becoming a different kind of person, not just adding another language. The main obstacle to setting the successful L2 user as the goal is the belief that the native speaker speaks the true form of English. This implies the comparison of one group with another: the language of non-natives has always to be compared with that of natives; anything that deviates is wrong. For other areas of language study, William Labov established that it is discrimination to treat one group in terms of another group that they can never belong to, whether women as men, black Americans as white Americans, or working-class as middle-class. People must be allowed to be what they are when this is an unchangeable effect of birth or of early up-bringing. An appropriate goal for many students is then using the L2 competently for their own purposes and in their own ways, which may very well not be the same as those of a monolingual native speaker and indeed may not involve native speakers at all. Students can become successful L2 users rather than forever ‘failing’ the native speaker target” (Cook, 1999).

24

Error Analysis

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30

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Error Analysis

Additional References: Web Pages

Athabasca University- Canada- Distance learning education

http://www.athabascau.ca/

Athabasca University- Canada

Distance learning education- English language support- If English is not Your First Language

http://www.athabascau.ca/courses/engl/155/support/if_english_is_not_your_first_language.ht

m

Cairo Demographic Center

http://www.cdc.eun.eg/en.htm

Egyptian Demographic Center, 2000

http://www.frcu.eun.eg/www/homepage/cdc/cdc.htm

English-Arabic Translation Guidelines for Nominal Compounds

by Zouhair Maalej- University of Tunis I- Tunisia

http://simsim.rug.ac.be/Zmaalej/syncom.html

Learning the English writing system 15-Oct-02

Vivian Cook


Modern and Classical Languages- 1997

State of Maine Learning Results

http://www.state.me.us/education/lres/mcl.pdf

On Arabic-English Cross-Language Information Retrieval: A Machine Translation Approach

Mohammed Aljlayl, Ophir Frieder, & David Grossman

Information Retrieval Laboratory- Illinois Institute of Technology

http://www.ir.iit.edu/publications/downloads/073_aljlayl_m.pdf

31

http://www.ir.iit.edu/publications/downloads/073_aljlayl_m.pdf

http://www.state.me.us/education/lres/mcl.pdf


http://simsim.rug.ac.be/Zmaalej/syncom.html

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.frcu.eun.eg/www/homepage/cdc/cdc.htm

http://www.cdc.eun.eg/en.htm

http://www.athabascau.ca/courses/engl/155/support/if_english_is_not_your_first_language.htm

http://www.athabascau.ca/courses/engl/155/support/if_english_is_not_your_first_language.htm

http://www.athabascau.ca/

Error Analysis

Problems in Learning English

http://www.culturalorientation.net/iraqi/ienglish.html

Research on secondary schools and literacy

http://www.literacytrust.org.uk/Research/secondaryindex.html

The Punctuation Project Home Page

Directors: Nigel Hall and Anne Robinson

http://www.partnership.mmu.ac.uk/punctuation/punctuation.html

Transfer/Cross-linguistic influence

Cathy Benson- ELT Journal Volume 56/1 January 2002 © Oxford University Press

http://www3.oup.co.uk/eltj/hdb/Volume_56/ Issue_01/freepdf/560068.pdf

What is the Role of Transfer in Interlanguage? Powell, G.

Centre for Research in Language Education (CRILE)

Department of Linguistics and Modern English Language

LAMEL- Lancaster university- UK

http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/groups/crile/crile33Powell.pdf

http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/groups/crile/workingpapers.htm

32

http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/groups/crile/workingpapers.htm

http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/groups/crile/crile33Powell.pdf

http://www3.oup.co.uk/eltj/hdb/Volume_56/%20Issue_01/freepdf/560068.pdf

http://www.partnership.mmu.ac.uk/punctuation/punctuation.html

http://www.literacytrust.org.uk/Research/secondaryindex.html

http://www.culturalorientation.net/iraqi/ienglish.html

Error Analysis

APPENDIXES

33

Error Analysis

Appendix 1: LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

1. Amb : Ambiguous

2. Av : Avoidance

3. BL : Blend

4. CAss : Cross-association

5. Cl : Clarity

6. Cohr : Coherence

7. Cohs : Cohesion

8. Conf : Confusable

9. DC : Deceptive cognate

10. Dev: Developmental

11. Devt : Development

12. Dist : Distortion

13. Dys : Dyslexic error

14. EFL: English as a Foreign Language.

15. EL: English Language.

16. ELT: English Language Teaching.

17. ESL: English as a Second Language.

18. FA: False Analogy

19. FC: False concepts/systems

20. FF : False friend

21. IE: Induced errors

22. Ign: Ignorance

23. IncompR/: Incomplete application of rule

24. InterL: Interlingual

25. IntraL: Intralingual

26. Inv : Inversion

34

Error Analysis

27. L1: First Language (i.e. Arabic).

28. L1T : Native language transfer

29. L2: Second Language (i.e. English).

30. LS : Letter shape

31. Mat : Material induced error

32. Misord : Misordering

33. Missel : Misselection

34. Mor: Morphology

35. MT: Mother Tongue.

36. MTI: Mother Tongue Interference (i.e. native language which Includes both

colloquial and standard Arabic).

37. NL : Native language

38. OG: Over-generalization

39. OLP: Other Language Learning Problems.

40. Om : Omission

41. Orig : Originality

42. PhNM : Phonetic near-misses

43. Phono: Phonological

44. Rel : Relevance

45. SdSp : Sound spelling

46. SpConv : Spelling conventions

47. TE : Teacher explanation

48. TL : Target language

49. Typo : Typographic

50. UG: Under-generalization

51. UL : Unnecessary letter

52. Un : Unique

35

Error Analysis

Appendix 2: School Mission Statement

To come soon

36

Error Analysis

Appendix 3: Student Survey

When asked the question “How long have you been at this school?” 9 of the 10

students whose essays were studied answered “Since nursery.” The remaining

student answered “since grade 2.”

When asked the question “Which language do you speak the most at home?” most

of the students answered “Arabic.” They do speak some English, but very little.

When asked the question “Which language do you speak the most with your

friends?” 3 students answered “English.”

Student # Language spoken at home Language spoken with friends

1 English & Arabic Arabic

2 English & Arabic English & Arabic

3 Arabic Arabic/English

4 English & Arabic Bulgarian

5 Arabic Arabic

6 Arabic English

7 Arabic Arabic

8 Arabic Arabic

9 Arabic English

10 Arabic English

37

Error Analysis

Appendix 4:

Arabic: General Language Characteristics

The Arabic language is one of the world's most widely used languages. According to

Egyptian Demographic Center (2000), it is the mother tongue of about 300 million

people. Arabic is the official language of many Arab nations in the Middle East and

northern Africa, including Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon,

Libya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab

Emirates, Yemen (Sofer & Raimes, 2002 & World Book Encyclopedia, 1997). It is one of

the six official languages of the United Nations.

There are two types of Arabic, spoken and written. Spoken Arabic consists of dialects.

Arabic is the descendant of the language of the Koran, the sacred book of the Islamic

religion. The orientation of writing is from right-to left, and the Arabic alphabet consists

of 28 letters. The Arabic alphabet can be extended to ninety elements by writing

additional shapes, marks, and vowels (Tayli & Al-Salamah, 1990). Most Arabic words

are morphologically derived from a list of roots; it can be tri, quad, or pent-literal. Most

of these roots are three constants. Arabic words are classified into three main parts of

speech: nouns (adjectives, and adverbs), verbs, and particles. In formal writing, Arabic

sentences are delimited by commas and periods as in English, for instance. Many English

words come from Arabic: alcohol, algebra, check, magazine, and tariff.

Standard Arabic: is the formal language of literature and written expression.

Colloquial Arabic: is the ordinary familiar language used in everyday conversation

among Arabic speakers.

When discussing MTI from Arabic it should not be forgotten that some errors are caused

by interference from standard and others by interference from colloquial Arabic.

38

Error Analysis

Appendix 5: ESL Tip Sheet 1: Arabic (Sofer & Raimes, 2002) (In green is what applies to this study)

Spoken in Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen.

The written languageArabic is written from right to left.Spelling is phonetic. No distinction is made between upper and lower case.

Sentence structure and word orderUnder the influence of the Qur’an (Koran), writers aim at rhythmical balance andcoordination, with the split between subject and predicate occurring midway in a sentence. Arabic favors coordination over subordination; sentences often begin with And or So. Basic word order in Classical Arabic is V-S-O: the verb precedes the subject: *Hoped the committee to solve the problem. Colloquial Arabic is S - V - O .Arabic uses a that clause where English uses infinitive: *I want that you stay.

Nouns and pronounsPersonal pronouns are often added to verbs: *My father he lives in California. Relative pronoun makes no human/nonhuman distinction, and pronoun object is retained in a restrictive relative clause: *Here is the student which you met her last week. Singular noun is used after a numeral above ten: *He has eleven cousin.

Verbs and verbalsNo equivalent of auxiliary do: *You have a brother? No verb be in present tense: *They going to the movies. *Where the post office? No modal verbs. No gerund or infinitive forms.Perspective of tense and time is very different from English. Past perfect is formed with be: *They were eat. Reported speech retains tense of original: *She said she is leaving. Simple present tense covers meaning of simple and progressive in English: *She working now. *She working every day.

Adjectives and adverbsAdjectives follow noun: *a book interesting long.

ArticlesNo indefinite article: *He is student. Definite article is used for days of the week, some months, some place names, and in many idiomatic expressions: *He went to the Peru. *He is still in the bed.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

39

Error Sources- Abbreviations

Appendix 6- Table 1:Error Analysis: Scope of Study

Topic: What are your plans for the future?Brevet Students || Ten 250-word essays studied

Error Categories & Sources + Abbreviations

Error Category Error Sources Error Sources / Abbreviations

Grammatical Errors

A- INTERLINGUAL:

L1 (negative) Transfer / interference

B- INTRALINGUAL: Developmental/ analogical errors

[Corder, 1974; p. 130] or over-generalization or of TL rules (Selinker, 1972 in Richards, 1974) = redundancy reduction (Richards, 1974; p 175)

Ignorance of rule restrictions Incomplete application of rules =

under-generalizatione.g. nobody knew where was Barbie (Richards + James, 1998; p 185)

Building of false concepts/systems (Richards, p 174)

Morphology => 3rd pers sing “s”, “ed”, “ing” <=> Concord + Phonological error (James p 154)

False analogy => childs (James p 185) Induced errors (James p 178): from

classroom situations1. cross-association2. teacher explanation3. material induced errors

Omissions/avoidance because of ignorance (James p 176)

C- AMBIGUOUS:Both interlingual/interference and intralingual/developmental

D- UNIQUE:Neither interlingual nor intralingual <=>

not in L1 and not developmental (Richards p 115- Dulay & Burt)

InterL/L1T

IntraLDevOG

IgnIncompR/UG

FC

MorConcordPhono

FAIE

CAssTEMatOm/Av

Amb

Un

40

Error Sources- Abbreviations

Syntactic errors

A- INTERLINGUAL:


B- INTRALINGUAL: (James p 157)1. Phrase structure errors =

Misselection / Misordering2. Clause errors = Omitted,

Misordered, Misselected, Blend3. Sentence errors = Discourse <=>

Coherence4. Intersentence errors = Cohesion

InterL/L1T

IntraL

Missel / MisordOmBLCohrCohs

LexicalErrors(word choice)

A- INTERLINGUAL:

L1 (negative) Transfer / interference <=> False friends / Deceptive Cognates

B- INTRALINGUAL/Developmental:1. Confusables (James p. 145-147)2. Distortions - form nonexistent in

TL (James p 150)

InterL/L1T

FF / DC

IntraL/DevConfDist

Semantic errorsINTERLINGUAL:


InterL/L1T

Organization (claim/thesis, transition words (TW), support, process, logical progression, flow of ideas)

+

Discourse/Process

A- INTERLINGUAL:


B- INTRALINGUAL / Developmental : 1. Relevance, clarity, development,

originality (James p 161)2. Coherence/content = value as a

message3. Cohesion = value as a text/product

(Das, 1878; in James p 161)

InterL/L1T

IntraL/DevRel/Cl/DevtOrigCohr

Cohs

Substance (Mechanics + Spelling)

A- INTERLINGUAL:


B- INTRALINGUAL / Developmental

InterL/L1T

IntraL/Dev

Pronunciation: sound spelling, unnecessary letters

Convention of spelling: omissions, inversion, letter shape (Corder p 138)

Dyslexic errors, phonetic near-misses (e.g. course/coarse), confusables, typographic errors (James p 130)

SdSpULSpConvOm/Inv/LS

Dys/ PhNM

Conf/ TypoSources: Corder, 1974; Richards, 1974; James, 1998; Selinker, 1972 in Richards, 1974;

Richards & Sampson, 1974.

41

Error Analysis/Brevet- Nada AbiSamra Categorizing & Diagnosing Errors

Appendix 7- Table 2:Error Analysis: Scope of Study


Categorizing & Diagnosing Errors “A single word may show more than one error and appear, therefore, in more than one list.”

(Corder, 1974, p. 132)Error Category+ Conclusion /

InferenceError sub-category

Number of

ErrorsExamples & Error Sources

Error Sources /

Abbreviations

Grammatical Errors

29 E14 T

A- INTERLINGUAL:


B- INTRALINGUAL: Developmental/over-

generalization or analogical errors [Allen & Corder, 1974; p. 130] of TL rules= redundancy reduction (Richards, 1974; p 175)

Ignorance of rule restrictions Incomplete application of rules =

under-generalizatione.g. nobody knew where was Barbie (Richards + James, 1998; p 185)

Building of false concepts/systems (Richards, p 174)

Morphology => 3rd pers sing “s”, “ed”, “ing” <=> Concord + Phonological error (James p 154)

False analogy => childs (James p 185)

Induced errors (James p 178): from classroom situations

1. cross-association2. teacher explanation3. material induced errors



D- UNIQUE:Neither interlingual nor intralingual

<=> not in L1 and not developmental (Richards p 115- Dulay & Burt)

InterL/L1T

IntraLDevOG

IgnIncR/UG

FC

MorConcordPhonoFA

IE

CAssTEMat

Om/Av

Amb

Un

42


Prepositions/particles

5 Errors

(2 T)

I have trouble in school because▼ the lack of skills in sciences.

Getting an early start about the future can help by expanding our knowledge about our plans.

That is so because I would like to follow in my father’s footsteps.

You get a load of your chest every time you make a basket.

IntraL/Dev

InterL/L1T

Dev

InterL/L1T

Dev/UG/Collocational

Articles4 E

(3 T)

Evil is▼ force that can enter a person’s soul and conquer it.

My plans for the future is to become a professional basketball player, a good father, and▼ successful architect.

▼Most important thing here is that I never become a couch potato.

When the evil comes.

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

Dev/OG

InterL/L1T

Reported sp. 1 E(1 T)

I wonder what god has written for me, what’s my destiny?

InterL/L1T

Sing/Plural 1 E(1 T)

I am obsessed with money; it is just the way they smell. InterL/L1T

Adjectives 2 E(2 T)

Calling others kids to come. Many others ways. InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

Relative clauses Ø E --

Irregular verbs 1 E

They should have veterinarians around them in case they get sick or any strong disease stricked them.

Dev/FA/Concord

Tenses (wrong tense) + omission of 3rd pers. "s"+ agreement of tenses

12 + 2 E

(5 T)

What ever path a person choose.

I have planned my future a long time ago.

last but not least, if I was giving an animal a shot I have to make sure that I am giving it in the right place.

They should have veterinarians around them in case they get sick or any strong disease

Dev/Concord

Dev/Concord

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

43


stricked them. I am caring mainly because an

animal doesn’t have the same mental abilities as humans do.

Without a complete and proper education, you got nothing.

My plans for the future is to become a professional basketball player, a good father, and successful architect.

Hopefully if I become a professional basketball player, I would have enough money to maintain a good life.

That, I have been doing since a long time ago.

In both of the plans for my future I clearly stated, that I began working on them from the beginning of my life

Dev/Concord

InterL/L1T

Dev/Concord/OG

Dev/Concord

Dev/Concord/UG

Amb

InterL/L1T

Possessive case 1 E

That is so because I would like to follow in my fathers footsteps.

Dev/Concord

Syntactic errors

35 E16 T

A- INTERLINGUAL:


B- INTRALINGUAL: (James p 157)5. Phrase structure errors =

Misselection / Misordering6. Clause errors = Omitted,

Misordered, Misselected, Blend

7. Sentence errors = Discourse <=> Coherence

8. Intersentence errors = Cohesion

InterL/L1T

IntraL

Missel / MisordOm

BLCohr

Cohs

Coordination(+ Beginning with “and” or “so”)

5 E(3 T)

For, them not to hate me they need to respect me and realize how much I love them and how hard I work for them.

All my life I’ve really enjoyed the game and played it all my life and of course it is my favorite sport.

I can’t say much here besides that playing ball gives me a good workout and I stay in

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

44


shape; and architecture works my brain.

InterL/L1T

Sentence structure

27 E(11 T)

Animals have to be not acted hard on.

Consequently one must plan his life ▼ to be successful.

A good education will help increase my self-esteem because it makes me happier, feel smarter, and feel more successful than without an education.

It is known to be, that a person would be more appreaciated, and treated better if he were an educated individual than a failure.

I have learned a lesson in my life, that you should never ever give up.

Living your life owning a beatiful mansion, and amazing cars is a relative way of my lifestyle in the future.

My essay has covered up my plans for the future: to be educated, feeling content, and having your family and your close friends stand by your side all the time. (parallelism! coherence)

When I secure a job my goal is to become partner and have a quarter office.

I have to be determined heading off to a foriegn country.

I also sacrifice a lot most of all seeing my family.

All for money and respect (fragment).

This result will give me a positive attitude of authority over life.

I have many goals that I hope I will acheive.

I also have noticed something that most people when they grow up they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress But, I

InterL/L1T

Dev/Om

Missel/BL/Cohr

Amb

InterL/L1T

Cohr

Cohr

Om/Cohr/Missel

Cohr

BL

Cohr

InterL/L1T

Cohr

BL/Cohr

45


intend to still have a very close relationship with my family and friends.

I don’t just want to be a parent but a mom who is proud and deserves that position as well as an interesting lawyer.

What I want to be? My plans are for three things:

future work, future family, and sport I want to play.

I will help my children with any problems they are facing whether these problems are emotional, with friends, with a teacher, in school, etc... (parallelism!)

This image is very important, because I will be able to establish a good early start concerning my future.

The plans for my future are being a successful basketball player & to get a job as a computer engineer. (parallelism)


I have a lot of people in my family that are computer engineers.


In both of the plans for my future I clearly stated, that I began working on them from the beginning of my life.

That is so because I would like to follow in my fathers foot steps, I love playing ball and because I would like to be healthy in the mind as well as the body.

I can’t say much here besides that playing ball gives me a good workout and I stay in shape.

Cohs/Cohr/BL

InterL/L1T

Cohr

Cohr

Amb

Cohr/Missel

BL/Cohr

InterL/L1T

Amb

Cohr

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

46


Nouns & pronounse.g. My father he lives ...

2 E(2 T)

I also have noticed something that most people when they grow up they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress But, I intend to still have a very close relationship with my family and friends.

when the evil comes, it is hard to defy it.

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

Word order 1 E


Dev/Misord


26 E

19 T

A- INTERLINGUAL:


B- INTRALINGUAL/Developmental:3. Confusables (James p. 145-

147)4. Distortions - form

nonexistent in TL (James p 150)

InterL/L1T

FF / DC

IntraL/DevConf

Dist

24 E(17 T)

If I hit an animal it would loose trust in me and stay on irritating me while curing it.

Some animals are nice pets to have, when they have the right health and medications.



Animals are usually very afraid of high sounds.

For me acheiving these goals makes me happy.

How ever each person must

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

47


succeed to his ability. When I secure a job my goal is

to become partner and have a quarter office.

You never know what god has installed for you.

For me to be counted as a one of a kind mother I need to take care of my kids thus they will be successful in the future.

I don’t just want to be a parent but▼ a mom who is proud and deserves that position as well as an interesting lawyer.

In my free time I will practice on improving my basketball fundamentals.

Planning for the future gives an image for our future life.

Thus I will need to put a good concentration of time, practicing my basketball skills.


I need to get outside help. That outside help is provided by my family members.

Like I’ve said before. Getting an early start about the

future can help by expanding our knowledge about our plans.

Well you know what, I’ve given this a lot of thought I think I’m sure of what I want to be.

it rises problems.

InterL/L1T

Dev

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

Dev

Dev

DevInterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

Amb

InterL/L1T

Dev/ConfSemantic errors

3 E3 T

INTERLINGUAL:


InterL/L1T

3 E(3 T)


By acomplishing these pans I will insure myself an

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

48


outstanding life. Architecture works my brain. InterL/L1T

Organization (claim/thesis, transition words (TW), support, process, logical progression, flow of ideas)

+

Discourse/Process

A- INTERLINGUAL:


B- INTRALINGUAL / Developmental : 4. Relevance, clarity,

development, originality (James p 161)

5. Coherence/content = value as a message

6. Cohesion = value as a text/product (Das, 1878; in James p 161)

InterL/L1T

IntraL/DevRel/Cl/Devt/Orig

Cohr

Cohs

5 good theses5 good support2 good TW

1. incorrect thesis- poor support- no transition words- no logical progression.

2. good thesis- good support- TW used incorrectly (“therefore” at the beginning of the body; “as a result” in the thesis.)

3. poor thesis- off topic- few TW- but good mechanics.

4. incorrect thesis- good TW- logical flow.

5. good thesis + support- few TW- third paragraph off topic.

6. good thesis- poor support- shallow- incorrect TW

7. good thesis- no respect for order of thesis components- poor TW- good flow.

8. good thesis but no parallelism- too many repetitions- too long- very few transition words.

9. thesis but no parallelism- good support- good TW- good flow.

10. thesis but no narrowing down.

1. Cohr/Cohs/

Cl/Devt

2. Cohs

3. Cohr/Cl/Devt

4. Cl

5. Devt/Cohs

6. Devt/Cohs

7. Devt/Cohs

8. Devt/Cl/Cohs

9. Devt

10. Devt


120 E 25 T

A- INTERLINGUAL:



InterL/L1T

IntraL/Dev

Punctuation 64 + 11 E(21 T)(28%)

1. However▼evil has its shapes and forms.

2. There are two paths▼evil and good.3. Once I am a veterinarian▼the most

InterL/L1T

Dev

Dev

49


important thing is that I give the right medication to my animals which are sick.

4. First of all▼ in order to do that I have to give the sick animal the most benifitial medicine.

5. last but not least, if I was giving an animal a shot▼ I have to make sure that I am giving it in the right place.

6. Consequently▼ one must plan his life to be successful.

7. As a result, I intend to get a good education, and job, which will allow me to raise a family in a suitable enviroment.

8. Obtaining a good job will be a crucial part of my life for various reasons. One of which, is that it enables me to have a stable income.

9. This factor will allow me to focus on different aspects of my life, which make me happier and, help me improve my life.

10. It is known to be, that a person would be more appreaciated, and treated better▼ if he were an educated individual than a failure.

11. Living your life owning a beatiful mansion, and amazing cars is a relative way of my lifestyle in the future.

12. How ever▼ each person must succeed to his ability.

13. My plan is to succeed. To do that▼ I want to get a good education, become a lawyer, and have positive values.

14. To get a start on my good education▼ the first stepping stone is highschool graduation.

15. Afterwards▼ I want to get a university level education in the united states.

16. There▼ I want to get a PhD in law.17. When I accomplish that▼ I earn a

certain level of respect.18. Next▼ I move to wall street. 19. When I secure a job▼ my goal is to

become partner and have a quarter office.

Dev

Dev

Dev

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

Dev

InterL/L1TDev

Dev

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

Dev

InterL/L1T

Dev

Dev

DevDev

50


20. I have to be determined▼ heading off to a foriegn country.

21. I also sacrifice a lot▼ most of all▼ seeing my family.

22. My plan is difficult, to acheive it I have to work hard at school, become a famous lawyer, and finally carry positive values.

23. No matter who you are▼ try your best to beat life.

24. If money is an issue▼ apply for financial aid, or use resources at home▼ just dont let life get the best of you.

25. Personally▼ I beleive that you can never be sure.

26. For, them not to hate me▼ they need to respect me and realize how much I love them and how hard I work for them.

27. I also have noticed something▼ that most people▼ when they grow up▼ they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress▼ But, I intend to still have a very close relationship with my family and friends.

28. I don’t just want to be a parent▼ but a mom who is proud and deserves that position▼ as well as an interesting lawyer.

29. To become all this is really hard▼ but if I set my mind to it▼ I know that I will acheive it.

30. I hope that this is forfilled▼ I wonder what god has written for me, what’s my destiny?

31. I have many plans for the future that, if accomplished▼ will insure me a successful life full of hapiness and joy.

32. When I get to university▼ I will try my best to get high honors in architecture.

33. After I finish university▼ I will not start working because I also want to get a master’s degree in architecture.

34. I will help my children with any problems they are facing▼ whether

InterL/L1T

Dev

Dev

InterL/L1T

Dev

Dev

InterL/L1T

DevDev

DevDevDevDev

Dev

Dev

DevDev

Dev

Dev

Dev

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

Dev

51


these problems are emotional, with friends, with a teacher, in school, etc...

35. I will support my children in any activity they choose to join▼ whether it is Fine arts, or sports.

36. In my free time▼ I will practice on improving my basketball fundamentals.

37. My advice to everyone is to have many plans for the future▼ instead of only one plan▼ because if one plan fails▼ you can try to achieve another plan.

38. An image, is just a vision about my future life.

39. The plans for my future are▼ being a successful basketball player & to get a job as a computer engineer.

40. Thus▼ I will need to put a good concentration of time, practicing my basketball skills.

41. Of course▼ I will need a lot of people’s assistance.

42. All my life▼ I’ve really enjoyed the game.

43. Hopefully▼ if I become a professional basketball player, I would have enough money to maintain a good life.

44. Of course▼ I do not have a lot of experience as a computer engineer.

45. On the other hand▼ I gain a little bit of experience by messing around with computers.

46. I really do agree, that planning for the future is essential for a person to have a good life.

47. In both of the plans for my future▼ I clearly stated, that I began working on them from the beginning of my life.

48. Well▼ you know what, I’ve given this a lot of thought▼ I think I’m sure of what I want to be.

49. That is so because I would like to follow in my fathers foot steps, I love playing ball▼ and because I would like to be healthy in the mind as well as the body.

Dev

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

DevDev

Dev

Dev

InterL/L1TDev

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1T

Dev

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1TDev

DevDev

Dev

52


Capitalization9 E(4 T)(44.4%)

1. last but not least, if I was giving an animal a shot I have to make sure that I am giving it in the right place.

2. Afterwards I want to get a university level education in the united states.

3. Next I move to wall street.4. I also have noticed something that

most people when they grow up they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress But, I intend to still have a very close relationship with my family and friends.

5. I will support my children in any activity they choose to join whether it is Fine arts, or sports.

6. + arabs

InterL/L1T

InterL/L1TInterL/L1T

DevDevDev

DevInterL/L1T

Spelling

Pronunciation: sound spelling, unnecessary letters

Convention of spelling: omissions, inversion, letter shape (Allen & Corder p 138)

Dyslexic errors, phonetic near-misses (e.g. course/coarse), confusables, typographic errors (James p 130)

SdSpULSpConvOm/Inv/LS

Dys/ PhNM

Conf/ Typo

36 E(0%)

1. If I hit an animal it would loose trust in me and stay on irritating me while curing it.

2. Veterenarians are very important to have around, especially in the ergent times.

3. … which will allow me to raise my family in a suitable enviroment.

4. Belive/beleive - - - -5. What ever6. To conqere7. Gentel8. Bieng happy9. Necassary10. Benifitial --11. Acheive/acheiving - - - - -12. Appreaciated13. Beatiful14. How ever15. reuslt16. foriegn

UL/OG/

SdSp

SdSp

SdSpSpConv/SdSpOGSdSp/ULSdSpDysSdSpSdSpSpConvSdSpDys/Typo?SpConvDysDys

53


17. dont18. forfilled19. hapiness - 20. succesful - 21. acomplishing22. foot steps

OmSdSpSdSp/OmSdSp/OmSdSp/OmSdSp

TOTAL 214 Errors77 Transfer Errors 35.9%

Sources: Corder, 1974; Richards, 1974; James, 1998; Selinker, 1972 in Richards, 1974; Richards & Sampson, 1974.

Notes: E = Error

T = L1 Transfer The number that comes after the “+” accounts for the errors found but not

transcribed.

54


Appendix 8 - Table 3:Error Analysis: Scope of Study


Categorizing & Diagnosing ErrorsInterlingual / Transfer Errors

Error Category

Error sub-category

Number of

ErrorsExamples

Grammatical Errors- 29 E- 14 T


5 Errors

(2 T)


That is so because I would like to follow in my father’s footsteps.

Articles4 E

(3 T)

Evil is▼ force that can enter a person’s soul and conquer it.

My plans for the future is to become a professional basketball player, a good father, and▼ successful architect.

When the evil comes.

Reported sp. 1 E(1 T)

I wonder what god has written for me, what’s my destiny?

Sing/Plural 1 E(1 T)

I am obsessed with money; it is just the way they smell.

Adjectives 2 E(2 T)

Calling others kids to come. Many others ways.

Syntactic errors 35 E- 16 T

Coordination(+ Beginning with “and” or “so”)

5 E(3 T)

For, them not to hate me they need to respect me and realize how much I love them and how hard I work for them.


I can’t say much here besides that playing ball gives me a good workout and I stay in shape; and architecture works my brain.

Sentence structure

27 E(11 T)

Animals have to be not acted hard on. It is known to be, that a person would be more

appreaciated, and treated better if he were an educated individual than a failure.

I have learned a lesson in my life, that you should

55


never ever give up. This result will give me a positive attitude of

authority over life. What I want to be? This image is very important, because I will be able

to establish a good early start concerning my future. I have a lot of people in my family that are computer

engineers. That, I have been doing since a long time ago. In both of the plans for my future I clearly stated, that

I began working on them from the beginning of my life.

That is so because I would like to follow in my fathers foot steps, I love playing ball and because I would like to be healthy in the mind as well as the body.

I can’t say much here besides that playing ball gives me a good workout and I stay in shape.

Nouns & pronounse.g. My father he lives ...

2 E(2 T)


when the evil comes, it is hard to defy it.

Lexical Errors (word choice) 26 E - 19 T

24 E(17 T)

If I hit an animal it would loose trust in me and stay on irritating me while curing it.

Some animals are nice pets to have, when they have the right health and medications.



Animals are usually very afraid of high sounds. For me acheiving these goals makes me happy. How ever each person must succeed to his ability. You never know what god has installed for you. For me to be counted as a one of a kind mother I need

to take In my free time I will practice on improving my

basketball fundamentals. Planning for the future gives an image for our future

life. Thus I will need to put a good concentration of time,

practicing my basketball skills. Hopefully if I become a professional basketball

player, I would have enough money to maintain a

56


good life. I need to get outside help. That outside help is

provided by my family members. Like I’ve said before. Getting an early start about the future can help by

expanding our knowledge about our plans. Well you know what, I’ve given this a lot of thought I

think I’m sure of what I want to be.

Semantic errors 3 E - 3 T

3 E(3 T)


By acomplishing these pans I will insure myself an outstanding life.

Architecture works my brain.

Substance (Mechanics + Spelling) 120 E - 25 T


1. However▼evil has its shapes and forms.2. As a result, I intend to get a good education, and job,

which will allow me to raise a family in a suitable enviroment.

3. Obtaining a good job will be a crucial part of my life for various reasons. One of which, is that it enables me to have a stable income.


5. How ever▼ each person must succeed to his ability.6. My plan is to succeed. To do that▼ I want to get a good

education, become a lawyer, and have positive values.7. Afterwards▼ I want to get a university level education in

the united states.8. I have to be determined▼ heading off to a foriegn

country.9. No matter who you are▼ try your best to beat life.10. Personally▼ I beleive that you can never be sure.11. When I get to university▼ I will try my best to get high

honors in architecture.12. After I finish university▼ I will not start working because

I also want to get a master’s degree in architecture.13. In my free time▼ I will practice on improving my

basketball fundamentals.14. My advice to everyone is to have many plans for the

future▼ instead of only one plan▼ because if one plan fails▼ you can try to achieve another plan.

15. Of course▼ I will need a lot of people’s assistance.

57


16. Hopefully▼ if I become a professional basketball player, I would have enough money to maintain a good life.

17. Of course▼ I do not have a lot of experience as a computer engineer.

18. On the other hand▼ I gain a little bit of experience by messing around with computers.

19. have a good life.20. In both of the plans for my future▼ I clearly stated, that I

began working on them from the beginning of my life.21. Well▼ you know what, I’ve given this a lot of thought▼

I think I’m sure of what I want to be.22. That is so because I would like to follow in my fathers

foot steps, I love playing ball▼ and because I would like to be healthy in the mind as well as the body.

Capitalization9 E(4 T)(44.4%)

1. last but not least, if I was giving an animal a shot I have to make sure that I am giving it in the right place.

2. Afterwards I want to get a university level education in the united states.

3. Next I move to wall street.4. arabs

TOTAL 77 Transfer Errors 35.9%Out of 214 Errors

58


Appendix 9 - Table 4:Error Analysis: Scope of Study


Categorizing & Diagnosing ErrorsIntralingual/Developmental Errors

Error Category

Error sub-category

Number of

ErrorsExamples

Grammatical Errors 29 E - 14 T


5 Errors

(2 T)

I have trouble in school because▼ the lack of skills in sciences.


You get a load of your chest every time you make a basket.

Articles4 E

(3 T)

▼Most important thing here is that I never become a couch potato.

Irregular verbs 1 E They should have veterinarians around them in case

they get sick or any strong disease stricked them.

Tenses (wrong tense) + omission of 3rd pers. "s"+ agreement of tenses

12 + 2 E

(5 T)

What ever path a person choose. I have planned my future a long time ago. They should have veterinarians around them in case

they get sick or any strong disease stricked them. Without a complete and proper education, you got

nothing. My plans for the future is to become a professional

basketball player, a good father, and successful architect.



Possessive case 1 E That is so because I would like to follow in my fathers footsteps.

Syntactic errors 35 E- 16 T

Sentence structure

27 E(11 T)

Consequently one must plan his life ▼ to be successful.

A good education will help increase my self-esteem because it makes me happier, feel smarter, and feel

59


more successful than without an education. It is known to be, that a person would be more

appreaciated, and treated better if he were an educated individual than a failure.

Living your life owning a beatiful mansion, and amazing cars is a relative way of my lifestyle in the future.

My essay has covered up my plans for the future: to be educated, feeling content, and having your family and your close friends stand by your side all the time. (parallelism! coherence)


I have to be determined heading off to a foriegn country.

I also sacrifice a lot most of all seeing my family. All for money and respect (fragment). I have many goals that I hope I will acheive. I also have noticed something that most people when

they grow up they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress But, I intend to still have a very close relationship with my family and friends.

I don’t just want to be a parent but a mom who is proud and deserves that position as well as an interesting lawyer.

My plans are for three things: future work, future family, and sport I want to play.

I will help my children with any problems they are facing whether these problems are emotional, with friends, with a teacher, in school, etc... (parallelism!)

This image is very important, because I will be able to establish a good early start concerning my future.

The plans for my future are being a successful basketball player & to get a job as a computer engineer. (parallelism)


That, I have been doing since a long time ago. In both of the plans for my future I clearly stated, that

I began working on them from the beginning of my life.

Word order 1 E


Lexical Errors (word choice) 26 E - 19 T

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24 E(17 T)

For me to be counted as a one of a kind mother I need to take care of my kids thus they will be successful in the future.

I don’t just want to be a parent but▼ a mom who is proud and deserves that position as well as an interesting lawyer.


it rises problems.

Organization (claim/thesis, transition words (TW), support, process, logical progression, flow of ideas) + Discourse/Process

5 good theses5 good support2 good TW

1. incorrect thesis- poor support- no transition words- no logical progression.

2. good thesis- good support- TW used incorrectly (“therefore” at the beginning of the body; “as a result” in the thesis.)

3. poor thesis- off topic- few TW- but good mechanics.4. incorrect thesis- good TW- logical flow.5. good thesis + support- few TW- third paragraph off topic.6. good thesis- poor support- shallow- incorrect TW7. good thesis- no respect for order of thesis components-

poor TW- good flow.8. good thesis but no parallelism- too many repetitions- too

long- very few transition words.9. thesis but no parallelism- good support- good TW- good

flow.10. thesis but no narrowing down.

Substance (Mechanics + Spelling) 120 E- 25 T


1. There are two paths▼evil and good.2. Once I am a veterinarian▼the most important thing is that

I give the right medication to my animals which are sick. 3. First of all▼ in order to do that I have to give the sick

animal the most benifitial medicine.4. last but not least, if I was giving an animal a shot▼ I have

to make sure that I am giving it in the right place.5. Consequently▼ one must plan his life to be successful.6. suitable enviroment.7. This factor will allow me to focus on different aspects of

my life, which make me happier and, help me improve my life.


9. Living your life owning a beatiful mansion, and amazing cars is a relative way of my lifestyle in the future.

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10. To get a start on my good education▼ the first stepping stone is highschool graduation.

11. There▼ I want to get a PhD in law.12. When I accomplish that▼ I earn a certain level of respect.13. Next▼ I move to wall street. 14. When I secure a job▼ my goal is to become partner and

have a quarter office.15. I also sacrifice a lot▼ most of all▼ seeing my family.16. My plan is difficult, to acheive it I have to work hard at

school, become a famous lawyer, and finally carry positive values.

17. If money is an issue▼ apply for financial aid, or use resources at home▼ just dont let life get the best of you.

18. For, them not to hate me▼ they need to respect me and realize how much I love them and how hard I work for them.

19. I also have noticed something▼ that most people▼ when they grow up▼ they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress▼ But, I intend to still have a very close relationship with my family and friends.

20. I don’t just want to be a parent▼ but a mom who is proud and deserves that position▼ as well as an interesting lawyer.

21. To become all this is really hard▼ but if I set my mind to it▼ I know that I will acheive it.

22. I hope that this is forfilled▼ I wonder what god has written for me, what’s my destiny?

23. I have many plans for the future that, if accomplished▼ will insure me a successful life full of hapiness and joy.

24. I will help my children with any problems they are facing▼ whether these problems are emotional, with friends, with a teacher, in school, etc...

25. I will support my children in any activity they choose to join▼ whether it is Fine arts, or sports.

26. An image, is just a vision about my future life.27. The plans for my future are▼ being a successful

basketball player & to get a job as a computer engineer.28. Thus▼ I will need to put a good concentration of time,

practicing my basketball skills.29. All my life▼ I’ve really enjoyed the game.30. I really do agree, that planning for the future is essential

for a person to have a good life.31. Well▼ you know what, I’ve given this a lot of thought▼ I

think I’m sure of what I want to be.32. That is so because I would like to follow in my fathers

foot steps, I love playing ball▼ and because I would like to be healthy in the mind as well as the body.

Capitalization 9 E(4 T)(44.4%)

1. I also have noticed something that most people when they grow up they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress But, I intend to still have a very

62


close relationship with my family and friends.2. I will support my children in any activity they choose to

join whether it is Fine arts, or sports.

Spelling 36 E(0%)

1. If I hit an animal it would loose trust in me and stay on irritating me while curing it.

2. Veterenarians are very important to have around, especially in the ergent times.

3. … which will allow me to raise my family in a suitable enviroment.

4. Belive/beleive - - - -5. What ever6. To conqere7. Gentel8. Bieng happy9. Necassary10. Benifitial --11. Acheive/acheiving - - - - -12. Appreaciated13. Beatiful14. How ever15. reuslt16. foriegn17. dont18. forfilled19. hapiness - 20. succesful - 21. acomplishing22. foot steps

TOTAL 214 Errors137 Developmental Errors 64.1%

63

Error Sources- Nada AbiSamra

Appendix 10 - Table 5:

Error Analysis: Scope of StudyTopic: What are your plans for the future?

Brevet Students || Ten 250-word essays studied

Error Sources & Numbers compared

Error CategoryInterlingual

ErrorsInterL/L1T

Intralingual

ErrorsIntraL/Dev

Error Sources

Grammatical Errors

14 Transfer(48.2%)

15 Dev.

A- INTERLINGUAL:


B- INTRALINGUAL: Developmental/ analogical errors [Corder, 1974; p. 130]

or over-generalization or of TL rules (Selinker, 1972 in Richards, 1974) = redundancy reduction (Richards, 1974; p 175)

Ignorance of rule restrictions Incomplete application of rules = under-generalization

e.g. nobody knew where was Barbie (Richards + James, 1998; p 185)

Building of false concepts/systems (Richards, p 174) Morphology => 3rd pers sing “s”, “ed”, “ing” <=>

Concord + Phonological error (James p 154) False analogy => childs (James p 185) Induced errors (James p 178): from classroom

situations1. cross-association2. teacher explanation3. material induced errors



D- UNIQUE:Neither interlingual nor intralingual <=> not in L1 and not

developmental (Richards p 115- Dulay & Burt)Syntactic errors 16 T

(45.7%)19 D A- INTERLINGUAL:


B- INTRALINGUAL: (James p 157)1. Phrase structure errors = Misselection / Misordering2. Clause errors = Omitted, Misordered, Misselected,

Blend3. Sentence errors = Discourse <=> Coherence4. Intersentence errors = Cohesion

64



19 T

(73%)7 D

A- INTERLINGUAL:


B- INTRALINGUAL/Developmental:1. Confusables (James p. 145-147)2. Distortions - form nonexistent in TL (James p 150)

Semantic errors 3 T(100%)

0 DINTERLINGUAL:

L1 (negative) Transfer / interferenceOrganization (claim/thesis, transition words (TW), support, process, logical progression, flow of ideas)

+

Discourse/Process

A- INTERLINGUAL:


B- INTRALINGUAL / Developmental : 1. Relevance, clarity, development, originality (James p

161)2. Coherence/content = value as a message3. Cohesion = value as a text/product (Das, 1878; in

James p 161)


25 T(20.8%) 95 D

A- INTERLINGUAL:



Punctuation (28% T)Capitalization (44.4% T)Spelling (0% T) Spelling

Pronunciation: sound spelling, unnecessary letters Convention of spelling: omissions, inversion, letter

shape (Corder p 138) Dyslexic errors, phonetic near-misses (e.g.

course/coarse), confusables, typographic errors (James p 130)

TOTAL77 Transfer

Errors 35.9%

137 Dev.Errors64.1%

214 Errors

Sources: Corder, 1974 ; Richards, 1974 ; James, 1998; Selinker, 1972 in Richards, 1974; Richards & Sampson, 1974

SummaryOf Negative L1 Transfer Error Percentage Semantic 100% Lexical 73.0% Grammatical 48.2% Syntactic 45.7 % Substance/Mechanics 20.8%

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Appendix 11

Oral/Written PresentationsGuidelines and Expectations

http://nadabs.tripod.com/presguide1.html

66

http://nadabs.tripod.com/presguide1.html


Appendix 12

ERROR ANALYSIS EXERCISES & OBJECTIVE TESTS

http://nadabs.tripod.com/onlinematerials.htm#3

67

http://nadabs.tripod.com/onlinematerials.htm#3

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