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PERSONAL HYGIENE

FRANK OV ERTON , A .M . , M .D.

AUTHOR OF “APPL I ED pnysmuoev ”

SAN ITARY SUPERV I SOR

NEW YORK STATE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH

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A M E R I C A N B O O K t O M P A N Y

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HARVARD COLLEGE LIBRARY

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FRANK OVERTON .

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PRE FACE

THIS textbook of Personal Hygiene is des ignedto instruct pupils in the modern science of hygieneand sanitation . I t is adapted to young pupils, andits language has been

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carefully adjusted to theircomprehension and interest. I t meets

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the requirements of the most m odern courses of study inphysiology. I t contains the essential facts of anatomy and physiology that are necessary for understanding the care of the body, but it placesemphasis on the proper performance of voluntaryacts rather than on a scientific observation of involuntary actions and hidden structures.The test of the value of school instruction is its

usefulness in the daily l ives of pupils after theyhave grown up . The actions that are discussedin this book are those over which the m ind has adirect control , and the knowledge that is . impartedis appl icable to the daily acts of every childthroughout h is l ife.This book is the result of years of experience and

observation by the author, not only as a teacher andlecturer, but also as an active health offi cer. The

modern science of hygiene is only a few years old,5

6 PREFACE

and its elem entary principles have not yet becomem atters of comm on knowledge. Every healthofficer finds that he ohas to explain the elementaryfacts concerning the cause, transm ission and prevention of diseases before he can secure i ntel l igentcooperation from infected persons and their fam il ies .This book will promote a hearty and effective co

operation of the private citizen with publ ic healthagencies .

The old idea of the causes of diseases was thatthey were produced by unfavorable conditions ofthe air, soil, and water, such as cold weather, dampness, noxious weeds, and emanations from the ground .

Modern hygiene places very little stress on naturalconditions as compared with persons them selves .This book shows how colds and other infectious diseases spread from the sick to the well , and m akes itplain that the prevention of diseases is principally amatter of personal action by both the sick and thewell . I t shows that the custom s of good societyare founded largely on a hygienic basis , and thatthey are sufficient in them selves for the preventionof m ost diseases. I t gives weighty hygien ic reasonsfor simple toilet acts, such as washing the face,combing the hair, and brushing the clothes. I tshows that the prevention of disease is not a far- offevent over which common persons have no control ,but that it is directly dependent on the personalhabits of each individual man, woman , and child.

CONTE NTS

CHAPTER I

THE S TUDY OF HYG I EN E

CHAFTER’ IID I SEASE GERMS

CHAPTER IIIBATH I NG

CHAPTER IVCL EANING HOUSE

CHAPTER V

CLOTHES

CHAPTER VITH E FEET

CHAPTER VIITHE N OSE AND THE MOUTH

CHAPTER V I I I

TH E TEE TH

CHAPTE R IXFOOD

CHAPTER X

DIGE STION

CHAPTE R XIINTEMPERAN CE I N EATING AND DR INKING

CHAPTER XIIDR I NKS

8 CONTENTS

CHAPTER XI I IPURE WATER

CHAPTER XIV

ALCOHOL

CHAPTER XVTOBACCO

CHAPTER XVIBLOOD

CHAPTER XV IIVVOUNDS

CHAPTER XV I I IACCIDEN TS

CHAPTE R XIX

BREATH ING

CHAPTE R XXFRE SH A I R

CHAPTER XXIBODY H EAT

CHAPTER XXI ICOLDs AND CONSUMP T ION

CHAPTE R XXII IFEVERS

CHAPTE R XXIVE XE RCI SE

CHAPTER XXVTHE BRAIN AND N ERVE S

CHAPTER XXV IS E E ING AN D H EARING

GLOSSARY

I NDEX

PE R SO NAL H YG I E N E

CHAPTER I

THE STUDY OF HYGIENE

Good Health .— Sometimes you are bright and

cheerful , and are ready for work or play . Youfeel com fortable and at ease in every part of yourbody. You do not readily become tired, and youenjoy your tasks as if they were play . When youfeel and act l ike this, we say that you are in goodh alt/z .

1 0 THE STUDY OF HYGIEN E

Sometimes you are dull and gloomy, and do notfeel like stirring. You have pains and aches , andcannot help thinking about your uncom fortable feelings. You are too tired to work . Playing is a hardtask, and even a rest does not help you . When youfeel l ike this , we say that you are in poor E mit/z orare sick.

You can keep yourself in good health withoutgreat cost or trouble. You r body is a l iving m achinewhich will work perfectly if you take good care of it.When you do not feel wel l and cannot work or play,the reason usually is that you have not given yourbody proper care.

A StrongMind .— You are something m ore than

a living machine. You have a m ind as well asa body. Some persons with strong and healthybod ies fail in their work because they do not havegood m inds ! but many persons with fine m inds cannot work because thei r bodies are weak and sickly .

Anything that harms your body is likely to harmyour m i nd also. For example, after you have eatentoo much dinner, you wil l feel too dull and stupidto study ! a headache or a toothache will keep youfrom thinking about anything except your pain andwhen you have a bad cold or a fever, you m ay feeltoo sick to think at all . You go to school in orderto train your m ind , but you cannot have a strongand bright m ind unless you learn to care for yourbody also .

THE STUDY OF HYGIENE 1 1

Health and Good Looks . I t is wel l for you to beas good looking as possible, in order that your ap

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pearance mayplease other persons . A shapely face,blue eyes , wavy hair, and round cheeks wil l not giveyou pleasing looks if you are not in°"

gOOd heal th .

Pleasing looks come from a fair skin , rosy cheeks,

BOTH ARE WE LL AND HAPPY.

a pleasant sm ile, sparkling eyes, and a happy face ,and these come from good health . If you have aheadache , a scowl or a pout will take the place ofa sm ile. If your body is weak , you will easilybecome tired and you will look dull and sleepy.

You cannot have pleasing looks unless you feelwell .

1 2 THE STUDY OF HYGIENE

Sickness . After you have worked or played hard ,you may have ti red feel ings which seem l ike thefeel ings of sickness ! but if your body is sound , aShort rest will put it in order again . S icknessmeans a disorder which a rest of a few hours willnot repair.Nearly every man

, woman , and child is sick forsevera l days in each year . But there is less sickness now than there used to be, and there will bestill less sickness in years to come , for people arelearning more and m ore about the care of theirbodies . A doctor has to study for many years before he can cure diseases, but a school ch ild caneasily learn how the common diseases are caused ,and how they may be prevented .

Hygiene. The study of caring for the body iscalled kygz

'

ene. When you study hygiene, youlearn about such th ings as how to keep yourbody clean , what to eat and drink, how to carefor a wound, and how to keep the air of a roomfresh and pure.

I n order to uo

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CareOf your body, youmuSt s tudyabOut whatlgoes On inside of it . ThisStudy is called In it you will studyabout such?th ings as h ow food is digested , how blood

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takes place. If you wishto '

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m ind , a Sound body, and good looks,or if you wish . .to h ave strength to do great deeds,you will study hygiene and physiology

THE STUDY OF HYGIENE 1 3

QUESTIONSWhat is meant bygood I nu it/z ?I n what way may an

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unhealthybody prevent the mind fromdoing good workI n what waywill a healthy body help your good looks ?What is sicknessWhat is the study of the care Of the body called ?What are some of the subjects which are stud ied in hygieneWhat isplzysz

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ology

What are some of the things which are stud ied in physiology ?

CHA PTER I I

DISEASE GERMS

Catch ing 3. Disease Som e form s of sickness arecaused by something which comes from the bodiesof the sick . For example , if any one has measles,it is because be has caught the disease from some

one who has had measles. Over half of the peoplewho are sick have caught their diseases from othersick persons .

Infectious Diseases . Those diseases which arecaught from other persons are called inf ectiou s diseases . They are caused byliving germ s which growin the body . You will not have one of these kindsof sickness unless you take the germ s of that diseaseinto your body. One of the principal th ings whichyou will study in hygiene, is how to keep germs ofsickness out of your body . I t is therefore important for you to learn what disease germ s arel ike, and how they grow.

Exam ples of infectious diseases are colds , tonsill itis, tuberculosis , diphtheria, malaria, yellow fever,typhoid fever,

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measles , whooping cough , m umps,chicken pox , scarlet fever, and sm allpox . Thesediseases are caused by l iving germ s which leave a

DISEASE GERMS I 5

sick person’s body and become planted in the bodyof another person . The germ s often l ive for daysoutside the body and are sometimes carried fromplace to place before they finally reach another person ! but it is hard to m ake the germ s grow andm ul tiply anywhere except in the body of a personor of a lower animal .Kinds of Disease Germs . There are m any kindsof disease germ s . Each disease has its own kind ofgerm , just as each tree has its own kind of seed .

Thus, consumption always comes from the germ s ofconsumption , a n d measlesfrom the germ s of measles ,j ust as pine trees come fromthe seeds of other pine trees .Mold . D isease germ s are

m u c h l i ke c om m o n m o l d .

The black mold which is Oftenseen on spoi led bread andcheese looks l ike the fine

hairs or threads on velvetcloth , but the part which isseen on the outside of thefood is only the fruit of moldplants. Many more of the same kind of threadsgrow through the food itself, and cause it tospoil .The threads m ay m ultiply very fast, and a few

m aybecome a m at of threads within a few hours .

BREAD COVE RED WITH BLACKMOLD .

I 6 DISEASE GERMS

The tip of each fruit thread is a knob , fil led withtiny balls cal led spores . These spores are l ikeseeds . They may float away as dust, and when

MOLD THREADS. (Magnified )

they fall upon otherpieces of bread orcheese , they may

grow into threadso f m o l d . Manym il l ions of sporesare formed in eachspot of m old, andso the spores are

s c a t t e red nearlyeverywhere . Th is

is why food often becomes moldy after it is a fewdays old . The mold seems to spring from the

f o o d i t se l f, b u t i treally comes fromtiny spores that havefallen upon it fromthe air.There are many

kinds of molds whichdo harm to food andc l o t h i n g . A f ew

ki nd s . o f d i s ea s eMOLD SPORE AND THREADS . (Magnified )

germs are molds. One kind growing in the skinis the cause of ringworm , and other kinds oftenmake the mouths of babies sore.

DISEASE GERMS 1 7

Bacteria .— Most disease germ s are tiny plants

cal led bacter ia or m icrobes . Bacteria are m uch l ikem olds, but sm aller ! and as they grow in numberthey break apart ,instead of formi n g t h r ead s a s

m old plants do.

B ac ter i a a re

the smallest l iving th ings thatare known. Mill i o n s o f t h emcould swim in a small drop of water without crowding one another . Powerful m icroscopes are neededto see them at all , and even then the most of themseem l ike sm al l dots and dashes on the page of abook. When m ill ions of them are grown in a dish ,they m ay look like a spot of m old .

Bacteria are extremely hard to kil l. Cold willstop their growth for a time, but they will growagain as soon as they becom e warm . Boiling willkil l m ost of them , but som etimes a few will groweven after they have been boiled. Many of thema re not kil led by drying . They m ayblow away as

dust, but they maygrow again as soon as they fallupon a wet substance.

Where Bacteria are Found . Bacteria are foundnearly everywhere. The soil swarm s with them , andm uddy water is ful l of them . A few may nearly

PERS. HYG.

BLACK MOLD ON BREAD . (Magnified )

1 8 DISEASE GERMS

always be found floating in the air, but if the air isvery dusty, it contains m il l ions of them . Bacteria

are found wherever air can go, and so they are on

our food,our bodies, our clothes , and on everything

else which the air touches. They cannot growin many places, as on clean glass, but they cangrow wherever any other kind of l iving thing can

grow.

Bacteria and Decay Bacteria usually get theirfood from substances wh ich have been al ive in

USE FUL DECAY I N A GARDE N.

plants and animals . They take parts of the sub

stances into their own bodies, and leave the restsoftened and partly destroyed . If the change spoilsthe substances and produces unpleasant smells, itis cal led decay or rotting. Most form s of decay arecaused either by bacteria or by molds . The rot

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z o DISEASE GERMS

bacteria of decay also grow in the butter or thecheese, the food will taste bad and be spoiled.

Bacteria and Sickness The bacteria of decayproduce substances which are poisonous to the

body. Many persons are made sick each year byeating spoiled food . A ch icken which has beenkept in a market until i t is beginning to decaymay taste good , and yet i t may be spoiled and

m aycause a stomach ache and vomi ting in any personwho eats it.A few kinds of

bacteria maygrowi n l i v i n g fl es h .

There they may

f o r m p o i s o n swhich are often

more deadly than the poisons of decaying sub

stances . These are the germ s that are the causeof infectious diseases , such as diphtheria and ty

phoid fever . D iseases spread because disease germ sleave the bodies of the sick and enter the bodies ofwell persons. Catching a disease means takinggerm s of that disease into the body.

I t used to be supposed that infectious diseaseswere spread by such m eans as cold weather, fog,damp ground, and night air . The principal reasonwhy these things are som etimes harm ful is that they

BACTE RIA I N DECAYING MEAT. (Magnified )

DISEASE GERMS 2 1

cool the body, but theydo very littl e harm if thebody is kept warm . Not one of these th ings canproduce a disease germ , and so they cannot be thecause of an infectious disease.

An example of a Sickness which seem s to manypersons to be caused by cold, damp weather is the

form of sore throat cal led ton s il/ins. This sickness is nearly always caused by disease germ s whichcome from other persons who have the sickness .

How Di sease Germs leave the Body. Very fewdisease germ s pass out of the body of a Sick personthrough the skin , or with the breath of quiet breathing . They leave the body with the sol ids and l iquidswhich pass out of the nose , the m outh , the bowel , andthe bladder. If every sick person should guard thesefour gateways of the body, and should destroy al l thegerms that escape through them , there would soonbe no more infectious diseases, such as measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, and consumption .

Dirt and Disease Germs . If a person has an infectious disease, everything which he soils will belikely to contain disease germs. D i rt from his

body, his clothes, and his room will be dangerouson account of the disease germ s in it . Those whoare m i ldly sick, or who are beginning to be sick ,give off l iving germs of disease, and so dirt whichcom es from any person m aybe dangerous . Cleanliness is one of the best of al l means of preventings ickness .

22 DISEASE GERMS

QUESTIONS

What is the cause of the d iseases which spread from sick persons to those who are well ?What is meant by an inf ectious disease?Where do d isease germs grow?What are molds ?What is the shape of a mold plant?H ow do molds spread from place to place ?What are bacteria ?What have bacteria to do with decay ?O f what use is decay ?Where may bacteria be found ?Why does food not spoil when it is properly canned ?What are the four principal gateways through which d isease

germs leave the body of a sick person ?What are the principal things which make d irt dangerous to

health ?How does c leanliness help to prevent d iseases ?

CHAPTER I I I

BATH ING

Cleanliness and Good Health The principal wayby which disease germ s may be kept from the bodyis by cleanliness . Many persons seem to th ink thatthe only reason for keeping clean is for the sake ofgood looks. A greater reason for keeping clean isto be well and healthy. You wil l not take manydisease germ s in to your body if you eat clean food ,breathe clean air, drink clean water, and keep everything about your body clean .

The Skin. The whole body is covered with askin which is soft and strong . The thickness ofthe skin maybe seen by grasping a fold of flesh onthe back of the hand . Nearly al l of the flesh whichcan be l ifted up is skin .

The Skin is m ade of tough threads of flesh .

Leather is an animal ’s skin that has been preservedby tann ing, and its fibers and threads are l ike thosei n a person’s skin .

The skin is ful l of blood tubes . The blood inthe tubes makes the skin look pink. When anyone is faint, the skin is pale and almost white, forthen there is only a l ittle blood in it.

23

24 BATHING

Epidermis The outside of the Skin is coveredwith fine, soft scales which are m atted into a thin

sheet . Th is coveringis l ike a sheet of paperpasted upon the skinand is called the epi

derm is . I t m aybe cutand pricked withoutpain or bleeding. Oneof its uses is to keepthe tender flesh underit from being hurt.Th e epiderm is i s

waterproof and keepsl iqu ids from soaking

into the flesh . I t also keeps the flesh from drying.

If the epiderm is is healthy , most kinds of poisons maybe handled without danger, forvery few kinds of subtances

can pass through the scales .You are always shedd ing

scales of epiderm is from the

surface of the skin , and newscales are always growing nextto the true skin . By scraping some Of the scales from SCALE S or EPIDERMIS.the back of the hand or the (Magnified )

inside of the cheek, and exam in ing them with a m icroscope, you may see how they look .

A BI T or SKIN . (Magnified )

BATHI N G 25

Oil in the Skin. The skin is kept soft by meansof a kind of Oil or fat . The oil is formed withintiny tubes, called oilglands , which lie deep in theskin around the hair roots. There are oil glandsin the skin wherever there are hairs , but more ofthe glands may be found on the top of the headthan anywhere else on the body.

Perspiration, or Sweat . If a bare finger is heldagainst a cold window pane, the glass soon becomeswet. This Shows that water passes off from the

Skin . The water is the perspira tion , or swea t. I tis formed in small tubes, called swea t glands , whichlie deep in the skin on all parts of the body . I tpasses Off through tiny openings which are oftencalled pores . Perspiration is always passing off

from the Skin. Over a quart leaves the skin everyday , even on a cold day of winter .Waste Matter of the Body When the body

works, its flesh wears out just as a machine wearsout when it runs . I n doing its work the body alsouses up a great deal of food in the same way that asteam engine uses up coal when i t runs . Flesh thathas become worn out , and food that has been usedup are waste substances. ‘ They are of no more use

to the body, but are often poisonous , and would makethe body sick if they were not taken away. A greatdeal of the '

waste m atter is dissolved in the water ofthe perspiration and is carried outside of the bodyby the perspiratIon.

26 BATHI NG

Dirt on the Skin. The skin becomes dirty fromthree principal causes .

I . Loosened scales of epiderm is are always leaving the body . They maybe seen on an arm wherethe clothing has kept them from flying away . L ittlerol ls Of the scales may be rubbed from the skinafter a hot bath. Each person Sheds about a tablespoonful of scales each day.

2 . When perspiration dries, the waste mattersthat were in it are left upon the Skin . These substances have a bad odor and cause the greater partof the smell of a dirty Skin .

3. Dust is blown upon the Skin and many kindsof substances stick to it during work and play . The

dirt always contains bacteria of decay, and very oftenit contains also the bacteria of diseases .

When the Skin is dirty, the m ost dangerous thingson it are disease germ s. The germ s are l ikely to becarried into the flesh when the skin is cut or pricked .

There they m aygrow and produce pimples , boils ,running sores, and blood poisoning. Some of thedisease germ s in the dirt m ay also be carried fromthe skin to the nose or the mouth , or to food, andin that way they may be the cause of a cold , ortyphoid fever, or other infectious disease.

Wash ing theHands and Face. The hands are theparts of the body that are the m ost l ikely to becomedirty

,for they are used in working and in handl ing

dirty things. D i rt on the hands is l ikely to do m ore

28 BATR ING

with a clean towel . If a num ber of persons use thesame towel , som e one who is beginn ing to be sick isl ikely to leave disease germ s on it. A towel thatis dirty, or smel ls as if it had been used , is not fit fordrying the skin . When you travel away from home ,carry a clean towel for your own use, SO that youwill not need to use one which has been soiled byanother person .

Combing the Hair.

— D irt and disease germ s are

often caught in the hair of the head , and Sicknessmaybe due to failure to keep the

hair clean. Germ sof colds and sorethroats are oftenblown upon thehair from dirtystreets and soiledH00 r s . T h e s eg e rm s m ay be

rubbed from the hair upon a pillow during sleep,and then they may be breathed into the body, andthu s be the cause of a cold or a sore throat.You remove a great deal of dirt and dust from the

hair when you comb and brush it ! and you keepdirt from catching among the hairs when you makethem lie smooth and straight. By combing yourhair you improve your health as wel l as your looks .A dirty comb and brush m ay carry disease germ s

HA I R ROOTS. (Magnified )

BATHING 9

into the hair. Have your own comb and brush,and

wash them whenever they become soiled . Whenyou go away from home , take them with you so thatyou will not need to use those which have been usedby another person .

Wash ing the Hair. Hairs do not grow from thetop of the Skin , but from roots wh ich lie deep in theflesh . Baldness is due to a disease of the roots andis often caused by disease germs growing in the

Skin . Som etim es the skin of the scalp peels off infine flakes called dandrnj

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. Th is , too , is Often causedby disease germ s. Washing the hair Often withsoap and water helps to rem ove disease germ s, andto keep it in good condition .

Nails . The nails on the fingers and toes are

hardened growths of the outer covering of the skin .

Keep them trimmed even with the end of the flesh .

Use a sharp knife or scissors so as to leave their endssm ooth . Biting the nails will leave them rough andmake the ends of the fingers sore.

Many persons suppose that the finger nail s may

poison the body if they scratch their sk i n with them ,

or swallow a bit of nail . The nails themselves arenot poisonous , but the dirt that collects under thei rends often contains decaying m atter and diseasegerms . Keep your nails clean for the sake of you rhealth as wel l as looks .A hangnail is not a nail at al l , but is a Sl iver of

torn skin that hangs near the nail . Biting or pull ing

30 BATKING

it Off makes the Skin sore. You can cure it by cutting it off close to the Skin with a sharp knife orscissors.Wash ing the Body. The parts of the body thatare covered ‘

with clothing do not get dirty so quicklyas the hands and face ! and yet if these parts are notwashed often , dried perspiration will give the skin anunpleasant Odor. This odor is a sure Sign that thebody needs washing all over. You wi l l need towash your whole body at least once a week , even inwinter, in order to prevent its odor from becom ingunpleasant.An EasyWay to BathetheBody. In taking a bathyou will need some water, some soap , and a towel .If the water is warm , i t will soften dirt more readilythan water that is cold . If you bathe in a warm room ,

you will be able to take plenty of time for the bath !but if you wash quickly in a cold room , you will feelbrigh t and refreshed because of the cold . A bathroom with running water makes bath ing easy ! buteven if you have no bathroom , you can easily keepyourself clean .

Here is a good way to take a bath quickly. Use

a basin of warm soap suds . Rub the suds over thewhole body and then dry the Skin with a towel . Inthis way you can bathe and dry the whole bodywith in five m inutes .Use of Soap. The oil on the Skin holds dust anddirt fast to it . Water will not m ix with the Oil, and

BATHING 31

so you cannot easily clean the skin by washing itwith water alone . Soap rubbed upon the skin willmake the Oilm ix withthe water, and in thisway it wil l help toloosen the dirt . Use

a kind of soap whichdoes not bite or stingthe tongue when youtaste a bit of it.Bath ing for Stimu

lation. A cool bathwill make a healthyp e r s o n fee l s t r o ngand active . I n them orning it is a goodplan to wet the wholeb o d y a n d d ry I t

SOAP LOOSE NS DIRT.

qu ickly by rubbing it with a towel . This causes agreat deal of blood to flow through the skin andmakes a person feel wide- awake and ready for work .

A basin of water and a towel are al l that are neededfor such a bath . But a person who is weak or sicklym ay be harmed by a cold bath , for it may cool h isbody too m uch .

If you are ti red at night, a warm bath j ust beforebed tim e wil l help to quiet you for sleep . The besttime to take a cold bath is in the morning, for itwill rouse you up and make you ready for work .

32 BATHING

Swimming.— Swimm ing is a good form of bath

if you do not stay in cold water too long . Whenyou first plunge into the water, you may feel cold,but if you stir around briskly, your skin will soonbecome red and warm , and you will feel bright andstrong. If you stay in the cool water too long, theblood will leave the skin and you will feel cold andtired . The t ime to leave the water is as soon asyou begin to feel chi lly.

Bath ing the Sick . When a person is Sick abed ,a bath will often make him feel better than almostanything else that can be done for him . You caneasily give a bath to a Sick person by washing one

part of h is body at a time, and drying it at once .

Begin with the face , then wash an arm , and thenwash the other arm , then the legs, then the frontof the body , and then the back . Cleanse the teethand m outh also . A feverish person will be helpedby having such a bath two or three times a day.

Hot Water Bag. When you have a toothache, orearache, or backache, or stomach ache, or other pain ,or have sprained a joint, or bruised the flesh , youm ay lessen pain by heating the Sk in over the painful spot . A good way to do th is is to fi ll a rubberbag with hot water and lay it against the spot .The bags may be bought at drug stores.

BATHI NG 33

QUE STIONS

I n what respect is the skin like leather?What is the epidermis 7

Of what use is the epiderm isWhere is perspiration formedWhat substances are dissolved in the water of the perspirationOf what does the d irt on the skin consist ?What things compose the most dangerous part of d irt ?Give some reasons whythe face and hands shou ld be kept c lean .

WhyShould the hair be washedI n whatwaymaycombing and brushing the hair help to prevent

sickness ?H ow maydirty nails cause poor healthH owmaya hangnail be cured ?

What causes the unpleasant odor of an unwashed skin ?Of what use is soap in bathing ?I n what way may bathing be good for the health even when

the body is cleanOf what use is a cold bath besides cleansing the body ?Of what use is a hot bath ?Describe a good way of bathing a sick person.

H ow should a hot water bagbe used to relieve pain ?

PERS. RYG. 3

CHAPTER IV

CLEANING HOUSE

Dirt and Dust. D irt is always form ing in houses .It falls from shoes and cloth ing, and drops frompackages of goods , and from wood and coal . Bitsof wool and cotton are rubbed from clothingand carpets , and shreds of wood are torn from floors.Finger marks are left on doors and windows, anddirt is m ade during work and play . Some of thedirt floats away as dust in every breath of air andfalls in a Shower when the air becomes quiet .Disease Germs in Dirt. D irt in houses nearlyalways contains waste matter from the body, suchas scales of dead skin , and substances which are

coughed from the throat or blown from the nose.

These substances often contain disease germs whenan unheal thy person is in the house. They become

dried and may float in the air as dust . If there are

d isease germs in the dirt of the room , they will risewith the dust, for they are even smaller and l ighterthan the bits of dust which we can see in a sun

beam . A sore throat, consumption , and diphtheriaare examples of diseases which are often caughtfrom the dust of dirty rooms . A dirty or dusty

36 CLEANI NG HOUSE

clean them thoroughly is to take them out of doors,and there beat the dirt and dust from them . Rugs

are more healthfulthan carpets, for therugs can be taken upand cleaned the moreeasily.

C los ed Room s .

Some persons thinkthat a clean room willnot become dirty if itis kept closed . Butd u s t y a i r b l o w st h ro ugh c rac k s i nthe windows, doors ,

and floors . After a room has been closed for aday or two , the air in it will smel l m usty, and the

bedclothes and carpets will have a kind of pepperyodor. A large part of these smel ls are d ue tomolds . A room that has been closed for a fewdays wil l not be fit for use until it has been wellaired and dusted .

Sunlight — Sunlight is a great help in gettingrid of molds and disease germs in a house, for itdestroys them in the same way that it burns theSkin when it Shines strongly upon the face. If aroom is flooded with l ight, few disease germ s canl ive in it . L ight wil l kil l the germs even thoughthe sun does not shine directly into a room .

RUGs MAY BE CLEANED OUT OF DOORS .

CLEANIN G HOUSE

Every time that you clean a room , put the matsout of doors in the sunl ight . Raise the Shades soas to let in the light, and leave them up for somehours. The light may fade the carpets, but it willmake the room a healthful place to live in .

A bedroom needs l ight all through the day, for itis in use longer than almost any other room in thehouse. When you get up in the morning, leavethe shades up and a window open , in order to letlight and air into the bedroom . Spread out thesheets and bedclothes so that the air and sunl ightwill dry the perspiration from them and kill thebacteria in the dirt with which they maybe soiled.

QUE STIONS

Of what is house d irt composed ?What substances in d irt are dangerous to health ?H ow shou ld a room be swept ?H ow should a room be d I

‘

I sted

Why is a drycloth not a good thing to use in dusting furniture?Why should a carpet be c leanedWhy are rugs on the floors more healthful than carpets that

cover the whole floor?H ow should cushions be cleanedWhat harm is done by leaving a room closed for days at a

time ?H ow does sunlight in rooms help to make them health ful ?What care should be given to a bedroom in the morning ?

CHAPTER V

CLOTHES

How Clothes warm the Body. One of the uses ofclothing is to keep the body warm . Clothes do not

SHE ARING A SHEEP .

make heat, but the bodywarms itself by m aking itsown heat. Clothing makesthe body warm only becauseit keeps heat from leavingthe body .

Of what Clothes are Made.

Most clothes are madefrom cotton, or linen , orwool , or silk . Cotton consists of short fibers whichgrow upon the seeds ofcotton plants ! l inen is the

stringy bark which covers the stalks of flax plants !wool i s the hair of Sheep ! and silk is composed offine threads which are unwound from the cocoons ofsilkworms.Wool and Cotton — When cloth is loosely wovenand soft, a great deal of air is held am ong its threads.This air is a great help in preventingheat from leav

38

CLOTHES 39

ing the body. Fur is warm because of the air whichit holds . The threads of woolen cloth usually re

m a i n s o f t a n dflu ffy, even afterthey are washed ,a n d S o w o o lm a k e s w a r mc l o t h i n g. S i l kclothing is aboutas warm as thatmade from wool .C o t t o n c l o t h

becom es hard andmatted after it has been wet or washed , and so

clothing made from it is not so warm as that made

CocooN s, MOTHs , AND SILKWORMS .

RI PE COTTON.

4o CLOTHES

from wool . L inen clothing is about as warm as

that made from cotton .

Paper Cloth ing. C loth ing made from paperweighsbut l ittle , and yet it will keep the body as warm as

cotton clothing. A newspaper spread under your

COTTON SEED AND COTTON FIBER.

coat maybe used to keep your body warm when youhave forgotten your overcoat. A few newspapersSpread under the quil ts of your bed may keep youwarm when you cannot get enough bed clothes .How Much to Wear. Your feelings wil l be yourbest gu ide as to how much clothing to wear. Wearenough clothes to keep yourself warm . More clothesthan this wil l be in the way, and wil l h inder you inmoving the arms and legs. I n winter you will needa thick suit of underclothes, a warm coat or waist ,and an overcoat to put on when you go out of doors

CLOTHES 4 1

on cold days . Some persons wear two su its of underclothes in place of an overcoat ! but the coat will bethe better, for it can easily be put on when the air iscold

,and taken off when the air is warm .

Neck Wraps . I f cold air is never allowed totouch the neck, the throat will become tender andwill easily be harmedby a s l i g h t c h i l l .U s e u n d e r c l o t h e swhich reach up to theneck, and wear a lowcol lar on your waistor Shirt . When yougo out of doors on avery cold day, buttonyour coat up to theneck, or turn up itscollar. I f you carefor your neck in thisway, you will be warmer and healthier than if youbundle i t up in th ick wraps.Loose Cloth ing. Loose clothes keep the body

much warm er than tight clothes, for when they areloose they hold a great deal of ai r among the layersOf cloth (p. For the sam e reason two th ingarments are warmer than a single one which weighsas much as the two.

Damp Clothes . Wet clothes are l ikely to beharmful because the vapor passing off from them

KEEPING DRY ON A RAINY DAY .

42 CLOTHES

takes heat from the skin and cools the body. Thecool ing may inj ure the body so much that it cannotovercome disease germ s if they should enter it .For this reason the wearing Of damp clothing may

help to bring on a cold or sore throat . But wetclothes are not likely to be harm ful if a person keepswarm by exercising . When your clothes becomewet, keep m oving around and exercising until youcan ei ther dry them or change them for dry ones.Brush ing Clothes . C lothes which are dusty and

d irty often have disease germ s on them . Brushingyour clothes and keeping them clean will help yourhealth as well as your good looks .Brush your clothes every morning as regularly as

you wash your face and hands. If you brush themin your room , the dust and disease germ s will floatin the air, and you wil l be l ikely to breath them intoyour body. Brush them by an open window or outof doors .Underclothes .

— Underclothes soon become dirtyand have an unpleasant odor like that of a dirtyskin . Change your underclothes for clean ones atleast once a week . I f you perspire a great deal , ordo dirty work , change them as often as they become

soiled .

Many persons think that the only u se of underclothes is to keep the body warm , and that there isno need to wear them i n summer. An importantuse of undercloth ing is to keep perspiration and

44 CLOTHES

the heat kills the disease germs which may be inthem .

Ironing. I ron ing clothes after they have beenwashed helps to keep them clean . The ironingmakes them so smooth that they have no folds orcreases to catch dust and dirt . I t m akes the surfaceof starched cloth so hard and pol ished that dirt willfal l from the cloth instead of sticking to it. Theheat of the ironing also kill s the disease germswhich maybe on the cloth .

QUESTIONS

How do clothes keep the body warm ?H ow can you know how much c lothing to wear?Why is woolen clothing usually warmer than cotton clothing ?Whyare loose clothes warmer than those which fit tightly ?H owmaydamp clothes be harm ful to healthGive some reasons why c lothes should be kept clean.

Why should c lothes not be brushed in a room

Give some uses of underclothing.

Give some reasons why soiled underclothes Should be washed .

Of what use is soap in washing clothes ?Why should clothes be boiled when they are washed ?How does ironing c lothes increase their healthfulness ?

CHAPTER . V I

THE FEET

The Feet and Health . The feet are put to harderwbrk than any other part of the body, for they bearthe whole weight of the body for hours at a time .They are more l ikely to be injured than other partsof the body, for they are often in places which are

cold , or wet, or dangerous . If anything is the

matter with them , all the rest of the body will sufferalso. Many persons suffer tortures whenever theystand or walk, because they did not learn to care fortheir feet while they were young. The care of thefeet is of great importance in preserving the healthof the rest ofthe body.

Shape of the

Foot. If youwet the bares o l e o f y o u rfoot and stepwith i t upon ap iece of dark. colored blotting paper, a print will beleft in the exact Shape of the parts of the sole whichtouch the paper . The print will Show that the foot

PRINT or A FOOT .

46 THE FEET

rests upon the heel, and the ball behind the toes,but that the m idd le of the sole under the ankleshard ly touches the paper. Thus a foot is in the

shape of a bow or arch wh ich bears the weight ofthe body like the springs of a wagon . The archlessens the jolts and jars caused by running or

j umping .

While a person is standing, his foot is longer andwider than while he is sitting, for the weight of thebody flattens its arch . A Shoe is not large enoughunless it is as broad and long as the foot is while itis bearing the weight of the body .

Straight I nner Edge of a Shoe. If the feet are

placed side by side, they will touch each other fromthei r toes to their heels, for theirinner edges are almost straight.If a shoe is shaped to fit a footproperly , its inner edge m ust bealmost straight. Shoes withstraight inner edges can now bebought at m ost shoe stores .A poorly fitting shoe often

THE I N NE R EDGE S OFseems to press against the l ittle

THE FE ET ARE AL toe when the real trouble IS thatMOST STRAIGHT '

the great toe has not room enough .

If the great toe is pushed sidewise, the whole footwill be crowded sidewise with it, and in this way theli ttle toe will be pressed against the outer side of theShoe. The skin on the l ittle toe is more tender and

THE FEET 47

thin than the skin on the great toe, and so the pressure will be felt most on the l ittle toe. If the inneredge of the sole is straight, the great toe will not bepressed aga i n s tthe outer side ofthe shoe, unlessthe shoe is toonarrow.

Pointed Shoes .

Th e l o n ge s tpart of a foot isi t s i n n e r edgefrom the heel toth e t i p o f t h egreat toe. If ashoe fits the footperfectly, its tipwill not be oppos i te the m iddle ofthe foot, but op

pos ite th e greattoe . A Shoe may

be m ade pointedif its inner edge is straight , and its tip is placed atthe end of the inner edge. This is because the

outer edge of a foot is m uch shorter than its inneredge. A shoe which fits the right foot will not fitthe left foot .I ngrowing Toenails . If the point of a shoe is

X- RAY PRINT or A BARE FOOT.

48 THE FEET

not opposite the great toe , the curved inner edgeof the shoe may press the great toe sidewise andm ake its edge l ie upon the second toe. The pressure will then push the flesh up against the sharp edge

X- RAY PRINT OF A FOOT I N A SHOE .

of the nail of thegreat toe, and willproduce a painfulsore called an in

growing taena il.

You may pre

vent or cu re an

ingrowing toenai lby wearing a wideShoe which has as t r a i g h t i n n e redge. This Shoew i l l a l l o w th e

great toe room tolie apart from the

second toe, andthere wil l be no

pressure to pushthe flesh againstthe nail .

Trimm ing the Toenails . If the edges or cornersof a toenail are trimmed , the nail m ay not be wideenough to cover the end of the toe The flesh may

then become pressed against the edge of the nail .Cut the edge of the nail squarely across, even with

THE FEET 49

the tip of the toe . DO not cut off the corners oredges of the nail , but let them grow beyond the toeso that they will cover and protect the flesh .

Com s . If badly fi tting shoes are worn , the epi

derm is grows thick at the places which are pressedor rubbed . These Spots of thickened skin are cal ledcorns . They are tender andpainful , for the Shoes press themin to the flesh . If you alwayswear well - fitting shoes, you willnot have corns.Weak Ankles . If an ankle isweak , the foot mayturn sidewiseeasily. This trouble is usuallydue to a weakness of the mu s

cles and cords which pass downthe leg on each side of the ankle. Wearing anklesupporters in the shoes may keep the ankles frombending over, but , it is better to exercise the legsin order that the muscles maygrow strong enoughto hold the ankles in place.

Cold Feet . The feet are kept warm by the warmblood which flows through them . Tight shoeshinder the flow . of the blood and make the feet cold.

Shoes and stockings which are thin and loose allowthe warm blood to flow freely, and are warmer thanthose which are thick, but tight.PerspiringFeet. If the feet become wet with perspiration , they mayfeel as cold as though they were

PERS. E YG.—4

AN INGROWI NG TOE NAIL.

so THE FEET

wet with rain . A good way to keep the feet dryand warm is to wear thick inside soles in the shoes .

The soles wil l soak up the perspiration as fast as itis formed . Take the soles ou t each night and drythem .

Rubber overshoes . Rubber overshoes are watertight and wil l keep dampness from reaching yourfeet when you walk in wet places . But they alsokeep perspiration from passing off from the feet . Ifyou wear them in a warm room , your feet wil l soonbecome wet with perspiration , and wil l feel coldwhen you go out of doors . Put on your overshoeswhen you go out of doors in the wet, but take themoff as soon as you go into the house.

QUESTION S

What parts of a foot usually touch the floor in walking or

stand ing ?What is the shape of the inner edge of a shoe which fits well ?Opposite which toe shou ld the point of a shoe be placed ?What is the cause of an ingrowing toenail ?H owmay ingrowing toenails be prevented ?I n what shape should a toenail be trimmed ?What is a corn ?

H ow may corns be prevented ?H owmayweak ankles be strengthened ?Howmay tight shoes cause cold feet?H owmayperspiration cause cold feet?H ow do inner soles worn in the shoes help to keep the feet

warm ?

Whyis it harm fu l to wear rubber overshoes in a warm room

52 THE NOSE AND THE MOUTH

Do not use a handkerchief after it has become

d irty, for you m ight take germ s from it back intoyour body and so cause a sl ight cold to become a

bad one . Do not use a handkerchief which anotherperson has used , for you m ight catch a cold fromh im , or give him a cold when you return it. Whenyou wash the handkerchiefs, boil them i n order todestroy the disease germ s which m aybe on them .

A Stopped - up Nose — When you cannot breathethrough your nose , you feel dull and uncomfortable.

You cannot do your bestwork when your nose is

stopped up . If you have tobreathe through your mouth ,find out what is the m atterwith your nose, and have itcured .

There are three commoncauses of a stopped - up nose.

I . The nose maybe fullof mucus . Th is can becleared out by blowing the

TH E N ATURAL WAY To nose.

CLEANSE THE N OSE .

2 . T h e n o s e m ay b e

stopped up because the folds of its l ining are swol

len and puffed up with blood . The swel ling is

what stops up your nose when you have a Cold inyour head . Blowing the nose hard will make theswel l ing worse,

for it will force a great deal of blood

THE NOSE AND THE MOUTH 53

into the nose. If you cannot clear your nose byblowing it l ightly, you will do harm by blowing ithard . You may make the swelling go down byblowing out the breath and then waiting

,as long

as possible before you take in the next breath .

Th is draws the blood away from the nose andm akes its l in ing become smaller, l ike a balloonwhich has no air in it .

3. The nose may be stopped up with lumps ofsoft flesh called adenoid s growing just behind it.Adenoids — Adenoids are folds and tufts of soft

flesh growing in the upper part of the throat behindthe nose . They partly close the openings of thenose, and are a great hindrance to breathing. MostChildren who breathe through the mouth do so

because they have adenoids .Enlarged Tonsils .

— Breathing may also be h indered by lumps of flesh called enlarged tons ils . Ifthe tonsils are enlarged , they wil llook like two red marbles , one oneach side of the throat , half hidden in the flesh j ust above theback end of the tongue. A person who has enlarged tonsilsusually has adenoids also .

Adenoids and enlarged tonsils do not usuallytrouble grown folks , for the openings of their nosesand throats are large ! but in children they cause agreat deal of poor health and sickness . Children

TONSILS.


who have them usually snore and sleep poorly because the openings of thei r noses are small . They

have to breathewith thei r mouthsopen , their nosesand upper jawsbecome narrowand pointed , andtheir upper l ipsseem too short fortheir teeth . Theyare often uncom

f o rt a b le w i t hstopped - up noses,and they cannotput their m indsupon their les

sons . They are often weak and sickly withoutseem ing to have a cau se for thei r weakness .I f you have to breathe th rough your mouth for

the greater part of the time,go to a doctor and find

out if you have adenoids . I f you have them ,let the

doctor take them out of your throat.Spitting. Grippe, tonsill itis, whooping cough ,diphtheria, and consumption are some of the diseaseswhich are caused by l iving germs . I n al l theseform s of Sickness the disease germ s are given off

with the m ucus from the nose and throat. If themucus is spit upon the floor or pavement, it may

SECTION OF N OSE,MOUTH

,AND THROAT .


becom e dried and blown away as dust , and yet

the disease germ s may remain alive and cause thedisease in any one who breathes the dust . The

germ s of consumption may nearly always be foundin the dust which blows from a city street , for careless persons who have consumption go about sp ittingon pavements and streets.Spitting on a floor or pavement is dangerous to

health . In many cities there are s igns which forbidsp itting in public places. Spitting is largely a

habit . I t is seldom necessary for any one to spitin a public place.A Coated Tongue. The surface of the tongue is

somewhat l ike the surface of velvet cloth . Thisfurry covering catches and holds m any of the thingsthat are in the mouth . Among the substanceswhich m ay usually be found on the tongue are dustwhich has been breathed , m ucus l ike that in thenose, and dead scales from the skin which l ines them outh . These substances Often form a thick whiteor yellow coating on the tongue when a person isin poor health , or is sick . A coated tongue is therefore a Sign of poor health .

Bad Breath . Many kinds of bacteria mayalwaysbe found in the mouth . If the mouth is dirty, itswarm s with bacteria that produce a kind of decay,and unpleasant odors in the breath . Cleansing them outh two or three times a day will lessen the

odors .


Disease Germs in theMouth . D isease germ s may

enter the mouth with impure air, or with impurefood , or with d irtysubstances whichare put into them o u t h . T h e ym ay g r ow a n dm ultiply in themouth for som etime without en

tering the flesh ,but they may be

come SO numeI‘

BACTERIA ON SCALE S or EPmERM I s FROM o u s t h a t t h eyM M

‘

fi d .THE ( mm agm e

s p r e a d throughthe body and cause sickness . The mouth may

be kept free from disease germ s by cleansing itoften .

How to cleanse the Mouth . The way to cleansethe mouth is to wash it with water. R insing them outh will not remove all the d irt, for the m ucus issomewhat sticky and holds the dirt fast to the skinuntil it is rubbed off . When you wash your face,rub the tongue , the inside of the cheeks , and the

top of the m outh with a finger, or a clean cloth , or,best of all , with a toothbrush . By doing th is youwill loosen the coating that is on the tongue , andremove the dirt and decaying substances from thewhole inside of the mouth .


Care of theMouth in Sickness . In most form s ofs ickness there is an uncom fortable taste of drynessand stickiness which is caused by the coating onthe tongue. Cleansing the m outh and teeth severalt imes a day will remove the unpleasant taste. Whenyou take care of a sick person , cleanse his mouthevery time that you wash his face and hands .Putting Th ings into the Mouth . The germ s of

colds, sore throats , consumption , and most other infectiou s diseasesa re found in them ouths and noseso f those who havet h e s e f o rm s o fs i c k n e s s . Th e

germs may stickto anything whichis put into the sickp e r s o n ’s m ou th .

If he wets hisfingers with histongue in orderto turn a leaf, hemay leave the

germs on his book. I f he touches the point of h ispencil to his tongue when he writes , he may leavesome germs on the pencil . In these and sim ilarways germ s of disease are often scattered wherethey may reach other persons .

THE RE MAY BE GERMS ON THE PE NCIL.


If you touch your tongue with a pencil pointevery few seconds while you are writing, breakyourself of the habit . If you u se a pencil or penwhich an unhealthy scholar has touched to h ismouth , you may catch a disease from him . Haveyour own pencils and pens , and when you are notusing them , keep them in your desk away from thoseof other children .

QUE STION S

What becomes of dust which is breathed into the nose?

What is mucus ? Of what use is it ?How may the nose be kept clean ?What are some of the causes o f a stopped - up nose?

How can you clear the nose when it is stopped up?

What are adenoids ?What are enlarged tonsils ?What harm is done by adenoid s and enlarged tonsils ?Give some reasons whyyou shou ld always carry a handkerchief .What harm may be done by using a d irty handkerchief ?What harm may come from spitting ?N ame some d iseases which may be spread by the habit o f

spitting.

What harm may come from a d irty mouth ?What is a common cause of bad breathO f what does the coating on the tongue of an unhealthy per

son consist?H ow may the mouth be cleansed ?When a person is sick,

what care should be taken of his mouth ?What harm maycome from the habit of putting things into the

mouth ?

60 THE TEETH

jaw, making twenty in all . Each jaw will containfour front teeth, two eyeteeth, and four double teeth .

At about the age of Six years some of the firstteeth become loose and drop out, but a new tooth

soon grows in theplace of each one

that is lost. Oneby one the firsttee t h d r o p o u t

UPPER Team 0, Aunti l , at about the

UPPER Team or A

F IVE - YE AR ' O LD age Of fourteen , al l TE N - YE AR - O LDcwm '

of the first set are cm ’

gone, and in their places are twenty teeth Of the

second set. Twelve m ore double teeth also growin the back of the mouth , making in all th irty- twoteeth in the second set .

Preserving the Teeth . If a toothof the first set islost, another toothwill grow in itsplace ! but if atooth of the sec

UPPER TEE TH OF A ond set is lost , the

ggf

goif ' m fl ‘ jaw will not form

another tooth inits place. Fewpersons have full sets of teeth , for mostpersons allow them to become inj ured or decayed .

Yet all the teeth of the second set maybe preservedth rough a l ifetime if proper care is given to them .

UPPER TE ETH OF AMAN .

THE TEETH 6 1

Sixth -

year Molars . The first set of teeth conta in o nly two double teeth on each side of a j aw.

I f there are three double teeth on ei ther side of a

jaw, the tooth that is the farthest back is the firsttooth of the second set. I t appears when the child1 5 about six years old , and is cal led the s ixta-

year

m olar. If it is lost, another tooth will not grow init s place.

Many persons suppose that the sixth - year m olarsbelong to the first set of teeth , because they appearwhile a child is young . Many are also carelessabout preserving those teeth , because they supposethat other teeth will grow in their places if they arel ost . These are am ong the largest and the mostuseful of all the teeth , and yet they are often lostwhile a child is only eight or ten years old . Thetime to begin to care for them and for al l the restof the teeth is before any of them Show Signs ofdecay .

Structure of a Tooth . A tooth is composed princ ipally of a kind of hard bone called dentine. Thedentine is covered with a thin sheet of hard sub

stance called enamel. The inner part of the dentinecontains blood tubes and feels painful when it istouched .

Decayed Teeth — I f a tooth is inj ured , bacteriamay grow in it and cause the dentine to decay.

Enamel which is sound and whole will protect atooth from bacteria ! but it may become cracked

62 THE TEETH

by biting upon fruit pits or other hard substances ,or it may become softened by substances wh ich

are formed in the dirt of the

m o u t h . Th en b a c t e r i a m ay

reach the dentine and cause i t to

decay .

Toothache. Decayed dentineis soft and black . I t crumblesand leaves a hole in the tooth .

If the hole is deep, the tooth wi l lbe tender and painful . The m ostcomm on cause of toothache is adecayed tooth .

Use of a Toothbrush . If teeth are kept clean ,they are l ikely to remain sound and fi rm through awhole l ifetime, because cleanl iness wil l protect them

from bacteria of decay . In order to clean the teeth,you will need a toothbrush and a l ittle warm water.Brush the teeth on their inner Sides as wel l as ontheir outer S ides . Brush the back ones as well asthe front ones . Rub the brush up and down as wellas sidewise, so that the bristles will reach betweenthe teeth and remove the dirt which is wedged there.

After you have gone over the teeth , rub the toothbrush over the tongue and roof of themouth in orderto cleanse them as wel l as the teeth (p .

Brush your teeth every morning when you get up,for m uch dirt col lects on them during the hours ofsleep. I t is also a good plan to brush them after

A DECAYED TOOTH .

THE TEETH 63

each meal, so as to remove the bits of food that maybe left on them .

A dirty toothbrush maycontain disease germ s andbe dangerous to health . After brushing the teeth ,r i nse the toothbrush well in clean water so as to rem ove all d irt from i t . Then put the brush in a clean ,d ry place , where it will not become dusty or soiled.

Use of a Tooth Powder. A hard, brownish sub

s tance often collects upon the teeth and preventssm all cracks and holes from being seen when theyfi rst begin to form . Using a tooth powder on theb rush is a great help in rubbing away this substanceand in keeping the teeth clean and white.

Some of the sugar in food may remain betweenthe teeth , and there may turn to sour substanceswhich are l ikely to soften the teeth and so causethem to decay. Eating a great deal of candy maycause bad teeth . A tooth powder made of chalkwill destroy these sour substances , and so wil l helpto preserve the teeth .

Use of a Toothpick . Bits of food m ay becomewedged between the teeth so tightly that they cannot be removed with a toothbrush . There they maydecay and cause the teeth to decay also . Removethem with a soft toothpick, or with a waxed threador dental floss passed between the teeth . Do notuse a pin or other hard pick , for fear of breaking theenam el and so starting a spot of decay.

FillingTeeth . A broken or decayed tooth does

64 THE TEETH

not heal like a sore spot on the Skin, but somet imesa dentist can repair it. If one of your teeth begin sto decay, go to a dentist and have the hollow pa rtcleaned out and filled. Fil l ing the tooth does not

hurt if it is done while the hole is smal l . If a toothis fil led while it is stil l strong, it may be made tolast a l ifetime . Go to a dentist once or twice ayear to find out if there are any holes in your teeth .

Have each tooth filled as soon as the tin iest hole isseen in it. If you do this, you are not l ikely tohave toothache, or to lose a tooth . The expenseand trouble are small if you attend to the holes assoon as they appear.Filling Ch ildren

’s Teeth . The back teeth Of the

first set do not drop out until a child is about twelveor fourteen years old . They may begin to decaywhile a child is only two or three years old , and thenthey may give trouble for years with soreness oraching. Have the teeth of the first set cleaned andfil led as carefully as those of the Second set.

Disease Germs in Decayed Teeth . I t is alm ostimpossible to keep the holes in decayed teeth clean .

If disease germ s Should enter the mouth , they m av

lie in the holes in decayed teeth , and maym ultiplyto great numbers . From there they may spreadthrough the body. Two kinds of disease germswhich may often be found in decayed teeth are

those which cause consumption and tonsill it is.One of the principal reasons for having decayed

THE TEETH 65

teeth filled is to prevent disease germs from growingin them . I n many schools doctors and dentists areappointed to exam ine the teeth of the pupils and totell each child what he needs to have done to h isteeth .

Pulling Teeth . I t may be imposs ible to fi ll atooth that is greatly decayed . Such a tooth is

‘

dangerous to heal th , for it maybe the hiding placeof disease germs . I t is best to have it pulled out .But remember that nearly every tooth maybe savedif it is filled as soon as it begins to decay .

Uneven Teeth . If a few of the teeth are ou t ofl i ne with the others, the opposite teeth wi l l notm eet, and it will be impossible to chew wel l . Forth is reason crooked and irregu lar teeth maybe thecause of weakness and poor health . If your teethare not in an even row, go to a dentist and have therow straightened .

The Teeth and Adenoids . The teeth in each jaware arranged in a half circle. If a child has adenoids ,the half circle of the upper jaw will become flattenedsidewise, and its front part will be pointed . Thenthe upper teeth will not meet the lower ones perfectly, and the front upper teeth will extend beyondthe l ips . If the upper l ip is too short to cover theteeth , the cause is nearly always adenoids (p .

I f the jaw is deformed by adenoids, it m ay beShaped properly by a dentist if the adenoids are

firs t removed .

PER S . HYG. 5

66 THE TEETH

QUESTIONS

Howmaythe teeth affect the health of the body ?H owmany sets of teeth grow in the mouth during a lifetime?

H owmany teeth are in the first set? H ow many teeth are in

the second set?

At about what age does a child get the first tooth of the second

set ?

What is the sixth - year molar?What is the structure of a toothWhat are some causes of decay in teeth ?What is the most common cause of toothache ?Howmay the use of a toothbrush help to keep the teeth from

decaying ?Of what use is tooth powder?Of what use is a toothpick?When should the teeth be brushed ?Name two kinds of d isease germs which are often found in

decayed teeth .

H ow may a decayed tooth be repaired ?When should a decayed tooth be filled ?Why is it important to have a decayed sixth year molar filledHowmaythe health of the body he harmed byteeth which are

set irregularly in thejaws ?What effect do adenoids have on the shape of the upper jaw?

68 FOOD

abou t three fourths water, and bone is one fourthwater.A small part of the body is m i neral matter. This

is the part which is left as ashes when flesh or bone isburned .

The most important part of the flesh is somewhat l ike the white Of an egg. This substance iscalled protein. Everything that is al ive containsprotein , and life could not go on without it.There is always some fat in the body. Owing to

the heat of the body it is in a l iquid form , l ike oliveoil . Fat meat consists of l ittle pockets of flesh filled

'

with fat.The body also contains a smal l quantity of sugar.Of what Foods are Composed . The body is con

stantly using up its water, m inerals, protein , fat, andsugar, and therefore it must often take in new sup

plies of these substances . Mixtures of some or allof these substances compose the foods whi ch we eat.Water and m inerals are found in nearly everykind of food .

Protein is found in most kinds of foods . Meat,eggs, m ilk, grain , vegetables , and fru it all contain it.A great deal of fat is found in nearly every kind

of food produced by animals ! but only a little fat isfound in food produced by most plants . Meat, eggs,and m ilk contain much fat. Grain , potatoes, vegetables, and fruit contain only a li ttle fat.Sugar and Starch . S tarch is a food substance

FOOD 69

which is almost l ike sugar, for it becomes changedto sugar after it has been eaten . The greater parto f the sugar that is in the body is formed from starch,for most persons eat more starch than sugar.There is very l ittle sugar or starch in most foods

that come from animals, but m ost foods that comefrom plants con tain much sugar or starch . A lmostno sugar or starch is found in meat, fish , and eggs !but a great deal of either sugar or starch is found in

grain , vegetables , and fruit .What becomes of Food . Water and m inerals may

become a part of l iv ing flesh , but they cannot supplythe body with warm th and strength .

Some of the protein wh ich is eaten is formed intol iving flesh, and some is used to supply the bodywi th heat and strength .

The fat, the sugar, and the starch of food are not

formed into flesh or bone, but are used up in givingthe body strength and warm th .

I f a food is rich in protein it is called a fi es/z

f orm ing food . For example, lean meat is a fleshform ing food , for it contains a great deal of protein ,

only a l ittle fat, and no starch or sugar .If a food contains a great deal of either starch ,

sugar, or fat, it i s called a nea t-produ cing food .

Potatoes are an example of a heat- producing food ,for they contain a great deal of starch , and only al ittle protein .

Nearly al l kinds of foods contain some substances

7o FOOD

that form flesh and some that produce heat. Eachperson needs some of each kind of food everyday .

Grain. The principal kinds of grain that are usedas food are wheat, corn , and rice. Examples of foodmade from them are bread, crackers, pancakes, and

A FI E LD OF RIPE CORN .

cereal breakfast foods . Grain foods are both fleshform ing and heat producing, for they contain proteinand sugar or starch . They are the principal foodsof m ankind .

Vegetables . Potatoes and sweet potatoes bothcontain a great deal of starch and som e protein , butvery l ittle fat . A person could not l ive on themalone and be strong, because they do not containenough flesh - form ing substances .

FOOD 71

Examples of garden vegetables are turn ips, cabbages, carrots, tomatoes, and lettuce . Most of thesevegetables contain only a small amount of food subs tances, but beans and peas are very rich in proteinand starch .

Fruit . Bananas, grapes, and dates al l contain aconsiderable am ount of protein and sugar .

‘

The juicy fruits, such as oranges, apples , ands trawberries, contain a very small quantity of foods ubstances. But these and garden vegetables contain iron and other substances which are lacking in

grain and meat. For this reason som e fruit andvegetables are needed in order to keep the bodyhealthy. Another use of fruits and vegetables is to

give a pleasant taste to other food with which theya re m ixed .

Meat — The flesh of an imals consists mostly of

protein . I t also contains fat, but no sugar or starch .

Lean meat is an excellent flesh - form ing food , and

fat m eat is also an excellent heat- producing food .

The meat of fish , oysters clam s, and crabs is sim ilarto the flesh of cattle, but I t does not contain so m uchfood substance.Mi lk . Milk is one of the best of all foods, for itcontains j ust enough of the right kinds of protein ,fat , sugar, m inerals , and water to supply the needsof the body. Babies l ive upon it, and a man can dohard work if he takes no food except three or four

quarts of m ilk a day.

72 FOOD

Cream ,butter, and cheese are valuable foods which

are m ade from m ilk .

Food Mixtures . The body needs a m ixture ofprotein , fat, and sugar or starch at each m eal . The

best form s of protein and fat are found in anim alfoods . Sugar and starch are found in plant foods .Thus each kind of food has what the other lacks.A m ixture of plant and anim al foods is usually amore complete food than ei ther alone would be.

Examples of good m ixtures of foods are bread andeggs ! potatoes and meat ! crackers and cheese ! fishand rice ! bread and butter ! and pork and beans .Healthful m ixtures of food usually taste good .

Most persons spread butter upon their bread to improve its taste ! but buttered bread is a more heal thful food than bread alone.

Food List . If you had to get the meals for afam ily for a day what foods would you choose ?Here is a l ist of wholesome foods which m ight bechosen

BREAKFAST NOON MEAL

Bananas Bean soupOatmeal Broiled codfish

Boiled eggs Mashed potatoesBread rolls ButterButter BreadMilk Custard

Milk

SUPPER

Beef stewBreadButterSponge cakeCanned peachesMilk

FOOD 73

Lunches away f rom Home. When you expect tobe away from hom e at a mealtime , you m ay need totake a lunch withyou. The bodywould find it hardto m ake use of al u n c h m a d e o fc ake, pickles, andc andy . The bestkind of a lunch iso n e o f s a n d

wiches made ofs uch plain foods A GOOD LUNG“

as crackers and cheese , or bread and butter wi thm eat or jel ly. To these you can add hard - boiledeggs , fruit, and plain cake.

Food duringSickness .

— When a person is sick , hedoes not need so much food as when he is well . I tis usually a m istake to coax a sick person to eat.

I t is a stil l greater m istake to give him puddings ,j ell ies , ice cream , and other sweet th ings . The bestfoods for the sick are soups, m ilk , eggs , and bread .

Such foods as these are also the best for those whoare well.Foods and Chi ldren — Growing children need a

great deal of protein food in order to form new

flesh . Because they l ike the taste of sweet things ,many ch ildren eat too m uch sugar and too littlemeat , bread , and other flesh - form ing foods . Then

74 FOOD

they become th in and weak , and do not grow as fas tas they should , for they lack protein to bu ild uptheir flesh . They need m ilk, or eggs , or meat, orfish every day in order to supply their bodies withflesh - form ing food .

Keeping Food Fresh . Most kinds of food arelikely to become moldy , or sour, or decayed unlessthey receive proper care. The most of the spoilingis caused by molds and bacteria. Food which isprotected from molds and bacteria will stay freshfor a long time .

L iving germ s do not grow readily when theyare cold . Keeping food in an ice box or in a cellar or other cool part of the house, will help to preserve i t.Few germs are found in clean places . Keep

your pantry, kitchen , and dishes clean , and haveyour hands clean when you touch the food .

Flies carry a great deal of dirt on their bodies .Keep them out of the kitchen , pantry, and din ingroom . If you cannot keep them out of the room s,cover the food so that they cannot l ight upon it .Clean Milk — Milk is more l ikely to Spoi l than

almost any other kind of food . It will turn sour inwarm weather within a few hours unless great careis taken to preserve it. The souring is caused byl iving bacteria which enter the m i lk with dirt (p .

If fresh m ilk contains dirt and bacteria, itmay become sour in the stomach and mayproduce

FOOD

QUESTIONSName three uses of food .

Name the five princ ipal substances which compose the body .

N ame the five princ ipal substances o f which food is composed .

What is protein ? Of what use is it to the body ?What becomes of the fat, sugar, and starch which is eaten ?Of what substance does a flesh - form ing food largely consist ?Of what substances do heat- produc ing foods consist?N ame some food s which are good flesh formers .

N ame some foods which are good heat producers .

Give some examples of good m ixtures o f food .

Why are fresh vegetables and fruit needed as foods ?

Whydo children need meat or other flesh - form ing food ?N ame some ways by which food maybe kept from spoiling.

Write out a good bill of fare for breakfast.What d ishes of food would you get for a noon meal ?N ame the foods which you would choose for a supper.

What foods are good for a lunch at school ?What food s shou ld you give to a sick person ?What is the cause of the souring o f m ilk?What harm is done by d irt in m ilk?H ow maym ilk be kept fresh ?What is meant bypasteuriz ing m ilk?

CHAPTER X

DIGESTION

What Digestion I s . After a meal has been eaten ,it will be of no u se to the body until it becom es a

pa rt of the blood . I n order to reach the blood , thefood must be dissolved in som e of the fluids of theb ody . The changing of food to a form which canenter the blood is called d igestion .

Mouth Digestion. The digestion of food is begunby grinding it between the teeth . The grinding isa long step in the process of digestion , for sm all bitsof food will dissolve much faster than large masses,j ust as powdered sugar will dissolve faster than lumpsugar.The mouth , while chewing food, pours a l iquid

over it . This l iquid is m ostly water, and is cal ledsa liva . There is always some sal iva in the m outh

,

but the act of chewing causes i t to flow so freelythat it makes the food become l ike a thin paste.

Drinkingwhi le Eating. When you eat dry foodlike crackers , you sometimes want to drink in orderto wet the food faster than the sal iva can m oisten it .I t is m uch better to chew a mouthful of food untilit is wet with sal iva than to wet it with a drink of

77

78 DIGESTI ON

water . If you are th irsty at meal times, do not drinkwhile you have food in your mouth , but drink between m outhfuls .

Digestion by Saliva . When there is starch in am outhful of food , the sal iva will Change some of itto sugar. For this reason chewing will m ake suchfood as bread taste sweet . But the change requiresa m oment’s time. If food is eaten fast, there wil l beno time to change the starch to sugar, and the foodwil l not be digested well.Swallowing. After a m outhful of food has beenchewed , i t is rolled into a lump by the tongue andchecks , and is sent backwards into a fleshy tube calledthe esopnagu s . The esophagus carries the m assdown th rough the m iddle of the body and into a bagcalled the stomac/z , where d igestion is continued .

Sometimes you maywish to drink while eating,in order to help to swallow the food fast. If youcannot swallow a m outhful of food'

easily withoutdrinking , chew it until you can swallow i t readi ly .

Stomach Digestion . The stomach is a fleshy bagthat holds one or two quarts . I t l ies in the front part ofthe body , j ust above the l ine where the waistband ofthe clothes is usually worn . It digests food in m uchthe same way that the mouth does. First, it stirsand m ixes the food , but in a m uch slower and gentlerway than the mouth . Second , it pours a wateryl iquid over the food . Th is l iquid is called the gastr icju ice. I t makes the food alm ost as th in as m i lk .

DIGESTION 79

Third, the gastric j uice changes som e of the protein of the food to a form which can pass into theblood .

Intestinal Digestion. Every few m oments thes tomach lets a l ittle of the l iquid food pass into along tube cal led the bowel or in testine. I n fromtwo to four hours the stomach usually becom es empty.

The intestine is about four times the length of thebody , and is about as large around as a thumb . I ts

coils fill the most of the lower part of the body belowthe line of the waistband . In it the greater part ofd igestion takes place .

The intestine does th ree th ings to the food , j ustas the mouth and stomach do . It sti rs and m ixes .

the food and forces it along the whole length of thetube ! i t pours out a liquid over the food , thus mak

ing the food sti ll more watery ! and it dissolves andchanges the protein , the starch , and the fat of thefood to a thin l iquid which is ready to enter theblood .

The Pancreatic !u ice. Most of the digestion inthe intestine is done by a fluid called thepancrea tic

ju ice. This fluid comes from a mass of flesh,

calledthe pancreas or sweetbreaa

’

, which l ies behind the

stom ach .

Control over Digestion You wil l have very l i ttlecontrol over your food after you have swallowed it,for the stomach and intestine are not under thecontrol of the m ind as the m outh is . But what

80 DIGESTION

your m outh does to food before you swallow i t willhave a great effect on what the stomach and intestine will do to it . If food is not wel l chewed , yourstomach will have to do m ore than its share of work,and will have aches and pains wh ile it tries hard todigest the food . If you eat food properly, you are

not l ikely to have a single unpleasant feel ing to Showthat your stomach and intestine are at work.

How Digested Food reaches the Blood . The i nsideof the intestine is covered with short velvety threads

of flesh called oil/i . Blood flowsnear the surface of the vil l i andis separated from the food in theintestine by only the thin wallsof the fine tubes through whichit flows. These walls preventanything from passing from theblood stream

‘

into the intestine,but they allow digested food topass from the intestine into theblood stream . In this way digested food enters the blood .

By the time the food has

passed the length of the intestine , the digested parts havebeen taken up by the vil l i , and

only the waste parts are left. These waste substances are of no further u se to the body, but areoften poisonous . The last act of digestion is to get

VILLI . (Magnified )

DIGESTION 8 1

rid of them . Empty the waste matter from the intestine at least once every day .

The Liver The blood which flows from the vil l icarries the digested food to the liver. The l iverstrains out those parts of the food which are harmfulto the body, and allows the rest of the food to passon with the blood through all parts of the body.

The substance that the l iver strains out from thebl ood is a yel low l iquid called bile. The l iver sendsthe bile back to the intestine, where it helps to digestthe next m eal. When the l iver does not do its workwel l , the bile passes on with the blood and stains theskin yel low. This is what gives the skin a yel lowor muddy color when a person is bil ious.Cooking. Many of our best foods cannot be

easily digested if they are eaten raw, but the heat ofcooking will soften and change most kinds of foodto form s that may be easily digested. I t would bed ifficult to l ive on raw grain , for the stomach andin testine could not digest i t fast enough to supplythe needs of the body. But after grain has beensoftened by cooking, it may be digested easily.

Cooking is the beginning of the work of digestion .

Long Cooking. Many foods cannot be easilydigested if they are cooked for only a Short time.

Oatmeal becomes soft and tastes good after it hasbeen cooked for only ten m inutes , but it cannot beeasily digested unless i t has been cooked for an houror two . A good way of cooking it for breakfast is

PERS. HYG.— 6

82 DIGESTION

to put it over the fire in a double boiler and let itcook slowly on the back of the stove all night .Most vegetables, and most foods made from grain,

cannot be easily digested unless they are cookedfor some time after they become soft and tender.Most animal foods can be easily digested if theyare cooked only until they becom e tender, but theyare not usually harmed by long cooking . Cook ingfood for a long time helps the stomach to digest it,if the cooking is done without burning or drynthe food .

Taste and Digestion. The sight or smell of foodwhich is pleasingwil l cause the saliva to flow i ntothe m outh , even before the food is tasted . Thetaste of good food will cause the gastric ju ice toflow into the stomach before the food is swallowed .

A pleasant taste has an important use in tell i ngthe stomach to get ready to digest food . For th isreason food which looks and tastes good wil l bedigested m ore easily than food whose appearanceand taste are unpleasant . The u se of a pleasingtaste in food is not merely to give pleasure , bu talso to help in digesting food .

Exercise and Digestion. If you are i n goodheal th , your stomach and intestine will digest theamount of food that you need . When ’

you workhard , your body will use up a great deal of food .

When you sit stil l in the house or in a schoolroom day after day, you wil l use up only a l ittle

CHAPTER X I

INTEMPERANCE I N EATING AND DRINKING

Indigestion. If a person’s food does not digestwel l , we say that he has ind igestion or dyspeps ia .

Indigestion is one of the most common causes of illhealth and sickness . If food should not becom echanged at all after it has been eaten, i t m igh t notbe harm ful to the body, even if it were not useful .Bu t if i t is not digested and taken up by the blood ,it usually spoils and becomes sour in the stom achand intestine, j ust as it would if i t were kept in adish in a warm pantry. I t is then as poisonous asfood which has spoiled in a pantry. Most of thebad feel ings which come from ind igestion are dueto the spoiling and souring of food in the stom achand intestine.

Indigestion is nearly always caused by wronghabits of eating. If you always eat properly, yourfood wil l be digested properly and you will hardlybe aware that you have a stom ach and intestine

(p .

Nervousness . I n most forms of indigestion some

of the food becomes sour and poisonous. Whenthe poisons pass into the blood , they may cause

84

INTEMPERANCE I N EATING AND DRINKING 85

uncom fortab le feel ings, even though they do not

make the body sick . They m ake a person feel socross and uneasy that he can neither work nor rest.Children who have indigestion cannot pay attentionto thei r school studies, but keep moving in theirseats , and looking around the room . What is cal lednervou sness is often caused by indigestion , and usually passes off when the person eats properly.

Intemperance. One of the principal causes of ind igestion is taking food and drinks for the merepleasure of eating and drinking. Many persons eattoo fast, too often , and too much . Others injuretheir stomachs and intestines by taking harmfuldrinks , such as beer, wine, and wh isky . Thesed rinks are harmful . They hinder the digestion ofgood food , and produce bodily weakness and Sickness .Taking any kind of food or drink merely for

pleasure is intemperance, and is harmful to both thebody and the m ind . When we say that a person isintemperate, we usually mean that he takes a greatdeal of beer, wine, or whisky . Children who formi ntemperate habits of eating will be in danger ofform i ng intemperate habits of drinking when theygrow up, for they do not learn to control thei rfeelings .Mealtimes . The feeling of hunger tells you

when your body is in need of food . If you eat asyou Should , you will be hungry in the m orning, at

86 INTEMPERANCE I N EATI NG AND DRINKING

noon , and at night. Three meals a day are enoughto satisfy the natural hunger of grown folks and

older children, but smal l ch ildren may need one ortwo extra lunches .If you are hungry and eat as you should , you will

take pleasure i n eating, and your body will makegood use of food. If you are not hungry, wait untilthe next meal before eating.

Eating between Meals The stomach needs arest l ike any other part of the body. I t becom esempty three or four hours after a meal is eaten , andthen it needs a rest of at least an hour or two . Ifyou eat between meals , the stomach will get li ttlerest, and will become too tired to do its work well .Then you will suffer from indigestion . Eatingcake, or candy, or fruit, or ice cream between mealsis as unhealthful as eating potatoes or meat betweenmeals . The only proper time to eat is at mealtime.

Fast Eating. One of the most common faults ofeating is taking food too fast . If you eat too fast,there will not be time for the saliva to m ix with thefood and to begin its digestion . You will not chewthe food well , but will swal low it in lumps which thestomach and intestine cannot easily break up ordissolve. You wil l also be l ikely to eat more thanthe stomach can digest .Eat slowly, and take at least fifteen m inutes for a

meal . Take small bites of food , and chew each

INTEMPERANCE I N EATIN G AND DRINKING 87

m outhful to a paste . Swallow each mouthful before

you put another into your m outh . If you eat inthis way, you are not l ikely to have indigestion .

How Much to Eat —Your feel ing of hunger willtel l you how much to eat, as wel l as when to eat.You may usual ly eat until you have satisfied yourhunger. Then stop eating, and do not keep oneating merely for the sake of the taste of the food .

Eating Sweets — A common faul t in eating istaking too m uch sweet things . The body gets a

great deal of starch and sugar from such food as

bread and potatoes. If you eat a great deal of icec ream , or cake, or candy , or other sweets, you will

get more sugar than your body can use. If youwish to eat sugar, or cake, or candy, use them as

a part of a meal , but also eat meat, or eggs, or m ilkin order to get all the protei n and fat that you need .

Taste. Most foods that are wholesome have a

pleasant taste . Most foods that are unfit to eat

have an unpleasant taste that wil l keep you fromeating them . The sense of taste is very necessary,for by it you choose you r proper food and avoidthose things which are harm ful . The pleasant tasteof food is also a great help in its digestion (p.

Pleasure in Eating. If eating were an unpleasanttask, many persons would not eat enough to keepthem selves strong . But the pleasure of eating leadsm any persons to eat a great deal more than theyneed .

88 INTEMPERANCE I N EATING AND DRINKIN G

When you are not hungry, and your body is not

in need of food , you m aywish to eat some kinds offood for the sake of thei r taste. You like pie, orcake, or pudding, or preserves, or candy, or otherform s of fancy d ishes , between meals , or after dinner.

A PLEASANT MEAL.

If you wish to eat these things , use them as foods,and eat them only when you are hungry . But ifyou are not hungry for bread and butter, do not eatdesserts and sweets. If you are really hungry andare in need of food , yo u will prefer bread and butterto cake, or candy, or desserts.If you eat all the potatoes and meat or other plain

INTEMPERANCE I N EATING AND DRINKING 89

food that you wish , and then leave the table, you wil lfeel satisfied and comfortable. But after satisfying

your real hunger wi th potatoes and meat, you may

s ti l l wish to eat pie or other dessert in order to en

j oy its taste. Then your desire for the dessert willbe a false hunger.You can usually tel l a real hunger from a false

o ne by eating a piece of bread and butter . I f youreal ly enjoy the bread , you are probably in real needo f food, and may safely eat a dessert . If you do notenjoy the bread , your hunger is probably false, and

you would be harmed by eating a dessert or anyo ther kind of food .

False Appetites . The feel ing that the body is in

need of something is called an appetite. The princ ipal appetites are those of hunger and thirst.You mayhave a false thirst . If your tongue and

th roat are dryand sore, your mouth has an unpleas

a nt feel ing which wil l not be helped by drinking .

C leansing the teeth and tongue with a toothbrushand water wil l help this feel ing better than drinking.

Many persons have false appetites for such drinksIa s beer, wine , and whisky. These drinks have as t inging taste . They injure the mouth and make i tfeel dryand burning. They make a thirst greater,in stead of satisfying it. A great danger from the

u se of these drinks is that the more a person takesthe more he wants. It is not safe to begin theiruse at al l .

90 IN TEMPERANCE I N EATING AND DRINKING

Table Manners . If you enjoy a food , it will doyou a great deal more good than if you do not likeit. If you are unhappy or cross, your food will notd igest wel l . Good manners at table wi ll help youto be happy, and so will help to digest your foodand to make you wel l and strong .

The rules of good manners are not merely for styleand Show. They are also good rules for eating ina healthful way . If you eat as well -m annered persons do, you will come to the table with clean handsand faces and clean clothes . You will take time toeat properly , and will act in such a way that otherscan eat in com fort. You wil l eat slowly and cheweach mouthful of food wel l . You will s ip your drinkinstead of gulping it down in great swallows . Thenthe food wil l digest well , and wil l make you strongand healthy.

QUESTIONS

What is ind igestionI f food is not d igested in the intestine, what happens to it?H ow does ind igestion cause nervousness ?What is intemperance ?N ame some form s of intemperance.

How does fast eating cause ind igestion ?H ow does eating between meals cause ind igestion ?Of what use is the feeling of hunger ?H owmayyou know howmuch to eat ?

Of what use is the taste of food ?

What harm comes from eating a great deal of sweets ?

CHAPTER X I I

DRINKS

Water in the Body.

— The body contains aboutthree times as m uch water as sol id substance .

Water is always passing off from the body, and ina day a grown person loses about three quarts.He m ust therefore swallow about three quarts ofwater each day .

Drinks . Water is the only substance wh ich can

replace the water which leaves the body . Tea , cof

fee, and m ilk may be used instead of pure water.Large quanti ties of such drinks as beer, wine, and

whisky are also used instead of pure water . They,too, are mostly water ! but thei r use is harm ful , forthey contain substances which are poisonous to thebody and to the m ind .

How Water leaves the Body. About half of thewater which leaves the body passes off through thesk in , and with the breath . The other half Of

the water is given off by the kidneys .

The kidneys are two red masses of flesh lying inthe back part of the body behind the lowest ribs .They take about three pints of water from the bodyeach day, and get rid of it through the bladder.

92

DRINKS 93

Waste Matter and Water. Blood is mostly water.One of its uses is to wash away waste. matter fromthe flesh , and to carry it to the kidneys and skin

(p . The perspiration , and the water whichcom es from the kidneys, are poisonous, because agreat deal of waste matter is dissolved in them .

If you drink only a l ittle water, the blood will notwash away all the waste subs tances from the flesh ,and the skin and kidneys wil l not give all of themo ff from the body. But if you drink the proper

q uantity of water, the skin and kidneys wil l easilyca rry the waste matter from the body. Drinking the

proper quantity of water wil l help to keep you welland strong.

When to Drink About half of the water wh ichthe body receives is swallowed with food, and theo ther half is taken in the form of l iquid drinks. A

grown person needs to drink about two large glasseso f water th ree times a day. I t is usual ly safe tod rink pure , cool water whenever there is a feel ing ofth i rst .Wateris a kind of food, for it forms a part of l iv

ing flesh . I t can be taken as safely with a meal asat any other time . But a person who is in a hurrysometimes swallows water so as to wash the fooddown the throat quickly This u se of water iswrong. I f you eat Slowly , you may safely drinkenough water with a meal to satisfy your thirst

(P

94 DRINKS

Tea, Cof fee, and Cocoa. Tea, cofi ee, and cocoasatisfy thirst because they are mostly water. Theyal l contain substances that are l ikely to make a person restless and wakeful , but cocoa is usually theleast harmful of the three . On account of thesesubstances tea , coffee , and cocoa are not good forChildren .

I ce Water. When water is pleasantly cool, it i smore healthful than when it is either hot or verycold. Hot drinks and ice cold drinks are both un

healthful when they are taken in large quantities ,for ei ther the heat or the cold wil l hinder digestion .

If a person is thirsty and drinks quickly, he is l ikelyto swallow three or four glasses of ice water befo rehe is satisfied, because he does not wait for thewater to pass into the blood. If a single glass ofpure, cold water is taken in sips, it is not l ikely to beharmful at any time.

It used to be thought that persons Sick with a

fever should not drink water. This was a grea tm istake. Cold water cools the sick person’s body,and helps to carry away the poisons of the sickness .A sick person will seldom be harmed by drinkingall the water that he wants, if he takes it Slowly.

Mineral Water. In some places the undergroundwater dissolves a l ittle sulphur, i ron , l im e, potash , orother m inerals from the rocks . These kinds ofwater are called m inera l waters , and are often u sedas medicines.

DRINKS 95

Soda Water. Plain soda water which is soldf rom soda -water fountains is water that is bubbl ingful l of a harm less gas. When the water is flavoredwith sirups , it becomes a food , like candy or othersweet things . Taking soda water between meals isas harmful as eating sweets between meals (p .

Lemonade, ginger ale, and sarsaparilla may beh arm ful when they contain m uch sweetening or flavoring, for the sugar in them is as harmfu l as in thefo rm of candy.

Alcoholic Drinks . Such drinks as beer, wine , andwhisky contain a harmful substance called a lcoltol.

M any of them also contain flavorings which areh armful . These drinks are all harmful, even whenthey are manufactured out of pure materials and inthe best manner. But m any of them are madef rom poor materials, and in a careless and uncleanlyway. These drinks contain substances which arem ore poisonous and dangerous than the substanceswhich are in pure l iquors.Public Drinking Cups . I n schools and railroad

ca rs, and at drinking fountains, where m any peopled rink from the same cup, persons who have a cold ,o r consumption, . or other infect ious d isease, oftenleave germ s of their disease on the cup . Any onewho drinks from a publ ic cup is l ikely to take disease germs wh ich an unhealthy person has left onthe cup. I t is no more safe to drink from a publicc up than it is to eat from unwashed dishes which

DRINKS

Do NOT TOUCH YOUR LIPS To A PUBLICDRINKING CUP .

other persons haveused Some stateshave laws that dri nking cups which areto be used m ore thanonce shall not beplaced in school s , orrail road cars, or otherpubl ic places .

Bring your own

d r i n k i n g c up t oschool and do not

lend i t to any one ,or borrow a cup fromany one else When

you travel , take your own drinking cup with you , sothat you wil l not needto drink from a publ iccup . If you mustdrink from a publ iccup , do not take

.

the

rim of the cup be

tween your l ips,but

drink by touchingboth lips to the waterj ust inside of the rim .

In many publ icdrinking fountainsrunn ing water bub A SAFE DRINKING FOUNTAIN .

DRINKS 97

b les up in a l ittle colum n , or jet, about half an inchh igh. A drink is taken by putting the l ips to thetop of the jet. This form of drinking fountain iss afe, for the l ipst o u c h n o t h i n gb u t r u n n i n gw a t e r . I f a n y

germ s should bed ropped from the

m o u t h w h i l ed r i n k i n g , t h e

water would carryt h em aw a y a to nce.

Paper drinking cups are now manufactured and

s old cheaply to be used in place of metal drinkingc u ps . Each cup is to be used once and then thrownaway .

PAPER DRINKING CUP S .

QUE STION S

I n What respect is water a foodWhat substance in tea, coffee, and m ilk quenches thirst?What are the three princ ipal ways in which water is removed

from the body ?What substances are d issolved in the water of the perspirationO f what use are the kidneysH owmuch water does a person need to drink in a day?

What manner of drinking at mealtime is harmful ?Why should children not drink tea or coffee?

H ow shou ld ice water be drunk?Of what use is water to a feverish person ?

PERS . HYG. 7

95 DRI NKS

What is m ineralwater ?What is soda water ?

What is there in soda water that m ybe harm ful?

What harm ful substances do beer, wine, and whisky contain ?

What danger may there be in drinking from a public drinkingcup?

I f you have to drink from a public cup, how should you placeyour lips to the cup?

Whyare paper drinking cups more healthful than those made

from meta l ?

I oo PURE WATER

germ s which reach drinking water come from slopsand sewage, or from barnyards . The way to keepdrinking water pure is to dispose of all Slops andsewage and barnyard drainings in such a way that

AN UNTIDY BACK YARD .

they cannot reach the wel l s, or springs, or stream sfrom which drinking water is taken . Failure to dothis has been the cause of a great deal of Sickness .

Typhoid fever has been Spread to hundreds ofpersons in a city by the slops from a single farmhouse on the banks of the stream which suppliedthe city with water .Wells .

— Old - fashioned wel ls were large open

PURE WATER 1 0!

holes l i ned with brick or stone . D i rty water fromthe house or barnyard often ran between the joints,and worm s andt o ad s d r o pp e dt h r o u g h t h e

cracks into thew a t e r . T h e seold wells havebeen the causeof a great dealof Sickness . Awel l i s now usual ly made by sinking a small iron pipe into theground , and screwing a pump to its upper end .

Nothing can fall into i t, and no water can flow intoit from the earth above the ground water . The

water which is drawn from it wil l be pure, if theunderground water is pure.

Public Water Supply. Wel ls and driven pumpsmay safely be used on a farm and in a small village, but the people of a large village or a city mustgo to a distance to get pure water, for the soilin the crowded part of the town is usually full ofsewage . The water is usually taken from a river orlake, and is brought to the houses by means of ironpipes laid underground in the streets. Most citiesand large villages have public water suppl ies .

Streams and Rivers . The water from a river isusually saf e for drinking if no slops or other sew

AN UNSAFE WE LL.

1 02 PURE WATER

age reach it from towns along its course, or from

persons living on its banks. But many cities andvillages have to take thei r water from streams whichconta in sewage, and therefore it is often necessaryto purify the water before i t can be used safely.

Filter. One way of purifying water is by passingit through a f ilter. A common form of filter is abox filled with sand and smal l bits of charcoal .The sand and charcoal strain out impurit ies , andallow the pure water to pass through .

A fil ter is of l ittle value unless it is very large,and the water runs through it slowly. Small filtersare made to screw on kitchen faucets, but they areof l ittle use in taking disease germs from water .C ities sometimes purify their water by passing i t

through huge filters of sand .

BoilingDrinkingWater. Most impure water m ay

be m ade safe for drinking by boil ing it . The boiling will not remove dirt or take away a bad taste,

but the heat will kill the germ s of disease that may

be in the water. Long boil ing spoils the taste ofwater by driving off the air that is dissolved in it .If the water is taken from the fire as soon as it begins to boil , the disease germs will be killed and yetthe taste of the water will not be spoiled .

Where water is impure, persons are somet imestold to d rink tea or coffee instead of water. The

tea or coffee is safer than water only because i t hasbeen boiled .

TO4 PURE WATER

from the kitchen in a pail , and empty it on the backyard , first on one place and then on another. Putonly a l ittle at a time on each place. If the groundis froz en , empty the Slops on some spot from whichthey wil l not run into a well or stream when theground begins to thaw.

Cesspool. — Emptying slops and sewage on the

ground m ay be safe on farm s and in small countryplaces, but this wil l not be a safe thing to do if thehouses are near together . One way of getting ridof all kinds of slops and sewage in small towns is toempty the waste water from each house into a largecovered hole i n the ground called a cesspool. Fromi t the water slowly Sinks into the deeper parts of thesoil. Bu t it will not be safe to take drinking waterfrom a wel l or pump that is near the cesspool .If a layer of rock or clay is j ust beneath a cesspool

or other dumping place for sewage or slops, impurewater mayflow along it and reach a well or pump .

The place for a cesspool is where both the surfaceof the ground and also the underground rock or

clay slope away from a wel l or other place fromwhich drinking water is taken .

Sewage Disposal in Cities . In cities the sewageis usual ly emptied into underground pipes calledsewer s. Many sewers empty into the nearest river,lake, or other body of water. But this makes thewater impure and dangerou s for drinking, wash ing,and bathing. The people of the city of A lbany,

PURE WATER 1 05

N . Y have to spend large sums of money in purifying their water, because the river from which thecity water is taken contains the sewage of the

A SMALL SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANT .

city of Troy, which is about ten m i les aboveA lbany. A better way to get rid of sewage is to

purify it in sewage disposal works at public expense .

QUE STION S

What are some of the common impurities in drinking waterWhat are the most dangerous impurities in impure waterWhat is sewageWhat harmful substances are found in sewageH ow do d isease germs usually reach drinking waterWhy is water from a driven well usually more healthful than

water from an old - fashioned open well ?What is a filterH ow does a filter purify waterWhy does boi ling impure water make it safe to drinkHowmay ice wh ich is used for cooling drinking water he the

cause of diseaseWhat purifies s lops and other sewage when they are thrown

upon the land

I O6 PURE WATER

What is a good way to d ispose of the d irty water that flowsfrom a kitchen sinkWhat is a cesspoolWhy is it unhealthful for city sewers to empty into a river, lake,

or other body of water ?Give some reasons why the people of a c ity should purify their

sewage.

1 08 ALCOHOL

change was called f ermen ta tion , and by it some ofthe sugar of the grape juice was changed to alcohol .The fermented j uice was cal led wine.

Fresh grape ju ice is a food . When it is firstmade, it is as wholesome and as harm less as thegrapes them selves, but after it has stood for a shorttime, it ferments , and its sugar becom es alcohol .The j uice is then no longer a safe food , but it isa stimulant.Beer. Another form of strong drink is beer. I tis m ade by boil ing gra in that has sprouted , andthen fermenting the liquid . I t contains only al ittle alcohol , but many persons who use it drink itin great quantities and so take a great deal ofalcohol . Those who use it are likely to get anappetite for stronger drink, and its use leads themto take the more harmful kinds of l iquors.Yeast.

— The change of sugar to alcohol is m adeby m icroscopic p lants called yeast. These plants

mayl ive after they aredried , and they areoften found floatingin the air as dust.Fruit j uice or otherm ixture contain ingsugar can seldomstand for many hours

without having yeast plants fall into it from the air .The yeast plants grow and change the sugar to al

YEAST PLANTS. (Magnified )

ALCOHOL 09

cohol and a gas . The gas bubbles up and makesthe liqu id seem as if i t were boil ing.

Yeast in Bread .

- Yeast is Used in making bread.

A yeast cake consists of dried yeast plants m ixedwith flour and meal . Bread dough is a m ixture offl our, water, and yeast. The yeast plants growrapidly and form a gas which puff s up the doughuntil it is ful l of holes l ike a sponge . This makesthe bread l ight . When the dough is baked, it becomes so firm that the gas holes keep their shape.A good loaf of bread is full of holes and soundshollow when it is tapped.

The yeast plants in a lump of dough forma lcohol , but the heat of the oven drives all of itaway.

Most yeast cakes also contain many bacteria, butthey usually grow more slowly than the yeast . Ifthe yeast plants do not grow rapidly in bread dough ,the bacteria m aygrow and produce sour substances .Then the bread will be sour and spoiled . Bread isl ikely to be sour when the dough is cold or theyeast is poor, for then bacteria grow faster than the

yeast plants.Vinegar. Fru it ju ice often becomes sour after it

has stood for some days. The souring is caused bybacteria which grow in the j uice with yeast plants.The bacteria change the alcohol of the j uice to asour substance, and the l iquid is then called vinegar .

The word vinegar comes from two French words

I 1 0 ALCOHOL

meaning sour wine . A great deal of vinegar ismade from weak wine and beer .V inegar is used as a flavoring for food, such as

pickles and salad dressings.Di stillation . Many years ago men learned how tocollect the steam from boil ing wine , and to cool it toa l iquid again . This process was cal led d istilla tion .

The distil led fluid acted l ike wine , but much m orepowerful ly . The new drink was brandy, and confained most of the alcohol of the wine and onlya small part of its water. A few swallows of thebrandy made a man feel as if he had taken a greatdeal of wine. A Single drink m ight contain all thealcohol that was in a pint of wine .

A lcohol may be formed in any m ixture of sugarand water by fermentation , and may then be separated from the greater part of the water by disti llation . In this way whisky, brandy, rum , and manyother drinks are made , and pure alcohol is manu fac

tured .

Alcohol. A lcohol is a l iquid which looks l ikewater. I t will d issolve m any things that water wil lnot dissolve, and so it is largely used in manufac

turing. I t will burn with a hot flame without smokeor soot , and is often burned in lamps which are usedfor heating and cooking . I t maybe used in enginesand automobiles in place of gasoline. I t will keepdecaying things from rotting, and is largely used topreserve substances . A lcohol has valuable uses ,

I I 2 ALCOHOL

drink or two of whisky dulls his m ind and keeps h imfrom feel ing the harm that it is doing.

The Alcoholic Habit . Because alcohol dulls thefeel ings, a drinker often thinks that he is strongand wel l even

°

wh ile he is being harmed . After thealcohol has left the body, the person feels the harmthat has been done, and then he wants anotherd rink to make him sel f feel wel l again . He takes asecond drink to dull the bad feel ings which werecaused by the first drink . S trong drink does not

satisfy a person . The more drink he takes, them ore he wants. A drinker form s a habit of usingalcohol , and cannot let i t alone, even when he

knows that it is harm ing h im . I t is not safe for aperson to take even a l ittle alcohol ic drink , for thethirst maygrow so much that it will compel h im to

drinkAlcohol and the Warmth of the Body. Some persons say that they drink in order to keep themselveswarm . S trong drink maymake a person f eel warm ,

but it really cools the body . The feel ing of warm this only in the skin . If alcohol were of any use inkeeping men warm , the explorers in Arctic landswould use it , but they have all found that it doesmore harm than good . Those who drink it are

colder and suffer more from frost bites than thosewho let i t alone.Alcohol and Strength . Many persons say thatthey drink in order to make themselves strong . I f

ALCOHOL I I 3

strong drink really made men stronger, it would begiven to men in arm ies so that they could marchlong distances and fight hard without becom ingti red. Years ago it was given to most arm ies, butthe men who drank it becam e tired sooner thanthose who let i t alone. N ow the government givesno l iquor to soldiers, and the men are better off

without it than they were when they had it.If alcohol made men stronger, i t would be given

to men'

who are training to run races . But athletesare not allowed to touch it at all, for after takingit, they are weaker than before drinking. A lcoholmay make men think them selves to be strong, bUt

it deceives them . A lcohol is not a safe food , and

cannot take the place of food .

Alcohol and Diseases .

— Some persons th ink thatalcohol will keep away diseases . We know that itdoes not do so . Those who take it are m ore l ikelyto catch diseases than those who let i t alone. Drinkers are m uch more likely to take consumption , or

pneumonia , than those who do not drink. They donot get well from a Sickness so quickly as thosewho do not drink .

Alcohol and LongLif e. When a person gets h isl ife insured , he pays an insurance company a sum

of money each year. When he dies, the companywi ll pay his fam ily the money for which he wasinsured . The insurance companies want a personto l ive as long as possible, and wil l not insure those

PERS. HYG. 8

I I 4 ALCOHOL

who are l ikely to die . If a man wants to get insured , one of the first questions which the Companywill ask him is whether he drinks or not. Theyhave found out that drinkers are not likely to l ive solong as those who do not drink .

Alcohol and doing Right . S ince alcohol dulls them ind , drinkers often act fool ishly and do not knowit. A lcohol makes them thoughtless and unkind ,and leads them to do things of which they are

ashamed when the effects of the drink have passedoff . I t causes men to comm i t crimes, and is one o f

the greatest of al l the causes wh ich send persons tojail . I t leads men to spend all their money fordrink, and often causes them to go to the poorhouse .

I t ruins more persons in both m ind and body thanalmost any other thing . I t does so m uch harmthat m any cities, counties, and states have laws forbidding the sale of alcoholic l iquors.

QUE STION S

What d id the anc ient Romans mean by the word stimulusN ame some common things that men use as stimulants.

I n what respect are stimu lants like whips ?I n strong drink what is the substance that does harm ?H ow is wine m ade ?

H ow is beer made ?What change takes place in a liqu id when it ferments ?What is the cause of fermentation ?

Of what use is yeast in bread making ?H ow is vinegar made

What is d istillation ?

TOBACCO

The Tobacco Plant . Tobacco is a plant whosestalk grows straight up almost as tall as a man . I ts

TOBACCO PLANTS .

pounds are raised each year.

leaves are as large as

the leaves of an ord inary book. I t bearswhite or pink flowerswhich are about theSize and shape of a

very small drinkinggoblet . I t is a beaut i f u l p l a n t a n d i s

sometimes grown in

fl ower gardens for ornament.

Thousands of acresO f l a n d a r e n o w

planted with tobacco ,

a n d m i l l i o n s o f

Nearly all of the cropis used ei ther for smoking, or for chew ing, or as

snuff .History of Tobacco. The people of olden tim es

d id not chew, or smoke, or take snuff , for they had1 1 6

TOBACCO I I 7

no tobacco until the early discoverers found it inAmerica, and learned its use from the Indians.

Then men began to im i tate the Indians, and soonthe whole world learned the tobacco habit . AfterV irginia was settled , the principal crop which thecolonists raised was tobacco, and the plant wasvalued so highly that its leaves were used as money.

Use of Tobacco. Farmers and florists use tobaccoin killing insects on plants and an imals, for it contains a poisonous substance called n icotine. Tobacco was once used as a medicine , bu t men long agofound out that it was too poisonous to be given tosick persons. Men use tobacco for the sake of thefeel ing which its n icotine produces .Efi ects of Tobacco. A person does not usuallylike tobacco when he fi rst tries to use it, for three orfour whiff s of smoke contain enough nicot ine tomake him feel sick. If he keeps on trying to smoke,he may become somewhat used to the n icotine, andcan then sm oke a cigar or a pipeful of tobacco without feel ing sick . But some persons cannot learn totake tobacco at all wi thout feeling sick , and allsm okers and chewers have to be careful not to taketoo much tobacco at one time.

Many persons think that nicotine is not poisoningthem if they do not feel sick while they are smokingor chewing . But it has other poisonous effects bes ides making a person feel s ick . I t maypoison theheart without giving any bad feel ings at all . Very

1 1 8 TOBACCO

few persons are able to use a great deal of tobaccowithout Showing some of i ts poisonous effects .Tobacco Habit.

— Those who have learned to u se

tobacco without feeling Sick often learn to l ike i t,and then they want it so badlythat they do not stopu sing it even when they begin to feel its harm . Thusmen form a habit of its use, and m any have difficultyin breaking them selves of the habit when they feelits harm .

Spitting — There is enough n icotine in a smallchew of tobacco, or in a cigarette, to m ake a grownperson dangerously sick if he Should swallow it .But those who chew and smoke do not swallowm uch of their saliva . The spitting which goes withchewing and smoking is one of the bad things aboutthe use of tobacco, for unhealthy smokers and chewersoften Spread diseases by Spitting on floors and

s idewalks (p . Smoking and chewing are the

cause of most of the spitting which is done in publicplaces, and so the use of tobacco is often the causeof spreading diseases.Tobacco and Boys . Tobacco is a far worse poisonto growing boys than it is to grown folks . Boyssometimes th ink that they can safely smoke the

small rolls of tobacco cal led cigarettes which contain only a small amount of nicotine. But the

poison' that is in a cigarette will harm a boy m ore

than the poison of a pipeful of tobacco will harm a

grown m an.

!

After a m an is grown up, h is m uscles

1 20 TOBACCO

the rest of the class , and almost no boys who smokedwere near the heads of their classes . A boy canno tsmoke and have a bright m ind. Men who hire boysto work for them will not take a sm oker if they canhelp it .

QUESTION S

When was tobacco d iscoveredWhat are some of the uses of tobacco

What harm ful substance is in tobacco ?What effect does tobacco have on the stomach ?How is the use of tobacco likely to spread d iseases ?Why is a cigarette more harmful to a boy than a pipeful of to

bacco is to a grown man ?What effec t does the use of tobacco have on a boy’s growth ?What effect does the use of tobacco have on a boy’s strength ?What effect does the use of tobacco have on a boy’s m ind ?

CHAPTER XV I

BLOOD

The Use of Blood . Every part of the body musthave both food and air in order to rem ain al ive.

These substances are suppl ied to the flesh and bonesby the blood . If any part, such as a finger, shouldfail to get blood, i t would die with in a few hours .The liquid part of the blood is called serum . I t

looks like yellowish water, and contains food whichhas been eaten and d igested. One of its uses is tobecome food for those parts of the body which are

in need of repair.The blood may take up other substances besides

food from the intestine. When poisons are swal

lowed, the blood takes them up just as it does food,and carries them through the body . When beer, orwine, or whisky is swallowed , the alcohol of thedrink passes into the blood and finally reaches everypart of the body.

Red Blood Cells . A great many tiny roundbodies float in the l iquid of the blood . Most ofthese bodi es are red , and so they make the bloodappear red . These red bodies are called red cor

pu scles , or red blood cells Their use is to take up a

1 22 B LOOD

part of the air of each breath , and to carry i tthrough the body.

White Blood Cells . A few of the bod ies whichfloat in the blood are whitish or colorless, and are

called w/z ite corpuscles , or w/tite blood cells. One oftheir uses is to destroydisease germs which may

be in the blood and flesh .

Every day some diseasegerm s are breathed intothe body with dusty ai r,some are swallowed withfood, and a few are rubbed

RED BLOOD CE LLS . (Magnified )into cuts and scratches onthe SkI n. But most of

the germ s fail to grow, because the whi te bloodcell s seize them and kil l them as soon as they enterthe flesh .

The Heart. While the body is al ive the blood isalways flowing th rough all its parts . I t is keptm ovi ng by a pump called the beart.

A person’s heart is about the Si z e of h isfist. I t

l ies I n the front part of the body behind the breastbone. If a hand is placed over the left Side of thechest, the lower end of the heart can be fel t beatingagainst the flesh at every stroke which it makes .The heart is a double pump. I ts ri ght Side

pumps blood th rough the lungs only, but its lefts ide pumps blood through all the rest of the body .

1 24 BLOOD

During a fever or other sickness the heart u suallybeats faster than it does in heal th . I f it beats twiceas fast, a person is dangerously sick , for it may soonwear i tself out by its rapid work . If you shouldbecome very Sick , lie sti l l in bed so as to give you rheart as l ittle work to do as possible, for everymotion -wil l add to the work of your heart.Arteries — The heart sends the blood to everypart of the body by means of tubes called arter ies .

Each beat of the heartcauses a wave to shootalong the arteries . Th iswave is called the pu lse.

The pulse can be feltwherever a large arteryruns near the skin . I tmay easily be fel t on thethumb side of the front ofthe wrist . When a doctorvisits a sick person , he feelsof the pulse of the wristand counts its beats to see

FE E LI NG THE puL SE .how fast and how stronglythe heart is beating.

Alcohol and Arteries . Arteries are wrapped withm uscles wh ich shorten them selves and make the

blood tubes sm all when they do not need to carry alarge amount of blood . When the m uscles are notacting, the arteries are large and carry a large

BLOOD 1 25

quantity of blood . The alcohol in a glass of strongdrink stops the action of the muscles of the skin ,and thus al lows alarge quantity ofb l o o d t o fl o wthrough the face,and make i t red .

Vei n s . Th epart of the bloodwhich is not usedby the flesh is

brought back toVE INS I N THE BACK or THE HAND .

the heart by another set of tubes called veins . Ifyou hold your hand down at arm ’s length for a few

OUTLINE OF THE LUNGS,

H E ART, AND STOMACH .

m inu tes, blood will fill the veinsunder the Skin. The veins willthen look l ike blu ish , raisedl ines . If you hold your handabove your head , the blood wil lflow out of the veins and thelines will disappear.Capillaries . Blood goes from

the ends of the arteries into thebeginnings of the veins by passing through tiny tubes calledcapi llar ies . The capil laries areso small that they cannot beseen without a m i c r o s c o p e .

They are so close together that

1 26

they make the skin appear pink . Press the end ofa finger upon the back of your hand . On l ifting thefinger the Spot that was pressed will appear white ,because the blood will be squeezed from its capillaries .

But in a second the blood will return and make thespot pink again .

Substances goback and forth between the bloodand the flesh

.

bypassing throughthe sides of the

c a p i l l a r i e s, l i k ewa t e r s o a k i n gt h r o u g h a t h i nSheet of paper. I nthis way food andair pass from the

blood to the flesh ,and waste mattergoes from

,

the fleshinto the blood .

The Circulation .

B l o o d Ho w S

f r om t h e h e a r tDIAGRAM OF THE CIRCULATION . through the arter

ies, then th rough the capillaries, and then throughthe veins back to the heart . Th is flow of bloodthrough the body is called the circu la tion .

1 28 BLOOD

so swollen with blood that the ring cannot be takenoff . The blood may be squeezed out by windinga small string round and round the finger, beginningat the tip . The ring may then be slipped off whilethe finger is squeezed small .Fainting. A bad fright, or a Sickness, or aninjury may cause the heart almost to stop beating.

The skin will then look pale, the head will get butl ittle blood, the m ind will stop acting, and the per

son will fall down in a f a in t.If you see a person fainting, lay h im on his back,

and keep his head low so that the blood may flowto it . Throw a little cold water into his face torouse h im . I n a moment his heart will beat stronglyagain , and his m ind will be as clear as before.

Tobacco and the Heart. When a person is m adestomach sick by tobacco, he looks pale, because hisheart is also poisoned and does not pump blood so

wel l as i t should . Even if tobacco shou ld not m akea person Sick at once, yet i t wil l often slowly weakenh is heart . Many persons have to give up the use

of tobacco because they cannot do hard work whenthey u se i t.Alcohol and the Heart .

— A lcohol causes the heartto beat too hard and too fast . The heart becomes

tired from i ts useless action, and then it cannot doi ts duty when the rest of the body works hard andcalls for an extra supply of blood . Thus alcoholwill make a person weak instead of strong.

BLOOD 1 29

QUE STIONS

What two things does the blood carry to every part of thebodyWhat is the color of the liquid part of the bloodWhat makes the blood appear red ?Of what use are the red cells in the bloodOf what use are the white blood cellsOf what use is the liquid part o f the bloodWhat makes the blood flow throughout the bodyWhere is the heart situatedWhydoes the heart beat fast when a person runs

Where may the pulse be feltWhat is the cause o f pulse beats ?What is the name of the tubes that carry blood away from the

heartWhat are capillariesWhat is the name of the tubes that bring blood back to the

heart

Where mayveins be seen in the bodyI n which set of blood tubes do food and air leave the blood

and go to the flesh ?Whydoes a spot of skin become white when it is pressedThrough what tubes does the blood flow in its c irculationHow maya tight ring be taken off a fingerWhat should be done for a person who has faintedWhat effect does alcohol have upon the heartWhat does tobacco do to the heart

PERS . HYG.

—9

CHAPTER XV I I

WOUNDS

Danger from Wounds . The epiderm is of heal thySkins wil l not perm it poisons and disease germ s toenter the flesh (p . When the skin is cut ortorn

,poisons and disease germ s may enter the flesh

through the wound and make it sore. The poisonsand germ s m ay pass from the wound through thebody and cause a dangerous sickness . The wou ndmay also open a large blood tube, and produce asevere bleeding .

When a person has a wound wh ich ‘

breaks the

skin there are two things to do ! first to stop the

bleeding, and second , to cover or dress the wou ndso that poisons and disease germ s cannot passthrough it and enter the flesh .

Bleeding. If the Skin is pricked with a pin ,

a drop or two of blood is al l that will flow out, forthe wound is very small . If the flesh is cut wi thout touching an artery or a good - sized ve in ,there wil l be a l ittle bleeding, but it wil l not bedangerous . I f the gash cuts a good - sized v ein ,blood will ooze from it for a few minutes and wil l

then stop flowing. A wound does not usually b leed

1 32 WOUNDS

grasp the flesh around the wound , and hold the s idesof the cut together with your hands .

HOLD THE SIDE S OF THE CUT

TOGE THER.

You caneasily squeeze the fleshhard enough to Close thelargest arteries . I n m ostcuts the bleeding wil lstop after you have heldthe wound for five or tenm inutes .If bleeding goes on

after you have loosenedyour hold on a cut, t ry a

second way to stop the bleeding . Bind up thewound with someth ing that will take the place ofyour hands. You can dothis by crumpl ing a handkerchief into a firm balland tying it firmly uponthe wound with anotherhandkerch ief. This willhold the artery closed sotightly that blood cannot’fl ow from it . Be carefulto use a clean handkerchief, for dirt in the woundm ight cause blood poisoning.

Two HANDKERCHIEFS MAY BE USEDTO STOP BLEEDING.

If a very large artery is cut, or if a finger, or arm ,

or leg is badly cut or torn , you may not be able to

WOUNDS 1 33

put a dressing over the wound tightly enough tostop the bleeding. Then try a third way to stopthe flow of blood .

Tie a cord or handke r c h i e f t i gh t l yaround the bleedingp a r t b e t wee n t h ewound and the heart

,

and tighten it byt h r u s t i n g a s t i c kunder the cord andturn ing it round andround . This will TH IS WILL STOP BLEEDING I N THE

LARGE ST ARTERI E S.stop the bleeding inthe l argest arteries . But a wound wil l seldom bleedso m uch that the cord and stick will be needed .

Nos eb leed — I f y o u r n o s ebleeds, Si t stil l and press thenostrils with your thumb andfinger for a few m inutes whiley o u b r ea t h e t h r o u g h y o u rmouth . This will close the

bleeding spot and allow the

blood to clot . While your noseis bleeding, do not blow it, forthat would blow the clot awayfrom the bleeding spot, and

cause the blood to flow faster than before .Taking Cold in Wounds — A wound som etimes

To STOP N OSE BLE ED .

1 34 WOUNDS

becomes red and swol len , and remains sore for daysand weeks . Then we say that the wounded person

has taken cold in the wound,or has blood po I sonI ng I n it .Some persons suppose thatthe soreness is caused bycold air and dampness, butthis is not so . The sorenessis caused by disease germ s

WH ITE BLOOD CE LLS I N PUS. which grow in the wound .

(Magmfied ' ) A white, creamy matter,cal ledpu s , Often runs from a sore wound . The pusis mostly white blood cells which have been kil ledwhile they were trying to destroy disease germ s

(p . I Pus in a cutor a wound is a Signthat disease germ sare growing in the

’

flesh . T h e wh i t ematter in a pimpleor boil is pus, and isusually caused bydisease germ s growing in a hair root .HealingWounds .

I f a wound is keptclean and free from disease germ s, i t will not be soreor painful , but the flesh will grow together withinthree or four days. If a wounded spot contains d is

BACTERIA WH ICH PRODUCE PUS I N

WOUNDS. (Magnified )

1 36 WOUNDS

cotton . Rolls of absorbent cotton may be boughtat drug stores .

When a dressing has been placed on a wound , i tmust be held in place with a bandage . A handker

chief makes a goodbandage. Fold i tcornerwise as if youwere about to tie itover your eyes inplaying blindman’

s

buff. Lay the thickA BANDAGED ARM . p a r t o v e r t h e

wound , and wrap the endsaround the wounded partand tie them . You mayalsohold the dressings in placeby using a roller bandagesuch as m aybe bought at adrug store .A fewdisease germ s which

produce pus in wounds maynearly always be found inthe skin . These germ s may

grow in a wound when awater - tight dressing is used .

For this reason court plasterand sticky salves are not good dressings .Finger Stall . If a finger has been cut or is sore ,it may easily be dressed by wrapping a l ittle absorb

FINGE R STALL .

WOUNDS 37

ent cotton around it and putting it into a finger stall .The stall is made of muslin and is shaped l ike a glovefinger . I t has a strip Teaching down the back of thehand , and strings on the end for tying around thewrist.Cleanliness . Before you handle a wound , wash

your hands with hot water and soap so as to removethe dirt and disease germs which maybe on them .

If the wound is dirty , wash it in water that has beenboiled, for the heat of boil ing will kill al l diseasegerm s that m ight be in the water. If you u se un

boiled water, l iving disease germ s from it maypassinto the wound .

A lways use clean dressings. Anything that iswashed and ironed is usual ly safe, for the heat ofironing will kill the disease germs (pWet Dress ings

— I f the Skin around a wound isdirty , or if the wound already contains pus and the

flesh around it is red and sore , wet the dressing withsomething that will kill the disease germ s . Put aheaping tablespoonful of borax into a pint of cleanboiled water, and pour some of the l iquid on the

dressing every hour or two, in order to keep it wet.Change the dressing every day. If you dress awound in th is way, you need not be af raid of takingcold in it . If the wet dressing is used, the diseasegerms wil l soon die, the soreness will pass away, andthe wound will qu ickly heal .Alcohol and HealingWounds . Some persons think

1 38 WOUNDS

that wine or whisky is a good thing to take whenthey are hurt, for they suppose that the alcohol inthem will help to heal the wound . Th is is not so .

Alcohol wil l hinder the heal ing of wounds .A lcohol wil l also weaken the white blood cells ,

and then they will not be able to fight disease germ s

so wel l as they should . The wounds of drinkersare m uch m ore likely to become sore and full of pusthan the same kinds of wounds in persons who donot drink .

QUESTIONS

What are two great dangers from wounds ?H ow much blood maybe lost without danger ?I n what way does a cut artery bleed d ifferently from a cut

vein ?Of what use is the clotting of blood ?I f you should see a person bleed ing badly from a wound

,what

is the first thing to do to stop the bleed ing ?What is the second thing to try in stopping bleed ing ?What may be done to stop the bleed ing when a very large

artery is cut?H owmay a nosebleed be stopped ?What is meant by taking cold in a wound ?

What is pus ?What is the cause of pus in a wound ?H ow mayd isease germ s be kept out of a wound ?H ow should you use a dressing of absorbent cotton and roller

bandagesH ow should you use a handkerchief as a bandage ?H ow shou ld you use a finger stall ?H ow should you use a wet dressing ?

1 40 ACCIDENTS

seldom can do any good at all. I t nearly alwayswill do a great deal of harm .

Bleeding.—When a person is hurt, find out

whether or not he is bleeding. If there is anybleeding, try to stop it before you do anything else,for a person may bleed to death before a doctorcan be called (p .

Broken Bone. Another th ing to find out whena person is hurt is whether or not a bone is broken.

If a bone of an arm or leg isbroken , the l imb will be painful when it is moved . Thepain is caused by a bendingof the bone, and maybe lessened by holding the bonestraight .

!

The thing to do for a bonethat is badly broken is to binda stick or a thin board alongthe whole length of the l imbso as to keep the ends of thebone in place . Then the injured person may be carried

BROKE N ARM BOUND TO home without danger to theA BOARD.

broken part .Bruise. When the flesh is bruised , as by a blowor a fall, some of the capillaries will be torn . Al ittle blood will then flow out and m ake a bl uishstain under the skin . A bruise is not dangerous if

ACCIDENTS 1 4 1

the skin i s not broken , for the skin will keep disease .

germs out of the flesh . Soaking the bruised spot inhot water will help to stop the bleeding and to easethe pain .

Splinters in the Skin . A spl inter or a thorn mayremain in the skin for days without causing pain .

Then the Spot may suddenly become sore, becausethe spl in ter keeps a hole open through which disease germs may pass into the flesh . If you get aspl inter, or a thorn , or a needle in your flesh, haveit taken out as soon as possible . If the Spl inter is alarge one, or if the flesh becomes sore, cover thespot with a wet dressing so as to kill the diseasegerm s that maybe in the flesh (p. I

Lockjaw. Many persons are wounded by stepping on nails

“and other Sharp th ings which lie onth e g r o u n d . Thesewounds are often dange r o n s bec a u s e th esharp points may carrythe germ s of lockjawdeep into the flesh .

The germ s of lockjawm ay often be found inthe ground , and for th isreason wounds made bystepping on nails arem ore dangerous than the sam e kinds of woundsmade in other ways.

BACTERIA OF LOCK!AW. (Magnified )

1 42 ACCIDENTS

If you run a nail into your foot or hand, put awet dressing upon the wound (p. If thewound becomes sore , go to a doctor at once and

have it dressed .

Wounds made by firecrackers and other fi reworks are al so likely to contain germ s of lockjaw.

If you receive a bad burn on the Fourth of !uly, goto a doctor at once and have the wound dressed .

Bee Stings . When bees or wasps sting the skin ,they leave a poison which m akes the flesh smartand swell . There is no danger from the stingsunless they are very numerous . Putt ing a littleammonia or cold water on the part that has beenstung will help to stop the pain .

U sually, when bees or wasps buzz around you ,they will not sting if you do not m ake a suddenmotion . They sting because they think some one

is trying to hurt them .

Clothes Afire.- When your clothes are afire, the

first thing to do is to lie down . Then the fire wil lnot spread fast , j ust as the flame will not spread ona burning match when it l ies flat. A lso roll overand over to crush out the flames.If you see a person’s clothes flam ing, throw h im

to the ground and roll h im over and over. I f youcan get a coat , or blanket, or carpet quickly, wrap itaround him . This will help to sm other the fire.

Burns .

— One of the best things to do for a burnor a scald is to hold the burned part in cold water

1 44 ACCIDENTS

with soap and water. If you do this as soon as you

get home, you will not be l ikely to become poisoned .

POISON IVY. VI RGI NIA CRE E PER.

Poison ivy is a vine that creeps over trees andfences and stone walls . I t looks m uch l ike a harmless vine called V irginia creeper, but each leaf stalkof the ivy bears three leaves, while each leaf stalkof the V irginia creeper bears five leaves.

QUESTIONS

What should be done to help a person who has a broken boneWhat is the cause of the blu ish stain of bruised flesh ?What should be done for a bru ise ?What is the danger from a splinter in the fleshWhat is the danger from thrusting a nail into the foot?What should be done for insect stings ?

ACCIDENTS 1 45

How may the flames be put out when a person’

s c lothesafire

What should be done for a burn ?What should be done for a blister?What is tan ? Of what use is it?What shou ld be done to prevent poisoning by poison ivy ?

PERS . HYG.

CHA PTER X IX

BREATH ING

Need of Breath ing. Breathing is one of the princ ipal signs of l ife in a person or animal . Everyliving thing m ust breathe in order to l ive . Breathing, and the changes produced by the air which isbreathed , are called respira tion .

A great deal of poor heal th is caused by improperrespiration . Many of the bad effects of overeating,and of taking alcohol ic drinks, are caused by d isturbances of respiration . The good effects of freshair and exercise are due pri ncipally to their effectson respi ration .

Burning and Oxidation . When a fi re burns in astove, air from the draft unites with the fuel in the firebox, and the air and fuel together become changed tosmoke and ashes . Not all of the air from the draft isused in the burning, but only that part which is calledoxygen , and which form s about one fifth of the air.The join ing of oxygen to the fuel is called ox ida tion .

Oxidation in the Body. Oxidation l ike that in astove is always going on in every l iving body. Thefuel which is oxidized in the body is food and livingflesh , and the oxygen comes from the air which isbreathed into the body.

1 48 BREATH ING

If you can increase the size of your chest a greatdeal when you take a breath , you wil l be able totake a great deal of oxygen into your body andyou will be l ikely to be long- breathed . Put a tapemeasure around your body just under the arm s , andsee how much larger you can make your chest bytaking a deep breath . An increase of two inches islarge for a half-grown boy, and an increase of fourinches is large for a grown man .

Lungs . A ir passes from the nose or mouththrough the throat, and into a tube called the trac/zea ,

o r w i n dp ipe. Thewindpipe divides intosm a l l t u b e s c a l l edbronc/z i , and the bronc h i o p en i n t o t h e

The lungs are twomasses of flesh whichfil l most of the upperpart of the body underthe ribs. Their u se

LUNG OF A TURTLE . is to supply oxygento the body. They are full of tiny air spaces . Whena breath is taken , these spaces are filled so full of airthat the lungs become large l ike a blown - up balloon .

When a breath is blown out from the body, the airspaces are partly emptied .

The sides of the air spaces are covered with

BREATHING 1 49

capillaries through which blood is always flowing.

Wh i le the blood is passing through them , the redblood cel ls take up oxygen from the air in the airspaces. The blood then flows through the body andcarries the oxygen with it to al l the flesh .

The blood also takes a l ittle oxygen from the airwhile it flows through the skin . If the air spaces inthe lungs were all opened and spread out, they wouldmake a sheet large enough to cover the whole bodysixty times . The blood can therefore take from the

lungs sixty times more oxygen than it could get ifit had to take all its oxygen from the Sk in .

Wh at the Body does with Oxygen. When theblood reaches the capillaries of the arm s and legsand other parts of the body, the oxygen leaves thered blood cell s, and unites with food and flesh , andoxidizes them . The weight of the oxygen whichthe body uses each day is about double the weightof al l the food and flesh that is oxidized .

The oxidation within the body produces wastesubstances which consist of oxygen joined to foodand flesh. They are l ike the sm oke and ashes of afire, and are harm ful to the body. They are takenup by the blood and are carried away in its stream .

One of the principal waste substances is called ca r

bon diox ide. This gas is carried to the lungs , andthere is given off to the air spaces, and is breathedout with the breath . Other waste substances are

given off by the skin and kidneys (p .

1 50 BREATHING

Arterial and Venous Blood . The same bloodstream which carries food and oxygen also carrieswaste substances. While blood is flowing awayfrom the heart , i t is cal led arter ia l blood becauseit is then flowing th rough arteries. Most arterialblood contains an abundance of oxygen, and only asmal l quant ity of waste substances, and is brightred in color .While blood is flowing toward the heart , it is

called venou s blood because it is then flowing throughveins . Most venous blood contains a great deal ofwaste substances and only a little oxygen , and is darkred or purple in color.Blood changes from arterial to venous in al l the

capil laries of the body except those of the lungs .

The blood changes from venous to arterial in the

capil laries of the lungs (p.

Breath ing and Lif e. The fire in a stove uses upoxygen as fast as

’

air passes through the draft, and'

stops burning almost as soon as the draft is closed .

The oxidation in the bodya lso stops almost as soonas breathing stops . When the oxygen in the bodyis nearly used up , a great shortness of breath is felt.

Al l the oxygen that the lungs and blood can holdwill not last the body longer than about a m inute .

If a person Should not breathe for two m inutes, hisl ife would be in great danger . A person m ustbreathe fifteen or twenty times a m inute i n orderto feel Comfortable.

1 52 BREATH ING

aches and backaches, and the pains which are oftencal led rheumatism . A cu re for the most of theaches and pains is to go without food for a m eal ortwo, in order that the food that is al ready in the

body may be oxidi z ed. Another cure is to takehard exercise in order to increase the quantity ofoxygen in the body.

Alcohol and Oxidation — A lcohol is often used inburners and small stoves because it is readily oxi

di z ed . A lcohol is also readily oxidiz ed in the body.

I t takes oxygen which belongs to the food andflesh , and disturbs the oxidation in the whole body.

A lcohol cannot safely be oxidized in the body anymore than it can be burned safely in a coal stove .

Exercise and Breathi ng. The principal way bywhich you can cause the oxidation in the body togo on properly is by taking exercise . While them uscles are put to hard use, the body becomeswarm , and the breathing is deep and fast, for agreat deal of food and oxygen is used up. Thenoxidation is perfect , j ust as it is in a stove whenthe fire is hot and the drafts are open wide.

When a fi re is once started in a stove, it wil l burnslowly and steadily for some hours after the draftsare closed. The oxidation in the body does notneed to take place rapidly al l the time, but it willgo on too slowly unless some exercise is taken twoor three times a day.

Deep Breath ing— Another way of making the

REATHI NG 1 53

oxidation in the body go on properly is by takingdeep breaths often . After you have been Sittingstil l for some time , you may feel dull and short ofbreath because you take too l ittle oxygen into yourbody . Then you may make yourself feel brightand comfortable by throwing your shoulders backand breathing deeply . Taking deep breaths of airwill often help you to learn your lessons when youbegin to feel

'

dull and sleepy .

Deep Breathing and Health . Dust and diseasegerms are often breathed into the lungs . If deepbreaths are not taken , only a part of the lungs willbe fil led . Then the germs m ay l ie in a stil l cornerof the lung. There they maygrow undisturbed andcause a lung disease. Those who have consump

t ion usually have sm all , flat chests, and do notbreathe deeply . If you take deep breaths severaltimes a day, fresh air and blood will fill every parto f the lungs, and disease germs wil l have but l ittlechance to grow there. Deep b reathing is one of thebest of all means for keeping the lungs healthy andstrong.

Mouth Breath ing. The folds of the inside of thenose warm the air which is breathed , and strain outd ust and disease germ s from it ( p. But themouth cannot do this nearly so wel l as the nose can .

If air is brea thed through the mouth , cold air, dust,and disease germs will pass into the throat and lungs .

Those who breathe through their mouths are l ikely

1 54 BREATH ING

to catch colds , sore throats , and diseases of theirlungs .Many persons think that it is natural for a child to

breathe through h is mouth . This is not so . A ch ildwill breathe through h is nose if it is cleaf and open,

and will keep h is mouth closed at night as well as inthe daytime. If you have to breathe through yourmouth while you are at rest, go to a doctor and have

your nose and throat treated .

The m ost comm on cause of mouth breathing isadenoids ( p . 5

Stooped Shou lders . When you sit or stand withthe shoulders bent forward , your arm s will hang likeweights upon the chest. Then you

'

will not be ableto breathe well , but will feel short of breath and un

com fortable.

WRONG POSITION AT A DE SK .CORRE CT POSI TION AT A DE SK .

While you are writing or studying, sit up straightand th row your shoulders back , so that your arm s

1 56 BREATHING

Here is a good way to do artificial respiration .

Lay the drowning person on his back , kneel beh indhis head , and do the following motions : First, raisethe person ’s arms unt il they extend in a straight l inebeyond h is head . This raises the ribs and lets airinto the l ungs . Second , carry the arm s down besidethe body and press them against the chest. Thislowers the ribs and drives air out of the l ungs .

Make these motions about as often as you usuallybreathe. You mayhaveto do artificial respirationfor an hour or two before the drowning person beginsto breathe.

Electric Shock . A strong Shock of electric itymaystop a person

’s breathing and make h im seemto be l ifeless. Then the person may Often be

brought back to l ife by doing artificial respirationjust as if he were drowning.

Cough ing —The windpipe is just in front of thefood pipe and both begin in the back of the th roat.Whatever is swallowed m ust pass over the top of thewindpipe. A th ick fold of flesh , called the en lottis ,

acts l ike a l id and helps to keep the food from dropping down the air tube.

A crumb or a drop of liqu id fall ing into the windpipe causes a tickl ing or a painful feel ing, and acough . The effect of the cough is to blow the bi tof matter out of the air tube.

Choking. If a person’s windpipe is stopped up ,we say that he c/i obed. Some persons have a habit

BREATHI NG 1 57

of holding pennies or buttons or other small thingsin thei r m ouths. Sometimes a smal l object becomessucked into the windpipe and cannot be taken out .I t is dangerous to carry anything in your mouthwhen you are at work or play , for it may sl ip downthe throat and cause choking.

If any one is choking, he needs help quickly .

The first thing to do is to hold him so that his headhangs down . You can hold a child up by his feet,and you can lay a grown person across a chair withthe head hanging down .

The next thing to do is to shake the chokingperson , or slap h im on his back , so as to make theobject drop out of the windpipe.

QUESTIONS

What substance from the air is used up in a burning fire?What is oxidation ?How is the oxidation in a living body like the burning in a stove ?What substance does breathing supply to the body ?How much should a person be able to expand his chest in

taking a deep breath ?What are the lungs ?H ow does the blood get oxygen from the lungs ?What does the blood do with oxygen ?What is done with oxid iz ed substances in the body ?What is the d ifference between arterial and venous bloodWhat is the cause of shortness of breath when a person runs

fast?

How does overeating d isturb the oxidation in the body ?What effect does alcohol have on the oxidation in the body

1 58 BREATHIN G

Why is it healthful to take deep breaths often ?What harm comes from breathing through the mouthWhat harm comes from sitting or stand ing with stooped

shoulders ?Of what use is artific ial respiration ?Howmayartificial respiration be done?What should you do for a person who been shocked by

electricity?Of what use is a cough ?How can you help anyone who is choking ?

1 60 FRESH AIR

Many persons have sore th roats, consumption , orother d iseases in a form so m ild that they keep at

their work and go among other people j ust as if theywere well . These persons often give off diseasegerms j ust as they would if they were severely sick .

For this reason , any air which has been made impureby breathing is l ikely to have disease germs in it.Effects of Foul Air. While any one is breath ing

foul air, he feels laz y and dull , for he is takingpoisons and waste matters into his body, and doesnot get as m uch oxygen as he should . N0 one cando his best work in foul air. Scholars in a closeschool room cannot put their m inds on thei r lessons .

Those who breathe foul air day after day are l ikelyto be weak and sickly. The purity of the air whichis breathed has a great effect upon the body.

The worst effects of foul a ir are caused by diseasegerm s which are nearly always found in it . Morecolds consumption , tonsillitis, and other diseases ofthe an tubes are caused by breathing foul air thanin any other way. D iphtheria, measles, mumps , andscarlet fever are often caught in the same way .

How to know Impure Air.

— You can usually tellfoul air by its smell . A ir that has been made impure by breath ing has an unpleasant odor . If youcan sm ell i t when you come into a room , the air ofthat room is unfit for breathing .

After you have been in a room full of foul air fora few moments, you m ay no longer notice its smell,

FRE SH AI R 1 6 1

but the air will then be as harm ful as when you en

tered the room . If no one could become used to thesmell of foul air, everybody would be l ikely to keepthe air of their houses pure and fresh

.But because

the sense of smel l soon becomes dulled after breathing foul air, m any persons fail to notice when theair of their houses becomes impure. They oftenkeep on breathing foul air, and thus do a great dealof harm to .their heal th .

The way to keep the air of a room pure is to

change i t often for pure air from out of doors .

Purity of Outdoor Air Outdoor air is nearly always pure . People g ive off impurities from theirlungs when they are in the open air, j ust as they dowhen they are in houses . But outdoors the windsuppl ies new air, and carries impurities away as fastas they are formed . I n a Closed room the air isbreathed over and over again , and is soon madeimpu re .

Ventilation. Changing the air of a room for fresh ,outdoor air is called ventila tion . Some fresh air

comes into a room when the doors are opened , andsome comes in through cracks in windows, doors ,and floors ! but in a well - made house the cracks aretoo few and too small to let enough fresh air into aroom .

The simplest way to ventilate a room is to open awindow in it . But an open window m ay allow coldair to enter a room in a large stream called a draf t.

PERS. HYG.

1 62 FRESH AI R

Many persons do not ventilate their room s becau sethey suppose that a draft of cool air will cause themto take cold . A draft will not be the cause of a coldif the air is fresh, for there will be no disease germs

DIAGRAM OF N ATURAL VE NTILATION.

in it. A person maycatch cold by breath ing diseasegerms from the foul air of a room , whether there isa draft in it or not . You can eas ily ventilate a roomwithout producing a draft .Warmth and Venti lation. The air of a heatedroom is warmer near the ceil ing than near the floor,

1 64 FRESH AI R

gives off more waste substances in winter than insummer. The air of a cold room will usually become impure more quickly than the air of a heatedroom , but the smell of bad air in a warm room ism ore unpleasant than in a cold room . Ventilateyour room whether it is warmed or not.Night Air. Many persons Sleep with the doorsand windows of their bedroom s closed because theythink that the outdoor air is harmful at n ight . DO

A SLEE PING PORCH .

not be afraid ofthe night air. I tis u sually pu rerthan air in the

daytime, for butl i t t l e d u s t i sstirred up duringthe quiet hours ofthe night.VentilatingBed

room s . S om e

p e r s o n s c l e a ntheir b ed r o om sa n d a i r t h e meve ry m orn ingand then Closethem up u ntil then e x t m o r n i n g ,

th inking that the fresh air will last al l through thenight. If you sleep in a bedroom which is not

FRESH AI R 1 65

ventilated , the air in it wil l become used up in anhour, and you will breathe foul air al l the rest of thenight. If the air of a bedroom smel ls bad in themorning, it shows that the air has been had duringthe night.You cannot get ventilation enough

‘ by leavingyour bedroom door open, for that lets in air fromonly another part of the house . You also needfresh air from outdoors . Sleep with a window Of

your bedroom open , and if the room is cold , keepyourself warm by using th ick bed covers .Sleeping Outdoors . The best way to make sureof breathing pure, fresh air all nigh t long is to sleepoutdoors. A person is no m ore l ikely to catch coldby sleeping out of doors than by taking a ride.

Many weak persons sleep on a porch for the sake oftheir lungs. They cover up warm ly and wear ahood on thei r heads, and in the morning they wakenbright and refreshed .

QUE STIONS

What are some of the things that make the air of housesimpure ?H ow does a lighted lamp make the air of a room impure ?What harm does impure air do to a person ?What are some of the d iseases that may be caught from foul

air?

H ow may impure air be d istingu ished from air that is pure ?H ow may the air in a room be kept pure?What is Ventilation

1 66 FRESH AI R

Howmaya room be ventilated without a draft?H ow would you use a screen of muslin to prevent a draft ?Whydo cold rooms need as much ventilation as warm rooms ?

Why should a person sleep with his bedroom window open ?Why is it well for persons having weak lungs to sleep in the

open air?

1 68 BODY HEAT

Thick Clothi ng You cannot becom e hardenedto cold weather by wearing thin clothes , or going

without a cap, or warmshoes, or m ittens, andthen tryn to stand thepain of a cold Skin. I fyou do th is , you willweaken your body in

s t e a d o f m ak i n g i tstrong.

You wil l not becom eused to cold if you wrapyourself up in very th ickclothes , for the skin wil l

READY FOR WI NTEP not have a chance totouch the cold air. But if you exercise or work hardin the cold air, the warm blood will flow through theskin and you will keep yourself warm without needing to bundle

i

up with thick clothes .How the Body is Cooled . The body is alwaysproducing heat , and would soon become too warmif i t did not lose heat . I t is cooled by the air andby the perspiration.

The air is nearly always cooler than the body,and therefore i t cools the skin by its touch . Thebody lo ses heat rapidly on a cold day, and thickClothes may then be needed to prevent the loss oftoo m uch heat.I f the day is very warm , the air alone may not

BODY HEAT

take heat from the skin fast enough to keep thebody cool . The skin then produces an extraamount of perspiration wh ich cools the body in thesame way that a bath of water would cool it. Aperson is not l ikely to become overheated on a hotday if he perspires freely .

Sunstroke. I f the stomach , or lungs, or skin , orother part of the body is out of order, the perspiration may not be formed freely, even when the day ishot. The heat will then remain in the body andwil l cause faintness and weakness. If a person ismade sick by heat, we say that he has a sunstroke.

I f you feel faint from the heat, lie down in a coolSpot, and bathe the

head with cold waterSO as to cool it .Col d H and s and

F eet . A lmost theo n l y t h i n g wh i c hkeeps the fingers andt o e s wa rm i s th e

blood which flowsthrough them . I f thehands or feet are cold ,wrapping them upmaynot always makethem warm , for the

covering nei ther makes heat, nor causes blood toflow through the cold part . But if the parts are

WARMING H I S HANDS.

1 70 BODY HEAT

first warmed and then wrapped up, they wil l staywarm .

You can warm anypart of the body by doingsomething which wil l make a great deal of bloodflow through it . If the ears are cold , you can warmthem by rubbing them briskly. You can warmyour hands by clapping them together, or by whipping you r arm s hard around your back . You can

warm your feet by stamping them on the ground .

In these ways you will make the warm blood fl owthrough the cold part.Froz en Parts . When a finger, or toe, or ear is

frozen, it will usually get well if it is thawed verySlowly . DO not take a person who has a frozenpart into a warm room , but keep him i n a room wherethe air is almost freez ing cold . Then warm the roomSlowly . Put the frozen part in cold water and let i tthaw slowly while the water grows warmer with theroom . Another - good way to thaw a frozen part isto rub it with snow. A part that has once beenfrozen is l ikely to itch and sm art wheneverthe airaround it is either very warm or very cold .

HeatingHouses — The temperature of our bodiesis about 98 F . When the air around us is as warmas this, we feel extremely warm and uncom fortable .

Our bodies feel most com fortable when the tem

perature of the air around them is abou t 70° F If

the temperature of the air of a room is less than60° F . , the room will feel too cold for comfort. I n

1 72 BODY HEAT

When you warm a room , keep a pan of water inthe furnace, or on the register, rad iator, or stove, i norder that its vapor maymake the ai r moist .Oil and Gas Stoves . Most stoves which burn o il

or gas have no pipes running to the chimney , andso they pour harmful gases into the room . Theyare not safe unless the room is kept well ventilated .

They can be made safe by having them fitted withpipes which will carry the gases up the ch imney.

Gas Poisoning. Coal stoves sometim es give o ff

a poisonous gas . When it is breathed , it unites withthe red blood cells and keeps ‘ them from takingoxygen from the air . This gas is also found in theillum inating gas which is burned for l ighting houses ,and is sometimes formed by stoves which burn oil orcharcoal. I t can be recognized by its u npleasantsmell . A ir that has the least smell of the gas isdangerous.Effects of Alcohol on the Heat of the Body. Men

often take strong drinks because it makes them feelwarm . It does this because i t causes a great deal ofblood to flow through the skin . The blood in theskin gives the person a feel ing of warm th , but thealcohol really makes a person cold because it bringsthe blood to the surface of the body where i t losesits heat . A person is able to stand the cold betterwhen he lets strong drink alone than when he

takes it .

BODY HEAT 1 73

QUESTIONS

What warms the bodyHow are all parts of the body kept equally warmHow does exerc ise help the body to endure coldI nwhat parto f the body is the greatest feeling of heat and cold ?What effect does the perspiration have upon the heat of the

bodyWhydoes a person not get overheated when he is perspiring a

great dealWhat should be done for a person who has a sunstroke

I f your hands are cold when you are far away from a fire, how

mayyou warm themHow should you care for a froz en part of the body ?What degree of heat is the most comfortable in a living roomWhy should moisture be added to the air of a heated room

H ow can you make the air of a heated room moist?What effect maya burning oil stove or gas stove have upon the

air in a houseWhat is the danger from the gas from a coal stove, or a leaking

gas jet

What effect does alcohol have upon the heat of the body

CHAPTER XX I I

COLDS AND CONSUMPTION

Wh at a Cold I S . One of the most common forms

of sickness is what is called a cold . This name wasgiven to the sickness long ago , because cold air wassupposed to cause it. Now we know that the Sickness is infectious and 1 5 caused by disease germ s

which come from othersick persons .If the germ s of a cold

grow in the nose , thesickness is called a coldin the head . If theygrow in the throat , they

Bxcm m or Pm m onm . produce a sore throat or(M agni fi ed ) tonsilli tis . If they grow

in the air tubes, the Sickness is called bronchitis !andif they grow in the lungs, the sickness is called pneum onia .

Sometim es a s ickness which seem s to be a Sl igh tcold is a very m ild form of a dangerous sickness ,such as scarlet fever or diphtheria. The germ s

from a disease will spread just as readily when thedisease is m ild as when i t is severe, and a bad form

1 76 COLDS AND CONSUMPTION

they were in the A rctic lands , for in those placesthey did not meet any one who had a cold or otherSickness. Yet these same explorers began to havecolds as soon as they reached a town on their wayhome, for then they took disease germs from otherpersons.Drafts and Colds . The wind blowing upon thebody out of doors seldom causes a sickness , becausethe outdoor air is almost free from disease germ s .

A draft of cold outdoor ai r blowing across a roomwhich is full of warm , foul air may inj ure a person

’

s

body Slightly and so may prevent it from kill ingdisease germ s which enter it . But if the air of aroom is pure, a draft of cold air blowing across itwi ll not harm the body more than the wind out ofdoors would harm it. Many persons fail to venti

late their room s

because they areafraid that a draftwill m ake themcatch cold . Foul ,impure air in ar o om i s m a n ytimes more dan

ge ro u s t h a n adraft of pure a irin it .

Other Causes of Colds . Persons who have coldsgive off the disease germ s with everyth ing which

BACTERIA or A COLD . (Magnified )

COLDS AND CONSUMPTION 77

comes from their noses and throats . The germ swill be found on their handkerchiefs and towels, ondishes , napkins , and drinking cups, on their bedclothes, and on pencils which are touched to theirl ips and tongue. You may catch a cold by touching your mouth or nose to anything which has beensoiled by some one who has a cold.

Keeping Colds from Spreading. If you have acold , try to keep the d isease germs from reachingany one else. Keep away from other persons, andstay away from school, from parties, and from otherplaces where crowds meet. S leep in a room byyourself, and have a window in your bedroom openall night so that the fresh air will carry away thedisease germ s which come from your body.

Use of a Handkerchief If you should catch all

the germs that come from the nose and mouth whenyou have a cold, other persons would not catch acold from you . You can do this by the right useof a handkerchief. Use a handkerchief when youblow your nose or clear your throat (p .

Do not spit on the floor or pavement, but hold ahandkerchief to your nose and mouth when youcough or sneeze. Do not fli rt the handkerchief inthe air, for you may shake the dried germ s from it.Take a Clean handkerchief as soon as one is soiled,and was h the soiled ones in boil ing water to killthe germ s on them .

How to avoid Taking Cold . One way in whichPERS. HYG.


you can avoid taking cold is by keeping the germ sof colds out of your body. Keep your noSe andmouth clean (p. Have everything whichtouches your nose and mouth clean . Breathe airwhich ' is pure.

Another way by which you can avoid taking coldis by helping the body to destroy the germs whichenter it. Do those th ings which will help to makethe body healthy and strong. E at properly, takeproper exercise, and keep the body com fortablywarm .

What to do for a Cold — A cold will last as long asl iving germ s of the cold grow in the body. I t wil lend when the disease germ s stop growing. Medicines will not kill the disease germs , or keep themfrom growing. Medicines which stop a cough oftendo m ore harm than good , for the object of the coughis to remove mucus and disease germ s from thebody (p . I 56 ) . There are four simple things to doi n order to cure a cold

I . S tay at home and rest, in order that the bodymay use all its strength in overcom ing the diseasegerm s and their poisons .

2 . Keep you r room clean and well ventilated , sothat no disease germ s will remain in the room .

3. Keep your nose and throat and all the rest ofyour body clean in order to get rid of as manydisease germ s as possible.

4 . Eat little, in order that your l iver and intestine


to it. During the year 1 9 1 2 about thirteen thousandpersons died from consumption in N ew York S tatealone . Yet the disease maybe prevented by sim plemeans , such as cleanl iness , fresh air, and proper food .

Consumption is often cal led the great whiteplague because i t is common am ong white races,and because those who have it are usually pale.Cause of Consumption . N0 person is born with

consumption . The only way in which a person willcatch consumption is by taking the germ s of tuberculosis into his body. The germs come only fromthe bod ies of persons or an imals that have the disease.

Consumptiori spreads because the sick scatter thegerm s . But the germs mayeas ily be prevented fromspreading from the body of a sick person , and so theymay be prevented from reaching other persons.Tuberculos is and Mi lk .

—Anim als may have tuberculos is , and a person may catch the disease by eating the meat of diseased cattle. I f m eat is cookeduntil it is well done, any disease germ s which maybe in it wil l be kil led .

The m ilk of a cow that is unhealthy, or that seem sto have a cold , is dangerous, for it may contain thegerm s of tuberculosis. You can kill the germ s byheating the m i lk almost boil ing hot (p . Dothis if you are not sure of the purity of the m ilkwhich you use .

Keeping Tuberculosis f rom Spreading. Consumption is spread in the same way that colds are spread

COLDS AND CONSUMPTION 1 8 1

(p. Those who have the disease give off thegerm s from their noses and throats. I f they are

careless about coughing or blowing thei r noses , thegerm s will become dried and will float in the air asdust. The dust of a room in which a carelessperson is sick with consumption I S l ikely to containthe germ s of the sickness.If al l persons who have consumption would catch

and destroy everything that comes from thei r nosesand m ouths , the germ s would not escape and no onewould take the disease from them . Then therewould be no more consumptionafter a few years .The rules which have just been given to keep coldsfrom spreading are also good rules for keeping consumption from spreading (p.

How to prevent Consumption. You can preventyourself from taking consumption in two ways : first,by keeping germs out of your body ! and second ,by keeping your body strong and able to destroy thegerms if any should enter it.You can prevent tuberculosis germ s from enter

ing your body by care in cleanliness and ventilation ,and by staying away from dirty and dusty placeswhere the germ s are l ikely to be found .

N0 one thingthat you can do wil l prevent germ sof tuberculosis from growing if any should enteryour body, but whatever helps to make your bodystrong and healthy wil l help it to overcome thegerm s. Bacteria of tuberculosis wil l not be likelv


to grow in your body if you take proper care in youreating, drinking, breathing, exercise, work, and rest.Alcohol and Tuberculosis . A common cause oftuberculosis is strong drink . This is so for tworeasons. First, alcohol weakens the body andmakes it unable to overcome the germs . Second ,drunken persons often lie in unclean places wheretuberculosis germs are found .

Danger f rom Phlegm Those who have cons umption often cough up a great deal of thickmucus called plz legm . This phlegm contains manyof the germ s of tuberculosis . If the sick are carelessabout coughing, and spitting, and blowing thei r noses ,they will Spread the germ s and endanger the healthof other persons . But if they are always careful tocatch and destroy the phlegm , they may go amongother people without danger of giving the disease tothem .

Spittoons and spit cups m ade of earthenware or

methl are dangerous, for they cannot be cleanedeasily. Flies crawl over them and carry the germ sto other persons. The best thing to use to catchthe phlegm is a paper cup with a cover. Burn itafter it has been in use for a few hours. The cupsare cheap and maybe bought at drug stores .When a person who has consumption goes away

from his house, he may safely use handkerchiefs ifhe carries a number of them and puts them i n awaterproof pocket as soon as they are used.


satisfy their natural hunger, but more food thanth is will be harm ful . I t is best to use plain foods ,such as m i lk, eggs, and bread and butter.

3. Those who have consumption need pure, freshair. Unless they have it they cannot get wel l .Their lungs are partly fil led up, and those partswhich - are in use cannot supply the body withenough oxygen unless they always have pure air.I t will help the Sick to stay out of doors al l day

long, and to Sleep in a covered porch , or in an opentent or shed. If they sleep in a room , they need tohave a window open all night, in order to get plentyof fresh air.One way of getting fresh air is by the use of a

window tent which fi ts around an open window.

The sick person l ies with h is head inside the ten twh ile his body is in a warm room . Thus th e tentsuppl ies fresh air without making the room cold .

Killing the Germs of Consumption. Those whohave consumption must take great care to kill al lthe germ s which come from thei r bodies. Unlessthey do this , they will take the germs back intothei r bodies. They may get rid of the germ s bycatching the phlegm which they spit up, and byalways being clean in their bodies, their clothes,their room s, and in everything else about them . Inthese ways the sick will help themselves to get wel l,and will also protect others from catching the

disease.

COLDS AND CONSUMPTION 1 85

!UESTIONS

What is the cause o f a coldH owmaycold and dampness tend to bring on a coldH owmaya cold be caught from a handkerchief or towelI f a person has a cold , how can he prevent it from spread ing to

o ther personsH ow does the proper use of a handkerchief prevent the spread

o f coldsH ow can a person avoid taking coldH ow should you care for yourself when you have a coldWhat is consumptionWhat are enlarged glandsN ame some ways in which consumption is spread .

H owmaym ilk spread consumptionI f a person has consumption, from what part of the body are the

d isease germs given off

What should a person who has consumption do to keep otherpersons from catching the d iseaseWhat should a consumptive person do with the phlegm which

he coughs upHow can you prevent yourself from taking consumption ?H ow do sunlight and cleanliness help to prevent the spread of

consumptionWhat should a person do in order to be cured of consumption?

CHAPTER XX I I I

FEVERS

Fever.— When disease germs grow in the flesh ,

they usually make the body too warm . The naturalwarm th of the body is about 985

° F. A temperatureof the body which is warm er than 983

° F . is called a

f ever . I t is a Sign of danger, for it usually Showsthat disease germ s are growing in the body. Aperson whose temperature is warmer than 1 0 1

° F.

wil l usually feel too Sick to work. If the temperatureis warmer than 1 03

° F ., the person wi ll be too Sick to

s it up, and at a temperature of 1 04° F. he will be

dangerously sick.

Chills — A t the beginn ing of a fever the skin issometim es pale and cold while the inside of the bodyis too warm . Then the feverish person has a coldfeel ing called a d ull. If there is only a slight fever,the body may feel cold through all the Sickness , andthen the Sickness is often cal led a cold. But in a

cold there is usually a fever and the body is too warmeven though it may feel cold .

Infectious and Contagious Di seases — Some infectious diseases maybe caught m uch more readily thanothers . Those which may be caught read ily from

1 86

s 1 88 FEVERS

I . Keep away from those who have not had thedisease. Stay at home , and do not go to school orchurch , or to stores, or any other meeting place.Do not let other children visit you , and do not goto visit them . Sleep in a room by yourself. T henthe germ s of the disease wil l not be l ikely to passfrom you to another person .

2 . Destroy everything which comes from yournose and throat, j ust as you would if you had a badcold (p . Keep your room and everything ini t clean , and keep the air of your room fresh andpure. Then the germ s which com e from your bodywill d ie, and will not reach other persons .Diphtheria . A sore throat which is caused by

diphtheria germ s is called dip/tt/zeria . This is oneof the most contagious and dangerous of all diseases.The germ s come only from some one who has

diphtheria . They usually form a whitish coatingon the tonsils, and on the back of the throat .If you have a sore throat, let some one look into

your throat. I f there are spots or a coating on yourtonsils or in the back part of your throat, call adoctor to find out if you have diphtheria.Examining the Throat . Many children have diedfrom diphtheria and other throat troubles becausethey were afraid to let anyone look into their throatsto see what disease they had . Learn to open yourm outh , and to let some one press your tongue downand look into the back part of your throat.

FEVERS 1 89

Antitoxin. If a substance called antitox in isgiven to a person who has diphtheria, i t wil l overcome the poisons of thedisease . If it is given toa wel l person , i t willkeepany diphtheria germsfrom growing that hemay take into his body .

I t is so valuable in preventing and curing d iphtheria that many citi esand states supply it top o o r p e o p l e f ree o fcharge.

Boards of Health .

Many ignorant personsdo not know how to prevent the spread of contagious d i sea se s, andmany others do not tryto do so because they are careless. Nearly everystate , c ity, and town has a board of health whose dutyis to compel al l persons to help in preventing contagious diseases . The doctors of the boards ofhealth visit the homes of the Sick and see that everynecessary thing is done to keep the d isease germ sfrom reaching other people.

!uarantine Boards of health have rules that al lpersons who have contagious diseases shall be kept

ExAMI N I NG THE THROAT.

90 FEVERS

away from all other persons except their doctors andnurses , and that nothing which m ight carry diseasegerms is taken from the Sick room . If these thingsare done, disease germs cannot pass from the sickto other persons, and the diseases cannot Spread .

Shutting the s ick in room s or houses by themselvesis called quarantine.

Di sinfection. Boafds of heal th also have rulesthat all the germs com ing from a quarantined person or room shall be destroyed . K ill ing the germsof a diseas e is called d is inf ection.

Many of the germ s of contag ious diseases may bekilled by always having fresh air in the sick room ,

by letting in the sunl ight, and by keeping everyth ingin the Sick room clean . A ll these things must bedone with great care, but a great deal more m ustal so be done . D ishes, clothes, and handkerchiefsmust be freed f rom the germs . The easiest andbest way to kill the germs on these articles is toboil them as soon as they have been used . Theheat will make the articles safe for any one to use.

The disease germs on anything which cannot beboiled maybe destroyed by soaking it in someth ingwhich will kil l the germ s . Anything which will killdisease germ s is called a d isinf ectan t.One of the cheapest and best of all d isinfectants

is a l iquid called f orma lin . Put a tablespoonful ofit into a quart of water

,and use the m ixture in

washing the hands , and the woodwork and furn iture

1 92 FEVERS

Smallpox. When a person catches smallpox, hisskin breaks out with sm all raised spots which looklike blisters or pimples. Very fewpersons ever havethe disease a second time. I t is one of the m ostdangerous and contagious of all diseases, and wasformerly so common that nearly everybody expectedto have it at some time during life. But about the

year 1 800 an English physician , named Edward jenner, discovered an easy way of making the body safefrom the d isease. This discovery was vaccina tion .

How Vaccination is Done. Cows and calves som etimes have a m ild disease in which Spots like those

VACCINE .

of smallpox appear on the Skin. The fluid from the

spots contains living germ s of the disease, and iscal led vaccine. Vaccination is done by rubbing a bitof vaccine into a smal l scratch on a person’s skin .

There the germ s grow and produce a sore spo twhich soon heals . The germ s also cause the blood

FEVERS 1 93

to form a substance which will keep the germ s ofsmallpox from growing in that person’s body.

Smallpox has now become a rare disease, ow

ing to the wide use of vaccination . Germany isnow almost entirely free from the disease becausethe law of the land is that every inhabitant Shallbe vaccinated. The N ew York rule for vaccination is that every child Shall be vaccinated beforeentering a public School , and again at about the ageof twelve. This has been found to be a sure preventive of smallpox.

Some persons are afraid to be vaccinated becausethey fear that the sores will make them sick . If aperson is made Sick by vaccinat ion , it is becauseeither the vaccine or the arm has been dirty . Purevaccine is now suppl ied by boards of health or maybe bought at drug stores. If pure vaccine is usedand the vaccinated spots are kept clean , no one willbe made Sick by vaccination.

Typhoid Fever. One of the worst of the d iseasesof the intestine is typhoid fever. I t is usually spreadby Slops and sewage from the sick room , or by housefl ies. Many rivers contain sewage which has beenpoured into them from towns and houses on the

river banks . For th is reason cities which get theirwater from a river have often had a great deal oftyphoid fever, but many of these same cities havegot rid of most of the fever by purifying thewater before using it (p . The people of the

PERS . HYG .

1 94 FEVERS

HOUSE FLY. (Magnified )

city of A lbanyu S e H u d S o nR i v e r w a t e rwhich containsthe sewage fromthe city of Troy .

Before the year1 900 the waterwas used j ust asit came from theriver, but sincet h a t yea r th e

water has beenpurified by filtering it before it was used. Eversince the water has been purified , the deaths fromtyphoid fever each

year have beenonly one quarteras many as beforeit was purified .

House Flies .

House fl ies crawlover slops, sewage, and garbageheaps and therepick up diseasegerm s on thei rfeet and bodies .The fl ies then FLIE S ON GARBAGE .

1 96 FEVERS

MOS!UITO EGGS AND WIGGLERS .

h e apS T h eyoung fl ies lookl ike worm s andare called magg o t s . E a c hm a ggo t i s ayoung fly. I ttakes about twoweeks for anegg to become

a full -grown fly .

No fl ies couldgrow if all m a

nure piles and garbage heaps were cleaned up atleast once a week.

hous e fl ies left ifhorses should takec a r e o f t h e i rstables , yards , andmanure p iles .

Malaria and Mos

qu itoes . Ma l aria is an infectiousd i s e a s e , a n d i scaused by germ swh ich grow in thered blood cells ofthe sick person .

The germ s are

There would soon be very fewall persons who keep cows and

PHOTOGRAPHED THROUGH A MICROSCOPE .

FEVERS 1 97

carried from the Sick to other persons by mos

qu itoes . Not all m osquitoes can carry the germ s,but the kinds which do carry them are often foundwith the harmless kinds . Yel low fever is anotherdisease which is spread by m osquitoes . We may

prevent m alaria and yellow fever by getting rid'

of

mosquitoes .

M o S q u i t o e shatch from eggswhich are laid ins t a g n a n t wa te r.Th e y o u n g a r ec a l led wiggler s .

They may oftenbe seen tumblingabout in rain barrels in the sum

mer. One wayto get rid of mosquitoes is to emptyout all rain barrels and other col lections of dirtywater, and to d ry up marshes and pools , so thatthere will be no places in which the young insectsmay grow . Another way is to cover the waterwith a l ittle kerosene or other. thin oil in order tokil l the wigglers .

WHERE WI GGLERS THRIVE .

QUE STIONS

What is the cause of a feverWhat is a chillWhat is a contagious d isease

1 98 FEVERS

What is the danger from whooping cough, measles, and other

mild children’s d iseases

H owmaychildren’s d iseases be kept from spread ing

I f a person has d iphtheria, what maybe seen in the throatWhy should a child be taught to allow its throat to be exam

ined

Of what use is antitoxin in d iphtheriaH owmaythe germs of d iphtheria be kept from spread ingWhat is quarantine?What is disinf ection tH ow should formalin be used in killing d isease germsWhat are some of the duties of a board of healthWhat should be done to keep scarlet fever from spread ingWhat is smallpoxWhy is smallpox not seen so often now as it was before the

year 1 800

H ow is vacc ination doneOf what use is vaccinationHow is typhoid fever spread from a person who has the

d iseaseH ow does puri fying drinking water prevent typhoid feverHow do house flies cause a person to have a d iseaseWhere do young house flies liveH ow can you get rid of fliesWhat is the cause of malariaWhere do young mosqu itoes liveH ow can you get rid of mosquitoes

200 EXERCISE

The muscles of the arms and legs are large attheir upper ends and taper toward their lower parts,

FACE MUSCLE S I N ACTION .

where they end in wh itecords. The cords are l ikesmooth strings, and are composed of connective tissue.Some of them are as largeas lead pencils and are as

strong as though they weremade of Silk. They are fastened to the parts of thebody that are to be moved .

Cords may easily be felton the front of the wrist andalso on the back of the kneewhen the leg is bent . A h

other name for cords is tendons .

Most of the muscles of the face are in the formof flat sheets and have no cords fast to them .

Nearly all of them are fastened to the l ips and cheeks,or to the Skin around the

eyes. They change the ap

pearance of the face inlaugh ing and crying.

How a Muscle Acts .

ARM MUSCLE S AT RE ST.

When a m uscle acts , it swells out its m iddle partand Shortens itself and thus it pulls upon its cordand m oves whatever is fastened to the cord .

EXERCISE 20 1

Grasp your arm above the elbow, and bend thearm as far and as strongly as you can . Themu scle which bends the el

bow will now feel hard andswollen .

L et the arm drop to yourside The m uscle will nowfeel soft and flat.Muscles that are used in a

proper waygrow large andstrong . Athletes practicefor hours each day in order

ARM MUSCLE S I N ACTION.

to increase the size and strength of thei r m uscles .

Bone — Muscles are built upon a framework ofbone. The principal use of bones is to support the

BONE SAWED I N Two LE NGTHWISE .

soft flesh , just asbeams support ah o u s e M o S tbones lie inside ofbundles of mus

cles . If the boneof an arm or leg

is broken in two, the l imb will be useless , for therewill be nothing to support the soft flesh . A doctorwill bring the broken ends into place, and wil l bindthe whole bone to a st iff board or splin t, to keepthe parts from moving. Then a new piece of bonewill form , and unite the broken ends. This takesfrom three to s ix weeks (p .

202 EXERCISE

The lime which is in bones makes them stiff .The bones of grown persons contain a great deal ofl ime, and will not bend much without breaking.

The bones of babies and young children will bendsom ewhat without breaking, for they contain lesslime than the bones of grown persons. For thisreason the bones of children are not inj ured by fallsand blows which would break those of older persons .There are about 200 bones in the body, and each

has a name. For exam ple, the bone of the upperarm is called the lz umerus , the bone on the thumbSide of the forearm is called the rad iu s , and that onthe l ittle finger side is called the u lna .

!oints — Bones are joined together end to end

with thick and strong bands of gristle called ligam en ts . Nearlyall of the bones ofthe arm s and legsmaybe turned ontheir j oints, l iked o o r s o n t h e i rhinges . The endsof these bones are

SHOULDER !OINT OF A SHE E P .

S m 0 O t h a n dround , and are made Slippery by a fluid.

Most of the motions of the body are the bendingof joints. This bending is done by muscles . One

end of a m uscle is usually fast to a bone, and theother end , or its cord, is fastened to the bone next

204 EXERCISE

automobile gets its power from burning gasol ine.

Exercise produces hunger, because the m usclesoxid iz e food rapidly while they work. I t causesshortness of breath and deep breathing, because theworking m uscles require a great deal of oxygen . I trouses every part of the body to do its best work .

I t causes the stomach to prepare food , the lungs tosupply oxygen , the heart to pump blood , and the

kidneys and skin to get rid of waste matter . Whenyour m uscles are in good condition , you are likelyto be wel l and strong in body , and bright and cheerful in m ind .

An Erect Body.

— When you hold up your headand shoulders, you exercise the muscles of your back.

Then the muscles grow strong and hold up yourShoulders wi thout your thinking about them . Soldiers are taught to stand straight in order that thei rmuscles will grow strong and thei r lungs will havegreat breathing power (p. A lways standingstraight and Sitting upright will help you as much asit wil l help a soldier .How Much to Exercise. The most healthful way

to l ive is to stay out of doors al l day doing l ight workwith the hands . Those who Sit stil l and work forhours with thei r m inds wil l not feel wel l unless theySpend some time each day in taking exercise. Grownpersons need to spend at least an hour or two everyday at some kind of exercise, but children need toexercise for three or four hours a day.

EXERCISE 205

The Best Exercise — One of the best kinds ofexerc I se ls doing useful work , such as chores in thehouse and barn .

You will take exerc ise if you workwith carpenters’

tools , or hoe agarden , or sweepa room , or rake alawn , or care forhens and horses.A ll such exercisew i l l h e l p y o u rm ind as well as your muscles, and will also teachyou to do useful work.

If you have to run errands or help your parentsaround thehouse or barn , you will get exercise without

thinking abou t it .If you have no workto do, take your ex

erc ise by going onlong walks , or byworking in a gymnas ium ,

or by playing gam es in wh ich

A SWIMMING P°°L ° you run a great deal .Swimming — Swimm ing is good exercise, for it

puts nearly every m uscle in the body to use. Thewater also cleanses and refreshes the body ( p .

Goon EXERCISE .

206 EXERCISE

Some persons have a fear of the water if they donotknow how to swim . When an accident happens,and they or their friends are thrown into deep water,they are too frightened to help themselves or any oneelse . On a hot day in the summer of 1 9 1 0 twentytwo persons were drowned in different parts of N ewEngland while they were bath ing for pleasure .

Nearly al l of these deaths could have been preventedif the bathers had known how to swim: Learn toswim , so

.

that you will be cool and helpful when anaccident happens on the water.Rowing. Rowing a boat will exercise most of the

m uscles of the body. By rowing you will learn howto handle a boat, and will know what to do if youshould need to go out on the water.Play Exercise means not merely the use of the

muscles, but the pleasant use of the m ind al so.

When you do not enjoy an exercise, you sometimesfeel worse than if you had not taken it. Even thoughan interesting game may require you to think, andto work hard with your arm s and legs, yet you willenjoy it while you play, and afterward you wil l feelrefreshed in m ind and body.

Those games are best that require quick thoughtas well as strength . S uch sports as baseball, tenn is,and skating are enjoyable form s of exerc ise whichwil l train your m ind to think qu ickly, and your bodyto become strong and graceful .Gymnasium . Many schools have gymnasium s in

208 EXERCISE

Too Much Exercise. If you exercise until yourmuscles are ti red out, you will have no Strength leftfor work. Schoolboys train ing for athletic contestsoften run hard or lift heavy weights until they haveused up their strength . Then both their bodies andthei r m inds grow weaker instead of stronger. Butyour feel ings will usually tel l you whether or notexercise is helping you . If any exerc ise that youtake makes you so tired that a short rest does notrefresh you , that exercise is too hard for you .

Alcohol and Strength . Because strong drinkm akes the heart beat hard and the blood flow fast ,a person who drinks it may feel strong. He is nostronger than he was before he took the drink, forthe alcohol is l ike a whip that gives the body nostrength for doing the work So far from being thestronger, a person is really the weaker and the lessable to u se his strength because he has taken thedrink .

QUE STIONS

Of what is the lean meat o f an animal’s body composedWhat substance in meat makes it toughWhat part of the flesh produces the motions of the bodyWhere is a good place on the body to feel a muscle actingWhat is a tendon ?

Where maytendons be felt in the bodyO f what use are the bones

Howmaya person who has a broken bone be helpedH ow are the bones joined together in the bodyWhat is a ligament?

EXERCISE 209

What happens to the ligaments when a joint is sprained ?What shou ld be done for a sprainWhat’are two reasons whya person should take exerc iseFrom what do musc les get their power to workH owdoes exercise refresh the body after a person has been sit

ting still for some timeH owmayexercise help a person to have an erect bodyWhat are some ways in which exerc ise may help the mindWhat are some kinds of exercise that train the mind as well as

the bodyGive some reasons whv every person should learn to swim .

N ame some uses of a gymnasium .

What harm maybe done byexercising too muchWhat effect does alcohol have on a person’

s strength

PERS . HYO.

THE BRAIN AND NERVES

The Mind . Each person has a body and a m i nd .

The body alone is not the whole man, for it can doonly what them ind directs.

BRAIN OF MAN .

Neither is the m ind thewhole man , for itcannot thi nk ora c t ex c e p t b ym eans of that partof the body wh ichis called the bra in .

Th e Nerv o u s

Sys tem T h e

brain of a personis about the sizeof his two fists .

I t fills the whole top of the head above the eyesand ears. A long cord , cal led the spinal cord , extends from it down the inside of the backbone .

Long threads of flesh , called nerves , go out from the

brain and spinal cord to every part of the body .

The brain , spinal cord , and nerves are cal led th e

nervou s sys tem .

Sensory Nerve Messages . Nerves are l ike telephone wires, and are always carrying m essages back

2 1 2 THE BRAIN AND NERVES

A drug, such as morphine, eases pain because itprevents the brain from receiving the m essage ofpain . The drug does not cure the painful part, buti t may deceive a person and make h im think he iswel l when he no longer feels the pain . Do not takea drug for pain unless a doctor gives i t to you .

Motor Nerve Messages . Sending messages to

the muscles, tell ing them what m otions to make, isa second kind of work which the brain does. Thesemessages are cal led motor nerve messages. Whenever the hands work, the brain sends messageswhich direct the motions oi thei r arms and fingers .A person works with his brain whenever he takesexercise or does work with any part of his body.

Th inking. Thinking is a third kind of work whichthe brain does . The brain keeps a record of themessages which it receives and sends out . Thisrecord is the memory.

The m ind often looks over the memory recordswhich are stored in the brain . This act of the m indis called t/z inbing.

Narcotics . Many kinds of drugs, such as opiumand m orphine, prevent - the brain and nerves fromacting. If a person is in pain , they prevent thebrain from feel ing the pain . They may almost stopthe brain from acting, and so they may put a pers onto Sleep . A drug which benumbs the brain and

nerves is called a narcotic.

Alcohol. A lcohol is a narcotic , for it benumbs

THE BRAIN AND NERVE S 2 1 3

the brain . If a person’s brain is benumbed withstrong drink , we say that he is drunk . H is braincannot send out motor messages properly, and so

he staggers in h is walk. He cannot feel sensorymessages keenly, and so he may inj ure himself without knowing it. He cannot think wel l, and so hemay act fool ishly.

When a person has had a drink of whisky, hem ay suppose that his brain is m ore strong andactive than usual . He is deceived . His brain isbenumbed and he cannot feel as keenly as usual .He supposes himself to be strong and thoughtfulbecause he does not notice h is tired and sick feelings, and does not think how foolishly he acts .

Tobacco Tobacco also is a narcotic . The brainof a boy is easily made tired , and is quickly harmedby those th ings which m ay have l ittle effect on agrown man . Any use of tobacco i s harm ful to boys.One of the worst effects of tobacco is that it

hinders brain growth . If a man is inj ured by tobacco, he mayget well after he stops its use. Buta boy cannot make up for the loss of growth causedby tobacco . Boys who smoke cigarettes wil l almostsurely be behind other boys in school work . Whenthey grow up and go out to work for them selves ,they wil l be unable to obtain high positions in life

(PWhere Brain Work is Done. Each part of the

brain has its own kind of work to do. The back


part of the brain receivesmessages of Sight, hearing,

feel ing, sm ell ing, and tas ting ! the top of the bra insends out orders to the m uscles ! and the front partof the brain does the m ost of the work of thinking .

Thus, when you l ook at an ari thmetic, you use theback part of the brain !when you copy an ex

ample, you use the

top part ! and whenyou think how to dothe example , you u se

the front part of thebrain .

T i red Bra i ns and

Mu s cles . Whe n a

m u s c l e b e c om es

tired , the part of thebrain which directsits work also becom est i r e d . Wh e n th e

hands work, the brainbecomes as tired as the m uscles which move thehands. Playing bal l for an afternoon tires the brainas m uch as it tires the arm s and legs . When youfeel tired after exercise, your m uscles and your brai nare both tired.

Hard exercise for a few m inutes at recess willhelp to brighten the m ind if it does not tire themuscles (p . But exercise that tires the

DIAGRAM OF THE BRAI N .


have washed and dressed , you have not had enoughSleep, or el se you are sick . If you sleep well andwake up bright and refreshed , you are not likely toharm yourself by working as hard as you choose al lday long.

Sitting up Late.

— Children cannot work or playuntil late at night without being tired the next morning . If they Sit up late, they will lose some of thei rsleep unless they sleep late in the m orning . I fyou expect to spend an evening at a party or entertainment, take a nap in the afternoon before you go .

Then you will be rested for the evening’s work andwill also get your full amount of Sleep .

When you have lessons to learn in the evening ,you will not be able to do them wel l if you are ti red .

Drop your work early in the evening and go to bed .

The Sleep will rest and strengthen your m ind, and inthe morning you will be able to think clearly and tolearn lessons which you could not understand in theevening .

Children are often cross and fretful in the eveningbecause they are tired and do not know i t . Whenbedtime comes, the place for you is in bed , eventh ough you may not feel sleepy .

Some Causes of Wakef ulness . When a person isasleep , far less blood flows through the brain thanwhile he is awake. Anyth ing that makes a largequantity of blood f low through the brain will m akethe m ind active and prevent sleep . For this reason

THE BRAIN AND NERVES 2 1 7

working or playing hard just before going tobed is often a cause of wakefulness. Amuse yourself after supper i n some quiet way , as by looking atpictures . Then your m ind will becom e quiet, onlya little blood wil l flow through your brain , and youwill easily fal l asleep .

Some persons do not sleep wel l because theirmuscles do not become tired . Those who work thehardest with their m uscles can usually Sleep the best.Impure air in a bedroom is often a cause of poor

Sleep . Keeping a bedroom window open all n ightis a great help in Sleeping soundly .

Sleep and Eating. A common cause of lyingawake is wrong eating . If the stomach does notdigest food wel l , there wil l often be a headache, orother uncomfortable feeling, which will prevent sleep .

Poor sleep and bad dreams are often caused bywrong eating . Sweets , or desserts, or other fancydishes at n ight, may cause an indigestion and prevent sleep.

QUE STION SWhat is the brainWhat is the spinal

'

cord ?

What are nerves ?What are sensory nerve messages ?Of what use is pain ?What are motor nerve messages ?What makes the muscles of your arm move ?H ow does muscular work tire the brain ?What is the memory ?


What is a narcotic ?N ame some narcotics.

Whydoes a drunken man stagger in walking ?What effect does tobacco have on brain growth ?N ame some ways in which the m ind maybecome rested .

H ow does play at recess rest the brainOf what use is sleep ?H ow much sleep does a ten- year- old child need ?

I f you expect to be out for an evening, howmayyou get all the

sleep that you need

What are some of the things wh ich often keep a person awake ?Howmayeating keep you awake ?

How does exerc ise help a person to sleep ?

2 20 SEEING AND HEARING

called tears runs under the l ids to keep the eye

clean . When you have a bit of sand or other harddirt under a l id, your eye itches or smarts. Donot rub the l id , for that m ight make the dirt scratchthe eye. L ift the l id , and hold it away from the

eyeball for a mom ent so that the tears maywash thedirt away. If the dirt does not com e away, let som e

one l ift the eyel id and pick out the dirt with thecorner of a clean handkerchief.Bathing the Eyes Dust and tears som etimesdry on the eyelashes and on the edges of the l ids .The dirt maycontain disease germs which m ake thel ids sore and tender. One great reason for washingthe face often is to wash dirt and disease germ s fromthe eyes .Sometimes the eyes m ay smart and become red ,

and a white m atter may run from them . The soreness is often caused by disease germ s growing underthe l ids . A l ittle borax dissolved in the water withwhich the eyes are washed will help to kil l thegerm s.The eyes of babies often become sore because

they are not kept clean . Flies crawl ing over thei reyes may leave disease germ s on them . Many persons are blind because thei r eyes were not keptclean while they were babies. A baby’s eyes wi l lnot be l ikely to become sore if they are kept clean .

Poor Sight. The eyes of som e persons do notform clear pictures of what they try to see. These

SEEING AN D HEARING 2 2 1

persons cannot see well . Their eyes soon become

tired , and they often have headaches . Many schoolchildren have headaches because they have to strainthei r eyes in their studies . Some are backwardbecause they have poor sight, and no one is awareof it .Testing the Sight . The Sight may be tested by

finding the greatest distance at which large, plainletters can be read . Test one eye at a time whilethe other is kept closed . The following table givesthe distances at which letters of various Sizes may

be read by a person with good eyes igh t.

DI STANCE AT WH I CH rr

H E IGHT OF LETTER . MAY BE READ.

3% inches13. inches1 % i nchesinch

541 inchinchinch

A record of a person’s eyesight m ay be made inthe form of a fraction in which the numerator is thegreatest distance at which a letter is read , and thedenom inator is the greatest distance at which itmay be read by a person with good eyesigh t . Ifa person has to stand only ten feet away from a card


in order to read letters inch high , that person seesonly or one half, as wel l as he Should.

Eyeglasses — A person who has to hold a bookless than a foot from the eyes while reading is near

s igli ted . His sight may be greatly improved bywearing glasses. If they are not worn , the eyes willbe strained .

If a person has to hold a book at arm ’s lengthwhen reading, he is f ars ig/i ted and needs glasses.Most old persons are farsighted .

The front parts of the eyes of some persons arecurved unevenly. This trouble is called astigma tism .

These persons see things blurred , j ust as a personwith good eyesight would see them blurred whenlooking at them through a wrinkled window glass.They often have headaches because they ti re them uscles of their eyes in trying to see clearly . Theym ay im prove their sight and stop their headachesby wearing the proper glasses.If you cannot see as wel l as other persons, some

thing is the matter with your eyes . You cannotimprove the sight by strain ing the eyes. Tell yourteacher or your parents, and ask them to help youto get fitted with glasses.Eyeglasses that stay in place by pinching the nose

often produce pains . Spectacles do not pinch thenose, but are held in place by bows which loop overthe ears .

Cross - eye.— I f a person does not turn both eyes


eardrum , because i t is stretched over the end of thetube like a drumhead .

Behind the eardrum is a small holl ow space calledthe m iddle ear. The m iddle ear is filled with air and

S ON S

EARDRUM

DIAGRAM OF THE EAR .

is crossed by a chain of three tiny bones that reachfrom the eardrum to another space called the inner

The inner ear is shaped like a snail shell , and isfilled with a clear liquid . The nerves of hearingare stretched across it l ike the strings of a piano .

The m iddle ear and the inner ear are both hollowedout of hard bone, and therefore are not l ikely to beinj ured by blows and jars .

SEEING AND HEARING 225

How we Bean — Sound is caused by air movingin waves. A very loud sound , such as thunder, isproduced by great air waves which strike againstwindows and doors and cause them to shake andrattle. When a sound is heard , air waves strikeagainst the eardrum and move the bones of them iddle ear, and the l iquid of the inner ear. Thenerves of the inner ear feel the motion as sound .

A person who is hearing a sound is really feel ingthe motion of the l iquid in the inner ear.

Testing the Hearing. Some school children aredull and inattentive because they are deaf, andne ither they, nor their parents, nor their teachersknow it . In m any schools the hearing of everyscholar is tested .

The hearing maybe tested by finding the greatest distance at which a whispered word may beheard in a quiet room . Test each ear separatelywh ile the other ear is closed with a finger. Theperson testing the hearing pronounces a numberand the person tested repeats it to Show that it isunderstood . A person with good hearing can un

derstand a loud whisper in a qu iet room at a distance of about 2 5 feet.

'

The record of a person’s hearing may be put inthe form of a fraction in which the denom inator is 2 5,and the numerator is the greatest number of feet atwhich a whisper is understood. If a person can

understand a whispered word at no greater distancePERS . HYG. 1 5

SEEIN G AND HEAR ING

than five feet, that person hears only 955 , or g, as wellas he should .

Eustach ian Tube. A smal l tube, called the

E u stac/i ian tube, lets air pass from the throat intothe m iddle ear. Trying to blow the nose hardwhile holding the nostrils closed will force so m uchair into the m iddle ear that the eardrum will bulgeout. Then the hearing wil l be dulled , because theeardrum will not move freely . When a person has

a cold or a sore throat, the ears often buzz, andthere is a slight deafness, because the swell ing inthe throat stops up the Eustachian tube, and doesnot let air pass into the m iddle ear. Most personswho are deaf are made so by adenoids or other throattroubles which stop up the Eustachian tube.

Earache.

— The m iddle ear is moistened with asmall amount of liquid . If the liqu id cannot runout through the Eustachian tube, i t may fil l them iddle ear full and press hard upon the eardrum .

This causes an earache. The eardrum may bu rstand let the l iquid run out, and then the pain stops.But the ear is l ikely to be deaf, and matter is l ike lyto run from i t for days or weeks afterwards .If you have an earache or a running ear, you are

in danger of being deaf for the rest of your l ife, butif you go to a doctor, you can usually be cured andyour hearing can be saved .

Adenoids and Earaches . Most children who haveearache and running ears have adenoids growing i n

228 SEEI NG AND HEARING

have to try hard in order to understand you . I f

your voice is shril l and unpleasant, i t wil l annoyother persons and make them uncomfortable. S ickpersons are often made worse by the loud talk ofV isitors and nurses, but everybody l ikes to hear avoice that is soft and pleasant. One of the bestrecommendations that a boy or girl can have is tospeak clearly and in a pleasant tone .

QUE STIONS

I n what respect is the eye like a photographer’s camera ?Of what use are the eyelids ?O f what use are tears ?

H owmaya speck of d irt be removed from under the eyelid ?What care should be given to the eyes when they become sore?

H ow does wearing glasses o ften help a headache?What is nearsightedness ?What is farsightedness ?What is astigmatism ?When should glasses be worn ?Howmaythe sight be tested ?What is trachoma ?H ow should the light be arranged for reading ?With which part of the ear is sound heard ?Why do the ears often buz z when the nose is blown hard ?H ow does throat trouble cause earache and deafness ?

Howmay the hearing of a person be tested ?Why does a deaf baby not learn to talk?H ow is the sound of the voice made ?What has a pleasant voice to do with health ?

GLOS SARY

Absor’bent cotton, purified cotton,

used for dressing wounds .

Ad’enoids

, soft growths in the upper part of the throat and behindthe nose.

Al’cohol, a colorless liqu id used for preserving specimens in museums

,

and for burning. Wine, beer, whisky, and all other kinds of

strong drink contain it.Antitox

'in

,a substance which will destroy the poisons of d isease germs

in the body. A common kind of antitoxin is that which is usedfor curing or preventing diphtheria .

Ap’

petite, a desire for food or drink.

Arte’rial blood , blood containing a large amount of oxygen . The

most of the blood in arteries is arterial .Ar

’tery, a tube which carries blood away from the heart.

Artifl’cial respira

’tion, causing air to pass into and out of the lungs

of a person who seems to be lifeless .

Astig’mati sm , an unevenness of the surface of the eye, causingblurred

sight.

Au’ricles , the two thin- walled chambers upon the large end of the

heart. They receive blood from the veins .

B

Bacte’ria, the smallest forms of living beings . They are plants , andare the cause of most forms of decay and of most infectiousdiseases .

Ban’dage, a strip of cloth wound around a wound to protect it, or tohold dressings in place.

Beer,a kind of strong drink made by boiling malt and fermenting

the liqui d .

Bile,the bitter yellow liquid produced by the liver.

Bli s’ter, a collection of the liquid part of the blood under the ou ter

layer of the skin .

Board of H ealth , a bodyof offi cers who have charge of the preventionof infectious diseases, the purity of food supplies , and othermatters afiecting health .

Brain,the seat of them ind . I t fills the upper part of the head .

Bronch i , the tubes through which air enters the lungs .

2 29

230 GLOSSARY

C

Canning, preparing food by heating it and sealing it in air- tightcans in order to prevent it from spoiling.

Cap'illaries , themicroscopic tubes which carryblood from the arteriasto the veins .

Carbon diox'ide, a colorless gas formed by most fires , and by the

oxidation in the body .

Cesspool, an underground tank from which sewage soaks into the soil .Circula’tion, the flow of blood through the body.

Clot, blood in a jellylike form .

Cocoa , the ground seeds of the cacao tree. I t is a brown powder,and is sometimes called chocolate.

Cofi ee, the roasted seeds of the coffee tree.

Cold,a mild form of a disease caused by the growth of bacteria in the

body.

Connec’tive tissue, the tough , white fibers which support soft fles h .

Consump’tion, a common disease of the lungs caused by the growth

of tubercu losis bacteria in the flesh .

Con

t

t

h

a’

gious diseas'es , diseases which may be caught by being near

e sick.

Cooking, heating food in order to make it ready for eating.

Corns,tender, thickened spots upon the outer layer of the skin

on a toe,or other part of the foot.

Cor’puscles , the solid bod ies which float in the blood .

Dan'drufi

,loose scales of skin among the hair of the head .

Decay, the destruction of lifeless substances by bacteria or molds .

Den’tine

, the bony substance of which a tooth is made.

Diges’tion, dissolving food in the body.

Diph’th eria , an infectious disease of the throat, caused by the growth

of the bacteria of the disease.

Disease germ s,m icroscopic plants and animals which grow in a

living body and produce a disease.

Disinf ec’tion,destroying bacteria in a substance.

Distilla’tion

, separating alcohol from a boiling liquid by cooling thesteam .

Dres s ing, a covering for a wound .

Dyspep’sia , poor digestion of food .

EE ardrum

,the thin sheet of flesh at the inner end of the tube of the

outer ear.

232 GLOSSARY

I ntem’

perance, satisfying an appetite for the sake of pleasure only.

I ntes’tine

, the long food tube below the stomach .

K

Kid’neys ,

'

two red masses of flesh wh ich remove waste matters fromthe blood .

L

n ament, strong bands of flesh which bind bones together ! gristle.

Liv’er,the large, red mass of flesh which receives digested food from

the intestine and forms bile.

Lock’

jaw, a dangerous disease producinga contraction of the muscles .

I t is caused by disease germs which enter a wound .

Lungs , the spongymasses of flesh in which blood takes oxygen fromthe air.

M

Mag’

gots , young house flies . They look like white worms .

Mala’ria , a sickness in which the body at first is cold and within an

hour is too warm . I tis caused byd isease germs which are placedin the body by mosqui toes when they bite.

M i’crobes , a former name for bacteria .

M in'erals , the ashes which are left when flesh, bone, or food is burned .

Molars , the back teeth . They have flat surfaces for grinding food .

Mold , m icroscopic plants which often produce a furry growth on

food and clothing.

Motor nerve, a nerve which carries a message away from the brainor spinal cord .

Mucus , the liquid produced bythe liningof the nose, throat, and otherhollow parts of the body.

Muscles , lean meat. Their use is to produce themotions of the body.

Narcot’ic

,a drug that produces sleep.

N earsight’edness

, sight in which objects must be held near the eye

in order to be seen .

N erves , long threads or strings of fles h which carry messages be

tween the brain or spinal cord and the rest of the body.

N er

évousness , lack of control of the m ind over the feelings of the

ody.

N ervou s system ,the brain, spinal cord , and nerves .

N ic'otine, the principal poisonous part of tobacco .

GLOSSARY 233

0

Oil glands , tiny pockets in the skin in which an oil is formed for

softening the skin.

Oxida'tion

,the joining of oxygen to a substance. The burning in a

stove is a rapid form of oxidation.

Oxygen, a substance that forms one fifth of the air.

P

Pan'creas , a mass of flesh in which one of the digestive fluids isformed .

Pas’teuriz ing, killing bacteria in milk by heating it to a temperature

less than boiling.

Perspira’tion, the liqui d which comes from the skin when the body

is too warm ! sweat.

Phlegm , thick mucus from the nose or throat.

Physiol'ogy, the study of the actions of a living body.

Pro‘te- in

, the substance of which living flesh is composed . I t is likethe white of an egg.

Pupil, the round opening which admi ts light into the eye.

Pu s , the creamy matter which flows from sore wounds . I t is com

posed oi white blood cells that have been killed by bacteria .

!

!uar'antine, keeping persons who are sick with an infectious di sease

awayfrom otherpersons .

R

Radius , the bone extending from the elbow to the wrist on the thumbside of the arm .

Red blood cells , the red bodies which float in the blood . They carryoxygen from the lungs through the body.

Respira'tion, breathing,

and oxidation in the body.

Rin

g’wlorm

, a skin disease caused by a kind of mold growing in the

es

S

Sali’va, the liquid of the mouth . I t digests starch .

Scarlet fever,a catching disease in which the skin becomes red .

S en’sory nerves

,nerves which carry messages to the spinal cord and

brain.

Serum, the liquid part of the blood .

Sew'age, waste water from bathrooms and kitchens .

234 GLOSSARY

Sew'age dispos’al, destroying the solid substances and di sease germsm sewage.

Sewer, a pipe for carrying away sewage.

Smallpox, a catching disease in which blisters containing pus appearon the skin.

Spinal cord , the cord of nerve matter that lies in the backbone.

Spo

gzus , the dust that flies from mold . Each particle is a seedlike

Ster’ilizing, heating a substance boiling hot in order to kill the bacteria in it.

Stim’ulant, a substance that rouses the body to action.

Stom'ach , the bagwhich food enters after it is swallowed.

Strong drink, any drink containing alcohol.

T

Tan

ligi

hdark substance formed in the skin by exposure to bright sunt.

Tea, dried leaves of the tea tree.

Ten’don, the strong, white cord which connects a muscle to a bone.

Tobacco, a plant used for smoking and chewing, and as snufi . I t

conta ins a narcotic poison.

Tonsilli’tis

,a soreness of the tonsils , with fever.

Ton'sils

,masses of flesh growing in the sides of the throat. They

are often the cause of sicknes s .

Tra’chea, the tube carrying air from the throat to the lungs ! thewindpipe.

Tracho’ma, an infectious form of granulated eyelids .

Tuberculo'si s , a disease caused by the germs of tuberculosis growing

in the body! consumption .

Ty'

phoid fever, a disease of the intestine caused by the growth of

typhoid bacteria .

U

Ul’na

,the bone that extends from the elbow to the wrist on the little

finger side of the arm .

V

Vaccina'tion, protecting the body against smallpox by causing the

germs of cowpox to grow in the skin.

Vein, the blood tube that carries blood toward the heart.

Venou s blood , blood that contains but little oxygen. Most blood inthe veins is venous .

Ventila 'tion ,changing the air of a room for fresh , outdoor air.

Ven’tricles , the two hollow spaces at the pointed end of the heart.

I NDEX

AAbsorbent cotton, 1 35.

Accidents , 1 39.

Adenoids , 53, 65, 1 54, 226.

Air,1 46, 1 59, 1 71 .

Alcohol, 95, 1 07, 1 1 0, 1 24, 1 28,1 39. 1 52. 1 72. 1 79. 1 82.2 1 3.

Antitoxin, 1 89.

Arterial blood , 1 50.

Artery, 1 24, 1 30.

Artificial respiration,1 55.

Astigmatism ,2 22 .

Auricle, 1 23.

B

Bacteria , 1 7, 74, 1 09, 1 34.

Bad breath , 55.

Bandages .1 35

Bathing, 23, 30.

Bedroom , 37, 1 64.

Beer, 1 08.

Bee stings , 1 42 .

Bile, 8 1 .

Bladder, 92 .

Bleeding, 1 30, 1 40.

Blister,1 43.

Blood , 1 2 1 , 1 50, 1 67.

Board of Health , 1 89.

Bone,1 40, 201 .

Bowel, 79.

Brain, 2 1 0. Dampness , 4 1 .

Bread , 70, 1 09. Dandrufi,29.

Breathing, 1 46. Decay, 1 8, 6 1 .

Bronchi , 1 48 . Dentine, 6 1 .

Bruise, 1 40. Digestion, 77.

237

Cake, 86, 88.

Candy, 86 , 88.

Canning food , 1 9.

Capillary. 1 25. 1 49Carbon dioxide, 1 49.

Carpets. 35.

Chill,1 86 .

Choking, 1 56.

Cigarettes , 1 1 8.

Circulation, 1 26 .

Clot, 1 31 .

Clothes , 38, 1 27, 1 42, 1 68.

Coated tongue, 55.

Cocoa, 94.

Cofiee, 94.

Colds , I 4. 52 , 1 33, 1 54. 1 74Connective tissue, 1 99.

Consumption, 1 53, 1 79.

Contagious diseases , 1 86 .

Cooking, 8 1 .

Corpuscles , 1 2 1 .

Cotton, 38 , 1 35.

Cough , 1 56 .

Cross-eye, 22 2.

238

Diphtheria, 1 88.

Dirt,2 1

.26, 34, 74

Disease germs , 1 5, 26, 34,99, I S3, 1 59 , I 7S, 2 20'

Disinfection, 1 90.

Distillation, 1 1 0.

Drafts , 1 6 1 , 1 76 .

Dres sings , 1 37.

Dressingwounds, 1 35.

Drinking. 77, 92Dnnkms cups , 95Dust, 34. 1 53Dyspepsia.M

Ear, 223.

Earache,226.

Eardrum,224.

Ear wax,227.

Eating, 86, 1 5 1 , 2 1 7.

Electric shock, 1 56.

Enamel,6 1 .

Enlarged glands , 1 79.

Epidermis , 24.

E sophagus , 78.

Eustachian tube, 226.

Exercise, 82, 1 52 , 1 99, 203.

Eye, 2 1 9 .

Eyeglasses , 22 2 .

Fainting, 1 28.

Farsightednes s , 2 22.

Fat, 68.

Feet, 45, 1 69.

Fermentation,1 08 .

Fertiliz ers,1 9.

Fever,1 86 .

Filling teeth , 63.

Filter, 1 02 .

Finger ring, 1 27.

Finger stall, 1 36.

Fire, 1 42 , 1 47.

Flies , 1 82 , 1 94, 220.

INDEX

Food , 67. 73.

Formalin,1 90.

Fres h air, 1 59.

Fresh food, 74.

Froz en fles h, 1 70.

Fruit, 71 .

Garbage, 1 94.

Gas poisoning, 1 72 .

Gastric juice, 78.

Germs of disease, 1 4.

Glands , 25.

Grain, 70.

Granulated eyelids , 27, 223.

Growth , 1 1 9.

Gymnasium , 206 .

1 4, 1 86 .

Kidneys, 92 , 1 49.

H

Habit, 1 1 2, 1 1 8.

Hair,28.

Handkerchief , 5 1 , 1 77, 223.

Hangnail, 29.

Hearing, tes ting the, 225.

Heart, 1 22 .

Heat, 1 1 2, 1 62, 1 67, 1 70.

Hot water bag, 32 .

Humerus , 202 .

Hygiene, 1 2 .

I ce, 94, 1 03.

Indigestion , 84 .

Infectious di seases ,Ingrowing nail, 47.

Insurance, 1 1 3.

Intemperance, 84.

Intes tine, 79.

Iris,2 1 9.

Ironing, 44.

240 INDEX

Sleep, 1 65, 2 1 5.

Slops, 1 00.

Smallpox, 1 92.

Soap. 43

Soda water, 95.

Spectacles , 2 2 2 .

Spinal cord , 2 1 0.

Spitting, 54, 1 1 8, 1 82.

Splinters , 1 4 1 .

Spores , 1 6 .

Sprain, 203. Ulna, 202

Starch,68.

Steriliz e, 75.

Stimulant,1 07 Vaccination, 1 92.

Stomach, 78 . Vegetables , 70.

Strength ,0

1 1 2,1 1 9, 1 5 1 , Vein

,1 25, 1 30.

53 01 18 dr1nk, 1 07 Venous blood , 1 50.

Sugar, 68 Ventilation, 1 6 1 .

Sunburn,1 43 Ventricle, 1 23.

Sunlight, 36, 1 83. Villi,

Sunstroke, 1 69. Vinegar, 1 9, 1 09 .

Swallowmg, 73 Virginia creeper, 1 44.

Sweat,25. Vocal cords , 2 27.

Sweepmg, 35. Voice, 227.

Sweetbread, 79.

Sweets , 87.

Swimm ing, 32 , 205.

Tan,1 43.

Taste, 82 , 87.

Tea , 94 .

Tears , 2 20.

Teeth, 59.

Temperature, 1 86 .

Tendon,200 .

Thinking, 2 1 2 .

Throat examination, 1 88.

Tobacco,1 1 6

,1 28, 2 1 3.

Tongue tie, 2 27. Yeast, 1 08 .

Tonsillitis , 2 1 , 54, 1 74. Yellow fever, 1 97.

Tonsils , 53.

Toothache, 62.

Toothbrush , 62 .

Towel,27, 1 77, 2 23.

Trachea , 1 48.

Trachoma, 2 23.

Tuberculosis,1 79.

Typhoid fever, 1 93.

Washing clothes, 43.

Waste matter, 25, 80, 93.

Water,67, 92 , 99.

Wells , 1 00.

White blood cells , 1 2 2 , 1 34 , 1 83.

Wigglers , 1 97.

Windpipe, 1 48.

Wine,1 07.

Wool, 38.

Wounds, 1 30.

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