rome and the rise of christianity - cisd · rome and the rise of christianity ... roman tradition...

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Rome and the Rise of Christianity

600 B.C.–A.D. 500

Key EventsAs you read, look for the key events in the history of Rome and early Christianity.

• Romans overthrew the last Etruscan king and established a republic.• Romans crushed Hannibal and won the Second Punic War.

• Augustus became the first emperor, signifying the beginning of the Roman Empire.• Constantine proclaimed official tolerance of Christianity.

• Germanic tribes defeated the Romans, and the empire fell.

The Impact TodayThe events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today.

• Using their practical skills, the Romans made achievements in law, government, language, and engineering that became an important part of Western civilization.

• In the last two hundred years of the Roman Empire, Christianity grew, along with itsnew ideals of spiritual equality and respect for human life.

World History Video The Chapter 5 video, “The Roman World,”chronicles the emergence and expansion of the Roman Empire.

600 B.C. 500 B.C. 400 B.C. 300 B.C. 200 B.C. 100 B.C.

509 B.C.Rome becomesa republic

450 B.C.The TwelveTables isRome’s firstcode of laws

312 B.C.AppianWaybuilt

Etruscan sculpture

Ruins of the Appian Way

650 B.C.Etruscansrule Rome

264 B.C.Punic Warsbegin

147

The Pont du Gard, a Roman aqueduct in southern France

44 B.C.Julius Caesarassassinated

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory Web site at

and clickon Chapter 5–ChapterOverview to previewchapter information.

A.D. 1 A.D. 100 A.D. 200 A.D. 300 A.D. 400

A.D. 79Pompeii destroyedin eruption ofMount Vesuvius

A.D. 180Pax Romanaends

A.D. 476Fall of theRomanEmpire

A.D. 33Jesus dies in Jerusalem

Assassination of Julius Caesar

Bust from Pompeii

A.D. 500 tx.wh.glencoe.com

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/gwh2003/tx/content.php4/732/1

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Horatius at the Bridgene of the great heroes of early Rome was Horatius,whose bravery in battle made him a legend. As the

story goes, Roman farmers, threatened by attack from theneighboring Etruscans, abandoned their fields and movedinto the city of Rome, protected by the city’s walls. One weakpoint in the Roman defense was a wooden bridge over theTiber River. On the day of the Etruscan attack, Horatius wason guard at the bridge.

A surprise attack by the Etruscans caused many Romantroops to throw down their weapons and run. Horatius actedpromptly, urging them to make a stand at the bridge in orderto protect Rome. As a last resort, he challenged the Romantroops to destroy the bridge while he made a stand at theouter end to give them more time.

At first, the Etruscans held back, astonished at the sight ofa single defender. Soon, however, they threw their spears atthe lone figure who barred their way. Horatius blocked thespears with his shield and held his ground as the Etruscansadvanced on foot, ready to overwhelm him.

Meanwhile, the Roman soldiers used the extra time tobring down the bridge. When Horatius heard the sound ofthe bridge crashing into the river behind him, he dove, fullyarmed, into the water and swam. Despite the arrows that fellaround him, he safely reached the other side. Rome had beensaved by the courageous act of Horatius, a Roman who knewhis duty and was determined to carry it out.

O

Horatius at the bridge overthe Tiber River

Why It MattersCourage, duty, determination—these were common words to manyRomans, who believed that it wastheir mission to rule nations andpeoples. Whereas the Greeks hadexcelled in philosophy and the arts,the Romans were practical people.They knew how to govern, makelaws, and build roads that tookthem to the ends of the knownworld. Even after the Roman Empiredisappeared, those same gifts con-tinued to play an important role inthe civilizations that came after.

History and You Horatius isonly one of the famous Romans youwill meet in this chapter. To keeptrack of the key people in Romanhistory, create and maintain a com-puterized database that shows thename, time lived, and notableaccomplishments of each personyou study in this chapter.

The Rise of RomeGuide to Reading

Main Ideas• The Romans conquered the plain of

Latium, the Italian peninsula, and thenthe entire Mediterranean world.

• Their practical political skills allowed theRomans to maintain control over theirconquered lands.

Key Termsrepublic, patrician, plebeian, consul, praetor

People to Identify Latins, Etruscans, Livy, Hannibal

Places to Locate Rome, Sicily, Carthage, Alps

Preview Questions1. How did the Etruscans impact the

development of Roman civilization?2. How did the Roman Republic gain

control of the lands of the Mediter-ranean?

Reading StrategyCategorizing Information As you readthis section, complete a chart like the one shown below listing the governmentofficials and the legislative bodies of theRoman Republic.

Officials Legislative Bodies

✦700 B.C. ✦600 B.C. ✦500 B.C. ✦400 B.C. ✦300 B.C. ✦200 B.C. ✦100 B.C.

650 B.C.Etruscans controlRome

509 B.C.Romans overthrowEtruscans

146 B.C.Rome destroysCarthage

129 B.C.Rome obtains firstprovince in Asia

Preview of Events

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 149

Roman history is the story of the Romans’ conquest of the area around Rome, thenof Italy, and finally of the entire Mediterranean world. Judas Maccabeus, a Jewish mili-tary leader, said of the Romans:

“They had defeated Antiochus the Great, king of Asia, who went to fight againstthem with one hundred twenty elephants and with cavalry and chariots and a verylarge army. He was crushed by them. . . . Yet for all this not one of the Romans has puton a crown, but they have built for themselves a senate chamber, and every day threehundred senators constantly deliberate concerning the people, to govern them well.”

—Western Civilization, Margaret L. King, 2000

The Romans were conquerors, but they also governed, using republican forms thathave been passed down to us.

The Land and Peoples of ItalyItaly is a peninsula extending about 750 miles (1,207 km) from north to south.

It is not very wide, averaging about 120 miles (193 km) across. The Apennine(A•puh•NYN) mountain range forms a ridge from north to south down the middle of Italy that divides west from east. Italy has some fairly large fertile plains ideal for farming. Most important are the Po River valley in the north; theplain of Latium, on which the city of Rome is located; and the region of Campa-nia, to the south of Latium.

Voices from the Past

Judas Maccabeus

where the Tiber could be easily crossed. Thus, itbecame a natural crossing point for north-south traf-fic in western Italy. All in all, Rome had a good cen-tral location in Italy from which to expand.

The Italian peninsula juts into the Mediterranean,making it an important crossroads between the west-ern and eastern Mediterranean Sea. Once Rome hadunified Italy, it easily became involved in Mediter-ranean affairs. After the Romans had establishedtheir Mediterranean empire, governing it was madeeasier by Italy’s central location.

The Peoples of Italy Indo-European peoplesmoved into Italy during the period from about 1500to 1000 B.C. We know little about these peoples, butwe do know that one such group was the Latins, wholived in the region of Latium. These people spokeLatin, which, like Greek, is an Indo-European lan-guage. They were herders and farmers who lived insettlements consisting of huts on the tops of Rome’shills. After about 800 B.C., other people also begansettling in Italy—the two most notable being theGreeks and the Etruscans.

The Greeks came to Italy in large numbers duringthe age of Greek colonization (750–550 B.C.). They set-tled in southern Italy and then slowly moved aroundthe coast and up the peninsula. The eastern two-thirds of Sicily, an island south of the Italian penin-sula, was also occupied by the Greeks. The Greekshad much influence on Rome. They cultivated olivesand grapes, passed on their alphabet, and gave theRomans artistic and cultural models through theirsculpture, architecture, and literature.

The early development of Rome, however, wasinfluenced most by the Etruscans, who were locatednorth of Rome in Etruria. After 650 B.C., they expandedinto north-central Italy and came to control Rome andmost of Latium. The Etruscans found Rome a villagebut launched a building program that turned it into acity. Etruscan dress—the toga and short cloak—wasadopted by the Romans. The organization of theRoman army also was borrowed from the Etruscans.

Evaluating What role did geographyplay in the prosperity and defensibility of Rome?

The Roman RepublicRoman tradition maintains that early Rome

(753–509 B.C.) was under the control of seven kingsand that two of the last three kings were Etruscans.Historians know for certain that Rome did fall underEtruscan influence during this time. In 509 B.C., the

Reading Check

The Impact of Geography In the same way as theother civilizations we have examined, geographyplayed an important role in the development ofRome. The Apennines are less rugged than the moun-tain ranges of Greece and did not divide the Italianpeninsula into many small, isolated communities.Italy also had more land for farming than did Greece,enabling it to support a large population.

The location of the city of Rome was especiallyfavorable to early settlers. Located about 18 miles (29km) inland on the Tiber River, Rome had a way to thesea. However, it was far enough inland to be safefrom pirates. Because it was built on seven hills, itwas easily defended. In addition, it was situated

100 kilometers0

100 miles0

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Azimuthal Equidistant projection

10°E 15°E

40°N

45°N

A L P S

AP

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Corsica

Sardinia

Sicily

CAMPANIA

Adriatic

Sea

Tyrrhenian

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Strait of Messina

Mediterra

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nSea

Ionian

Sea

Tib

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ETRURIA

LATIUMRome

Carthage

AFRICA

In 500 B.C., the Etruscans and Greeks occupied much ofItaly. Note the many cultures that influenced ancient Rome.

1. Applying Geography Skills Why was Rome’s locationimportant for the Latins’ conquest of Italy?

Italy, 500 B.C.

Carthaginians

Etruscans

Greeks

Latins

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Etruscan mural, c. 500 B.C. Etruscanmurals show colorful, lively scenes of Etruscandaily life. Particularly popular subjects werescenes of wrestling matches, religious cere-monies, and people enjoying music andfeasts. Why do these murals providearchaeologists and historians with impor-tant clues to Etruscan life? What do themurals reveal about Etruscan life?

History through Art

Romans overthrew the last Etruscan king and estab-lished a republic, a form of government in which theleader is not a monarch and certain citizens have theright to vote. This was the beginning of a new era inRome’s history.

War and Conquest At the beginning of the repub-lic, Rome was surrounded by enemies. For the nexttwo hundred years, the city was engaged in almostcontinuous warfare.

In 338 B.C., Rome crushed the Latin states inLatium. During the next 50 years, the Romans wageda fierce struggle against people from the centralApennines, some of whom had settled south ofRome. Rome was again victorious. The conquestgave the Romans control over a large part of Italy.

It also brought them into direct contact with theGreek communities of southern Italy. Soon, theRomans were at war with these Greek cities. By 264B.C., they had overcome the Greeks and completedtheir conquest of southern Italy. After defeating theremaining Etruscan states to the north over the nextthree years, Rome had conquered virtually all of Italy.

To rule Italy, the Romans devised the Roman Con-federation. Under this system, Rome allowed somepeoples—especially Latins—to have full Roman citi-zenship. Most of the remaining communities weremade allies. They remained free to run their ownlocal affairs but were required to provide soldiers forRome. The Romans made it clear that loyal alliescould improve their status and even become Romancitizens. The Romans made the conquered peoplesfeel they had a real stake in Rome’s success.

Why Rome Was Successful Romans believed thattheir early ancestors were successful because of theirsense of duty, courage, and discipline. The Romanhistorian Livy, writing in the first century B.C., pro-vided a number of stories to teach Romans thevirtues that had made Rome great. His account ofCincinnatus (SIHN•suh• NA•tuhs), a simple farmerwho was chosen as a temporary ruler to save Romefrom attack, is one such example.

Looking back today, how can we explain Rome’ssuccess in gaining control of the entire Italian penin-sula? First, the Romans were good diplomats. Theywere shrewd in extending Roman citizenship andallowing states to run their own internal affairs.Although diplomatic, however, they could be firm,and even cruel when necessary, crushing rebellionswithout mercy.

Second, the Romans excelled in military matters.They were not only accomplished soldiers but alsopersistent ones. The loss of an army or a fleet did notcause them to quit but instead spurred them on tobuild new armies and new fleets. In addition, theywere brilliant strategists. As they conquered, theRomans built colonies—fortified towns—throughoutItaly. By building roads to these towns and thus con-necting them, the Romans could move troops quicklythroughout their conquered territory.

Finally, in law and politics, as in conquest, theRomans were practical. They did not try to build anideal government but instead created political institu-tions in response to problems, as the problems arose.

Examining How did the Romansgain support for their empire?

Reading Check

151CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity

152 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity

Cicero’s Denunciation of Catiline in theSenate Romans devised a sophisticated sys-tem of government. What similarities can youfind between the Roman Senate and ourcurrent government?

History through Art

The Roman StateThe Romans had been ruled by kings under the

Etruscans. As a result, they distrusted kingship anddevised a very different system of government.

The Government of Rome Early Rome wasdivided into two groups or orders—the patriciansand the plebeians (plih•BEE•uhns). The patricianswere great landowners, who became Rome’s rulingclass. Less wealthy landholders, craftspeople, merchants, and small farmers were part of a largergroup called plebeians.

Men in both groups were citizens and could vote,but only the patricians could be elected to govern-mental offices. The chief executive officers of theRoman Republic were the consuls and praetors(PREE•tuhrs). Two consuls, chosen every year, ranthe government and led the Roman army into battle.The praetor was in charge of civil law—law as itapplied to Roman citizens. As the Romans’ territoryexpanded, another praetor was added to judge casesin which one or both people were noncitizens. TheRomans also had a number of officials who had spe-cial duties, such as supervising the treasury.

The Roman Senate came to hold an especiallyimportant position in the Roman Republic. It was aselect group of about three hundred patricians who

served for life. At first, the Senate’s only role was toadvise government officials. However, the advice ofthe Senate carried a great deal of weight. By the thirdcentury B.C., it had the force of law.

The Roman Republic had several people’s assem-blies in addition to the Senate. By far the most important of these was the centuriate assembly. Thecenturiate assembly elected the chief officials, such asconsuls and praetors, and passed laws. Because itwas organized by classes based on wealth, thewealthiest citizens always had a majority. The coun-cil of the plebs was the assembly for plebeians only,and it came into being as a result of the strugglebetween the two social orders in Rome.

The Struggle of the Orders There was often con-flict between the patricians and the plebeians in theearly Roman Republic. Children of patricians andplebeians were forbidden to marry each other. Ple-beians resented this situation, especially since theyserved in the Roman army that protected the Repub-lic. They thought that they deserved both politicaland social equality with the patricians.

The struggle between the patricians and plebeiansdragged on for hundreds of years. Ultimately, it ledto success for the plebeians. A popular assembly forplebeians only, the council of the plebs, was createdin 471 B.C. New officials, known as tribunes of theplebs, were given the power to protect the plebeians.In the fourth century B.C., plebeians were permittedto become consuls. Finally, in 287 B.C., the council ofthe plebs received the right to pass laws for allRomans.

By 287 B.C., all male Roman citizens were suppos-edly equal under the law. In reality, however, a fewwealthy patrician and plebeian families formed anew senatorial ruling class that came to dominate thepolitical offices. The Roman Republic had notbecome a democracy.

Roman Law One of Rome’s chief gifts to theMediterranean world of its day and to later genera-tions was its system of law. Rome’s first code of lawswas the Twelve Tables, which was adopted in 450 B.C. This code was a product of a simple farmingsociety and proved inadequate for later Roman needs.From the Twelve Tables, the Romans developed amore sophisticated system of civil law. This systemapplied only to Roman citizens, however.

As Rome expanded, legal questions arose thatinvolved both Romans and non-Romans. The Romansfound that although some of their rules of civil lawcould be used in these cases, special rules were oftenneeded. These rules gave rise to a body of law knownas the Law of Nations. The Romans came to identifythe Law of Nations with natural law, or universal lawbased on reason. This enabled them to establish stan-dards of justice that applied to all people.

These standards of justice included principles stillrecognized today. A person was regarded as innocentuntil proved otherwise. People accused of wrongdo-ing were allowed to defend themselves before a judge.A judge, in turn, was expected to weigh evidence care-fully before arriving at a decision. These principleslived on long after the fall of the Roman Empire.

Explaining How did the differencesbetween plebeians and patricians prevent Rome from becom-ing a true democracy?

Rome Conquers the MediterraneanAfter their conquest of Italy, the Romans found

themselves face to face with a strong power in theMediterranean—the state of Carthage. Carthage hadbeen founded around 800 B.C. on the coast of North

Reading Check

Africa by Phoenicians.The state had createdan enormous tradingempire in the westernMediterranean. By thethird century B.C., theCarthaginian Empireincluded the coast ofnorthern Africa, southern Spain, Sardinia, Corsica,and western Sicily. With its control of westernMediterranean trade, Carthage was the largest andrichest state in the area.

The presence of Carthaginians in Sicily, an islandclose to the Italian coast, made the Romans fearful. In264 B.C., the two powers began a lengthy struggle forcontrol of the western Mediterranean.

The First Punic War Rome’s first war withCarthage began in 264 B.C. It is called the First PunicWar, after the Latin word for Phoenician, punicus. Thewar started when the Romans sent an army to Sicily.The Carthaginians, who thought of Sicily as part oftheir empire, considered this an act of war. Both sidesbecame determined to conquer Sicily.

The Romans—a land power—realized that theycould not win the war without a navy and created alarge naval fleet. After a long struggle, a Roman fleetdefeated the Carthaginian navy off the coast of Sicily,and the war came to an end. In 241 B.C., Carthagegave up all rights to Sicily and paid a fine to theRomans. Sicily became the first Roman province.

Carthage vowed revenge, however, and addednew lands in Spain to make up for the loss of Sicily.The Romans encouraged one of Carthage’s Spanishallies to revolt against Carthage. In response, Hannibal, the greatest of the Carthaginian generals,struck back, beginning the Second Punic War (218 to201 B.C.).

The Second Punic War Hannibal decided that theCarthaginians would bring the war home to theRomans. Hannibal entered Spain, moved east, andcrossed the Alps with an army of about 46,000 men,a large number of horses, and 37 battle elephants.The Alps took a toll on the Carthaginian army; mostof the elephants did not survive. The remainingarmy, however, posed a real threat to the Romans.

In 216 B.C., the Romans decided to meet Hannibalhead on. It was a serious mistake. At Cannae(KA•nee), the Romans lost an army of almost fortythousand men. On the brink of disaster, Romerefused to surrender and raised yet another army.


Carthage

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Rome gradually recovered. Although Hannibalremained free to roam Italy, he had neither the mennor the equipment to attack the major cities, includ-ing Rome. The Romans began to reconquer some ofthe Italian cities that had been taken by Hannibal.More important, they sent troops to Spain and, by 206 B.C., they had pushed the Carthaginians out of Spain.

In a brilliant military initiative, Rome decided toinvade Carthage rather than fight Hannibal in Italy.This strategy forced the Carthaginians to recall Han-nibal from Italy. At the Battle of Zama (ZAY•muh) in202 B.C., the Romans crushed Hannibal’s forces, andthe war was over. Carthage lost Spain, which becamea Roman province. Rome had become the dominantpower in the western Mediterranean.

More Conquests Fifty years later, the Romansfought their third and final struggle with Carthage,the Third Punic War. For years, a number of promi-nent Romans had called for the complete destructionof Carthage.

In 146 B.C., Carthage was destroyed. For 10 days,Roman soldiers burned and demolished all of thecity’s buildings. The inhabitants—fifty thousandmen, women, and children—were sold into slavery.The territory of Carthage became a Roman provincecalled Africa.

During its struggle with Carthage, Rome also bat-tled the Hellenistic states in the eastern Mediter-ranean. The Fourth Macedonian War ended in 148B.C., and Macedonia was made a Roman province.Two years later, Greece was placed under the controlof the Roman governor of Macedonia. In 129 B.C.,Pergamum became Rome’s first province in Asia.Rome was now master of the Mediterranean Sea.

Evaluating What is the historical andcultural significance of the Roman destruction of Carthage?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Define republic, patrician, plebeian,

consul, praetor.

2. Identify Latins, Etruscans, Livy, Senate,centuriate assembly, council of theplebs, tribune of the plebs, TwelveTables, Law of Nations, Hannibal.

3. Locate Rome, Sicily, Carthage, Alps.

4. Describe the significance of the TwelveTables and the Law of Nations.

5. List ways in which the Greeks influ-enced the Romans.

Critical Thinking6. Discuss What was the importance of

the Senate and other assemblies to theRoman Republic?

7. Contrasting Information Create achart that shows the major differencesbetween the patricians and the plebeians.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the picture of Horatius on

page 148 of your text. How does thispicture represent Roman military values?

Patricians Plebeians

9. Informative Writing Imagine thatyou are a journalist covering theSecond Punic War. Using the text oroutside authoritative sources, writean account of one of the major bat-tles of the war. Be sure to pose andanswer questions for both Hannibaland the Roman generals in youraccount.

Hannibal247–183 B.C.Carthaginian general

When Hannibal was only nineyears old, his father, a Carthaginiangeneral, took him to a temple inCarthage and made him swear that hewould always hate the Romans. Hanniballater inflicted terrible losses on the Romans—his army killed or captured thousands of Romans andallied soldiers in Italy. Unable to win the war, Hannibaleventually sought refuge with Rome’s enemies.

The Romans never forgave Hannibal. They pursuedhim for years and finally caught up with him in Bithynia.To avoid capture, Hannibal took poison after remarking,“Let us relieve the Romans of the fear which has so longafflicted them, since it seems to tax their patience toohard to wait for an old man’s death.”

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Cincinnatus Saves RomeTHERE IS PERHAPS NO BETTERaccount of how the virtues ofduty and simplicity enabledgood Roman citizens to succeedduring the difficulties of the fifthcentury B.C. than Livy’s accountof Cincinnatus.

“The city was thrown into astate of turmoil, and the generalalarm was as great as if Rome her-self were surrounded. The situa-tion evidently called for a dictator[the position of dictator was atemporary one used only in emer-gencies], and, with no dissentingvoice, Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatuswas named for the post.

Now I would solicit the particu-lar attention of those numerouspeople who imagine that money is everything inthis world, and that rank and ability are inseparablefrom wealth: let them observe that Cincinnatus, theone man in whom Rome reposed all her hope ofsurvival, was at that moment working a little three-acre farm west of the Tiber. A delegation from thecity found him at work on his land—digging a ditch,maybe, or ploughing. Greetings were exchanged,and he was asked—with a prayer for divine blessingon himself and his country—to put on his toga andhear the Senate’s instructions. This naturally sur-prised him, and, asking if all were well, he told hiswife to run to their cottage and fetch his toga. Thetoga was brought, and wiping the grimy sweat fromhis hands and face he put it on; at once the envoysfrom the city saluted him, with congratulations, asDictator, invited him to enter Rome, and informedhim of the terrible danger of the enemy’s army. . . .

[Cincinnatus proceeded to raise an army,marched out, and defeated the enemy.]

Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, Roman statesman and dictator, isshown here receiving his dictatorship.

Analyzing Primary Sources

1. How did Cincinnatus embody the characteristics of an ideal Roman citizen?

2. What lesson(s) did Livy hope to teach his readers?

3. Compare the position of dictator in this account with present-day dictators.

In Rome the Senate was convened, and a decreewas passed inviting Cincinnatus to enter in triumphwith his troops. The chariot he rode in was pre-ceded by the enemy commanders and the militaryflags, and followed by his army loaded with itsspoils. . . . Cincinnatus finally resigned after holdingoffice for fifteen days, having originally accepted itfor a period of six months. He returned to hisfarm.”

—Livy, The Early History of Rome

Guide to Reading

Preview of Events


27 B.C.Octavian is namedemperor

60 B.C.First Triumvirateis formed

A.D. 180 Pax Romanaends

From Republic to Empire

44 B.C.Julius Caesaris assassinated

A.D. 96Rule of Five GoodEmperors begins

✦60 B.C. ✦A.D. 1 ✦A.D. 60 ✦A.D. 120 ✦A.D. 180

By 133 B.C., Rome stood supreme over the Mediterranean Sea, but problems arosein Rome itself. The Roman historian Sallust tried to explain why:

“But when our country had grown great through toil, when great kings had beenvanquished in war, when Carthage, the rival of Rome’s sway, had perished root andbranch, then Fortune began to grow cruel. . . . Hence the lust for power first, then formoney, grew upon them; these were, I may say, the root of all evils. For greeddestroyed honor, integrity, and all other noble qualities. Ambition drove many men to become false; to have one thought locked in the breast, another ready on thetongue; to value friendships and enmities not on their merits but by the standard of self-interest.”

—Sallust, J.C. Rolfe, trans., 1921

While Rome was creating an empire, its internal stability was disintegrating.

Growing Inequality and UnrestBy the second century B.C., the Senate had become the real governing body of

the Roman state. Members of the Senate were drawn mostly from the landed aris-tocracy. They remained senators for life and held the chief offices of the republic.The Senate directed the wars of the third and second centuries B.C. and took con-trol of both foreign and domestic policy, including financial affairs. The Senate and


Main Ideas• The internal instability of the Roman

Empire eventually led to civil wars andincreased power for the military.

• Octavian, titled Caesar Augustus, wasnamed emperor, an event that stabi-lized the Roman Empire and paved theway for expansion and prosperity.

Key Termstriumvirate, dictator, imperator

People to IdentifyCrassus, Pompey, Julius Caesar, Octavian,Antony, Augustus, Nero

Places to LocateRubicon River, Dacia, Mesopotamia, SinaiPeninsula, Rhine River, Danube River

Preview Questions1. What was Marius’s political legacy?2. How did Julius Caesar gain control of

the Roman government?

Reading StrategySequencing Information Using a chartlike the one shown below, create asequence of the five good emperors andtheir accomplishments.


Emperor

Accomplishments

Emperor

Accomplishments

Sallust


political offices were increasingly controlled by asmall circle of wealthy and powerful families.

Of course, these aristocrats formed only a tinyminority of the Roman people. The backbone of theRoman state and army had always been the smallfarmers. Over a period of time, however, many smallfarmers had found themselves unable to competewith large, wealthy landowners and had lost theirlands. As a result, many of these small farmersdrifted to the cities, especially Rome, forming a largeclass of landless poor.

Some aristocrats tried to remedy this growingeconomic and social crisis. Two brothers, Tiberiusand Gaius Gracchus (GRA•kuhs), believed that thebasic cause of Rome’s problems was the decline ofthe small farmer. To remedy the problem, theyurged the council of the plebs to pass land-reformbills that called for the government to take backpublic land held by large landowners and give it tolandless Romans.

Many senators, themselves large landownerswhose estates included large areas of public land,were furious. A group of senators took the law intotheir own hands and killed Tiberius in 133 B.C. Hisbrother Gaius later suffered the same fate. Theattempts of the Gracchus brothers to bring reformshad opened the door to more instability and moreviolence. Changes in the Roman army soon broughteven worse problems.

Explaining What was the sequenceof events that led to the deaths of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus?

A New Role for the ArmyIn 107 B.C., a Roman general named

Marius became consul and began to recruithis armies in a new way. For a long time,the Roman army had been made up ofsmall farmers who were landholders. NowMarius recruited volunteers from theurban and rural poor who owned no prop-erty. To recruit them, he promised themland. These volunteers swore an oathof loyalty to the general, not to theRoman state. As a result, Marius cre-ated a new type of army that was notunder government control. In addi-tion, generals were forced to becomeinvolved in politics in order to getlaws passed that would provide theland they needed for their veterans.

Reading Check

Marius left a powerfullegacy. He had created anew system of militaryrecruitment that placedmuch power in the handsof the individual generals.

Lucius Cornelius Sullawas the next general totake advantage of the newmilitary system. The Sen-ate had given him com-mand of a war in AsiaMinor. The council of theplebs tried to transfer command to Marius, and acivil war broke out. Sulla won and seized Rome itselfin 82 B.C., conducting a reign of terror to wipe out allopposition. Then Sulla restored power to the handsof the Senate and eliminated most of the powers ofthe popular assemblies.

Sulla hoped that he had created a firm foundationto restore a traditional Roman republic governed bya powerful Senate. His real legacy was quite differentfrom what he had intended, however. His example ofusing an army to seize power would prove mostattractive to ambitious men.

Explaining Explain the conse-quences of Sulla’s actions, especially his eliminating the power of the popular assemblies.

The Collapse of the RepublicFor the next 50 years (82–31 B.C.), Roman history

was characterized by civil wars as a number of indi-viduals competed for power. Three men—Crassus,

Pompey, and Julius Caesar—emerged asvictors.

Crassus was known as the richest manin Rome. Pompey had returned from asuccessful command in Spain as a mili-tary hero. Julius Caesar also had a mili-tary command in Spain. The combinedwealth and power of these three men wasenormous and enabled them to dominate

the political scene and achieve theirbasic aims.

The First Triumvirate In 60 B.C.,Caesar joined with Crassus andPompey to form the First Triumvi-rate. A triumvirate is a governmentby three people with equal power.Pompey received a command in

Reading Check

Julius Caesar

HISTORY

Web Activity Visitthe Glencoe WorldHistory Web site at

and click on Chapter 5–StudentWeb Activity to learnmore about the RomanRepublic.

tx.wh.glencoe.com

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe34tx.php?&st=732&pt=2&bk=22

Spain, Crassus was given a command in Syria, andCaesar was granted a special military command inGaul (modern France)—where he achieved successand distinction as a military leader.

When Crassus was killed in battle in 53 B.C., how-ever, only two powerful men were left. Leading sen-ators decided that rule by Pompey alone would be totheir benefit. They voted for Caesar to lay down hiscommand.

Caesar refused. During his time in Gaul, he hadgained military experience, as well as an army ofloyal veterans. He chose to keep his army and movedinto Italy by illegally crossing the Rubicon, the riverthat formed the southern boundary of his province.(“Crossing the Rubicon” is a phrase used today tomean being unable to turn back.)

Caesar marched on Rome, starting a civil warbetween his forces and those of Pompey and hisallies. The defeat of Pompey’s forces left Caesar incomplete control of the Roman government.

Caesar was officially made dictator in 45 B.C. Adictator is an absolute ruler. Realizing the need forreforms, Caesar gave land to the poor and increasedthe Senate to 900 members. By filling it with many ofhis supporters and increasing the number of mem-bers, he weakened the power of the Senate.

Caesar planned much more in the way of buildingprojects and military adventures to the east. How-ever, in 44 B.C., a group of leading senators assassi-nated him.

The Second Triumvirate A new struggle for powerfollowed Caesar’s death. Three men—Octavian, Cae-sar’s heir and grandnephew; Antony, Caesar’s allyand assistant; and Lepidus, who had been com-mander of Caesar’s cavalry—joined forces to formthe Second Triumvirate. Within a few years after Cae-sar’s death, however, only two men divided the


At the Battle of Actium (shown left), Octavian’sforces defeated the combined forces of Antonyand Cleopatra. What impact did the Battle ofActium have on the development of the RomanRepublic?

History

Roman world between them. Octavian took the west;Antony, the east.

The empire of the Romans, large as it was, was stilltoo small for two masters. Octavian and Antony sooncame into conflict. Antony allied himself with the Egyptian queenCleopatra VII. LikeCaesar before him,Antony had fallendeeply in love withher. At the Battle ofActium in Greece in31 B.C., Octavian’sforces smashed the army and the navy of Antony andCleopatra. Both fled to Egypt, where they committedsuicide a year later:

“Antony was the first to commit suicide, by thesword. Cleopatra threw herself at Octavian’s feet, andtried her best to attract his gaze: in vain, for his self-control enabled him to ignore her beauty. It was nother life she was after, . . . but a portion of her king-dom. When she realized this was hopeless. . . shetook advantage of her guard’s carelessness to getherself into the royal tomb. Once there, she put onthe royal robes . . . and lay down in a richly per-fumed coffin beside her Antony. Then she appliedpoisonous snakes to her veins and passed into deathas though into a sleep.”

Octavian, at the age of 32, stood supreme over theRoman world. The civil wars had ended. So had the republic. The period beginning in 31 B.C. and last-ing until A.D. 14 came to be known as the Age ofAugustus.

Summarizing How did Caesarweaken the power of the Senate?

Reading Check

Rome GREECE

EGYPT

Actium

RubiconRiver

Mediterranean Sea

BattleAntony andCleopatra's flight

The Age of Augustus In this section, you will learn how,

after the collapse of Rome’s republican institutions anda series of brutal civil wars, Augustus created a neworder that began the Roman Empire.In 27 B.C., Octavian proclaimed the “restoration of

the Republic.” He knew that only traditional republi-can forms would satisfy the Senate. At the same time,he was aware that the republic could not be fullyrestored. Although he gave some power to the Senate, Octavian in fact became the first Romanemperor. In 27 B.C., the Senate awarded him the titleof Augustus—“the revered one,” a fitting title inview of his power.

Augustus proved to be highly popular, but hiscontinuing control of the army was the chief sourceof his power. The Senate gave Augustus the titleimperator, or commander in chief. Imperator gave usour word emperor.

Augustus maintained a standing army of 28legions, or about 150,000 men. (A legion was a mili-tary unit of about 5,000 troops.) Only Roman citizenscould be legionnaires (members of a legion). Subjectpeoples could serve as auxiliary forces, which num-bered around 130,000 under Augustus. Augustusalso set up a praetorian guard of roughly 9,000 menwho had the important task of guarding the emperor.

Augustus stabilized the frontiers of the RomanEmpire, conquering many new areas. His attempt toconquer Germany failed, however, when threeRoman legions under Varus were massacred by Ger-man warriors. These defeats in Germany taughtAugustus that Rome’s power was not unlimited. Thisknowledge devastated him. For months, he wouldbeat his head on a door, shouting, “Varus, give meback my legions!”

Evaluating Why did the Romandefeat in Germany devastate Augustus?

The Early Empire Beginning in A.D. 14, a series of new emperors

ruled Rome. This period, ending in A.D. 180, is calledthe Early Empire.

Emperors of the Early Empire Augustus’s newpolitical system allowed the emperor to select hissuccessor from his natural or adopted family. Thefirst four emperors after Augustus came from hisfamily. They were Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, andNero. During their reigns, these emperors took over

Reading Check

more and more of the responsibilities that Augustushad given to the Senate. At the same time, as theemperors grew more powerful, they became morecorrupt.

Nero, for example, had people killed if he wantedthem out of the way—including his own mother.Without troops, the senators were unable to opposehis excesses, but the Roman legions finally revolted.Nero, abandoned by his guards, chose to commit sui-cide by stabbing himself in the throat after allegedlyuttering these final words: “What an artist the worldis losing in me.”

At the beginning of the second century, a series offive so-called good emperors came to power. Theywere Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, andMarcus Aurelius. These emperors created a period ofpeace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana—the“Roman Peace.” The Pax Romana lasted for almost ahundred years. These rulers treated the ruling classeswith respect, ended arbitrary executions, maintainedpeace in the empire, and supported domestic policiesgenerally helpful to the empire. By adopting capablemen as their sons and successors, the first four goodemperors reduced the chances of succession problems.

Under the five good emperors, the powers of theemperor continued to expand at the expense of theSenate. Officials who were appointed and directed bythe emperor took over the running of the govern-ment. The good emperors also created new programs to help the people. Trajan, for example, created a program that provided state funds to assist poor


Roman Legions Had Defeated Germanic Tribes?

The Roman Empire was near its height duringthe first century A.D. However, in A.D. 9, threeRoman legions, approximately 15,000 men, werewiped out by Germanic tribesmen led by Arminiusin the Teutoburg Forest. From that point on, Romemade no serious attempts to conquer what weknow today as Germany.

Consider the Consequences Identify andexplain at least two ways in which Europeanhistory might have been different if the Romanshad defeated the German warriors in the Teu-toburg Forest.

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In about 350 years, the Romans conquered an area aboutthe size of the present-day United States. Exchange andcommunication through trade was extensive throughout the vast Roman Empire.

1. Interpreting Maps Explain how the trading routesindicated on this map allowed for the areas in the furthest reaches of the Roman Empire to trade with one another.

2. Applying Geography Skills How did control of theMediterranean region contribute to the achievements ofthe five good emperors? Why would control of theMediterranean region benefit Rome’s economy?

Roman Empire: Trade and Expansion

parents in the raising and education of their children.The good emperors were widely praised for theirbuilding programs. Trajan and Hadrian were espe-cially active in building public works—aqueducts,bridges, roads, and harbor facilities—throughout theprovinces and in Rome.

Extent of the Empire Rome expanded further dur-ing the period of the Early Empire. Trajan extendedRoman rule into Dacia (modern Romania),Mesopotamia, and the Sinai Peninsula. His succes-sors, however, realized that the empire was too largeto be easily governed.

Hadrian withdrew Roman forces from much ofMesopotamia and also went on the defensive in hisfrontier policy. He strengthened the fortificationsalong a line connecting the Rhine and Danube

Rivers. He also built a defensive wall (Hadrian’s Wall)about 74 miles (118 km) long across northern Britain tokeep out the Picts and the Scots. By the end of the sec-ond century, it became apparent that it would be moreand more difficult to defend the empire. Roman forceswere located in permanent bases behind the frontiers.

At its height in the second century, the RomanEmpire was one of the greatest states the world had

Roman Empire,A.D. 200

Trade route

Glassware

Grain

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Traded goods:

Height of the Roman Empire, A.D. 200


At the end of the Punic Wars At Caesar’s death At Augustus’s death

Latin was the language of the western part of theempire, whereas Greek was used in the east. Romanculture spread to all parts of the empire and freelymixed with Greek culture. The result has been calledGreco-Roman civilization.

Economic and Social Conditions The EarlyEmpire was a period of much prosperity, with inter-nal peace leading to high levels of trade. Merchantsfrom all over the empire came to the chief Italianports of Puteoli (pyuh•TEE•uh•LY) on the Bay ofNaples and Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber. Tradewent beyond the Roman frontiers as well andincluded even silk goods from China. Large quanti-ties of grain were imported, especially from Egypt, tofeed the people of Rome. Luxury items poured in tosatisfy the wealthy upper classes.

ever seen. It covered about three and a half millionsquare miles (about 9.1 million square km) and had apopulation that has been estimated at more than fiftymillion.

The emperors and the imperial government pro-vided a degree of unity. Much leeway was given tolocal customs, and the privileges of Roman citizen-ship were granted to many people throughout theempire. In A.D. 212, the emperor Caracalla gaveRoman citizenship to every free person in theempire.

Cities were important in the spread of Roman cul-ture, Roman law, and the Latin language. Provincialcities resembled each other with their temples, mar-kets, and public buildings. Local city officials acted asRoman agents, performing many government duties,especially taxation.

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146 B.C. 44 B.C. A.D. 14Extent of Roman EmpireExtent of Roman Empire Extent of Roman Empire

NervaA.D. 96–98

Reformed land laws infavor of the poor;revised taxation

TrajanA.D. 98–117

Expanded the empire toits greatest extent; imple-mented the constructionof many public works

HadrianA.D. 117–138

Constructed Hadrian’sWall in Britain; erectedmany fine buildings;codified Roman law

Antoninus PiusA.D. 138–161

Promoted art and sci-ence, the construction ofpublic works, legalreform, and new provi-sions for orphans

Marcus AureliusA.D. 161–180

Helped unify the empireeconomically; madelegal reforms

The “Five Good Emperors” of the Pax Romana

Expansion of the Roman Empire

Despite the active trade and commerce, how-ever, farming remained the chief occupation of most people and the underlying basis of Romanprosperity. Large landed estates, called latifundia (LA•tuh•FUHN•dee•uh), dominated farming insouthern and central Italy. These estates raisedsheep and cattle on a large scale using mostly slavelabor. Small peasant farms continued to exist innorthern Italy.

An enormous gulf separated rich and poor inRoman society. The upper classes lived lives of


Checking for Understanding1. Define triumvirate, dictator, imperator.

2. Identify Crassus, Pompey, Julius Caesar, Octavian, Antony, Augustus,Nero, Pax Romana.

3. Locate Rubicon River, Dacia,Mesopotamia, Sinai Peninsula, RhineRiver, Danube River.

4. Explain how Augustus’s political sys-tem provided for succession of rulers inthe empire.

5. List the men who made up the SecondTriumvirate and explain their fates.

Critical Thinking6. Analyze What qualities made the good

emperors good in comparison to Augustus’s successors?

7. Compare and Contrast Create a Venndiagram like the one shown below tocompare and contrast the accomplish-ments of the three men.

Analyzing Visuals8. Analyze the picture of a Roman

woman shown above. The woman isholding a cithera, a type of ancientGreek lyre, or stringed instrument. Inwhat ways do you think that this paint-ing represents the vastly different livingconditions between the rich and poorin Roman society?

9. Persuasive Writing Pretend youare part of the council of the plebs.Argue for or against the landreforms instituted by Tiberius andGaius Gracchus.

JuliusCaesar

Crassus Pompey

A detail from the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii shows thatlife for many in the city offeredseveral comforts and pleasures.The city of Pompeii was buried in a single day when the volcanoVesuvius erupted in A.D. 79. Whatdoes this surviving wall painting from Pompeii tell us about the lifestyles of upper-classRomans?

History

great leisure and luxury in their villas and on theirvast estates. Small farmers often became dependenton the huge estates of their wealthy neighbors. In the cities, many poor citizens worked in shops and markets. Thousands of unemployedpeople depended on the emperor’s handouts ofgrain to survive.

Summarizing What were the economic conditions and chief occupations in Rome during theEarly Empire?

Reading Check

c. 200 B.C.Rome adopts Greekcultural features

73 B.C.Spartacus leads aslave revolt

Guide to Reading

Culture and Society in the Roman World

Preview of Events

C. A.D. 100 Dynamics of Romanfamily undergo change

✦225 B.C. ✦150 B.C. ✦75 B.C. ✦A.D. 1 ✦A.D. 75 ✦A.D. 150 ✦A.D. 225

Virgil’s masterpiece, the Aeneid, was an epic poem clearly meant to rival the workof Homer. It was also meant to express that the art of ruling was Rome’s gift, as seenhere:

“Let others fashion from bronze more lifelike, breathing images—For so they shall—and evoke living faces from marble;Others excel as orators, others track with their instrumentsThe planets circling in heaven and predict when stars will appear.But, Romans, never forget that government is your medium!Be this your art: to practise men in the habit of peace,Generosity to the conquered, and firmness against aggressors.”

—Aeneid, C. Day Lewis, trans., 1952

One of the most noticeable characteristics of Roman culture and society is theimpact of the Greeks.

Roman Art and ArchitectureDuring the third and second centuries B.C., the Romans adopted many features

of the Greek style of art. They developed a taste for Greek statues, which theyplaced not only in public buildings but also in their private houses. Reproduc-tions of Greek statues became popular once the supply of original works ran low.


Main Idea• Roman culture and society were heavily

influenced by the Greeks. • The Romans spread both Greek and

Roman contributions to art, architec-ture, and literature throughout theempire.

Key Termspaterfamilias, insulae

People to IdentifyVirgil, Horace, Livy, Spartacus

Places to Locate Mantua, Rome

Preview Questions1. How were slaves utilized in Roman

households?2. What similarities existed between the

Greek and Roman cultures?3. What was the main purpose of the

public spectacles in Rome?

Reading StrategyCompare and Contrast As you read thissection, create a Venn diagram like theone shown below comparing and con-trasting the lifestyle of a wealthy Romanwith that of a poor citizen.


Virgil

WealthyPatrician

PoorCitizen

While Greek sculptors aimed for an ideal appear-ance in their figures, Roman sculptors producedrealistic statues that included even unpleasant phys-ical details.

The Romans excelled in architecture, a highlypractical art. Although they continued to use Greekstyles such as colonnades and rectangular build-ings, the Romans also used forms based on curvedlines: the arch, vault, and dome. The Romans werethe first people in antiquity to use concrete on amassive scale. Using concrete along with the newarchitectural forms made it possible for the Romansto construct huge buildings undreamed of by theGreeks.

The remarkable engineering skills of the Romanswere also put to use in constructing roads, bridges,and aqueducts. The Romans built a network of some50,000 miles (80,450 km) of roads throughout theempire. In Rome, almost a dozen aqueducts kept a

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity


Roman and American Builders One need only look at many public buildings in the

United States to realize that Roman architectural modelsplayed an important role in their design. Thomas Jeffer-son, for example, believed that architecture could be ameans for expressing the ideals of the newly foundedUnited States. He wanted the ideals of classical architec-ture, especially as put into practice by the Romans, toserve as a model for American buildings. Jeffersoncopied Roman temples for his designs for the buildingsof the University of Virginia at Charlottesville.

Concrete enabled the Romans to build mammothcolosseums that held tens of thousands of spectators.The Romans also used concrete to erect domed build-ings that created new interior spaces.

American engineers continue to learn from theRomans. For example, all of us are aware of highwaypotholes, as well as crumbling bridges on Americanhighways. In many cases, these problems are a result ofconcrete that is not hard and dense enough to survivethe ravages of wind, ice, and rain. Recently, however,American engineers have experimented with a form ofconcrete used by the ancient Romans and have found itto be considerably harder and more durable than theusual concrete. By analyzing Roman concrete, theyfound that the Romans combined lime with deposits ofvolcanic ash to form a very hard and durable buildingmaterial that would set into shape even under water.Almost two thousand years later, American engineershave finally caught up with the Romans.

Identify a building in your community or state thathas been modeled on Roman architecture. What fea-tures are most similar to Roman temples? Describethe similarities and the differences to your class.

� Hadrian’s Pantheon in Rome

� Rotunda atthe Universityof Virginia

population of one million supplied with water. TheRomans were superb builders.

Contrasting Why were the Romansable to construct buildings larger than those of the Greeks?

Roman LiteratureAlthough there were many talented writers, the

high point of Latin literature was reached in the Ageof Augustus. Indeed, the Augustan Age has beencalled the golden age of Latin literature.

The most distinguished poet of the Augustan Agewas Virgil. The son of a small landholder in north-ern Italy near Mantua, he welcomed the rule ofAugustus and wrote his greatest work, the Aeneid(ih• NEE•uhd), in honor of Rome. In the poem, thecharacter of Aeneas is portrayed as the idealRoman—his virtues are duty, piety, and faithfulness.Virgil’s overall purpose was to show that Aeneas had

Reading Check


fulfilled his mission to establish the Romans in Italyand thereby start Rome on its divine mission to rulethe world.

Another prominent Augustan poet was Horace, afriend of Virgil’s. He was a sophisticated writer whoenjoyed pointing out to his fellow Romans the “fol-lies and vices of his age.” In the Satires, Horacedirects attacks against job dissatisfaction and greed.(“How does it happen, Maecenas, that no man aloneis content with his lot?”) Horace mostly laughs at theweaknesses of humans.

The most famous Latin prose work of the goldenage was written by the historian Livy, whose master-piece was the History of Rome. In 142 books, Livytraced the history of Rome from the foundation of thecity to 9 B.C. Only 35 of the books have survived. Livysaw history in terms of moral lessons. He stated inthe preface:

“The study of history is the best medicine for asick mind; for in history you have a record of the infi-nite variety of human experience plainly set out forall to see; and in that record you can find for yourselfand your country both examples and warnings: finethings to take as models, base things, rotten throughand through, to avoid.”

Livy’s history celebrated Rome’s greatness. Hebuilt scene upon scene that not only revealed thecharacter of the chief figures but also demonstratedthe virtues that had made Rome great. Livy had aserious weakness as a historian: he was not alwaysconcerned about the factual accuracy of his stories.He did tell a good tale, however, and his workbecame the standard history of Rome for a long time.

Evaluating Why are the works ofLivy considered to be so invaluable to historians?

The Roman FamilyAt the heart of the Roman social structure stood

the family, headed by the paterfamilias—the domi-nant male. The household also included the wife,sons with their wives and children, unmarrieddaughters, and slaves.

Unlike the Greeks, the Romans raised their chil-dren at home. All Roman upper-class children (boysand girls) were expected to learn to read. The fatherwas the chief figure in providing for the education ofhis children. He made the decision whether to teachhis children himself, acquire a teacher for them, orsend them to school. Teachers were often Greek

Reading Check

slaves because upper-class Romans had to learnGreek as well as Latin to prosper in the empire.

Roman boys learned reading and writing, moralprinciples and family values, law, and physical train-ing to prepare them to be soldiers. The end of child-hood for Roman males was marked by a specialceremony. At the age of 16, a young Roman manexchanged his purple-edged toga for a plain whitetoga—the toga of manhood.

Some parents in upper-class families providededucation for their daughters by hiring private tutorsor sending the girls to primary schools. However, atthe age when boys were entering secondary schools,girls were entering into marriage.

Attitudes toward Women Like the Greeks, Romanmales believed that the weakness of females made itnecessary for women to have male guardians. Thepaterfamilias had that responsibility. When he died,his sons or nearest male relatives assumed the role ofguardian. Fathers also arranged the marriages oftheir daughters.

For females, the legal minimum age for marriagewas 12, although 14 was a more common age in practice (for males, the legal minimum age was 14,although most men married later). Although someRoman doctors warned that pregnancies could bedangerous for young girls, early marriages continued.

Traditionally, Roman marriages were meant to be for life, but divorce was introduced in the third

A Roman couple

CHAPTER # Chapter Title

The Gladiatorial Shows

Gladiatorial shows were an importantpart of Roman society. They took

place in public arenas known as amphithe-aters (similar in appearance to our modernfootball stadiums) and were free to thepublic. The most famous amphitheater wasthe Colosseum, constructed in Rome toseat fifty thousandpeople.

Gladiatorial gameswere held from dawnto dusk. Contests tothe death betweentrained fighters (gladiators) formed

the central focus of these games. Mostgladiators were slaves or condemned crim-inals who had been trained for combat inspecial gladiatorial schools.

Gladiatorial games included other formsof entertainment as well. Criminals of allages and both sexes were sent into thearena without weapons to face certaindeath from wild animals. Numerous kinds

of animal contests werealso held. It is recordedthat nine thousand beastswere killed during 100days of games when theEmperor Titus inauguratedthe Colosseum in A.D. 80.

century B.C. and became fairly easy to obtain. Eitherhusband or wife could ask for a divorce. No oneneeded to prove the breakdown of the marriage.

Changing Roles By the second century A.D., impor-tant changes were occurring in the Roman family.The paterfamilias no longer had absolute authorityover his children. He could not sell his children intoslavery or have them put to death. The husband’sabsolute authority over his wife also disappeared. Bythe late second century, women were no longerrequired to have guardians.

Upper-class Roman women in the Early Empirehad considerable freedom and independence. Theyhad the right to own, inherit, and sell property.Unlike Greek wives, Roman wives were not segre-gated from males in the home. They were appreci-ated as enjoyable company and were at the center ofhousehold social life.

Outside their homes, upper-class women couldattend races, the theater, and events in the amphithe-ater. In the latter two places, however, they wereforced to sit in separate female sections. Women of rank were still accompanied by maids and com-panions when they went out. Women could not

The Colosseum in Rome166

officially participate in politics, but a number ofimportant women influenced politics through theirhusbands.

Contrasting How were expectationsfor Roman boys and girls different?

SlaverySlavery was common throughout the ancient

world, but no people had more slaves or relied somuch on slave labor as the Romans did. Before thethird century B.C., a small Roman farmer might pos-sess one or two slaves, who would help farm his fewacres and work in the house. These slaves wouldmost likely be from Italy and be regarded as part ofthe family household. The very rich would havemany slaves.

The Use of Slaves The Roman conquest of theMediterranean brought a drastic change in the use ofslaves. Large numbers of foreign peoples who hadbeen captured in different wars were brought back toItaly as slaves.

Greek slaves were in much demand as tutors,musicians, doctors, and artists. Roman businessmen

Reading Check

CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity

Amphitheaters, which variedgreatly in size, were built through-out the empire. Many resources andmuch ingenuity went into buildingthem. In most cities and towns,amphitheaters came to be thebiggest buildings, rivaled only bythe circuses and the public baths.

Bloody spectacles were indeedpopular with the Roman people.The Roman historian Tacitus said,“Few indeed are to be found whotalk of any other subjects in theirhomes, and whenever we enter a classroom,what else is the conversation of the youths.”

To the Romans, the gladiatorial games, as wellas the other forms of public entertainment, ful-filled a political need. Certainly, the games servedto keep the minds of the idle masses off anypolitical unrest.

Gladiators in battle

CONNECTING TO THE PAST

1. Drawing Conclusions What was the appeal ofgladiatorial contests?

2. Writing about History Explain how the games sat-isfied the ruling class’s political purposes.

would employ them as shop assistants or crafts-people. Many slaves of all nationalities were used ashousehold workers, such as cooks, valets, waiters,cleaners, and gardeners.

Slaves built roads and public buildings, andfarmed the large estates of the wealthy. The condi-tions under which these slaves lived were often piti-ful. One Roman writer argued that it was cheaper towork slaves to death and then replace them than totreat them well.

Slave Revolts Some slaves revolted against theirowners and even murdered them, causing someRomans to live in great fear of their slaves. The mur-der of a master by a slave might mean the executionof all the other household slaves.

The most famous slave revolt in Italy occurred in73 B.C. Led by the gladiator Spartacus, the revoltbroke out in southern Italy and involved seventythousand slaves. Spartacus managed to defeat sev-eral Roman armies before being trapped and killed in71 B.C. Six thousand followers of Spartacus were cru-cified (put to death by nailing to a cross).

Describing What jobs did theRomans assign to slaves?

Reading Check

Daily Life in The City of RomeAt the center of the colossal Roman Empire was

the ancient city of Rome. Truly a capital city, Romehad the largest population of any city in the empire—close to one million by the time of Augustus. For any-one with ambitions, Rome was the place to be. Peoplefrom all over the empire resided there.

Living Conditions Rome was an overcrowded andnoisy city. Because of the congestion, cart and wagontraffic was banned from the streets during the day.However, the noise from the traffic at night oftenmade sleep difficult. Walking in Rome at night wasalso dangerous. Augustus had organized a policeforce, but people could be assaulted or robbed. Theycould also be soaked by filth thrown out of theupper-story windows of Rome’s massive apartmentbuildings.

An enormous gulf existed between rich and poor.The rich had comfortable villas, while the poor livedin apartment blocks called insulae, which might besix stories high. Constructed of concrete walls withwooden beam floors, these buildings were usuallypoorly built and often collapsed.

167

Fire was a constant threat in the insulae because ofthe use of movable stoves, torches, candles, andlamps within the rooms for heat and light. Oncestarted, fires were extremely difficult to put out. Thefamous fire of A.D. 64, which Nero was falselyaccused of starting, destroyed a good part of the city.

High rents forced entire families to live in oneroom. There was no plumbing or central heating.These conditions made homes uncomfortable. As aresult, many poor Romans spent most of their timeoutdoors in the streets.

Public Programs Rome boasted public buildingsunequaled anywhere in the empire. Its temples, mar-kets, baths, theaters, governmental buildings, andamphitheaters gave parts of the city an appearance ofgrandeur and magnificence.

Although it was the center of a great empire, Romehad serious problems. Beginning with Augustus, theemperors provided food for the city poor. About two

hundred thousand people received free grain. Evenso, conditions remained grim for the poor.

Entertainment was provided on a grand scale forthe inhabitants of Rome. The poet Juvenal said of theRoman masses, “But nowadays, with no vote . . . ,their motto is ‘Couldn’t care less.’ Time was whentheir vote elected generals, heads of state, command-ers of legions: but now. . . there’s only two things thatconcern them: Bread and Circuses.”

Public spectacles were provided by the emperor aspart of the great religious festivals celebrated by thestate. The festivals included three major types ofentertainment. At the Circus Maximus, horse andchariot races attracted hundreds of thousands. Dra-matic performances were held in theaters. The mostfamous of all the public spectacles, however, were thegladiatorial shows.

Evaluating Why did the Romanemperors provide free grain to the poor?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Define paterfamilias, insulae.

2. Identify Virgil, Horace, Livy, Spartacus.

3. Locate Mantua, Rome.

4. Explain how the Romans were able toobtain large numbers of slaves. Whydid some Romans live in great fear oftheir slaves?

5. Compare and contrast Greek andRoman sculpture. Do you prefer onestyle over the other? If so, why?

Critical Thinking6. Explain Why do historians not find

Livy a reliable source of information?

7. Summarizing Information Create atable like the one below describing thecontributions of the Greeks and theRomans to Western civilization.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photograph of the Pan-

theon on page 164 of your text. Howdoes it illustrate the architectural inno-vations of the Romans and the ideasthey borrowed from the Greeks?

Greek contributions Roman contributions 9. Expository Writing In this sectionthere are several excerpts fromRoman writers. What does each pas-sage reveal about Roman life andsociety?

Bas-relief of chariot races in the Circus Maximus

A.D. 6Judaea becomes aRoman province

A.D. 313 Constantine proclaims officialtolerance of Christianity

Guide to Reading

The Development ofChristianity

Preview of Events

A.D. 100Churches are established throughout the Roman world

✦75 B.C. ✦A.D. 1 ✦A.D. 75 ✦A.D. 150 ✦A.D. 225 ✦A.D. 300

Christian views on God, human beings, and the world were quite different fromthose of the Greeks and Romans, as is shown in the Gospel of Matthew:

“Therefore I tell you, do not worry about your life, what you will eat or drink; orabout your body, what you will wear. Is not life more important than food, and thebody more important than clothes? . . . So do not worry, saying, What shall we eat? orWhat shall we drink? or What shall we wear? For the pagans run after all these things,and your heavenly Father knows that you need them. But seek first his kingdom andhis righteousness, and all these things will be given to you as well.”

—New International Version Bible, Matthew 6:25–34

The rise of Christianity marked an important break with the dominant values of theGreek and Roman worlds.

Background: Roman Religion Augustus brought back traditional festivals and ceremonies to revive the

Roman state religion, which had declined during the turmoil of the late RomanRepublic. The official state religion focused on the worship of a number of godsand goddesses, including Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, and Mars. (In addition, begin-ning with Augustus, emperors were often officially made gods by the Roman Sen-ate, thus bolstering support for the emperors.)


Main Ideas• Jesus, a Jew from Palestine, began his

public preaching.• Christianity spread throughout the

empire and eventually became the statereligion of Rome.

Key Termsprocurator, New Testament, clergy, laity

People to IdentifyJesus, Simon Peter, Paul of Tarsus, Con-stantine, Theodosius the Great

Places to LocateJudaea, Jerusalem, Aegean Sea

Preview Questions1. What religious climate existed in Rome

prior to Christianity?2. Why were Christians persecuted?3. Why did Christianity grow so quickly?

Reading StrategySummarizing Information In the dia-gram below, identify the political viewsheld by the three groups.


Zealots

Sadducees Essenes

A.D. 40The Gospels begin to be written

Saint Matthew

The Romans believed thatthe observation of proper rit-ual by state priests broughtthem into a right relationshipwith the gods. This guaran-teed peace and prosperity.Indeed, the Romans believedthat their success in creatingan empire meant that theyhad earned the favor of thegods. As the politician Ciceroclaimed in the first centuryB.C., “We have overcome allthe nations of the world,

because we have realized that the world is directedand governed by the gods.”

At the same time, the Romans were tolerant ofother religions. They allowed the worship of nativegods and goddesses throughout their provinces.They even adopted some of the local gods.

After the Romans conquered the states of the Hel-lenistic east, religions from those regions flooded thewestern Roman world. The desire for a more emo-tional spiritual experience drew many people tothese religions. They promised their followers anentry into a higher world of reality and the promiseof a future life superior to the present one. It wasbelieved that, by participating in these ceremonies, aperson could communicate with spiritual beings andopen the door to life after death.

Explaining How were religion andgovernment connected in the Roman Empire?

Reading Check

The Jewish BackgroundIn Hellenistic times, the Jewish people had been

given considerable independence. By A.D. 6, how-ever, Judaea, which embraced the lands of the oldJewish kingdom of Judah, had been made a Romanprovince and been placed under the direction of aRoman official called a procurator.

Unrest was widespread in Judaea, but the Jewsdiffered among themselves about Roman rule. Thepriestly Sadducees (SA·juh·SEEZ) favored cooper-ation with Rome. The scholarly Pharisees(FA·rah·SEEZ) held that close observance of religiouslaw would protect Jewish identity from Roman influ-ences. The Essenes lived apart from society, sharinggoods in common. Like many other Jews, theywaited for God to save Israel from oppression. TheZealots, however, called for the violent overthrow ofRoman rule. In fact, a Jewish revolt began in A.D. 66,only to be crushed by the Romans four years later.The Jewish temple in Jerusalem was destroyed.

Identifying Name four of the Jewish groups in Judaea and explain how they differed.

The Rise of ChristianityA few decades before the revolt, a Jewish prophet

named Jesus traveled and preached throughoutJudaea and neighboring Galilee.

The Message of Jesus Jesus believed that his mis-sion was to complete the salvation that God hadpromised to Israel throughout its history. He stated:

Reading Check


Greek God

Ares

Zeus

Hera

Aphrodite

Artemis

Athena

Hermes

Hades

Poseidon

Hephaestus

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Mars

Jupiter

Juno

Venus

Diana

Minerva

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Pluto

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Role

god of war

chief god

wife of chief god

goddess of love

goddess of the hunt

goddess of wisdom

messenger god

god of the underworld

god of the sea

god of fire

Greek and Roman Gods

The Romans adopted many of thegods of the peoples they conquered.Eventually the most important godstook on the characteristics of theGreek gods.

1. Applying Chart Skills Nike—the Greek goddess of victory—isthe name of a sports shoe. Whatnames in the chart do you recog-nize and what do you associatethem with? In your examples, what is the connection to a particular god?

� Minerva

“Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law orthe Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but tofulfill them.” According to Jesus, what was impor-tant was not strict adherence to the letter of the lawbut the transformation of the inner person: “So ineverything, do to others what you would have themdo to you, for this sums up the Law and theProphets.”

God’s command was to love God and one another.Jesus said, “Love the Lord your God with all your heartand with all your soul and with all your mind and withall your strength. This is the first commandment. Thesecond is this: Love your neighbor as yourself.” Jesusvoiced the ethical concepts—humility, charity, and lovetoward others—that would later shape the value sys-tem of Western civilization.

Jesus’s preaching eventually stirred controversy.Some people saw Jesus as a potential revolutionarywho might lead a revolt against Rome. Jesus’s oppo-nents finally turned him over to Roman authorities. Theprocurator Pontius Pilate ordered Jesus’s crucifixion.

After the death of Jesus, his followers proclaimedthat he had risen from death and had appeared tothem. They believed Jesus to be the Messiah(anointed one), the long expected deliverer whowould save Israel from its foes.

The Spread of Christianity Christianity began as amovement within Judaism. After the reports thatJesus had overcome death, the Christian movementwon followers in Jerusalem and throughout Judaeaand Galilee.

Prominent apostles, or leaders, arose in earlyChristianity. One was Simon Peter, a Jewish fisher-man who had become a follower of Jesus duringJesus’s lifetime. Peter was recognized as the leader ofthe apostles. Another major apostle was Paul, ahighly educated Jewish Roman citizen who joinedthe movement later. Paul took the message of Jesus toGentiles (non-Jews) as well as to Jews. He foundedChristian communities throughout Asia Minor andalong the shores of the Aegean Sea.

At the center of Paul’s message was the beliefthat Jesus was the Savior, the Son of God who hadcome to Earth to save humanity. Paul taught thatJesus’s death made up for the sins of all humans. By accepting Jesus as Christ (from Christos, theGreek term for Messiah) and Savior, people could be saved from sin and reconciled to God.

The teachings of early Christianity were passedon orally. Written materials also appeared, however.Paul and other followers of Jesus had written letters, or epistles, outlining Christian beliefs for

The Last Supper by Philippe de Champaigne, 1648



communities they had helped found around theeastern Mediterranean. Also, some of Jesus’ disci-ples, or followers, may have preserved some of thesayings of Jesus in writing and passed on personalmemories. Later, between A.D. 40 and 100, theseaccounts became the basis of the written Gospels—the “good news” concerning Jesus. These writingsgive a record of Jesus’ life and teachings, and theyform the core of the New Testament, the secondpart of the Christian Bible.

By 100, Christian churches had been established inmost of the major cities of the eastern empire and insome places in the western part of the empire. Mostearly Christians came from the Jews and the Greek-speaking populations of the east. In the second andthird centuries, however, an increasing number offollowers were Latin-speaking people.

Roman Persecution The basic values of Christian-ity differed markedly from those of the Greco-Romanworld. In spite of that, the Romans at first paid littleattention to the Christians, whom they regarded assimply another sect of Judaism. As time passed, how-ever, the Roman attitude toward Christianity beganto change.

The Romans tolerated the religions of other peo-ples unless these religions threatened public order orpublic morals. Many Romans came to view Chris-tians as harmful to the Roman state because Chris-tians refused to worship the state gods and emperors.The Romans saw the Christians’ refusal to do so as an

Perpetua?–A.D. 203Christian martyr

Many women found that Chris-tianity offered them new roles. Manyalso died for their faith. Perpetua wasan aristocratic woman who convertedto Christianity. Her pagan family beggedher to renounce her new faith, but she refused.Arrested by the Roman authorities, she chose instead todie for her faith. She was one of a group of Christianswho were slaughtered by wild beasts in the arena atCarthage on March 7, 203. She wrote a diary while shewas in prison. The final entry read, “Thus far I have writ-ten this, till the day before the games; but the deed of thegames themselves let him write who will.”

act of treason, punishable by death. TheChristians, however, believed there wasonly one God. To them, the worship ofstate gods and the emperors meant wor-shiping false gods and endangering theirown salvation.

The Roman government began perse-cuting (harassing to cause suffering)Christians during the reign of Nero (A.D.54–68). The emperor blamed the Chris-tians for the fire that destroyed much ofRome and subjected them to cruel deaths.In contrast, in the second century, perse-cution of Christians diminished. By theend of the reigns of the five good emper-ors, Christians still represented a smallminority, but one of considerable strength.

Explaining Why didthe Roman authorities fear Jesus?

The Triumph of ChristianityUnder Theodosius the Great, who

ruled from 378 to 395, the Romans adopted Christian-ity as the official religion of the Roman Empire.The Romans persecuted Christians in the first and

second centuries, but this did nothing to stop thegrowth of Christianity. In fact, it did just the opposite,strengthening Christianity in the second and third

Reading Check

Roman mural of Christian disciples


centuries by forcing it to become more organized. Fearof persecution meant that only the most committedindividuals would choose to follow the outlawed faith.

Crucial to this change was the emerging role of thebishops, who began to assume more control overchurch communities. The Christian church was creat-ing a new structure in which the clergy (the churchleaders) had distinct functions separate from the laity(the regular church members).

Christianity grew quickly in the first century, tookroot in the second, and by the third had spreadwidely. Why was Christianity able to attract so manyfollowers?

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By the time Constantine converted, Christianity was wellestablished in the Roman Empire and spreading quickly.

1. Interpreting Maps Which close grouping of cities con-stituted some of the main areas of Christian growth upto A.D. 325? How does this correlate to the history ofChristianity?

2. Applying Geography Skills What geographical factorsboth helped and limited the spread of Christianity?

Spread of Christianity, A.D. 325–600

First, the Christian message had much to offerthe Roman world. The Roman state-based religionwas impersonal and existed for the good of Rome.Christianity was personal and offered salvationand eternal life to individuals. Christianity gavemeaning and purpose to life.

Second, Christianity seemed familiar. It wasviewed by some as similar to other religions, offer-ing immortality as the result of the sacrificial deathof a savior-god.

Finally, Christianity fulfilled the human need tobelong. Christians formed communities bound toone another. In these communities, people couldexpress their love by helping one another and offer-ing assistance to the poor and the sick. Christianitysatisfied the need to belong in a way that the hugeRoman Empire could never provide.

Main areas of Christian growthto A.D. 325Areas largely Christian by A.D. 600


Checking for Understanding1. Define procurator, New Testament,

clergy, laity.

2. Identify Jesus, Simon Peter, Paul, Con-stantine, Theodosius the Great.

3. Locate Judaea, Jerusalem, AegeanSea.

4. Explain why the Romans persecutedChristians despite their general reli-gious tolerance.

5. List the ethical concepts voiced byJesus.

Critical Thinking6. Drawing Conclusions Explain why

Romans began to accept Christianityand why it took so long for it to beaccepted by the state.

7. Contrasting Information Use a chartlike the one below to contrast thebeliefs of the Roman state religion withthe beliefs of Christianity.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photograph of a Roman

catacomb shown above. What conclu-sions can you draw about early Christ-ian practices and beliefs?

9. Expository Writing Research rea-sons why Romans thought Christian-ity was dangerous to their empire.Compare these arguments to actualChristian doctrine and practices. Pre-sent your findings in a carefully pre-pared essay. Show that your sourcescorroborate your position.

Roman State Religion Christianity

Christianity proved attractive to all classes, butespecially to the poor and powerless. Eternal life waspromised to all—rich, poor, aristocrats, slaves, men,and women. As Paul stated in his letters to the Colos-sians and the Galatians, “And [you] have put on thenew self . . . . Here there is no Greek nor Jew . . . bar-barian, Scythian, slave or free, but Christ is all, and isin all.” Although Christianity did not call for revolu-tion, it stressed a sense of spiritual equality for allpeople, which was a revolutionary idea.

Some emperors began new persecutions of theChristians in the third century, but their schemesfailed. The last great persecution was by Diocletian(DY•uh•KLEE•shuhn) at the beginning of the fourthcentury. Even he had to admit, however, what hadbecome obvious in the course of the third century:Christianity was too strong to be blotted out by force.

In the fourth century, Christianity prospered asnever before when Constantine became the firstChristian emperor. Although he was not baptizeduntil the end of his life, in 313 Constantine issued theEdict of Milan, which proclaimed official tolerance

Early Christians buried their dead in catacombs, undergroundchambers that sometimes had multiple rooms and levels.This catacomb was built in Rome in the second century. Why might early Christians have wanted an undergroundsanctuary for their dead?

History

of Christianity. Then, under Theodosius the Great,the Romans adopted Christianity as their officialreligion.

Explaining Why and how did theChristian church become more organized in the second andthird centuries?

Reading Check

Decline and FallGuide to Reading

Main Ideas• Under two strong emperors, Diocletian

and Constantine, the Roman Empiregained a new lease on life.

• Ferocious warriors from Asia and Ger-many finally brought an end to theRoman Empire.

Key Termsplague, inflation

People to IdentifyDiocletian, Constantine, Huns, Visigoths,Vandals, Romulus Augustulus

Places to IdentifyByzantium, Bosporus, Danube River

Preview Questions1. How did Diocletian and Constantine

restore order and stability to theRoman Empire?

2. What became of the Roman Empireafter it was divided into two parts?

Reading StrategyCause and Effect Complete a chartdescribing the events that led to thedecline and fall of the Roman Empire.

Decline Fall

✦A.D. 200 ✦A.D. 300 ✦A.D. 400 ✦A.D. 500

A.D. 410The Visigothssack Rome

A.D. 193Severan rule starts

A.D. 476Deposition of Emperor Romulus Augustulusmarks the end of the Western Roman Empire

A.D. 235Military leaders beginto seize throne

Preview of Events


In A.D. 410, the unthinkable happened. The city of Rome was sacked by a Germantribe, the Visigoths. The scholar Jerome responded in disbelief:

“A terrible rumor had arrived from the West. Rome is besieged. . . . The City istaken which took the whole world. It had perished of famine before it died by thesword, and only a few captives were found. [As Virgil said in the Aeneid:]

What tongue can tell the slaughter of that night?

What eyes can weep the sorrows and affright?

An ancient and imperial city falls.”—Jerome, Letters, J. Hillgarth, trans., 1986

The Western Roman Empire would fall before the end of the century.

The DeclineMarcus Aurelius, the last of the five good emperors, died in A.D. 180. A period

of conflict and confusion followed.

Political Upheavals Following a series of civil wars, a military governmentunder the Severan rulers restored order. Septimius Severus told his sons “to paythe soldiers, and ignore everyone else,” setting the tone for the new dynasty. Afterthe Severan rulers there was a period of disorder. For almost fifty years, from 235 to 284, the Roman throne was occupied by whoever had military strength toseize it. During this period there were 22 emperors. Many of these emperors meta violent death.


Jerome

small industry. A labor shortage created by plague(an epidemic disease) affected both military recruit-ing and the economy. Farm production declined asfields were ravaged by invaders or, even more often,by the defending Roman armies. The monetary sys-tem began to show signs of collapse.

Armies were needed more than ever, but finan-cial strains made it difficult to pay and enlist moresoldiers. By the mid-third century, the state had to rely on hiring Germans to fight under Romancommanders. These soldiers did not understandRoman traditions and had little loyalty to either theempire or the emperors.

The Reforms of Diocletian and Constantine Atthe end of the third and the beginning of the fourthcenturies, the Roman Empire gained a new lease onlife through the efforts of two emperors, Diocletianand Constantine. The empire was changed into anew state: the Late Roman Empire, which included a


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Invasions into the Roman Empire, A.D. 200–500

Contributing to the fall of the Roman Empire were invasionsthat pressed in on all sides of the empire.

1. Interpreting Maps Which group of invaders made themost limited incursions?

2. Applying Geography Skills Which parts of theRoman Empire seem to have been more secure from theinvasion? Why do you think this was?

At the same time, the empire was troubled by aseries of invasions. In the east, the Sassanid(suh•SAH•nuhd) Persians made inroads intoRoman territory. Germanic tribes poured into theBalkans, Gaul, and Spain. Not until the end of thethird century were most of the boundaries restored.

Economic and Military Problems Invasions,civil wars, and plague came close to causing an eco-nomic collapse of the Roman Empire in the thirdcentury. There was a noticeable decline in trade and

Western Roman Empire

Eastern Roman Empire

Angles/Saxons

Franks

Huns

Ostrogoths

Vandals

VisigothsBattle

new governmental structure, a rigid economic andsocial system, and a new state religion—Christianity.

Believing that the empire had grown too large fora single ruler, Diocletian, who ruled from 284 to 305,divided it into four units, each with its own ruler.Diocletian’s military power still enabled him to claima higher status and to hold the ultimate authority.Constantine, who ruled from 306 to 337, continuedand even expanded the policies of Diocletian.

Both rulers greatly strengthened and enlarged theadministrative bureaucracies of the Roman Empire.A hierarchy of officials exercised control at the vari-ous levels of government. The army was enlarged tofive hundred thousand men, including Germantroops. Mobile units were established to supportfrontier troops at threatened borders.

The political and military reforms of Diocletianand Constantine greatly enlarged two institutions—the army and civil service—which drained most ofthe public funds. More revenues were needed to payfor the army and bureaucracy. The population wasnot growing, however, so the tax base could not beincreased.

Diocletian and Constantine devised new economicand social policies to deal with these financial bur-dens. To fight inflation—a rapid increase in prices—Diocletian issued a price edict in 301 that set wageand price controls for the entire empire. Despitesevere penalties, it failed to work.

To ensure the tax base and keep the empire goingdespite the shortage of labor, the emperors issuededicts that forced people to remain in their desig-nated vocations. Hence, basic jobs, such as bakersand shippers, became hereditary. The fortunes of freetenant farmers also declined. Soon they found them-selves bound to the land by large landowners whotook advantage of depressed agricultural conditionsto enlarge their landed estates.

Constantine began his reign in 306, and by 324 hehad emerged as the sole ruler of the empire. Con-stantine’s biggest projectwas the construction of anew capital city in theeast, on the site of theGreek city of Byzantiumon the shores of theBosporus. The city, even-tually renamed Constan-tinople (modern Istanbulin Turkey), was devel-oped for defensive rea-sons and had an excellent

strategic location. Calling it his “New Rome,” Con-stantine enriched the city with a forum, large palaces,and a vast amphitheater. Constantinople wouldbecome the center of the Eastern Roman Empire andone of the great cities of the world.

In general, the economic and social policies of Dio-cletian and Constantine were based on control andcoercion. Although temporarily successful, such poli-cies in the long run stifled the very vitality the LateEmpire needed to revive its sagging fortunes.

Describing Describe the economicand social conditions in the Roman Empire prior to Diocletianand Constantine.

The FallThe restored empire of Diocletian and Constantine

limped along for more than a century. After Constan-tine, the empire continued to be divided into westernand eastern parts. The capital of the Western RomanEmpire remained in Rome. Constantinople remainedthe capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. The West-ern Roman Empire came under increasing pressurefrom the invading Germanic tribes. The major break-through of invaders into the west came in the secondhalf of the fourth century. The Huns, who came fromAsia, moved into eastern Europe and put pressure onthe Germanic Visigoths. The Visigoths, in turn,moved south and west, crossed the Danube Riverinto Roman territory, and settled down as Romanallies. However, the Visigoths soon revolted. TheRomans’ attempt to stop the revolt at Adrianople in378 led to a crushing defeat for the Romans.

Increasing numbers of Germans now crossed thefrontiers. In 410, the Visigoths sacked Rome. Anothergroup, the Vandals, poured into southern Spain andAfrica. They crossed into Italy from northern Africaand, in 455, they too sacked Rome. (Our modernword vandal is taken from this ruthless tribe.)

In 476, the western emperor, Romulus Augustu-lus, was deposed by the Ger-manic head of the army. This isusually taken as the date of thefall of the Western RomanEmpire. As we shall see inChapter 9, a series of Germankingdoms replaced the West-ern Roman Empire. The East-ern Roman Empire, or theByzantine Empire, however,continued to thrive with itscenter at Constantinople.

Reading Check


Relief showing Roman tax collectors

Many theories have been proposed to explain thedecline and fall of the Roman Empire. They includethe following:

• Christianity’s emphasis on a spiritual kingdomweakened Roman military virtues.

• Traditional Roman values declined as non-Italians gained prominence in the empire.

• Lead poisoning through leaden water pipesand cups caused a mental decline in the population.

• Plague wiped out one-tenth of the population.• Rome failed to advance technologically because

of slavery.• Rome was unable to put together a workable

political system.

There may be an element of truth in each of thesetheories, but each has also been challenged. Historyis an intricate web of relationships, causes, andeffects. No single explanation can sufficiently explaincomplex historical events, such as the fall of a greatempire.

For example, both the Han dynasty in China andthe Roman Empire lasted for centuries. Both of theseempires were able to govern large areas of landeffectively. They instituted and maintained laws anda language. In spite of their attempts at unifying con-quered territories, both empires experienced prob-lems that came from acquiring so much land. Bothtried to protect their borders with walls, forts, andtroops. Both, however, eventually fell to invaders.The Han dynasty fell to the Xiongnu. The Romanarmy in the west was not able to fend off the hordesof people invading Italy and Gaul, and the WesternRoman Empire fell. In contrast, the Eastern RomanEmpire, which would survive for another thousandyears, was able to withstand invaders.

Identifying Which groups invadedthe Western Roman Empire?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Define plague, inflation.

2. Identify Diocletian, Constantine, Huns, Visigoths, Vandals, RomulusAugustulus.

3. Locate Byzantium, Bosporus, DanubeRiver.

4. Explain why the decline in populationwas so harmful to the Roman Empire.

5. List the economic and military prob-lems that contributed to the decline ofthe Roman Empire.

Critical Thinking6. Evaluate Summarize the theories about

why the Roman Empire fell and then tellwhy some theories seem more possiblethan others.

7. Summarizing Information Create achart like the one below to list waysthat Diocletian and Constantinestrengthened the Roman Empire.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the relief of Roman tax collec-

tors shown on page 177 of your text.What do you think each of the peopledepicted in the image is doing?

9. Persuasive Writing Imagine youare the adviser to a benevolentRoman emperor. Write a letter tothe emperor describing the steps heshould take to preserve the RomanEmpire.

Diocletian Constantine

Emperor Constantine

Making DecisionsWhy Learn This Skill?

A decision is a choice you make from among twoor more alternatives. For instance, when choosingwhich elective class to take, how will you decide?What if you are equally interested in taking com-puter graphics and band? Following the steps belowwill help you make more thoughtful decisions.

Learning the SkillTo make decisions more

easily, follow the steps below.• State the situation or define the

problem Gather all the facts. Ask:Why do I have to make a decision onthis matter? Whom will my decisionaffect? In the example above, you canonly take one elective, so you need tomake a choice.

• List the options Ask: What are the alter-natives? How can I deal with this situ-ation in a different way? Is there anyway to take both electives? If only one fityour schedule, it would be an easierchoice. Can you take one of them at some other time?

• Weigh the possible outcomes What arethe positive or negative effects ofeach? Which would be more interest-ing for you? Which would be moreuseful when you graduate? Which would look more impressive on your college application?

• Consider your values Values are the beliefs andideas that are important to you. Your valuesshould serve as your guidelines in making alldecisions. You love music, but feel you have to bepractical and take the computer class. What is moreimportant to you?

• Make a decision and act Use all the informationgathered to make a decision. Then act on yourdecision. You decide that this might be your last

chance to take band. You decide to take computergraphics at the local junior college this summer.

• Evaluate the decision Ask: How did the outcomeaffect you and others? Would you make the samedecision again? Why or why not? If you had takencomputer graphics, you would be working at a softwarecompany. Instead you play with a jazz band at night

and could not be happier.

Practicing the SkillDecisions affect not just your daily life,

they affect the outcome of history. Each ofthe following events took place as aresult of a decision made by a person or agroup of people. Think of an alternativefor each event and describe its possibleconsequences.

1 During the Third Punic War, in146 B.C., the Romans burnedCarthage.

2 In 27 B.C., Augustus Caesarbecame Rome’s first emperor.

3 Roman persecution of Chris-tians in the second and thirdcenturies did nothing to stopthe growth of Christianity.

4 The Emperor Theodosius madeChristianity the official religionof the Roman Empire.

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Applying the Skill

Read newspapers for articles about an event thataffects your community, such as a decision whether ornot to tear down a historic landmark to build a newshopping mall. Make a decision about how you wouldhandle the situation. Explain your reasoning.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,Level 2, provides instruction and practice in keysocial studies skills.

Augustus Caesar

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Using Key Terms1. Cases of civil law were applied to citizens and later to non-

citizens by judges who were called .

2. The term refers to the idea in Roman society thatmales should be dominant because females were too weak.

3. In the Roman Republic, two ran the government andled the Roman army into battle.

4. Judaea became a Roman province under the direction of anofficial called a .

5. housed the poor in the city of Rome.

6. Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed a powerful govern-mental coalition called the .

7. The writings recording Jesus’ life and teachings form thecore of the .

8. The in the Christian church were officials who wereseparate from regular church members called the .

9. were Roman citizens who wanted political and socialequality with the wealthy .

10. An epidemic disease that kills thousands is known as a.

11. Augustus was a popular ruler who was given the title of, or commander in chief, by the Senate.

12. A form of government in which the leader is not a monarchand certain citizens have the right to vote is called a .

Reviewing Key Facts13. Geography List at least three ways in which geography

influenced Roman history.

14. History Why were the Etruscans considered to be the great-est influence on early Rome?

15. Government Who were the patricians and plebeians andwhy were they in conflict with each other?

16. Citizenship Describe the different roles of citizens and non-citizens in the Roman Empire, especially as the roles pertainto civic participation.

17. History Who was Hannibal, what happened to him, andwhy was he important?

18. Economics What factors contributed to the high level oftrade in the Early Empire?

19. Science and Technology Identify new ideas in technologythat occurred during the Greco-Roman civilization.

20. Culture Name three famous Roman writers. Name theirworks and explain why these works are important.

Critical Thinking 21. Compare and Contrast Compare the historical origins, cen-

tral ideas, and the spread of Buddhism and Christianity.

22. Drawing Conclusions Identify the ways in which theRomans preserved the intellectual heritage of the Greekworld.

Writing About History23. Expository Writing Find a picture of Roman architecture.

Discuss how it demonstrates Roman culture, includingpotential influence from other cultures. In what ways doarchaeologists and anthropologists analyze Roman culture,based on the limited remains of architecture and artifacts?Justify your answer with outside research.

The history of ancient Rome was a series of causes and effects.

Rome defeats Carthageand takes Sicily.

Cause

Hannibal brings theSecond Punic War intoItaly, defeating theRomans at Cannae.

Marius recruits armiesby promising them land.He requires an oath ofloyalty to him.

The Roman army is nolonger under governmentcontrol; military powerrests in the handsof individual generals.

Sulla uses his army to seize governmentalpower.

Sulla restores power tothe government with astrong Senate, but hisactions set the precedentfor military coups.

Julius Caesar fills theSenate with his ownsupporters.

The power of the Senateis weakened. JuliusCaesar is assassinatedin 44 B.C.

Economic and socialpolicies of Diocletian andConstantine are based oncontrol and coercion.

The policies of thesetwo emperors contributeto the empire’s eventualcollapse.

Effect


Sumerian civilizationc. 3000 B.C.–c.1750 B.C.

Indus Valley civilizationc. 3000 B.C.–c.1500 B.C.

Ancient Egyptian kingdomsc. 2700 B.C.–c.1085 B.C.

Assyrian Empirec. 1275 B.C.–605 B.C. Athenian Empire

450 B.C.–405 B.C.Alexander the Great’s Empire334 B.C.–320 B.C.

Roman Empire27 B.C.–A.D. 476

Han Empire202 B.C.–A.D. 220

Zhou Empire1122 B.C.–256 B.C.

Roman Republic509 B.C.–27 B.C.

Gupta EmpireA.D. 320–A.D. 550

Shang Empirec. 1750 B.C.–1122 B.C.

Ancient Empires

Persian Empire539 B.C.–330 B.C.

3000 B.C. 2000 B.C. 1000 B.C. A.D.B.C. A.D. 500

Analyzing SourcesRead the following poem by Virgil, and answer the questions.

“Let others fashion from bronze more lifelike, breathing images—

For so they shall—and evoke living faces from marble;

Others excel as orators, others track with their instruments

The planet circling in heaven and predict when stars will appear.

But, Romans, never forget that government is your medium!

Be this your art: to practise men in the habit of peace,

Generosity to the conquered, and firmness against aggressors.”

24. What did the poet feel was Rome’s gift? Who are the “others” mentioned in the poem?

25. How does this poem summarize the fundamental ideas ofWestern civilization that originated in Rome?

Applying Technology Skills26. Using the Internet Use the Internet and other resources to

research the Twelve Tables. Design a similar code of lawsusing modern-day language.

Making Decisions 27. Pretend you are in a public forum in Rome. In class, debate

with another citizen the extent to which the gulf between thepatricians and plebeians is straining the Roman Empire.Together, decide on measures that could provide stability tothe government and the empire as a whole.

Analyzing Maps and ChartsStudy the chart above that shows various empires of the ancientworld. Then answer the following questions.

28. Which lasted longer, the Roman Republic or the ZhouEmpire?

29. How long did the Roman civilization last? Which lastedlonger, the Roman Republic or the Roman Empire?

30. Which empires overlap the Roman period?

31. Is there any correlation between the length of an empire’sexistence and its impact on later civilizations?

32. Which empire lasted the shortest time period, and whichlasted the longest?

Directions: Choose the best answer to thefollowing question.

One lasting contribution of the Roman Empire was

A the idea of the Triumvirate.

B the Christian church.

C the gladiatorial shows.

D its system of law.

Test-Taking Tip: Do not pick an answer just because itsounds good. Sometimes a choice is deliberately meant tosound correct but is not. Read all of the answer choicesvery carefully before you select the best one and avoidmaking any hasty decisions.

HISTORY

Self-Check QuizVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory Web site at

andclick on Chapter 5–Self-Check Quiz to preparefor the Chapter Test.

tx.wh.glencoe.com

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe34tx.php?&st=732&pt=3&bk=22

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H ektor was first to speak. “I will no longer fleeyou, son of Peleus,” said he, “as I have been

doing hitherto. . . .[Let] me either slay or be slain, for I am in the mind to face you. Let us, then, givepledges to one another by our gods; . . . [that if ] I take your life, I am not to treat your dead body inany unseemly fashion, but when I have stripped you of your armor, I am to give up your body to theAchaeans, And do you likewise.”Achilles glared at him and answered, “Fool . . . [there]can be no covenants between men and lions, wolves

and lambs can never be ofone mind, but hate eachother out and out . . . .Therefore there can be nounderstanding between youand me . . . till one orother shall fall. . . . Youhave no more chance, and

Pallas Athena will forthwithvanquish you by my spear: youshall now pay me in full for thegrief you have caused me onaccount of my comrades whomyou have killed in battle.”He poised his spear as he spokeand hurled it. Hektor saw it com-ing and avoided it; he watched itand crouched down so that it flewover his head and stuck in theground beyond; Athena thensnatched it up and gave it back toAchilles without Hektor’s seeing her; Hektor thereon said . . . “Youhave missed your aim, Achilles. . . .[And] now for your own part avoid

from the IliadBy Homer, translated by SamuelButler

Homer is probably one of the best knownfigures to have emerged from Greek antiq-uity. Writing in the eighth century B.C.,Homer’s most famous works are theOdyssey and the Iliad. These works markthe beginnings of what we know as Greekliterature and are used as models even incontemporary work. The Iliad is the story ofthe Trojan War, and the Odyssey recountsthe challenges of one Greek hero, Odysseus(also known as “Ulysses”), in returningto his homeland.

Read to DiscoverIn the Iliad, Hektor was the Trojans’ hero andson of King Priam. Achilles, the Greeks’ hero,was the son of Peleus. Hektor killed Achilles’friend Patroklos, and Achilles was determinedto avenge the death. What language doesHomer use to show Hektor’s and Achilles’feelings about each other? Do you see evi-dence of the heroic tradition in this passage?

Reader’s Dictionarycovenant: a binding agreement or

promise

spoil: to plunder from an enemy in war � Athena

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my spear if you can—would that you might receivethe whole of it into your body; if you were oncedead the Trojans would find the war an easier mat-ter, for it is you who have harmed them most.”He poised his spear as he spoke and hurled it. Hisaim was sure for he hit the middle of Achilles’shield, but the spear rebounded from it, and didnot pierce it. Hektor was angry when he saw thatthe weapon had sped from his hand in vain, andstood there in dismay for he had no secondspear . . . . [Then] he said to himself, “Alas! Thegods have lured me on to my destruction . . . .[Death] is now indeed exceedinglynear at hand and there is no way outof it . . . . My doom has come uponme; let me not then die ingloriouslyand without a struggle, but let mefirst do some great thing thatshall be told among menhereafter.”As he spoke he drew thekeen blade that hung so greatand strong by his side, andgathering himself together hesprang on Achilles . . . . Achillesmad with rage darted towardshim . . . . He eyed [Hektor’s] fairflesh over and over to see where hecould best wound it, but all was pro-tected by the goodly armor of which Hektor had spoiled Patroklos after hehad slain him, save only the throat where the collar-bones divide the neck from the shoulders, and thisis the quickest place for the life-breath to escape:here then did Achilles strike him as he was comingon towards him, and the point of his spear wentright through the fleshy part of the neck, but it didnot sever his windpipe so that he could still speak.Hektor fell headlong, and Achilles vaunted overhim saying, “Hektor, you deemed that you shouldcome off scatheless when you were spoiling Patrok-los . . . . Fool that you were: for I, his comrade,mightier far than he, was still left behind him at theships, and now I have laid you low. The Achaeans

shall give him all due funeral rites, while dogs andvultures shall work their will upon yourself.”Then Hektor said, as the life-breath ebbed out ofhim, “I pray you . . . , let not dogs devour me atthe ships of the Achaeans, but accept the rich treas-ure of gold and bronze which my father andmother will offer you, and send my body home,that the Trojans and their wives may give me mydues of fire when I am dead.”Achilles glared at him and answered, “Dog . . .[though] Priam . . . should bid them offer me yourweight in gold, even so your mother shall never lay

you out and make lament over theson she bore, but dogs and vulturesshall eat you utterly up.”Hektor with his dying breath then

said, “I know you what you are,and was sure that Ishould not move you,for your heart is hard as iron . . . .”

When he had thus said theshrouds of death’s final out-

come enfolded him, whereonhis life-breath went out of him

and flew down to the house ofHades, lamenting its sad fate that

it should enjoy youth and strengthno longer.

1. How does Achilles plan to avenge his friend Patrok-los’ death beyond killing Hektor?

2. Who is Athena supporting in this conflict?

3. Explain Achilles’ concern with Hektor’s armor.

4. CRITICAL THINKING What does Hektor’s lastrequest reveal about Greek attitudes towardsdeath?

Applications ActivityOutline a story for a modern epic. Who would be yourhero and why?

rome and the rise of christianity - cisd · rome and the rise of christianity ... roman tradition...

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